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5m8pi2
|
I'm going to jail tomorrow and I want to read the best nonfiction books about History. What do you suggest?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm sorry to hear that. Are you planning to buy your books on the outside or use the library system?\n\nFor the Civil War, I would start with either (or both) James McPherson's Battle Cry of Freedom and Shelby Foote's The Civil War. Those are two mainstays that you should be able to find relatively easily. If either of those piques your interest, I can make further recommendations based on what you're interested in. Battles and campaigns? Politics and diplomacy? Economics and organization?\n\nIn any case, feel free to PM me if you'd like to discuss it more.",
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"answer": "More recent history and so interesting - I recommend \"Under the Banner of Heaven\" by John Krackhauer. True crime story plus the history of Mormon polygamy, which is so compelling on its own. I hope this isn't an inappropriate recommendation, but it's one of my favorite nonfiction books. ",
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},
{
"answer": "You might like Erik Larson's book about the Lusitania, *Dead Wake*, or *Thunderstruck*, which is about the development of wireless communication and how it was used in a murder investigation.",
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},
{
"answer": "The Silk Roads byPeter Frankopan.\n\nIt is a history of how trade and the worlds centre of commerce has changed through history. It covers from well before Christ all the way to the modern day. It covers how wars and political events changed economies and ultimately how we in the west became so powerful so quickly.\n\nIt may sound dry but it is an excellent read.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can help with the Roman Empire ones, and I see in a comment you said that you're interested in the Middle Ages too.\n\nSo for the Early Roman Empire, I'd recommend Robin Lane Fox's \"The Classical World\". For the Later Roman Empire, I'd recommend Terry Jones' \"Barbarians\", which is a bit biased but very readable.\n\nFor the Early Middle Ages, I'd recommend Robin Fleming's recent \"Britain after Rome\" and Michael Wood's \"In Search of the Dark Ages\" which was a great documentary series which was then adapted into a book. I was quite surprised when my professor asked me if I'd read it during my interview, but it really is very respected. I'd also recommend Chris Wickham's \"Framing the Middle Ages\", or if you can't get hold of that cheaply then \"Inheritance of Rome\" is pretty great too. For the Late Middle Ages, I'd recommend Thomas Asbridge's \"The First Crusade\" as well as the ones that u/Rittermeister has already said.\n\nAlso, don't shy away from things written in ancient and medieval times! A very short list of interesting ones would be: Xenophon's The Persian Expedition, Herodotus' The Histories, Julius Caesar's The Gallic Wars, Procopius' The Secret History, Asser's Life of Alfred, Einhardt's Life of Charlemagne and Anna Comnena's The Alexiad. Marcus Aurelius' Meditations might be of interest too, but it's written *by* an emperor rather than *about* an emperor. \n\nSome other random interesting things that come to mind are: Neil Macgregor's \"A history of the world in 100 objects\", Orlando Figes' \"A People's Tragedy\" and (as mentioned in other comments) the very recent \"Napoleon the Great\" by Andrew Roberts and \"The Silk Roads\" by Peter Frankopan are standout modern popular history books. \n\nI really wish you all the best.",
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},
{
"answer": "I will recommend a WW2 one, that might be somewhat different then the usual WW2 stuff:\n\n- The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy\n\nIt looks at a lot of the same question we always ask on the Nazis and gives interesting answers.\n\nThere are of course a lot of WW1 books, but you can't go wrong with\n\n- The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914\n\nI will give quite extensive background on all the political, social, cultural movements in all countries going further back then books of its type. That was welcome because most people (me included) grow less informed walking backwards from WW1.",
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"answer": "Not a history so much as a journalist's thoughts on the area he covered throughout his life, but Robert Fisk's *The Great War for Civilization* is great!\n\n*Berlin 1961* is also a wonderful read.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some of my favorites in rough chronological order.\n\n\n\nBarbara Tuchman, *A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century*\n\nMike Davis, *Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World*\n\nCasper Olusoga, David Erichsen, *The Kaiser's Holocaust: Germany's Forgotten Genocide and the Colonial Roots of Nazism*\n\nAdam Hochschild, *King Leopold's Ghost*\n\nRobert K. Massie, *Dreadnought*\n\nRobert K. Massie, *Castles of Steel*\n\nAlistair Horne, *The Price of Glory: Verdun 1916*\n\nMark Thompson, *The White War: Life and Death on the Italian Front 1915-1919*\n\nDavid Stevenson, *Cataclysm: The First World War as Political Tragedy*\n\nDavid Fromkin, *A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East*\n\nMargaret Macmillan, *Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World*\n\nSean McMeekin, *The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power*\n\nAdam Tooze, *The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy*\n\nGotz Aly, *Hitler's Beneficiaries: Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State*\n\nNikolaus Wachsmann, *KL: A History of the Nazi Concentration Camps*\n\nChristian Ingrao, *The SS Dirlewanger Brigade: The History of the Black Hunters*\n\nJohn Toland, *The Rising Sun: The Decline & Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936-45*\n\n\nI also highly recommend Gibbon's *Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire*, DeQuincey's *The Caesars* and Prescott's *Conquest of Mexico* and *Conquest of Peru*, because although there's better history I don't think there's better writing.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "15380918",
"title": "Peter James (writer)",
"section": "Section::::Work.:Literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
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"text": "In 2017, James wrote the foreword for the U.K. edition of \"The Crime Book\", with American crime author Cathy Scott writing the foreword for the U.S. edition. The nonfiction book, a volume in the \"Big Ideas Simply Explained\" series, was released by Dorling Kindersley (Penguin Random House) in April 2017 in the U.K. and May 2017 in the U.S..\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "54226143",
"title": "The Crime Book",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The Crime Book (Big Ideas Simply Explained) is a non-fiction volume co-authored by American crime writers Cathy Scott, Shanna Hogan, Rebecca Morris, Canadian author and historian Lee Mellor, and United Kingdom author Michael Kerrigan, with a foreword for the U.S. edition by Scott and the U.K. edition by crime-fiction author Peter James. It was released by DK Books under its Big Ideas Learning imprint in May 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1232750",
"title": "American Government (textbook)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "This book is currently used in both college and Advanced Placement high school courses across the United States. The book is roughly 780 pages and includes the U.S. Constitution, U.S. Bill of Rights, outcomes of various elections throughout American history, and famous court cases. It is accompanied by a companion website that features practice test questions and detailed explanations on each chapter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "8027075",
"title": "National Book Foundation",
"section": "Section::::Other Programs.:Public Programs.:Literature for Justice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "The program is guided by the Literature for Justice committee, an assemblage of well-known authors who are also experts, leaders, and advocates within the space of mass incarceration. This committee is tasked with the creation and selection of a reading list of five books annually to guide readers through this complex issue, with the hope that these texts will help shift public perception and understand of mass incarceration through the power of storytelling. Collectively, the selected books tell a story about America's carceral system and what it means for all Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "9715392",
"title": "Cathy Scott",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Scott co-authored \"The Crime Book\" volume with American crime writers Shanna Hogan, Lee Mellor, Rebecca Morris and British author Michael Kerrigan, with a foreword for the U.S. edition by Scott and the U.K. edition by author Peter James. It was released in April 2017 in the U.K. and May 2017 in the U.S. by Dorling Kindersley (Penguin Random House). In an August 2017 interview with \"Rolling Stone\" magazine, Scott explained the choice of stories for the book: \"We tried to include the famous ones, and then some lesser-known. They needed to be from across the world and across the years and across a variety of crimes.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5947514",
"title": "The Common Law (Holmes)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The book is about common law in the United States, including torts, property, contracts, and crime. It is written as a series of lectures. It has gone out of copyright and is available in full on the web at Project Gutenberg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10214369",
"title": "Eric Volz",
"section": "Section::::Memoir.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "The book launched with a first of its kind online \"Exhibit Hall\" that allows readers to review actual case materials such as: photographs and video from inside prisons, headshots of main characters, audio tapes from trial, autopsy reports, government documents, witness statements, crime scene photos, original police case file, defense motions, court rulings, and newspaper articles. The book's foreword was written by investigative journalist Bill Kurtis host of A&E Network's Investigative Reports, \"American Justice\", and \"Cold Case Files\". Bill Kurtis stated, \"This story should be issued with every passport.”\n",
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"meta": null
}
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}
] | null |
1nuywf
|
why do horses let humans ride them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Humans 'break' the horses. From a very young age the horses are conditioned with pain and fear (depending on your perspective) . Tools like spurs (sharp cog like items worn on the heels of cowboy boots) are worn to inflict pain on the horse to make it go.\n\nSome horses are trained and not 'broken' but it does take time.\n\nELI5: imagine how many times you'd have to beat up your sibling to make then do what you want.",
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"answer": "Being rideable was an important part of the domestication process of horses. Early on (and even still), horses that tolerated carrying loads were kept and bred. Horses that did not tolerate loads were not worth their weight in feed, so they were not kept and bred.\n\nVia similar methods, we've also selected for dogs that provide companionship and cats that don't claw your arm off when you touch them.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "13645",
"title": "Horse",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant individual, usually a mare. They are also social creatures that are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals, including humans. They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual grooming, and body language. Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated, but with training, horses can learn to accept a human as a companion, and thus be comfortable away from other horses. However, when confined with insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation, individuals may develop stable vices, an assortment of bad habits, mostly stereotypies of psychological origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, \"weaving\" (rocking back and forth), and other problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12769605",
"title": "On the bit",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Horses are required to go on the bit in certain riding disciplines, such as dressage. However, all horses ridden on contact are generally encouraged to go on the bit, as this not only makes them more responsive to the rider's aids, but also allows them to move in a more athletic manner since the animal is raising its back and bringing its hocks further under its body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13645",
"title": "Horse",
"section": "Section::::Interaction with humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity; to aid this process horses are usually ridden with a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning, and a bridle or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control. Sometimes horses are ridden without a saddle, and occasionally, horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other headgear. Many horses are also driven, which requires a harness, bridle, and some type of vehicle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5845673",
"title": "Animals in sport",
"section": "Section::::Types of animal sporting events.:Racing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Racing is the most popular form of animal-related sport, particularly horse racing. Some racing events directly involve humans as riders while others see the animals race alone. In some sports the rider is not directly riding the animal, instead being pulled along. Examples of this include harness racing, dogsled racing and popular ancient Greece and Roman Empire sport of chariot racing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17955962",
"title": "Equestrian use of roadways",
"section": "Section::::Horses - a necessity to some.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1489,
"text": "Horses do, in fact, have rights when it comes to being on the road, similarly to cyclists and runners who utilize the roadways. However, there are specific rules and regulations that they must abide, as well. Horseback riders must ride with traffic, as far to the right as possible on the roadway. However, many equestrians believe that riding against traffic is a safer way to use the roadway with a horse. Horses do best when they can see what is coming towards them, rather than guessing what is coming towards them from behind. Although this is not the same in each state in the United States of America, the vast majority follow this rule. From state to state, some statues and regulations vary. For example, the state of New York has a very set comprehensive list of rules for the use of horses on the road- both being ridden upon and being horse-driven vehicles. The state of Louisiana prohibits the riding of a horse on any asphalt-based road. There are many states that prohibit the driving or riding of horses on the right of way on a limited access highway like an interstate highway. A lot of the regulations are similar. They include only passing the horse-driven vehicle or horseback rider when it is safe to do so and prohibiting the use of any form of noise, such as a horn. In order to minimize the number of accidents that occur with horse and road distractions, people who are actively driving should try to be as cautious as possible to try and avoid these situations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5596641",
"title": "Horse behavior",
"section": "Section::::Communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Horses communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering, squealing or whinnying; touch, through mutual grooming or nuzzling; smell; and body language. Horses use a combination of ear position, neck and head height, movement, and foot stomping or tail swishing to communicate. Discipline is maintained in a horse herd first through body language and gestures, then, if needed, through physical contact such as biting, kicking, nudging, or other means of forcing a misbehaving herd member to move. In most cases, the animal that successfully causes another to move is dominant, whether it uses only body language or adds physical reinforcement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2729585",
"title": "Working animal",
"section": "Section::::Roles and specializations.:Transportation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Some animals are used due to sheer physical strength in tasks such as ploughing or logging. Such animals are grouped as a draught or draft animal. Others may be used as pack animals, for animal-powered transport, the movement of people and goods. Some animals are ridden by people on their backs and are known as “mounts”; Alternatively, one or more animals in harness may be used to pull vehicles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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}
]
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] | null |
9qknnc
|
what are nfl coaches writing during a game on the sidelines?
|
[
{
"answer": "They're writing down exactly how hard they're going to cut you next season, *Kelvin Benjamin*.",
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},
{
"answer": "This question may better fit in /r/nostupidquestions I'm suggesting that based of the low responses and the down votes I see.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "38255532",
"title": "Play calling system",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "BULLET::::- How is the choice sent onto the field? In the NFL, a player is in radio contact with the sidelines for a defined interval before each play. The team can send a substitute player onto the field who knows the play the coaches want to run. Personnel on the sidelines can call plays using hand signals or pictures. If the team has called a time-out, the coaches can give players detailed instructions; but there are only three time-outs per half, and they are usually needed for tactical reasons.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "180332",
"title": "Clipboard",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:NFL.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
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"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "In the National Football League backup players, particularly the quarterback, are seen on the sidelines carrying a clipboard. Football analysts often use the notion of \"carrying a clipboard\" as an object of derision indicating that said football player is not good enough to play on the field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5965889",
"title": "Triple option",
"section": "Section::::Wishbone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"end_character": 1606,
"text": "First, the quarterback receives the football from the center. The quarterback then starts the play in one direction by appearing to hand the football to the fullback right behind the play side guard on a standard fullback dive play. The guard \"chips\" the 3-technique (defensive tackle) and blocks the play side (the side where the play is going) inside linebacker (usually called the \"mike\", or middle linebacker). The quarterback then reads the unblocked defensive lineman. If the lineman attacks the fullback, the quarterback pulls the ball from the fullback's gut and continues down the line, but if the defensive lineman goes outside to contain the play, he hands off inside to the fullback. The offensive tackle on the side of the play's direction does not block the defensive end and instead moves to block the first threat, usually the linebacker stacked behind the defensive end. In the traditional triple option the backside tailback will take a parallel course down the line of scrimmage keeping a three to five yard separation from the quarterback. If the defensive end comes inside toward the quarterback, he will pitch it outside to the trailing halfback. If the defensive end retains outside leverage and covers the trailing halfback closely, the quarterback will keep the ball and run upfield inside of the defensive end. The tailback to the play side is responsible for blocking one of the defensive backs, usually one of the deep safeties. The wide receiver (WR) to the play side is responsible for blocking the corner back assigned to cover them if the defense were playing man coverage.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1460380",
"title": "Option offense",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
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"text": "The most popular running play employed in the spread is the read option. This play is also known as the zone read, QB choice, or QB wrap. A type of double option, the read option is a relatively simple play during which the offensive line zone blocks in one direction, ignoring defensive personnel, while the quarterback makes a single read (usually of the backside defensive end or linebacker) and decides whether to keep the ball (if the backside defender crashes down) or to hand off to the back (if the defender indicates that he will cover the quarterback).\n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "8667530",
"title": "Veer",
"section": "Section::::Collegiate level.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
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"text": "The zone read, or shotgun veer play, is now widely used throughout all levels of college football. A running back is lined up adjacent to the quarterback, and, at the snap, the quarterback opens up facing the running back. He reads the end on the same side as the running back. The running back is performing effectively the same motion as the dive back in a conventional veer, except he runs at the defensive end on the opposite side of the field. If the unblocked end on the running back's side (who, in a sense, is being veered) moves up the field towards the crossing running back, the quarterback pulls the ball from the running back and sprints by the end. If the veered end is waiting at his original position, the quarterback gives the ball to the running back. Many different formations are employed, and as a general rule, the option being employed is the base offense for the team, and not as a wrinkle.\n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4350978",
"title": "NFL Matchup",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "Unlike \"Sunday NFL Countdown\", \"NFL Primetime\", \"Monday Night Countdown\", \"NFL Insiders\", and \"NFL Live\", \"NFL Matchup\" gives fans an in-depth look at the NFL by breaking down the strategy and tactics—the \"X's and O's\", after the symbols commonly used by coaches to diagram plays—of every pro football game. The program's analysts do this through the exclusive use of team-supplied coaching footage, the same video coaches and players use each week to prepare game plans and strategy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "901141",
"title": "Deion Sanders",
"section": "Section::::Media appearances and pop culture fame.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "Sanders works at NFL Network as an analyst on a number of the network's shows. Prior to the Sunday night game, Sanders, alongside host Rich Eisen and Steve Mariucci, breaks down all the action from the afternoon games on \"NFL GameDay\". At the conclusion of all the action on Sunday, Sanders, Mariucci, Michael Irvin and host Fran Charles recap the day's action with highlights, analysis and postgame interviews. For the 2010 season, Sanders joined Eisen, Mariucci and Marshall Faulk on the road for \"Thursday Night Kickoff presented by Lexus\", NFL Network's two-hour pregame show leading into \"Thursday Night Football\". The group broadcasts live from the stadium two hours prior to all eight live \"Thursday Night Football\" games and returns for the Sprint halftime show and Kay Jewelers postgame show. Sanders also has a segment called \"Let's Go Primetime\" on NFL Network.\n",
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4yzeit
|
Why are things getting blue with the horizon?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's the same reason that the sky is blue--Rayleigh scattering. This type of scattering only occurs for suspended particles of sufficiently small size (on the order of 10 microns or less in diameter). It preferentially scatters light with the smallest wavelength.\n\nSo basically, when you look off into the distance like that, there are many, many tiny particles in the atmosphere. There may not be more per unit volume than there are around you all the time, but from your vantage point they have a larger effect because the light has to pass through more of them. That scatters the blue (shortest wavelength) light preferentially, just like the particles in the sky do, and so you see a similar shade of blue. You might see this more on a particularly hazy day or in a more polluted area, because there will be more tiny scattering particles in the air. This effect is pretty apparent in the hills of Los Angeles, where smog is a big problem.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2420418",
"title": "Color of water",
"section": "Section::::Color of lakes and oceans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
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"text": "Another phenomenon that occurs is Rayleigh scattering in the atmosphere along one's line of sight: the horizon is typically 4–5 km distant and the air (being just above sea level in the case of the ocean) is at its densest. This mechanism would add a blue tinge to any distant object (not just the sea) because blue light would be scattered into one's line of sight.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "14566980",
"title": "Water sky",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "When light hits the blue oceans or seas, some of it bounces back and enables the observer to physically see the water. However, some of the light also is reflected back up on to the bottoms of low-lying clouds and causes a dark spot to appear underneath some clouds. These clouds may be visible when the seas are not and can show alert and knowledgeable travelers the general direction of water. The dark clouds over open water have long been used by polar explorers and scientists to navigate in sea ice. For example, Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen and his assistant Hjalmar Johansen used the phenomenon to find lanes of water in their failed expedition to the North Pole, as did Louis Bernacchi and Douglas Mawson in Antarctica.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "28779877",
"title": "Atmospheric optics",
"section": "Section::::Sky coloration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1195,
"text": "Light from the sky is a result of the Rayleigh scattering of sunlight, which results in a blue color perceived by the human eye. On a sunny day, Rayleigh scattering gives the sky a blue gradient, where it is darkest around the zenith and bright near the horizon. Light rays incoming from overhead encounters of the air mass that those coming along a horizontal path encounter. Hence, fewer particles scatter the zenithal sunbeam, and thus the light remains a darker blue. The blueness is at the horizon because the blue light coming from great distances is also preferentially scattered. This results in a red shift of the distant light sources that is compensated by the blue hue of the scattered light in the line of sight. In other words, the red light scatters also; if it does so at a point a great distance from the observer it has a much higher chance of reaching the observer than blue light. At distances nearing infinity, the scattered light is therefore white. Distant clouds or snowy mountaintops will seem yellow for that reason; that effect is not obvious on clear days, but very pronounced when clouds are covering the line of sight reducing the blue hue from scattered sunlight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2420418",
"title": "Color of water",
"section": "Section::::Color of lakes and oceans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Lakes and oceans appear blue for several reasons. One is that the surface of the water reflects the color of the sky. While this reflection contributes to the observed color, it is not the sole reason.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19442239",
"title": "Solar eclipse of August 1, 2008",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "It was described by observers as \"special for its colours around the horizon. There were wonderful oranges and reds all around, the clouds lit up, some dark in silhouette, some golden, glowing yellowy-orange in the distance. You could see the shadow approaching against the clouds and then rushing away as it left.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52141",
"title": "Inversion (meteorology)",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "As the temperature of air increases, the index of refraction of air decreases, a side effect of hotter air being less dense. Normally this results in distant objects being shortened vertically, an effect that is easy to see at sunset where the sun is visible as an oval. In an inversion, the normal pattern is reversed, and distant objects are instead stretched out or appear to be above the horizon, leading to the phenomenon known as a Fata Morgana or mirage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48910",
"title": "Horizon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "The \"true horizon\" is actually a theoretical line, which can only be observed when it lies on the sea surface. At many locations, this line is obscured by land, trees, buildings, mountains, etc., and the resulting intersection of earth and sky is called the \"visible horizon\". When looking at a sea from a shore, the part of the sea closest to the horizon is called the offing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2s8egi
|
wine tasting
|
[
{
"answer": "Good and bad are all a matter of opinion. The purpose of wine tasting is to figure out what YOU like, and what YOU find appealing. Price has little to do with weather or not a bottle is \"good\". Once you are able to recognize what is meant by those terms you will start to learn what you like. I don't care for oak-y wines, but I love a full bodies dry cab sav... some people are the exact opposite. A lot of times your local wine store will host free tastings and will explain these things with examples so you can start recognizing the different characteristics... You should check it out if you are interested!\nEdit: a word",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Aroma is the smell of a wine. A lot of what we think of as taste actually includes smells as well, so this matters a lot. You not only want it to smell nice, you also want it to smell like the flavors you like in wine.\n\nBody is how \"big\".the wine tastes. A full bodied wine is powerful and strong and 'meaty'. It takes over you mouth with flavor. These are often good with heavy meals or when you just want that big full taste. Light bodied wines are dainty and delicate, eloquently hinting at flavors. They're good with other delicate flavors you don't want to overpower and in hot weather and when you just want that delicate taste .\n\nThey don't necessarily make wine good or bad. You can have a good full bodied wine, or a good light one. They are just classifications, like this is a heavy, rich dessert , and this is a light, elegant dessert. What makes them good is if you like them, if they are tastier than the other wines in the same classification.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* **Aroma -** The aroma is pretty obvious. You'll see people sniff the wine before sipping it or sometimes sniff the cork. (There is a wine ritual that some high-end places almost expect you to follow.) [Here is a good quick read that describes the wine ritual for restaurants.](_URL_0_) This usually applies to \"5 star\" restaurants and places that cater to wine enthusiasts. Don't expect for this kind of ritual to be commonplace at Red Lobster or Olive Garden.\n\n* **Body -** The body of a wine is how it feels in your mouth. Imagine for a moment drinking a merlot with a high alcohol content. When it hits your tongue it is almost like a punch in the face. The wine is heavy in the sense that it is \"strong\" tasting both in it's flavor and in it's alcohol content. Now imagine drinking a much lighter wine, such as a Sauvignon Blanc. These wines typically have less alcohol by volume and are lighter in the sense that they are usually sweeter and easier on the palate. Most beginners to wine will go for the light-bodied wines and work their way up to the heavies, but everyone is different.\n\n* **Texture -** Texture is just that. It is the texture of the wine on your tongue. Texture is usually from tannins in the wine. Tannin is mostly present in red wines, but can also be found in whites which have been barrel-aged. Tannins are found commonly in plants like beans and grapes in the skins, seeds, and stems. They help contribute to the sharp, dry flavor of wine. Want to know what tannins taste like? Try drinking some unsweetened black tea.\n\nSo what do these things mean to you? They can mean as much or as little as you want them to. Some people love just trying different wines, and make notes of what kind they like. Other people \"study\" the wine based on the above terms (and more) and use that to hone in on the best wines for their taste. But in the end, there is no best wine, it is just what is best for you and your tastes.\n\nFun fact of the day: Cheap wines (~$7-8 and under) usually contain some bug parts. It won't hurt you or anything, and it isn't like they dump the bugs in. Simply put, cheap wine is machine harvested so there ends up occasionally being twigs/bugs/other debris that make it into the harvester and slip through. More expensive wines (pretty much anything above $10) are from hand-picked grapes. This goes a long way to keep bugs and debris out. It won't kill you to drink cheap wine, and if Franzia is your love, drink up and enjoy!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31733617",
"title": "William Salthouse (ship)",
"section": "Section::::Analysis and Research.:Wine Identification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "The sensory analysis of the wines was undertaken by professional wine tasters in order to establish the intangible features of wines being tested, such as sweet, dry, bitter, and so on. Two public tastings took place, in which tasters were asked to engage in discussion and note the effect of salt on the wines, as well as colour, nose and taste.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32961",
"title": "Wine",
"section": "Section::::Tasting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine. Wines contain many chemical compounds similar or identical to those in fruits, vegetables, and spices. The sweetness of wine is determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity present in the wine. Dry wine, for example, has only a small amount of residual sugar. Some wine labels suggest opening the bottle and letting the wine \"breathe\" for a couple of hours before serving, while others recommend drinking it immediately. Decanting (the act of pouring a wine into a special container just for breathing) is a controversial subject among wine enthusiasts. In addition to aeration, decanting with a filter allows the removal of bitter sediments that may have formed in the wine. Sediment is more common in older bottles, but aeration may benefit younger wines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19719473",
"title": "Wine tasting",
"section": "Section::::Process.:Connoisseur wine tasting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Thoroughly tasting a wine involves perception of its array of taste and mouthfeel attributes, which involve the combination of textures, flavors, weight, and overall \"structure\". Following appreciation of its olfactory characteristics, the wine taster savors a wine by holding it in the mouth for a few seconds to saturate the taste buds. By pursing ones lips and breathing through that small opening oxygen will pass over the wine and release even more esters. When the wine is allowed to pass slowly through the mouth it presents the connoisseur with the fullest gustatory profile available to the human palate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19719473",
"title": "Wine tasting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine. While the practice of wine tasting is as ancient as its production, a more formalized methodology has slowly become established from the 14th century onwards. Modern, professional wine tasters (such as sommeliers or buyers for retailers) use a constantly evolving specialized terminology which is used to describe the range of perceived flavors, aromas and general characteristics of a wine. More informal, recreational tasting may use similar terminology, usually involving a much less analytical process for a more general, personal appreciation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19719473",
"title": "Wine tasting",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Although the practice of tasting is as old as the history of wine, the term \"tasting\" first appeared in 1519. The methodology of wine tasting was formalized by the 18th century when Linnaeus, Poncelet, and others brought an understanding of tasting up to date.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3127210",
"title": "Judgment of Paris (wine)",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:Subjectivity of taste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Criticism of the event suggested that wine tastings lacked scientific validity due to the subjectivity of taste in human beings. Indeed, the organizer of the competition, Steven Spurrier, said, \"The results of a blind tasting cannot be predicted and will not even be reproduced the next day by the same panel tasting the same wines.\" In one case it was reported that a \"side-by-side chart of best-to-worst rankings of 18 wines by a roster of experienced tasters showed about as much consistency as a table of random numbers.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19719473",
"title": "Wine tasting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Results contradicting the reliability of wine tasting in both experts and consumers have surfaced through scientific blind wine tasting, such as inconsistency in identifying wines based on region and price.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
s30wq
|
Is an object colder if it's moving faster?
|
[
{
"answer": "It turns out that temperature really only has meaning when you talk about a set of molecules or atoms. The most reasonable description, I suppose, for a molecule would be that the amount of energy in each vibration should be related to the molecule's temperature. At relativistic speeds, the molecule would appear to be vibrating more slowly. However, the energy of those vibrations wouldn't change (i.e. a photon of the same energy will still excite one), so the temperature shouldn't change. (I will defer to a physicist if one comes along.)\n\nMy personal knowledge of this topic is in the area of crossed molecular beams. Generally speaking (i.e. at non-relativistic speeds), you can definitely produce molecules moving very quickly that are nonetheless very cold. You might also be interested to know that scientists [pretty](_URL_1_) [frequently](_URL_0_) produce beams of molecules traveling at supersonic speeds that are also very cold (that is, they have a very narrow distribution of energies.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a great question! (except the one molecule bit, it really should be about a collection of molecules, as nejikaze pointed out) This is not my area of expertise, but I looked around a bit, and found [this](_URL_2_), which claims you can't generally determine an object's apparent temperature based on its relative speed and rest temperature. On the other hand, [this](_URL_1_) claims that the apparent temperature is just the rest temperature multiplied by a factor of gamma (implying a moving body's apparent temperature is actually higher than its rest temperature) in equation 54. That paper also acknowledges (page 15)\n\n > The notion of temperature is presumably the most problematical and subtle one in relativistic thermodynamics and there exists a wide range of different opinions.\n\nso basically, it sounds like even the relativistic thermodynamics community is not in total agreement on the answer to that!\n\nedit: continuing to read a bit, from [this](_URL_0_) source, it appears that einstein himself derived an expression where the apparent T is the rest T divided by gamma (so faster=colder), eddington went with the T=T' * gamma (same as the second source above, T' means T in rest frame), and others (not ones I'm familiar with) have put forth the proposition that T=T'. This paper also concludes that T=T' * gamma, so, based on the few recent articles I've found on the subject, it seems like T=T'*gamma is the best bet (apparent temperature increases as relative velocity increases.) However, as this last article (from 2006) says, \n\n > At the present time no temperature transformation has been agreed upon. To reach consensus,\nit seems necessary that firm experimental evidence is obtained.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Scotchdog [No scientific credentials | In the same boat]\n\nDispersive heat typically occurs due to oscillating subatomic particles kinetically transferring energy to surrounding particles.\n\nSo if there are surrounding particles near the the moving object there would be frictional resistance and therefore an incline in temperature, if the object's moving fast enough.\n\nIf the object is moving in an absolute vacuum, the object would essentially maintain it's localised temperature, other than eventual energy loss due to particles breaking away in forms of radiation.\n\nWithin a relativistic (frame) reference system, a non vector thermal measuring device should incorrectly detect the object being at a lower cooler local energy state because particle radiation dispersion is stretched within the objects local time, relatively slowed within the dimension of occupational space.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1711063",
"title": "Aerodynamic heating",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "At high speeds through the air, the object's kinetic energy is converted to heat through compression and friction. At lower speed, the object will lose heat to the air through which it is passing, if the air is cooler. The combined temperature effect of heat from the air and from passage through it is called the stagnation temperature; the actual temperature is called the recovery temperature. These viscous dissipative effects to neighboring sub-layers make the boundary layer slow down via a non-isentropic process. Heat then conducts into the surface material from the higher temperature air. The result is an increase in the temperature of the material and a loss of energy from the flow. The forced convection ensures that other material replenishes the gases that have cooled to continue the process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301928",
"title": "Lumped element model",
"section": "Section::::Thermal systems.:Method.:Newton's law of cooling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "An object at a different temperature from its surroundings will ultimately come to a common temperature with its surroundings. A relatively hot object cools as it warms its surroundings; a cool object is warmed by its surroundings. When considering how quickly (or slowly) something cools, we speak of its \"rate\" of cooling - how many degrees' change in temperature per unit of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301928",
"title": "Lumped element model",
"section": "Section::::Thermal systems.:Method.:Newton's law of cooling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "As Newton's law of cooling states, the rate of cooling of an object - whether by conduction, convection, or radiation - is approximately proportional to the temperature difference Δ\"T\". Frozen food will warm up faster in a warm room than in a cold room. Note that the rate of cooling experienced on a cold day can be increased by the added convection effect of the wind. This is referred to as wind chill. For example, a wind chill of -20 °C means that heat is being lost at the same rate as if the temperature were -20 °C without wind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "330320",
"title": "Exponential decay",
"section": "Section::::Applications and examples.:Natural sciences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "BULLET::::- Heat transfer: If an object at one temperature is exposed to a medium of another temperature, the temperature difference between the object and the medium follows exponential decay (in the limit of slow processes; equivalent to \"good\" heat conduction inside the object, so that its temperature remains relatively uniform through its volume). See also Newton's law of cooling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "466192",
"title": "Thermal equilibrium",
"section": "Section::::Bodies prepared with separately uniform temperatures, then put into purely thermal communication with each other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "If bodies are prepared with separately microscopically stationary states, and are then put into purely thermal connection with each other, by conductive or radiative pathways, they will be in thermal equilibrium with each other just when the connection is followed by no change in either body. But if initially they are not in a relation of thermal equilibrium, heat will flow from the hotter to the colder, by whatever pathway, conductive or radiative, is available, and this flow will continue until thermal equilibrium is reached and then they will have the same temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16263779",
"title": "Braitenberg vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Vehicle 1 - Getting Around.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "This behavior might be understood by a human observer as a creature that is 'alive' like an insect and 'restless', never stopping in its movement. The low velocity in regions of low temperature might be interpreted as a preference for cold areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20580",
"title": "Motion",
"section": "Section::::List of \"imperceptible\" human motions.:Particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "According to the laws of thermodynamics, all particles of matter are in constant random motion as long as the temperature is above absolute zero. Thus the molecules and atoms which make up the human body are vibrating, colliding, and moving. This motion can be detected as temperature; higher temperatures, which represent greater kinetic energy in the particles, feel warm to humans who sense the thermal energy transferring from the object being touched to their nerves. Similarly, when lower temperature objects are touched, the senses perceive the transfer of heat away from the body as feeling cold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4l4p6h
|
how can developers of self driving cars ensure that there is no lag in the system?
|
[
{
"answer": "The answer is a so-called Real Time Operating System, which guarantees to handle data within a certain time.\n\nAnd about the crashing, the trick is to have a very small and good designed kernel and the rest of the stuff runs as an userland thread on top of the kernel: If a thread dies, it doesn't take out the whole computer, just one piece is not working.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60523913",
"title": "Artificial intelligence in heavy industry",
"section": "Section::::Potential Benefits.:Environmental Impacts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Self-driving cars are potentially beneficial to the environment. They can be programmed to navigate the most efficient route and reduce idle time, which could result in less fossil fuel consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The same could be said true for the heavy machinery used in the heavy industry. AI can see the path clearly, whereas humans are prone to occasional errors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50733495",
"title": "Eyes-on-the-Road-Benefit",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.:Work load.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "The influence of ERB on drivers is not universal. There is evidence that as the complexity of driving tasks increases, the benefits of using a HUD are decreased, and in some circumstances, they are no longer statistically significant. The ERB is diminished, for example, when individuals are driving cognitively demanding vehicles, such as industrial vehicles, or when they are asked to multitask while driving. One study has shown that when placed in a cognitively demanding condition, individuals shift their focus from the road alone to focus on other tasks such as shifting gears or talking to others. Subsequently, a driver's ability to process HUD feedback requires diversion of attention, much akin to that which occurs whilst using a HDD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52559168",
"title": "Self-driving car liability",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "Increases in the use of autonomous car technologies (e.g. advanced driver-assistance systems) is causing incremental shifts in the responsibility of driving, with the primary motivation of reducing the frequency of road accidents. Liability for incidents involving self-driving cars is a developing area of law and policy that will determine who is liable when a car causes physical damage to persons or property. As autonomous cars shift the responsibility of driving from humans to autonomous car technology, there is a need for existing liability laws to evolve in order to fairly identify the appropriate remedies for damage and injury. As higher levels of autonomy are commercially introduced (SAE automation levels 3 and 4), the insurance industry stands to see greater proportions of commercial and product liability lines, while personal automobile insurance shrinks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173354",
"title": "Automation",
"section": "Section::::Health and environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 1210,
"text": "The automation of vehicles could prove to have a substantial impact on the environment, although the nature of this impact could be beneficial or harmful depending on several factors. Because automated vehicles are much less likely to get into accidents compared to human-driven vehicles, some precautions built into current models (such as anti-lock brakes or laminated glass) would not be required for self-driving versions. Removing these safety features would also significantly reduce the weight of the vehicle, thus increasing fuel economy and reducing emissions per mile. Self-driving vehicles are also more precise with regard to acceleration and breaking, and this could contribute to reduced emissions. Self-driving cars could also potentially utilize fuel-efficient features such as route mapping that is able to calculate and take the most efficient routes. Despite this potential to reduce emissions, some researchers theorize that an increase of production of self-driving cars could lead to a boom of vehicle ownership and use. This boom could potentially negate any environmental benefits of self-driving cars if a large enough number of people begin driving personal vehicles more frequently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "245926",
"title": "Self-driving car",
"section": "Section::::Human factor challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Self-driving cars are already exploring the difficulties of determining the intentions of pedestrians, bicyclists, and animals, and models of behavior must be programmed into driving algorithms. Human road users also have the challenge of determining the intentions of autonomous vehicles, where there is no driver with which to make eye contact or exchange hand signals. Drive.ai is testing a solution to this problem that involves LED signs mounted on the outside of the vehicle, announcing status such as \"going now, don't cross\" vs. \"waiting for you to cross\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "245926",
"title": "Self-driving car",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Words definition and safety considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "When some car makers suggest or claim vehicles are \"self-driving\", when they are only partly automated, drivers risk becoming excessively confident, leading to crashes, while fully self-driving cars are still a long way off in the UK.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1164",
"title": "Artificial intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Automotive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Many components contribute to the functioning of self-driving cars. These vehicles incorporate systems such as braking, lane changing, collision prevention, navigation and mapping. Together, these systems, as well as high performance computers, are integrated into one complex vehicle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a6a9ka
|
When did English change its method of counting numbers above twenty?
|
[
{
"answer": "French does not follow this pattern. 22 is vingt-deux (twenty-two). This pattern is typical of Romance languages, for example Spanish 22 is viente dos and Italian is ventidue. Both Aldi following the \"twenty two\" pattern. \n\nFrench is different for numbers 70 tp 99 but the spoken order persists, still with the same pattern with the larger number first. 77 is soixante-dix-sept (sixty-seventeen).\n\nWhere you've possibly been led astray is that 80 is specifically quatre-vingt or four-twenty. But numbers above 80 still follow the \"twenty two\" pattern, so 99 is quatre-vingt-dix-neuf (ie four-twenty-nineteen).\n\nFor our purposes we can ignore those higher numbers because it's the numbers 20 to 69 that are important. It was probably French influence which introduced the modern pattern of speech, but still slowly and with a long period of co-existence, and indeed with expressions in the older form still surviving.\n\nIt appears to have begun displacing the older \"two and twenty\" form around the 1500s, which is several hundred years after the Norman French conquest of England, suggesting a pretty slow march:\n\n > A perhaps more signicant change in English is the ordering of expressions including both units and tens. Whereas German and Dutch and the older forms of the Germanic languages form such expressions with the units first and the tens second, as in *ein und zwanzig* in German, English has *twenty one* (*twenty and one* in earlier stages of the language).\n\n > This change appears from OED citations to have begun around the 1500s and may be a result of the Romance inflence on English (mirroring for example the French *vingt et un*). This is a change which has not come easily and examples of the previous Germanic form still exist in English not only in such contexts as old nursery rhymes (*four and twenty blackbirds*) but in time expressions, at least in older speakers and some regional speakers of English (*five and twenty past*). Frisian follows Dutch and German in this which is not surprising if the Romance inuence on English is the reason behind the variance.\n\nThat's from *A lexical analysis of numeral expressions in Dutch, English* and German by Lynne Cahill and Gerald Gazdar. University of Sussex, 1997.\n",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "209196",
"title": "Vigesimal",
"section": "Section::::Use.:In Europe.:Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "BULLET::::- Twenty () is used as a base number in the Welsh language, although in the latter part of the 20th century a decimal counting system has come to be preferred (particularly in the South), with the vigesimal system becoming 'traditional' and more popular in North Welsh. However the vigesimal system exclusively is used for ordinal numbers. means 2 times 20 i.e. 40, means 3 times 20 i.e. 60, etc. \"Dau ar bymtheg ar ddeugain\" means 57 (two upon fifteen upon twoscore). Prior to its withdrawal from circulation in 1970, (note of sixscore) was the nickname for the ten-shilling (= 120 pence) note.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3497841",
"title": "Phonological history of English",
"section": "Section::::Summary of vowel developments.:Development of Middle English vowels.:Monophthongs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 265,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 265,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "The table is organized around the pronunciation of Late Middle English c. 1400 AD (the time of Chaucer) and the modern spelling system, which dates from the same time and closely approximates the pronunciation of the time. (Modern English spelling originates in the spelling conventions of Middle English scribes and its modern form was largely determined by William Caxton, the first English printer (beginning in 1476).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "198312",
"title": "Long s",
"section": "Section::::History.:Decline in use.:Abandonment by printers and typefounders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "In Spain, the change was mainly accomplished between the years 1760 and 1766; for example, the multi-volume \"España Sagrada\" made the switch with volume 16 (1762). In France, the change occurred between 1782 and 1793. Printers in the United States stopped using the long \"s\" between 1795 and 1810: for example, acts of Congress were published with the long \"s\" throughout 1803, switching to the short \"s\" in 1804. In the U.S., a late use of the long \"s\" was in \"Low's Encyclopaedia\", which was published between 1805 and 1811. Its reprint in 1816 was one of the last such uses in America. And the statutes of the United Kingdom's colony Nova Scotia also used the long \"s\" as late as 1816.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6853329",
"title": "History of ancient numeral systems",
"section": "Section::::Pre-history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "The first method of counting has been argued to be counting on fingers. This evolved into sign language for the hand-to-eye-to-elbow communication of numbers which, while not writing, gave way to written numbers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2752651",
"title": "History of measurement",
"section": "Section::::Forerunners of the metric system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1033,
"text": "In 1790, Thomas Jefferson submitted a report to the United States Congress in which he proposed the adoption of a decimal system of coinage and of weights and measures. He proposed calling his base unit of length a \"foot\" which he suggested should be either or of the length of a pendulum that had a period of one second – that is or of the \"standard\" proposed by Wilkins over a century previously. This would have equated to 11.755 English inches (29.8 cm) or 13.06 English inches (33.1 cm). Like Wilkins, the names that he proposed for multiples and subunits of his base units of measure were the names of units of measure that were in use at the time. The great interest in geodesy during this era, and the measurement system ideas that developed, influenced how the continental US was surveyed and parceled. The story of how Jefferson's full vision for the new measurement system came close to displacing the Gunter chain and the traditional acre, but ended up not doing so, is explored in Andro Linklater's \"Measuring America\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20353",
"title": "Metrication",
"section": "Section::::Forerunners of the metric system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1033,
"text": "In 1790, Thomas Jefferson submitted a report to the United States Congress in which he proposed the adoption of a decimal system of coinage and of weights and measures. He proposed calling his base unit of length a \"foot\" which he suggested should be either or of the length of a pendulum that had a period of one second – that is or of the \"standard\" proposed by Wilkins over a century previously. This would have equated to 11.755 English inches (29.8 cm) or 13.06 English inches (33.1 cm). Like Wilkins, the names that he proposed for multiples and subunits of his base units of measure were the names of units of measure that were in use at the time. The great interest in geodesy during this era, and the measurement system ideas that developed, influenced how the continental US was surveyed and parceled. The story of how Jefferson's full vision for the new measurement system came close to displacing the Gunter chain and the traditional acre, but ended up not doing so, is explored in Andro Linklater's \"Measuring America\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "209196",
"title": "Vigesimal",
"section": "Section::::Use.:In Europe.:Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "BULLET::::- Twenty () is traditionally used as a base number in Scottish Gaelic, with or being 30 (ten over twenty, or twenty and ten), 40 (two twenties), 50 (two twenty and ten) / 50 (half a hundred), 60 (three twenties) and so on up to 180 (nine twenties). Nowadays a decimal system is taught in schools, but the vigesimal system is still used by many, particularly older speakers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
jka0m
|
lag
|
[
{
"answer": "What kind of lag?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What kind of lag?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16404808",
"title": "Robertson lag",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The Robertson Lag is an example of the systematic delay which the economy suffers from when conditions change and is named after the famous economist Dennis Robertson. This lag describes how a consumers change in income and wealth, a change in its consumption function, leads to a delayed change in its consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13972249",
"title": "MC-LAG",
"section": "Section::::Link Aggregation Group (Background).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "A LAG (Link Aggregation Group) is a method of inverse multiplexing over multiple Ethernet links, thereby increasing bandwidth and providing redundancy. It is defined by the IEEE 802.1AX-2008 standard, which states, \"Link Aggregation allows one or more links to be aggregated together to form a Link Aggregation Group, such that a MAC client can treat the Link Aggregation Group as if it were a single link.\" This layer 2 transparency is achieved by the LAG using a single MAC address for all the device’s ports in the LAG group. LAG can be configured as either static or dynamic. Dynamic LAG uses a peer-to-peer protocol for control, called Link Aggregation Control Protocol (LACP). This LACP protocol is also defined within the 802.1AX-2008 standard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41943139",
"title": "Credential lag",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Credential lag usually occurs for a user who is attempting to log into a system that relies on updating its cached or otherwise saved user credentials by conferring with Active directory or similar database.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16404514",
"title": "Lundberg lag",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "The Lundberg lag, named after the Swedish economist Erik Lundberg, stresses the lag between changes in the demand and response in output. This is one lag which points out that business cycles do not follow a completely random fashion but can be explained with a few different important regularities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15438225",
"title": "Distributed lag",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "In statistics and econometrics, a distributed lag model is a model for time series data in which a regression equation is used to predict current values of a dependent variable based on both the current values of an explanatory variable and the lagged (past period) values of this explanatory variable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636806",
"title": "Total fertility rate",
"section": "Section::::Population-lag effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "This phenomenon carries forward for several generations and is called population momentum, \"population inertia\" or \"population-lag effect\". This time-lag effect is of great importance to the growth rates of human populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2210835",
"title": "Attentional blink",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "There is as yet no conclusive explanation for the phenomenon of lag 1 sparing, although it is thought to be related to the first parallel stage of the two-stage system of stimulus selection and processing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ujm8m
|
Why is it so common for stroke victims to have a speech impairment?
|
[
{
"answer": "The simple answer is that the parts of the brain which control speech are the same parts which are likely to be affected by a stroke.\n\nSpeech is not a single process governed by a single part of the brain. Stroke victims can have difficulty forming any words, finding specific words, putting words into a sentence, etc. They may also not understand what is being asked and therefore answer inappropriately.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a lot of areas of the cortex that contribute to normal speech, and many of the common types of stroke damage at least one of them.\n\nEg,\n\n* In the vast majority of people, expressive language is in the left inferior frontal area and receptive language is in the left perisylvian temporal area. A stroke involving the middle cerebral artery (MCA) or the internal carotid artery on the left can damage both; branch lesions of the MCA can take out one or the other.\n\n* Proper mouth, tongue, palatal, and laryngeal articulation require function of the face area of the motor cortex (posterior inferior frontal lobe, MCA territory) as well as multiple cranial nerve nuclei in the medulla (vertebral and posterior inferior cerebellar artery territory) and the cerebellum (vert/basilar, PICA, AICA, SCA territories).\n\n* Smaller \"lacunar\" strokes of the internal capsule, basal ganglia, or thalamus can cause clumsy hand/dysarthria syndrome with slurred speech. These are usually caused by lesions of the small, perpendicularly-branched lenticulostriate vessels of the MCA or of the small arterial branches of the posterior cerebral artery (PCA).\n\n* In addition, strokes affecting the right hemisphere can lead to situations where word production is maintained, but with loss of normal prosody of speech.\n\n* Strokes of the anterior cerebral arteries damaging the prefrontal cortex can cause abulia and akinetic mutism, wherein a person has the physical ability to speak but has no will or desire to.\n\nThis is leaving out hemorrhagic strokes, which tend to affect the pons, putamen, cerebellum, and thalamus (all areas damage to which can affect speech), and venous strokes/sinus thromboses.\n\nFacial nerve lesions, which are often \"idiopathic\" or at least of unknown etiology, are sometimes due to vascular lesions or vasculitis: hence, a kind of peripheral nerve stroke. Paresis of facial muscles cause by facial neuropathy (often called \"Bell's palsy\") can also affect speech production.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2202164",
"title": "Mixed transcortical aphasia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "A stroke is one of the leading causes of disability in the United States. Following a stroke, 40% of stroke patients are left with moderate functional impairment and 15% to 30% have a severe disability as a result of a stroke. A neurogenic cognitive-communicative disorder is one result of a stroke. Neuro- meaning related to nerves or the nervous system and -genic meaning resulting from or caused by. Aphasia is one type of a neurogenic cognitive-communicative disorder which presents with impaired comprehension and production of speech and language, usually caused by damage in the language-dominant, left hemisphere of the brain. Aphasia is any disorder of language that causes the patient to have the inability to communicate, whether it is through writing, speaking, or sign language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "625404",
"title": "Stroke",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 181,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 181,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "Disruption in self-identity, relationships with others, and emotional well-being can lead to social consequences after stroke due to the lack of ability to communicate. Many people who experience communication impairments after a stroke find it more difficult to cope with the social issues rather than physical impairments. Broader aspects of care must address the emotional impact speech impairment has on those who experience difficulties with speech after a stroke. Those who experience a stroke are at risk of paralysis which could result in a self disturbed body image which may also lead to other social issues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10843628",
"title": "Glutamate carboxypeptidase II",
"section": "Section::::Potential therapeutic applications.:Other potential therapeutic applications.:Stroke.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "According to the National Stroke Association, stroke is the third-leading cause of death and the leading cause of adult disability. It is thought that glutamate levels cause underlying ischemic damage during a stroke, and, thus, NAAG inhibition might be able to diminish this damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9841",
"title": "Expressive aphasia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Less common.:Common causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "The most common cause of expressive aphasia is stroke. A stroke is caused by hypoperfusion (lack of oxygen) to an area of the brain, which is commonly caused by thrombosis or embolism. Some form of aphasia occurs in 34 to 38% of stroke patients. Expressive aphasia occurs in approximately 12% of new cases of aphasia caused by stroke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "302319",
"title": "Empathy",
"section": "Section::::Major theories and empirical findings.:Developmental and environmental influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 1145,
"text": "It has also been found that empathy can be disrupted due to trauma in the brain such as a stroke. In most cases empathy is usually impaired if a lesion or stroke occurs on the right side of the brain. In addition to this it has been found that damage to the frontal lobe, which is primarily responsible for emotional regulation, can impact profoundly on a person's capacity to experience empathy toward another individual. People who have suffered from an acquired brain injury also show lower levels of empathy according to previous studies. In fact, more than 50% of people who suffer from a traumatic brain injury self-report a deficit in their empathic capacity. Again, linking this back to the early developmental stages of emotion, if emotional growth has been stunted at an early age due to various factors, empathy will struggle to infest itself in that individual's mind-set as a natural feeling, as they themselves will struggle to come to terms with their own thoughts and emotions. This is again suggestive of the fact that understanding one's own emotions is key in being able to identify with another individual's emotional state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30990182",
"title": "Silent stroke",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "A silent stroke (or asymptomatic cerebral infarction) is a stroke that does not have any outward symptoms associated with stroke, and the patient is typically unaware they have suffered a stroke. Despite not causing identifiable symptoms, a silent stroke still causes damage to the brain and places the patient at increased risk for both transient ischemic attack and major stroke in the future. In a broad study in 1998, more than 11 million people were estimated to have experienced a stroke in the United States. Approximately 770,000 of these strokes were symptomatic and 11 million were first-ever silent MRI infarcts or hemorrhages. Silent strokes typically cause lesions which are detected via the use of neuroimaging such as MRI. The risk of silent stroke increases with age but may also affect younger adults. Women appear to be at increased risk for silent stroke, with hypertension and current cigarette smoking being amongst the predisposing factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26269206",
"title": "Hemoglobin Lepore syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Presentation.:Complications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "A potential complication that may occur in children that suffer acute anemia with a hemoglobin count below 5.5 g/dl is silent stroke A silent stroke is a type of stroke that does not have any outward symptoms (asymptomatic), and the patient is typically unaware they have suffered a stroke. Despite not causing identifiable symptoms a silent stroke still causes damage to the brain, and places the patient at increased risk for both transient ischemic attack and major stroke in the future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5hajp1
|
Indo-european and Peppers ? How is Sanskrit connected to European languages and what is up with ancient Indian peppers ?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, Sanskrit is part of the Indo-European language family, and yes, its speakers migrated there from the steppes of what is now Ukraine and Kazakhstan. However, Indo-Iranian moved into its modern range by way of Bactria, not the Caucasus. There are libraries of literature on Indo-European, and the idea that it is \"false and disproven\" is itself a myth perpetrated by Hindu nationalists. Indic languages are very clearly part of the Indo-European family--this is obvious to anyone with some basic acquaintance with Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, and has been known to scholars since the late 18th century. We also can be sure that Indo-European did not originate in India for a few reasons. First, India contains only one branch of Indo-European, while linguistic homelands generally contain or are proximate to several different branches. For example, Taiwan, the homeland of Austronesian, contains anywhere from 4 to 9 separate branches. Second, Indic languages (and this dates back as far as Sanskrit) contain features clearly derived from contact with Dravidian languages, like a distinction between dental stops (made with the tongue on the back of the teeth) and retroflex ones (where the tongue is curled back towards the hard palate) or a historic confusion of /l r/. Third, there's a pretty clear relationship between where language families show up geographically in the historic record and the features they share. [This map](_URL_0_) gives you a good picture of that. There's basically no linguistic evidence consonant with the idea.\n\nI'll let someone who knows more about the Columbian Exchange tackle the question about peppers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'd like to summon someone better qualified to talk about this, but it's possible the idea about \"pepper\" is based on some sort of misunderstanding. Maybe.\n\nThe genus that contains all the \"chile peppers\" that people eat is *Capsicum*. Despite some confusing naming conventions, all the species in this genus are native to the Americas, and were introduced to Asia sometime in the early 16th century. In the hundreds of years since then, chile peppers have been wholeheartedly adopted by local farmers and chefs, and new varieties better suited to local conditions and needs have been developed.\n\nSome species of chile pepper like *Capsicum chinense* have Linnean names that are a artifact of where they were first described by scientists, but that's not where they are now known to have originated.\n\nIn contrast, the black pepper, *Piper nigrum*, is a flowering vine in a totally differnent family and order, but which is native to the Indian subcontinent. Today black pepper is still widely used in the cuisines of India, and it's believed that it's use was even more widespread before the introduction of chile peppers to South Asia.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42589952",
"title": "Indo-European migrations",
"section": "Section::::Fundamentals.:Linguistics: relations between languages.:Indo-European languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1094,
"text": "The similarities between various European languages, Sanskrit and Persian were noted by Sir William Jones in his \"Third Anniversary Discourse\" to the Asiatic Society in 1786, after learning Sanskrit in India, concluding that all these languages originated from the same source. From his initial intuitions developed the establishment of the Indo-European language family, which consists of several hundred related languages and dialects. There are about 439 languages and dialects, according to the 2009 \"Ethnologue\" estimate, about half of these (221) belonging to the Indo-Aryan subbranch originating in South Asia. The Indo-European family includes most of the major current languages of Europe, the Iranian plateau, the northern half of the Indian Subcontinent, Sri Lanka and was also spoken in ancient Anatolia. With written attestations appearing since the Bronze Age in the form of the Anatolian languages and Mycenaean Greek, the Indo-European family is significant to the field of historical linguistics as possessing the second-longest recorded history, after the Afroasiatic family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27698",
"title": "Sanskrit",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origin and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Other Indo-European languages related to Sanskrit include archaic and classical Latin (c. 600 BCE – 100 CE, old Italian), Gothic (archaic Germanic language, c. 350 CE), Old Norse (c. 200 CE and after), Old Avestan (c. late 2nd millennium BCE) and Younger Avestan (c. 900 BCE). The closest ancient relatives of Vedic Sanskrit in the Indo-European languages are the Nuristani language found in the remote Hindu Kush region of the northeastern Afghanistan and northwestern Himalayas, as well as the extinct Avestan and Old Persian—both Iranian languages. Sanskrit belongs to the satem group of the Indo-European languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "150116",
"title": "Black pepper",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Pepper is native to South Asia and Southeast Asia, and has been known to Indian cooking since at least 2000 BCE. J. Innes Miller notes that while pepper was grown in southern Thailand and in Malaysia, its most important source was India, particularly the Chera dynasty (Tamil dynasty) Malabar Coast, in what is now the state of Kerala. The lost ancient port city of Muziris in Kerala, famous for exporting black pepper and various other spices, gets mentioned in a number of classical historical sources. Peppercorns were a much-prized trade good, often referred to as \"black gold\" and used as a form of commodity money. The legacy of this trade remains in some Western legal systems that recognize the term \"peppercorn rent\" as a token payment for something that is, essentially, being given.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293133",
"title": "Culture of India",
"section": "Section::::Languages and literature.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "The Rigvedic Sanskrit is one of the oldest attestations of any Indo-Aryan languages, and one of the earliest attested members of the Indo-European languages. The discovery of Sanskrit by early European explorers of India led to the development of comparative Philology. The scholars of the 18th century were struck by the far reaching similarity of Sanskrit, both in grammar and vocabulary, to the classical languages of Europe. Intensive scientific studies that followed have established that Sanskrit and many Indian derivative languages belong to the family which includes English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Celtic, Greek, Baltic, Armenian, Persian, Tocharian and other Indo-European languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "559297",
"title": "Proto-Indo-European language",
"section": "Section::::Development of the hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1055,
"text": "Many consider William Jones, an Anglo-Welsh philologist and puisne judge in Bengal, to have begun Indo-European studies in 1786, when he postulated the common ancestry of Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek. However, he was not the first to make this observation. In the 1500s, European visitors to the Indian subcontinent became aware of similarities between Indo-Iranian languages and European languages, and as early as 1653 Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn had published a proposal for a proto-language (\"Scythian\") for the following language families: Germanic, Romance, Greek, Baltic, Slavic, Celtic, and Iranian. In a memoir sent to the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1767 Gaston-Laurent Coeurdoux, a French Jesuit who spent all his life in India, had specifically demonstrated the analogy between Sanskrit and European languages. In the perspective of current academic consensus, Jones' work was less accurate than his predecessors', as he erroneously included Egyptian, Japanese and Chinese in the Indo-European languages, while omitting Hindi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27698",
"title": "Sanskrit",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origin and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1274,
"text": "In order to explain the common features shared by Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages, the Indo-Aryan migration theory states that the original speakers of what became Sanskrit arrived in the Indian subcontinent from the north-west sometime during the early second millennium BCE. Evidence for such a theory includes the close relationship between the Indo-Iranian tongues and the Baltic and Slavic languages, vocabulary exchange with the non-Indo-European Uralic languages, and the nature of the attested Indo-European words for flora and fauna. The pre-history of Indo-Aryan languages which preceded Vedic Sanskrit is unclear and various hypotheses place it over a fairly wide limit. According to Thomas Burrow, based on the relationship between various Indo-European languages, the origin of all these languages may possibly be in what is now Central or Eastern Europe, while the Indo-Iranian group possibly arose in Central Russia. The Iranian and Indo-Aryan branches separated quite early. It is the Indo-Aryan branch that moved into eastern Iran and the south into the Indian subcontinent in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Once in ancient India, the Indo-Aryan language underwent rapid linguistic change and morphed into the Vedic Sanskrit language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37042",
"title": "Indonesian language",
"section": "Section::::Vocabulary.:Loan words of Sanskrit origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 198,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 198,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "The Sanskrit influence came from contacts with India since ancient times. The words were either borrowed directly from India or with the intermediary of the Old Javanese language. Although Hinduism and Buddhism are no longer the major religions of Indonesia, Sanskrit, which was the language vehicle for these religions, is still held in high esteem and is comparable with the status of Latin in English and other Western European languages. Sanskrit is also the main source for neologisms, these are usually formed from Sanskrit roots. The loanwords from Sanskrit cover many aspects of religion, art and everyday life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3w20nz
|
Is it possible to determine the location at which a photo was taken based on the moon's position in the sky?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, it won't tell you the location from which the photo was taken. What you'd actually need would be an image of the stars in the night sky, but even that would only narrow it down to a latitude, unless you knew the UTC time the photo was taken.",
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"answer": "Yes, this is possible. Don Olson, a professor of astronomy at Texas State University has done a lot of this. Google him and you will find more several articles about the work he does. He uses the Sun, the Moon, and the stars I believe, to determine the date, time, and location of photographs and paintings. One that I can think of off the top of my head, he validated the [famous picture of a couple kissing on times square after Japan surrendered in WW2.](_URL_0_)\n\n[Here is another article about him and his work.](_URL_1_)\n",
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"answer": "Only the moon will not tell you anything about your position. If you have the moon and the horizon, this will still not give you a location. If you have the moon, the horizon and besides that, date and time, you could possibly calculate a [small circle](_URL_0_) from where the moon can be seen at that moment at that angle in the sky. (If the picture is good enough to determine the angle.)",
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"answer": "You would need to know the local time when the photo was taken. \n\nDepending on how precise the time is and how precise the angle measurements are from the horizon, you could draw one or more circles on the earth where the photo could have been taken.\n\nWith the date, you could get it down to one circle.\n\nIf you can get measurements on a few stars as well you can narrow down the size of the circle.\n\nThis is basically how celestial navigation works, but usually we use stars. You can use the moon or planets too.\n\nEdit: Read the question again. It really depends on what else you can see besides the moon. When I talk about angles I mean the angle from the horizon to the moon. This is very hard to capture in a photo. You'd need the light to be just right and a wide angle, and no trees or buildings in the way. \n\nSo you'd need to be able to measure a different angle to figure out where in the sky the moon is. The moon goes around and around the earth on more or less the same path, so the date would be very important, and you would need the angles from the moon to a few stars.\n\nThis is not a normal activity (at least not yet) so you would probably have to find someone to help you write software to search star maps.",
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"answer": "Some of the answers here are saying that a photo of the Moon alone won't give you any information. That's not entirely true - you can still get some latitude information from the Moon's orientation and location in the sky:\n\n- At mid-to-high latitudes, the Moon will never pass directly overhead. Only the range of latitudes between -28 to 28 degrees latitude can ever have an overhead Moon.\n\n- Closer to the horizon, the angle the Moon's features make with the horizon, you can easily tell if the picture was taken in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere. The lunar highlands (brighter white) generally appear towards the bottom of the Moon's disc in the Northern Hemisphere, and towards the top in the Southern Hemisphere.\n\n- If you know the Moon's position in the sky, local time of day, and time of year, then you can get much more precise, to within 5 degrees of the exact latitude the picture was taken. For instance, the Full Moon at midnight on equinox will always be at its highest in the sky and within 5 degrees of zero declination. That means that 90 minus the number of degrees from horizon to the Moon will be within 5 degrees of the photographer's latitude (and you can use the Moon itself as a ruler, since it spans almost exactly half a degree).",
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"answer": "If you have the exact time the photo was taken, and there are landmarks visible then yes. But then again, if there are landmarks visible that alone should tell you the location. \n\nThe landmarks are needed to determine the angle and orientation of the camera when the picture was taken\n\nSo, if you rig a camera with a very accurate compass watermark and an angle off horizon marker, then yes. So you would need the time (UTC), orientation of the camera and angle off horizon of the camera to a very high degree of precision. \n\nThe process is very much the same as using the stars, or using a sextant to determine your position, except you're not using a sextant. But national observatory almanacs have tables for moon position the same as it does for stars. ",
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"answer": "I've noticed that the crescent moon is at a far different angle at the equator compared to the upper latitudes. You could probably make a guess based on that. Visualization: imagine the crescent moon as a sail boat. In the high latitudes, its the sail; at the equator, its the hull.",
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"answer": "The moon's position on its own can't tell you where you are, but it can tell where you aren't. The moon orbits about 30º off from the Earth's equator. So the higher it is in the sky, the closer you are to the equator, +-30º. If it's straight up, you're not at the north or south pole. I believe that's about all the location info you could get, however, from a photo only.\n\nIf you add in exact time/date and the exact orientation of the camera (azimuth, altitude), then you could calculate your position on the Earth. However, your measurements would have to be incredibly precise in order to determine your location to any decree of meaningful precision. You could probably determine your location to within a few hundred miles. ",
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"answer": "The moon itself does not provide enough information. However, if you had a wide angle shot showing the moon, a bunch of stars, and the horizon, it should be possible to work it out, especially knowing the time of day and year.",
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"answer": "With a photo of the moon, along with the horizon you'll have the phase of the moon, the angle the moon is above the horizon and the direction that the sun is hitting the moon. If the moon exactly 1st quarter, sitting at the horizon and the empty quarter is pointing down directly to the horizon you know you're near the equator. There's not a lot of times during the year that the moon is 1st quarter on the horizon. Few locations ever show the moon's quarter facing the horizon.\n\nWith a little more information, even without the exact time of day or date you'd be able to find the location. Stars in the background would narrow down the time and location substantially.\n\nPeople do this type of analysis with old paintings. ",
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"answer": "Well, first off you could see more than the moon and just by looking at the stars you can get your lat and long from that.\n\nIf you know what time the photo was taken then you can look at the moon's orientation in the sky and ascertain the photographers approximate longitude and latitude. \n\nHowever, with a sextant you can get a much more accurate position from the stars.",
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{
"answer": "The geolocation data in the EXIF would help, for sure. Might be cheating though. \n\nBut seriously, if all you have is the location of the moon within the frame and nothing else, then no. Other responders who say yes assume that you can accurately tell the orientation of the moon relative to the photographer and see at least 2 identifiable stars (how do you identify a Star if not in relation to other stars?). Your average pic that includes the moon, but is not *of* the moon, will have none of these. It will have a tiny white circle with no useful information at all.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "There was that case where a man had fudged the time signature on his camera and pretended to be fishing on the day his partner/wife was murdered. But someone could tell by the sun in the sky that it wasn't actually that day. Anyone remember the full story?",
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{
"answer": "One of my professors in college would actually study the position of the moon in different historical paintings, and from that, determine the exact location, date and time the painting was created (or at least the scene the artist was depicting. Here's an article I found, just the school paper, but still interesting\n\n _URL_0_",
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{
"answer": "To an extent, yes. If the photo shows the moon from its surface, then the photo was probably taken on the moon. If it's shown in the sky, it was probably taken on or near Earth. If the moon is believed to be present in the photo yet is too small to distinguish, then the photo was most likely taken at a great distance from the moon. If the moon does not appear in the photo at all, then it's reasonable to assume that the camera was oriented such that the moon was not in its field of view. ",
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{
"answer": "A elevation model, Utc time and moon azimuth and elevation are sufficient to determine position on the earth's surface.\n\nTo get moon azimuth and elevation from a camera you need a compass and tripod and the optical parameters of the camera.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23253",
"title": "Parallax",
"section": "Section::::Astronomy.:Lunar parallax.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Another method is to take two pictures of the Moon at exactly the same time from two locations on Earth and compare the positions of the Moon relative to the stars. Using the orientation of the Earth, those two position measurements, and the distance between the two locations on the Earth, the distance to the Moon can be triangulated:\n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "32450299",
"title": "Moonrise, Hernandez, New Mexico",
"section": "Section::::Dating the image.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Dennis di Cicco of \"Sky & Telescope\" magazine read about Elmore's results and tried verifying them. Di Cicco entered the position, direction, and time into a program that displayed the Moon's position, but the resulting position did not match the \"Moonrise\" image. Di Cicco was intrigued by the discrepancy. Working off and on over the next ten years, including a visit to the location, Di Cicco concluded in 1991 \"that Adams had been at the edge of the old roadbed, about 50 feet west of the spot on the modern highway that Elmore had identified\". Di Cicco's calculations determined that the image was taken at 4:49:20 p.m. on November 1, 1941. He reviewed his calculations with Elmore, who agreed with Di Cicco's result. Elmore had been misled by his computer monitor's distortion with an additional slight discrepancy in Adams' coordinates. In 1981, the IBM PC's CGA display did not have a 1:1 pixel aspect ratio; plotting software would have to compensate for that aspect ratio to make an isotropic plot.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "32450299",
"title": "Moonrise, Hernandez, New Mexico",
"section": "Section::::Dating the image.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
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"text": "Newhall wondered if the astronomical information in the photograph could provide the answer, so he approached David Elmore of the High Altitude Observatory in Boulder, Colorado. Focusing on the autumn months of 1941 through 1944, Elmore found 36 plausible dates for the image. Elmore determined a probable location and direction for the camera alongside the highway. Using that location information, he then plotted the Moon's apparent position on his computer screen for those dates to find a match. Elmore concluded that \"Moonrise\" was taken on October 31, 1941, at 4:03 p.m.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "899115",
"title": "Lunar distance (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::History of measurement.:Amateur astronomers and citizen scientists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "On May 23, 2007 digital photographs of the Moon during a near-occultation of Regulus were taken from two locations, in Greece and England. By measuring the parallax between the Moon and the chosen background star, the lunar distance was calculated.\n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "899115",
"title": "Lunar distance (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::History of measurement.:Parallax.:Occultations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "By recording the instant when the Moon occults a background star, (or similarly, measuring the angle between the moon and a background star at a predetermined moment) the lunar distance can be determined, as long as the measurements are taken from multiple locations of known separation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "13417777",
"title": "August 1966",
"section": "Section::::August 26, 1966 (Friday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 151,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 151,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "BULLET::::- NASA released the first photograph of the Earth as seen from the Moon, after Lunar Orbiter 1 transmitted a picture taken three days earlier. Ground control had decided to turn the orbiter's camera toward the Earth, just as the probe was about to travel toward the far side, in order to show both objects in the same photo. At the time, the Moon was between its perigee (August 17) and apogee (August 31) in relation to Earth and the \"first self-portrait of the Earth\" was taken at a distance of roughly 239,000 miles.\n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "54885912",
"title": "December 1968",
"section": "Section::::December 29, 1968 (Sunday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "BULLET::::- The photo of Earth from the Moon, \"Earthrise\", was released to the public by NASA along with eight other spectacular photographs taken during the Apollo 8 mission. The display coincided with the first press conference (at Houston) by astronauts Borman, Lovell and Anders since their return to Earth, and the images were shown on live television, then repeated on evening newscasts around the world and published in the next day's newspapers. In addition to the famous view of a half-lit image of Earth were two pictures of craters on the Moon's far side from an altitude of ; a photo of the nearside craters Goclenius and Magelhaens; a view of the Mare Tranquillitatis where the first Earthmen would land in Apollo 11; and two other views of the Earth's Western Hemisphere.\n",
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]
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] | null |
2p4g0j
|
How historically accurate is the quote: "The war wasn’t only about abolishing fascism, but to conquer sales markets. We could have, if we had intended so, prevented this war from breaking out without doing one shot, but we didn’t want to."?
|
[
{
"answer": " > verify the quote\n\nThere's zero evidence that this was ever said by Churchill, Truman, or anyone else involved in WWII. If one is to presume that the premise of the quote is accurate (that is to say, the war was fought by the allies to \"conquer sales markets,\" why would they admit that after years of propaganda stating that the war was a war for freedom?\n\nIt's hard to source a negative, of course (aka, come up with a source saying that someone *didn't* say this particular line). The fact that there are no reputable sources that point towards Churchill or Truman actually uttering this line, however, should dispel its credibility.\n\n > explain the context in which it was made, and\n\nPresumably by some Neo-Nazi, though I can't say who first created this statement. It fits in well with the Nazi idea that the Germans were the target of an international Jewish financier conspiracy.\n\n > also explain how historically true it was.\n\nCompletely false. It makes no sense - if Britain and France keen to \"conquer\" the sales market that was Germany, why would they follow a policy of appeasement throughout the 30s? Why wouldn't they have just conquered Germany in the 20s, when they were weak - say, just extend the [occupation of the Ruhr](_URL_0_) to the entirety of the German nation?\n\nThe notion of one nation conquering another for economic gain is not absurd. After all, economic exploitation is one of the key features of imperialism. To portray Nazi Germany as a victim of imperialism, however, is absurd. The British and French were highly reluctant to go to war with Germany, but ended up doing so to prevent Germany from establishing hegemony over Europe. They couldn't have just pulled some strings and prevented Hitler from invading Poland without firing \"one shot.\"\n\nYour skepticism is well justified, and the fact that the quote only appears on site that are apologetic to the Nazis or based on attention-grabbing headlines is telling. It's not history, it's fiction.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "[Here's the text of Churchill's March 1946 speech at Fulton](_URL_0_), called the \"Iron curtain\" speech because that was what popularized the phrase. Churchill doesn't even talk about the reasons for WWII, much less describing them as \"to conquer sales markets.\" Instead, he focuses on the postwar situation, especially Anglo-American friendship and the Soviet threat.\n\nAs /u/EighthGear explains, that's not a statement Churchill would have said, both because it was inaccurate and because it would have contradicted his longtime position. But even beyond that, Churchill was a Nobel-prize-winning author and a longtime journalist who spoke with just pride of his grasp of English. He would've never used awkward phrases such as \"conquer sales markets\" and \"without doing one shot.\"",
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{
"answer": "Maybe the good people at /r/badhistory can help you ?\n\nI agree with the other comments that the quote sounds like something that an apologist would create.",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5454193",
"title": "Definitions of fascism",
"section": "Section::::By Marxists.:Clara Zetkin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "\"Fascism is the concentrated expression of the general offensive undertaken by the world bourgeoisie against the proletariat... fascism [is] an expression of the decay and disintegration of the capitalist economy and as a symptom of the bourgeois state’s dissolution. We can combat fascism only if we grasp that it rouses and sweeps along broad social masses who have lost the earlier security of their existence and with it, often, their belief in social order... It will be much easier for us to defeat Fascism if we clearly and distinctly study its nature. Hitherto there have been extremely vague ideas upon this subject not only among the large masses of the workers, but even among the revolutionary vanguard of the proletariat and the Communists... The Fascist leaders are not a small and exclusive caste; they extend deeply into wide elements of the population.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "26817200",
"title": "Buchenwald Resistance",
"section": "Section::::Documents.:Buchenwald Communist Party Resolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The document referred to fascism and war as \"attempt of German monopoly capitalism, to \"overcome the economic crisis by means of a brutal, fascist dictatorship and an imperialist war\". This was to entrench German monopoly capital as a dominant power in the world. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "6826668",
"title": "José Brocca",
"section": "Section::::Democracy and optimism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "'Professor Brocca seems to recognise that to fight fascism with the weapons fascists use is self-defeating. If we do as the fascists do then we only endorse fascism. To prevent fascism we have to prevent the desperation, the poverty, the chaos and the ignorance out of which fascism is produced'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1318008",
"title": "Causes of World War I",
"section": "Section::::Imperialism.:Marxist interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 181,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 181,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Marxists typically attributed the start of the war to imperialism. \"Imperialism,\" argued Lenin, \"is the monopoly stage of capitalism.\" He thought that monopoly capitalists went to war to control markets and raw materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "803217",
"title": "The Doctrine of Fascism",
"section": "Section::::Quotations.:Edition and Translation differences.:\"The Doctrine of Fascism\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "\"Fascism, the more it considers and observes the future and the development of humanity quite apart from political considerations of the moment, believes neither in the possibility nor the utility of perpetual peace. It thus repudiates the doctrine of Pacifismborn of a renunciation of the struggle and an act of cowardice in the face of sacrifice. War alone brings up to its highest tension all human energy and puts the stamp of nobility upon the peoples who have courage to meet it.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "30669741",
"title": "Propaganda of Fascist Italy",
"section": "Section::::Themes.:Action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1318,
"text": "War and killing were praised as the essence of manhood. A Fascist encyclopedia proclaimed, \"Nothing is ever won in history without bloodshed.\" This drew upon older themes, exulted in World War I, with injunctions that suffering was necessary for greatness. World War I was often cited in Fascist propaganda, with many prominent Fascists displaying many medals from the conflict. To such figures as Gabriele d'Annunzio, the return of peace meant only the return of the humdrum, while the ideal was still war, themes that Fascism drew into its propaganda. Mussolini, shortly before the seizure of power, proclaimed violence better than compromise and bargaining. Afterwards, there was a prolonged period where the absence of military action did not prevent the government from many belligerent statements. Interviews appearing in foreign press, where Mussolini spoke of wanting peace, had that portion censored out before appearing in Italian papers. The annexation of Albania was presented as a splendid act of aggression. In the run-up to World War II, Mussolini's claim he could field 8 million was quickly exaggerated to 9 million, and then to 12 million. The continually bellicose pose created an embarrassment with the outbreak of World War II, where failure to join the war would undermine the propaganda effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "65668",
"title": "Mixed economy",
"section": "Section::::Political philosophy.:Fascism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 980,
"text": "Although fascism is primarily a political ideology that stresses the importance of cultural and social issues over economics, fascism is generally supportive of a broadly capitalistic mixed economy. Fascism supports a state interventionism into markets and private enterprise, alongside a corporatist framework referred to as the \"third position\" that ostensibly aims to be a middle-ground between socialism and capitalism by mediating labour and business disputes to promote national unity. 20th century fascist regimes in Italy and Germany adopted large public works programs to stimulate their economies, state interventionism in largely private-sector dominated economies to promote re-armament and national interests. Scholars have drawn parallels between the American New Deal and public works programs promoted by fascism, arguing that fascism similarly arose in response to the threat of socialist revolution and similarly aimed to \"save capitalism\" and private property.\n",
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2p12gh
|
What is the relationship between biological nucleus and chemical nucleus?
|
[
{
"answer": "The dictionary definition of a nucleus is the central and most important part of an object. Both biologists and chemists decided to use this term (in reference to the general meaning), but they refer to entirely different things.\n\nThe atomic nucleus (as you stated) is the central part of an atom and is composed of protons and neutrons.\n\nThe cellular nucleus is an organelle in cells which contains most of the cell's DNA (whether you'd call it the most central/important can be debated, but it certainly is essential). \n\nThe cellular nucleus is composed of many atoms each of which have an atomic nucleus.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Totally totally different. \n\nthe relationship is like that between a Samsung Galaxy phone and the Milky Way Galaxy (the giant celestial disk the solar system is in). \n\nOther than the word \"nucleus\" there is nothing in common. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "21272",
"title": "Neutron",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "The chemical and nuclear properties of the nucleus are determined by the number of protons, called the atomic number, and the number of neutrons, called the neutron number. The atomic mass number is the total number of nucleons. For example, carbon has atomic number 6, and its abundant carbon-12 isotope has 6 neutrons, whereas its rare carbon-13 isotope has 7 neutrons. Some elements occur in nature with only one stable isotope, such as fluorine. Other elements occur with many stable isotopes, such as tin with ten stable isotopes.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "902",
"title": "Atom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "The number of protons in the nucleus, called the \"atomic number\", defines to which chemical element the atom belongs. For example, each copper atom contains 29 protons. The number of neutrons defines the isotope of the element. Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as molecules or crystals. The ability of atoms to associate and dissociate is responsible for most of the physical changes observed in nature. Chemistry is the discipline that studies these changes.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "21272",
"title": "Neutron",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1277,
"text": "An atomic nucleus is formed by a number of protons, \"Z\" (the atomic number), and a number of neutrons, \"N\" (the neutron number), bound together by the nuclear force. The atomic number defines the chemical properties of the atom, and the neutron number determines the isotope or nuclide. The terms isotope and nuclide are often used synonymously, but they refer to chemical and nuclear properties, respectively. Strictly speaking, isotopes are two or more nuclides with the same number of protons; nuclides with the same number of neutrons are called isotones. The atomic mass number, symbol \"A\", equals \"Z\"+\"N\". Nuclides with the same atomic mass number are called isobars. The nucleus of the most common isotope of the hydrogen atom (with the chemical symbol H) is a lone proton. The nuclei of the heavy hydrogen isotopes deuterium (D or H) and tritium (T or H) contain one proton bound to one and two neutrons, respectively. All other types of atomic nuclei are composed of two or more protons and various numbers of neutrons. The most common nuclide of the common chemical element lead, Pb, has 82 protons and 126 neutrons, for example. The table of nuclides comprises all the known nuclides. Even though it is not a chemical element, the neutron is included in this table.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "66394",
"title": "Island of stability",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:Nuclide stability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "The composition of an atomic nucleus is determined by the number of protons \"Z\" and the number of neutrons \"N\", which sum to mass number \"A\". The atomic number \"Z\" determines the position of an element in the periodic table, but the more than 3000 nuclides are commonly represented in a chart with \"Z\" and \"N\" for its axes and the half-life for radioactive decay indicated for each unstable nuclide (see figure). 252 nuclides are thought to be stable (having never been observed to decay), and these follow a general trend in which the number of neutrons rises more rapidly than the number of protons. The last element in the periodic table that has a stable isotope is lead (\"Z\" = 82), with stability generally decreasing in heavier elements. The half-lives of nuclei also decrease when there is a lopsided neutron-proton ratio, such that the resulting nuclei have too few or too many neutrons to be stable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "5659",
"title": "Chemical element",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Atomic number.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 747,
"text": "The number of protons in the atomic nucleus also determines its electric charge, which in turn determines the number of electrons of the atom in its non-ionized state. The electrons are placed into atomic orbitals that determine the atom's various chemical properties. The number of neutrons in a nucleus usually has very little effect on an element's chemical properties (except in the case of hydrogen and deuterium). Thus, all carbon isotopes have nearly identical chemical properties because they all have six protons and six electrons, even though carbon atoms may, for example, have 6 or 8 neutrons. That is why the atomic number, rather than mass number or atomic weight, is considered the identifying characteristic of a chemical element.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1932171",
"title": "Halo nucleus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Typically, an atomic nucleus is a tightly bound group of protons and neutrons. However, in some nuclides, there is an overabundance of one species of nucleon. In some of these cases, a nuclear core and a halo will form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60426",
"title": "Symbiogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Endosymbiosis of Protomitochondria.:Nuclear Membrane.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The presence of a nucleus is one major difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Some conserved nuclear proteins between eukaryotes and prokaryotes suggest that these two types had a common ancestor. Another theory behind nucleation is that early nuclear membrane proteins caused the cell membrane to fold inwardly and form a sphere with pores like the nuclear envelope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e0dmtn
|
why aren’t patients scrubbed down the same as doctors are?
|
[
{
"answer": "The patient will be unconscious during surgery and won’t be touching themselves or moving. The doctors will be touching the patient and the surgical site so it’s more important for them to be sterile.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Having had multiple surgeries I gotta tell you; any hospital worth its merit sends you home with surgical wash to use heavuly the night before and morning of surgery. (2 separate showers). This reduces the risk of infection by 30-40%. Then the surgery site is cleaned heavily and seperated by a sterile gown/ cover. \nWith the site being clean it's more about not introducing new bacteria. So the surgeon has to scrub.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They do use a skin prep protocol prior to surgery. Usually chlorhexidine or betadine. And then they often use adhesive drapes that are impregnated with antibacterial substances to further prevent infection. So the short answer is that they do scrub you but they only scrub the area that’s going to be in the surgical field. And as someone else mentioned, often a pre-wash a night and sometimes 2 nights before an elective surgery is done. Usually with chlorhexidine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > but the patients just get a little iodine on the surgery area and good to go\n\nIodine is very effective at killing any microorganism it comes in contact with. Prior to that, in pre-op they can also give you a chlorhexadine bath that kills the vast majority of skin flora. That's probably better at eradicating bacteria than the antibacterial scrub the doctors use to wash their hands with.\n\nAdditionally, the area of the incision gets thoroughly scrubbed with iodine prior to surgery. The rest of the body is draped with sterile cloth to prevent any contamination from there to the sterile field of surgery.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* surgeons put their hands inside patients, not the other way around\n* patients just lie there, if there are germs on your hands during your knee surgery, there is where they are going to stay\n* also, since the patients stay still, so will any antimicrobial you put on them\n* the patient isn't touching sick people all day\n* your body is largely used to its own germs",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The patient is scrubbed - more so than the docs. They likely shower or use chlorhexidine wipes before the surgery. They’re completely naked on the OR table so there’s no risk of fabric contamination. Any exposed part of the body is draped in sterile sheets. The exposed part (which is sealed off) is washed with a iodine, betodine or chlorhexadine prep.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "About half an hour before my surgery last year I had to have a shower with an antibacterial shower gel which they provided.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Operating room RN here. Patients are generally “scrubbed” a few times before surgery. In my hospital most are given a clorhexadine soap to shower with at home before surgery. Then when they come in they are given clorhexadine wipes to use on their entire body before changing into a gown. Then their nares are given an iodine treatment. This all happens in preop. \n\nWhen they arrive in the OR, a large area around where the surgical site will be is prepped with either chloraprep (clorhexadine in an alcohol base) or betadine depending on the surgery (clorhexadine can’t be used in certain areas - ears for example). Then the patient is draped out with sterile drapes that isolate the surgical area. Many times this surgical area is also covered with a thin film impregnated with iodine (Ioban) to further isolate the surrounding skin from the incision. Other physical barriers are used sometimes to keep different areas of the body from cross contaminating each other during surgery if applicable. \n\nAdditionally, any “bugs” that get into the patients system are their own, but this isn’t necessarily OK. Skin bugs can cause wicked infections internally. To combat this (on top of all the cleaning and isolation) patients are given antibiotics before and after surgery. \n\nSo yeah, the patient is most likely the best scrubbed person in the OR.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They do.\n\nDoctors scrub their hands and forearms, then cover the rest up with sterile gear.\n\nPatients get their surgical site scrubbed up, then they cover the rest with sterile gear.\n\n\nIt's basically the same thing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43046032",
"title": "Overscreening",
"section": "Section::::Causes of overscreening.:Distraction tricks by physicians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Physicians sometimes use screening as a placebo for patients who wish to have some kind of care. The physician may recommend screening to placate the patient's demand for fast recovery in times when the recommended action would be to do nothing except wait. Research suggests that patients are more satisfied with their treatment when it is or seems expensive because patients believe that the more care they get, even if it is not necessary, then at least doing something is better than doing nothing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43046032",
"title": "Overscreening",
"section": "Section::::Arguments against overscreening.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Overscreening is a type of unnecessary health care. One study about unnecessary screening before surgery reported that physicians order unnecessary tests because of tradition in the practice of medicine, anticipation that other physicians will expect the test results when they see the patient, defensive medicine, worries that a surgery may be canceled if the test is not done, and lack of understanding about when a test is actually indicated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23985799",
"title": "Physician supply",
"section": "Section::::Determinants.:Economic theory and trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "Substitution factors can significantly affect the production of physician services and the availability of physicians to see more patients. For example, an accountant can replace some of the financial responsibilities for a physician who owns his or her own practice, allowing for more time to treat patients. Disposable supplies can substitute for labor and capital (the time and equipment needed to sterilize instruments). Sound record keeping by physicians can substitute for legal services by avoiding malpractice suits. However, the extent of substitution of physician production is limited by technical and legal factors. Technology cannot replace all skills possessed by physicians, such as surgical skill sets. Legal factors can include only allowing licensed physicians to perform surgeries, but nurses or doctors administering other surgical care.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1914",
"title": "Antimicrobial resistance",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Clinical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Because individuals may feel better before the infection is eradicated, doctors must provide instructions to them so they know when it is safe to stop taking a prescription. Some researchers advocate doctors' using a very short course of antibiotics, reevaluating the patient after a few days, and stopping treatment if there are no clinical signs of infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45599",
"title": "Surgery",
"section": "Section::::Special populations.:Vulnerable populations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Doctors perform surgery with the consent of the patient. Some patients are able to give better informed consent than others. Populations such as incarcerated persons, people living with dementia, the mentally incompetent, persons subject to coercion, and other people who are not able to make decisions with the same authority as a typical patient have special needs when making decisions about their personal healthcare, including surgery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "875883",
"title": "Hospital-acquired infection",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Handwashing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "Improving patient hand washing has also been shown to reduce the rate of nosocomial infection. Patients who are bed-bound often do not have as much access to clean their hands at mealtimes or after touching surfaces or handling waste such as tissues. By reinforcing the importance of handwashing and providing santizing gel or wipes within reach of the bed, nurses were directly able to reduce infection rates. A study published in 2017 demonstrated this by improving patient education on both proper hand-washing procedure and important times to use sanitizer and successfully reduced the rate of enterococci and \"S. aureus\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19414924",
"title": "Treating",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "In law and politics, treating is the act of serving food, drink, and other refreshments to influence people for political gain, often shortly before an election. In various countries, treating is considered a form of corruption, and is illegal as such. However, as long as the supplying of refreshments is not part of a \"quid pro quo\" for votes, etc., it is often not illegal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bq44aa
|
why do bugs like to buzz around people's heads, even when being constantly swatted at?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most bugs that do this are attracted by the CO2 in our breath. Not sure why, think its something to do with finding a good vein or maybe warmth",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To answer the second half, bugs are generally not intelligent enough to recognize being swatted at is connected to what they are doing. They simply react on impulse to a swat by avoiding it best they can, then go right back to what they are doing. \n\nSo it's sort of like \"Oh hey this tastes good\"....\"Something is coming my way I should move\"....\"Oh hey this tastes good\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bugs are essentially tiny reflex machines with little to no intellect or memory. They are simply reacting to stimuli. Think of how moths will fly at and collide with a lightbulb over and over again. They’re just responding to the stimulus of a bright light from a central point as they are programmed to do, but they aren’t intelligent enough to know that something is going wrong.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Keep in mind that for mosquitoes, black flies, and probably other bugs, only females will bite you because she needs a blood meal to lay her eggs. The males are still buzzing around your head, but they don't bite. I was hoping someone here would know why. Maybe to find a mate?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is just anecdotal, but my experience has been that when I’m wearing hair styling gel they seem to be attracted to it and fly around my head more than when I’m not wearing product. Not sure that my experience is exactly scientific, but since one has mentioned it, I’ll throw it out there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On a similar subject...\n\nWhy to they like to fly in crutches around the light in my room in the DAYTIME when the light is not on?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In my experience bugs like that fly around the highest point, which is your head. However if you hold a stick over your head, or one thats taller than you, they will fly around that instead",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your head is covered in mucus membranes and pores releasing smells full of fatty oils and, whatever you've eaten recently. \n\nBugs like moist, smelly warm things. You have a warm, moist, smelly head.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Biting bugs are attracted to the CO2 that you exhale. It’s how they find you to feast on your blood. You exhale through a hole in your head, so they fly around your head. They are just reacting to stimuli, and don’t recognise cause and effect - so they don’t realise you are swatting them because they are near your head and that they would be safer if they fly away - they just dodge the incoming swatter and carry on with life - flying around in the carbon dioxide cloud floating around the head of the person they are going to feast on when they next feel hungry.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Could it just be a case of they're buzzing everywhere but you only really notice when it's in your face?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your sweat is tasty to them and full of salt. They don't know YOURE swatting at them, all they know is \"I'm trying to get at this tasty salt water and this thing keeps coming up to try and hit me.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bugs like a chemical that comes out of our heads (CO2). They are drawn to it and their little insect brains aren't too good at risk/reward calculations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You are constantly emitting heat and CO2. Your mouth, in particular, pumps out CO2 constantly. Both of these things are attractive to the bugs (especially bugs that feed on animals, like mosquitoes).\n\nThe bug isn't smart enough to know that you are swatting at it. It knows to avoid stuff that's moving at it, and the air pressure does most of the work getting it out of the way. Beyond that, there's no learning from experience going on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bugs buzz around people, poles, signs or other similarity shaped things to try and meet up with other bugs, usually for mating. They need landmarks like that to find each other, similar to how if your meeting up with a group of friends in a busy area you'll use a fountain or a storefront as a meeting area. Only bugs don't plan out a meeting, they just fly near the high-point of a promising landmark.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7158571",
"title": "Hare Conditioned",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Just when Bugs is about to be captured, he distracts the man again by tricking him into thinking there is a \"frankincense\" monster behind him, just like in a good book he just read. When he looks behind, Bugs has leaped into position, making a hideous face. The frightened man leaps off the building with a scream. Bugs tut-tuts, then pulls out a mirror, makes the same face to himself, turns to the audience in horror, and then \"he\" leaps off the building with a scream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14725125",
"title": "Lumber Jack-Rabbit",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Bugs, feeling as though he's safe, stops to catch his breath, not knowing Smidgen is right behind him. Before he knows it, Bugs is licked by the dog's enormous tongue, which lifts him off the ground each time. Bugs tries to run away, but stops at the sight of something. He calls Smidgen's attention to a giant redwood tree; and the dog runs off towards it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1621449",
"title": "Swarming (honey bee)",
"section": "Section::::Beekeeping.:Human behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Encountering a bee swarm for the first time can be alarming. Bees tend to swarm near their hives or honeycombs, so if a swarm is visible then a nest is nearby. Swarms are usually not aggressive unless provoked, so it is important to keep a good distance from swarms in order to avoid provoking them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3145983",
"title": "Systems Failure",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "The Bugs come in several varieties. There are the drone-like Army Ants who have only basic intelligence, the more intelligent Assassin Bugs who can replicate human speech, though imperfectly, and the flying Lightning Bugs, amongst others. All of them are able to turn themselves into energy or rapidly call up reinforcements. In addition to these, there are \"brain bugs\", a variety that can invade human minds and turn them into zombie-like servants of the Bugs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3160077",
"title": "Hair-Raising Hare",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1606,
"text": "Bugs and the monster pass by a mirror. The creature steps back to look into the mirror, whereupon his reflection comes to life, screams in horror and runs away toward the door. Albeit confused, he turns to the audience, shrugs, then takes off after Bugs. Bugs rushes up a staircase, but suddenly comes rushing back down, running into the monster and knocking him down. Bugs says not to go 'up there' because it's dark (similar to a gag from \"The Wabbit Who Came to Supper\"). Bugs disguises himself as a lamp, then, after the monster 'turns on' the bulbs in Bugs' ears, the rabbit dances away to the tune of \"Shuffle Off To Buffalo\". From one end of a hallway, Bugs taunts the monster by calling him \"Frankenstein!\". The two keep running until a trapdoor on the floor opens, forcing Bugs to halt. While Bugs is tiptoeing backwards and praying, he bumps into the creature. He comes up with the idea to give him a manicure. He produces a table and a chair and starts working on the nails while he talks and acts like a female manicurist (\"Oh, for shame! Just look at those fingernails! My, I'll bet you monsters lead in-teresting lives. I said to my girl friend just the other day, 'Gee, I'll bet monsters are in-teresting.' I said. The places you must go and the things you must see -- my stars! I bet you meet lots of in-teresting people too. I'm always in-terested in meeting in-teresting people. Now let's dip our patties in the water!\") He puts the monster's fingers into a bowl of water, but it contains two mousetraps, which snap and catch his fingers, causing him to yelp in pain and shed some tears.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7012",
"title": "Chagas disease",
"section": "Section::::Transmission.:Main methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The bugs emerge at night, when the inhabitants are sleeping. Because they tend to feed on people's faces, triatomine bugs are also known as \"kissing bugs\". After they bite and ingest blood, they defecate on the person. Triatomines pass \"T. cruzi\" parasites (called trypomastigotes) in feces left near the site of the bite wound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8425111",
"title": "Fear of bees",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Ordinary (non-phobic) fear of bees in adults is generally associated with lack of knowledge. The general public is not aware that bees attack in defense of their hive, or when accidentally squashed, and an occasional bee in a field presents no danger. Moreover, the majority of insect stings in the United States are attributed to yellowjacket wasps, which are often mistaken for a honeybee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2sealb
|
if there's a no knock raid on your house by police and you kill the raiders would you be innocent in court?
|
[
{
"answer": "Thats tricky. \n\nPretty much the only way to remain innocent in that case would be if you happened to live in a country/state where the Castle Doctrine is observed and the police failed to identify themselves in any meaningful or obvious way. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I wish I had a straight answer, but it really depends on what state he lives in. If the state has strong gun laws he is more likely to be exonerated on the charges brought up. If he is in a state with strict gun laws it will likely end in murder charges. There haven't been a lot of cases that I know of, but there was a case in TX where the man was being raided with a no knock over pot. The man shot at them thinking he was being robbed. He killed one sheriff deputy. They charged him with murder, but even in TX, the jury refused to indict him for murder. Silly price to pay for some pot.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably only if the basis of the raid was somehow faulty. Remember, the government has given itself the right to deprive you of life, liberty, and property so long as it follows \"due process\" and your right to resist and arrest generally only applies if it is unlawful. Just because you're actually innocent doesn't automatically make such arrests and raids unlawful.\n\nThere have been instances of what you describe, for example [this](_URL_0_). However, the basis of the acquittal here was that the information was unreliable. Had there not been any issues with the investigation and warrant, the trial might have proceeded differently. Our justice system generally gives police the benefit of the doubt regarding \"errors\" so long as they follow the rules.\n\nAlso, look into the incidents at Waco and Ruby Ridge.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Assume he has killed all the police raiding his home\n\nThe military should hire this guy!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It highly depends on the situation, the courts, the police, the state, etc. Either way, its not something I'd be willing to put money on. \n\n[However, there is precedent that you could be found innocent.](_URL_0_) Keep in mind that this happened in Texas, which has one of the strongest rules on castle doctrine. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not this poor guy: _URL_0_. There was a huge outcry over this case in my area.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You killed a cop, you are screwed, unless you're very very very rich. There's a big difference between our idealized concept of law and order with what happens in reality. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's specifically legal in Indiana. If the police break in with no real cause you are allowed to shoot them dead.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the police illegally break into your house and start shooting, then you can shoot in self defense. This would be considered a justifiable homicide.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This happened in Minnesota- police got the wrong address, and the homeowner, thinking it was a home invasion, obliterated one of them with a shotgun. He was hauled into jail but then released without charges the next day when things were sorted out. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23946097",
"title": "Ken Ballew raid",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath and controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Multiple claims echoed in the gun press: that a proper investigation would have shown that Ballew was not a dangerous person, that such evidence as was presented against Ballew did not rise to the level of probable cause to justify a raid, that the proper way to execute a knock-service warrant specifying a day-time search of a home is to go in daylight to the front door, knock, and present the warrant to the subject, that breaking down the backdoor with a battering ram at 8:30 p.m. was not day-time knock-service, that when un-uniformed people break down one's door at night the natural reaction is to defend oneself, and that this incident demonstrated that the ATFD zeal in enforcing gun control had gone too far.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8230368",
"title": "No-knock warrant",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "No-knock warrants are controversial for various reasons. There have been cases where burglars have robbed homes by pretending to be officers with a no-knock warrant. There have been many cases where armed homeowners, believing that they are being invaded, have shot at officers, resulting in deaths on both sides. While it is legal to shoot a homeowner's dog when an officer fears for his/her life, there have been numerous high-profile cases in which family pets lacking the size, strength, or demeanor to attack officers have been shot, greatly increasing the risk of additional casualties in neighboring houses via overpenetrating bullets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8230368",
"title": "No-knock warrant",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Other examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "BULLET::::- Two former Los Angeles Police Department officers, along with 13 others, have plead guilty to running a robbery ring, which used fake no-knock raids as a ruse to catch victims off guard. The defendants would then steal cash and drugs to sell on the street.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4300850",
"title": "Chimel v. California",
"section": "Section::::Decision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "The Court reasoned that searches \"incident to arrest\" are limited to the area within the immediate control of the suspect. While police could reasonably search and seize evidence on or around the arrestee's person, police were prohibited from rummaging through the entire house without a search warrant. The Court emphasized the importance of warrants and probable cause as necessary bulwarks against government abuse:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12457017",
"title": "Police use of firearms in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Notable incidents.:Non-fatal incidents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "BULLET::::- On 2 June 2006, two family homes were raided in an operation involving 250 police in east London. One man, Abdul Kahar, was shot in the shoulder by police during the raid, but was later released without charge. The raid was based on faulty intelligence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3461548",
"title": "Edmonton Police Service",
"section": "Section::::History.:Police misconduct.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "On July 8, 2008, two high-ranking members of the Edmonton Police were found guilty of assaulting a homeowner and entering his home without a search warrant. Staff Sgt. Jamie Ewatski and Patrol Sgt. Giovanni Fiorilli were convicted of the assault, while a third officer was found not guilty. The judge deemed the officers had assaulted Dubois at least three different times during the ordeal. This conviction, however, was overturned by a higher court on appeal. The higher level appeal court judge found that the lower level judge had made a \"palpable and overriding error\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54849",
"title": "Robbery",
"section": "Section::::United Kingdom.:England and Wales.:Threat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Robbery occurs if an aggressor forcibly snatched a mobile phone or if they used a knife to make an implied threat of violence to the holder and then took the phone. The person being threatened does not need to be the owner of the property. It is not necessary that the victim was actually frightened, but the defendant must have put or sought to put the victim or some other person in fear of immediate force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7q1xuy
|
when computers crash why do you sometimes still hear the sound playing? this happens especially during in game crashes.
|
[
{
"answer": "It might be that the video card fails, but the motherboard (and hence the sound) is still running ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The sound card in your computer has a buffer that contains the sounds to be played(lets say 1 second worth of music). In a normal situation the game will refresh the buffer every second with the next second worth of music. Now if your game crashes the buffer does not get cleared and thus your sound card keeps playing the same sound that's still in the buffer.\n\nEdit: To be sure, do you mean the repeating sound after a crash or just that the sound still works but the game doesn't? In the last case it could just be that the graphics code crashed but the sound playing code didn't.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "279631",
"title": "Crash (computing)",
"section": "Section::::Application crashes.:Crash to desktop.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Crash to desktop bugs are considered particularly problematic for users. Since they frequently display no error message, it can be very difficult to track down the source of the problem, especially if the times they occur and the actions taking place right before the crash do not appear to have any pattern or common ground. One way to track down the source of the problem for games is to run them in windowed-mode. Windows Vista has a feature that can help track down the cause of a CTD problem when it occurs on any program. Windows XP included a similar feature as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "310005",
"title": "Glitch",
"section": "Section::::Video game glitches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Sound glitches are in which there is an error with the game's sound. These can range from sounds playing when not intended to play or even not playing at all. Occasionally, a certain sound will loop or otherwise the player will be given the option to continuously play the sound when not intended. Often, games will play sounds \"incorrectly\" due to corrupt data altering the values predefined in the code. Examples include, but are not limited to, extremely high or low pitched sounds, volume being mute or too high to understand, and also rarely even playing in reverse order/playing reversed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "279631",
"title": "Crash (computing)",
"section": "Section::::Application crashes.:Crash to desktop.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Some computer programs, such as \"StepMania\" and BBC's \"Bamzooki\", also crash to desktop if in full-screen, but displays the error in a separate window when the user has returned to the desktop. Crashes are usually caused by website failure or system failure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "279631",
"title": "Crash (computing)",
"section": "Section::::Application crashes.:Crash to desktop.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "A \"crash to desktop\" is said to occur when a program (commonly a video game) unexpectedly quits, abruptly taking the user back to the desktop. Usually, the term is applied only to crashes where no error is displayed, hence all the user sees as a result of the crash is the desktop. Many times there is no apparent action that causes a crash to desktop. During normal function, the program may freeze for a shorter period of time, and then close by itself. Also during normal function, the program may become a black screen and play the last few seconds of sound (depending on the size of the data buffer) that was being played repeatedly before it crashes to desktop. Other times it may appear to be triggered by a certain action, such as loading an area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25626125",
"title": "1980s in video gaming",
"section": "Section::::History.:Rise of home computing and PC gaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "The brunt of the crash was felt mainly across the home console market. Home computer gaming continued to thrive in this time period, especially with lower-cost machines such as the Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum. Some computer companies adopted aggressive advertising strategies to compete with gaming consoles and to promote their educational appeal to parents as well. Home computers also allowed motivated users to develop their own games, and many notable titles were created this way, such as Jordan Mechner's Karateka, which he wrote on an Apple II while in college.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1862027",
"title": "Id Tech 3",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Sound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "A major flaw of the sound system is that the mixer is not given its own thread, so if the game stalls for too long (particularly while navigating the menus or connecting to a server), the small output buffer will begin to loop, a very noticeable artifact. This problem was also present in the \"Doom 3\", \"Quake\", and \"Quake II\" engines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "304738",
"title": "Doom 3",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Single-player.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Frequent radio transmissions through the player's communications device also add to the atmosphere, by broadcasting certain sounds and messages from non-player characters meant to unsettle the player. Early in the game, during and directly after the event that plunges the base into chaos, the player often hears the sounds of fighting, screaming and dying through their radio transmitter. The ambient sound is extended to the base itself through such things as hissing pipes, footsteps, and occasional jarringly loud noises from machinery or other sources. Often ambient sounds can be heard that resemble deep breathing, unexplained voices and demonic taunting from the game's antagonists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ms6s6
|
Water waves - transverse or longitudinal?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Here](_URL_0_) is a .gif that shows the dual nature of water waves.\n\nYou can see that the black dots (which you can think of as water particles) move forward-backward as well as up-down. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "76408",
"title": "Transverse wave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Transverse waves are contrasted with longitudinal waves, where the oscillations occur in the direction of the wave. The standard example of a longitudinal wave is a sound wave or \"pressure wave\" in gases, liquids, or solids, whose oscillations cause compression and expansion of the material through which the wave is propagating. Pressure waves are called \"primary waves\", or \"P-waves\" in geophysics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "710251",
"title": "Wind wave",
"section": "Section::::Physics of waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "In linear plane waves of one wavelength in deep water, parcels near the surface move not plainly up and down but in circular orbits: forward above and backward below (compared the wave propagation direction). As a result, the surface of the water forms not an exact sine wave, but more a trochoid with the sharper curves upwards—as modeled in trochoidal wave theory. Wind waves are thus a combination of transversal and longitudinal waves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144940",
"title": "Longitudinal wave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Longitudinal waves are waves in which the displacement of the medium is in the same direction as, or the opposite direction to, the direction of propagation of the wave. Mechanical longitudinal waves are also called \"compressional\" or \"compression waves\", because they produce compression and rarefaction when traveling through a medium, and \"pressure waves\", because they produce increases and decreases in pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "76408",
"title": "Transverse wave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Transverse waves commonly occur in elastic solids; the oscillations in this case are the displacement of the solid particles away from their relaxed position, in directions perpendicular to the propagation of the wave. Since those displacements correspond to a local shear deformation of the material, a transverse wave of this nature is called a shear wave. In seismology, shear waves are also called secondary waves or S-waves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21245430",
"title": "Coriolis–Stokes force",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Since the Stokes drift velocity formula_4 is in the wave propagation direction, and formula_14 is in the vertical direction, the Coriolis–Stokes forcing is perpendicular to the wave propagation direction (i.e. in the direction parallel to the wave crests). In deep water the Stokes drift velocity is formula_15 with formula_16 the wave's phase velocity, formula_17 the wavenumber, formula_18 the wave amplitude and formula_19 the vertical coordinate (positive in the upward direction opposing the gravitational acceleration).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144940",
"title": "Longitudinal wave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "The other main type of wave is the transverse wave, in which the displacements of the medium are at right angles to the direction of propagation. Some transverse waves are mechanical, meaning that the wave needs an elastic medium to travel through. Transverse mechanical waves are also called \"shear waves\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144940",
"title": "Longitudinal wave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Longitudinal waves include sound waves (vibrations in pressure, particle of displacement, and particle velocity propagated in an elastic medium) and seismic P-waves (created by earthquakes and explosions).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5sd9ai
|
on snl (and similar shows) how is the live audience's laughing timed with the camera cuts we're seeing at home, when they can see everything happening on stage?
|
[
{
"answer": "I have been to a recording of a show once as live audience and they tell you everything your supposed to do. Laugh, applause etc. It is also fairly common to add prerecorded laughter in many tv shows, so it's not always a live audience",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are several staging areas in studio 8H in Rockefeller center, most of the time the audience isn't straight on, meaning the soundstage isn't directly in front of them. So the only way they can watch many sketches is on the TV(s) mounted on the walls and rails.\n\nOther times when the cut happens for the joke for the audience that is straight on they can still see the cut in the monitor. Even if they don't laugh 80% of the studio does and the effect is the same ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The SNL stage set is divided up into cubicle sketch areas, the studio audience can't see all of them 100% and there always 1 or 2 cubicles they can hardly see at all because it's underneath them, and they are seeing the sketch on the monitor. \n\nThe floor level audience you can sometimes see on the show is the VIP area only; the majority of seating is in an elevated seating area that's rarely visible on the show. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5667560",
"title": "Nobody's Watching",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "\"Nobody's Watching\" uses its laugh track in a non-standard way. It is only used in the scenes featuring the studio audience and the recording of the sitcom within the sitcom. As the studio audience are, in effect, extra cast members, there are instances where their laughter - or otherwise - does not relate to the action the viewer is shown. Examples in the pilot episode include a scene where Alan Thicke performs to the studio audience in the background while the main scene of Will talking to Jill takes place in front of the camera. In another scene the main characters can react to the audience's reaction, which prompts Jill, after insulting Gunther, to apologize. When they see the tape of Derrick betraying Will, the audience moans disapprovingly, which prompts Derrick to call them \"drama queens\". In another scene, Will and Derrick enjoy naming random states and seeing how many people in the audience cheer to show state pride.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144832",
"title": "I Love Lucy",
"section": "Section::::Background and development.:Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Audience reactions were live, thus creating a far more authentic laugh than the canned laughter used on most filmed sitcoms of the time. Regular audience members were sometimes heard from episode to episode, and Arnaz's distinctive laugh could be heard in the background during scenes in which he did not perform, as well as Ball's mother, DeDe, whose distinctive \"Uh Oh\" could be heard in many of the episodes. In later years, CBS would devise a laugh track from several \"I Love Lucy\" audiences and use them for canned laughter on shows done without a live audience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24046601",
"title": "Bit Museum",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "The show opens immediately with an outtake which was intentionally left into the final edit. As Cirillo introduces the show, someone in an office chair rolls by in the background at a high speed, prompting laughter and a camera cut.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6973202",
"title": "Shea Kerry",
"section": "Section::::Los Angeles History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "The show was broadcast live, and the sustained laughter from the audience reaction to the scene caused Kerry's fellow actor to sit in the wrong chair at the wrong time. The cameras rolled on while Kerry, Tracey, and the other actors adjusted their positions and completed the scene.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263909",
"title": "Laugh track",
"section": "Section::::U.S. history.:Early live U.S. television, film; \"sweetening\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "In early television, most shows that were not broadcast live used the single-camera filmmaking technique, where a show was created by filming each scene several times from different camera angles. Whereas the performances of the actors and crew could be controlled, live audiences could not be relied upon to laugh at the \"correct\" moments; other times, audiences were deemed to have laughed too loudly or for too long.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263909",
"title": "Laugh track",
"section": "Section::::Legacy and support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 197,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 197,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Steven Levitan, creator of \"Just Shoot Me!\" (a multi-camera series that used live and taped audience reactions) and co-creator of \"Modern Family\" (which does not utilize live or recorded audience laughter as a single-camera series), commented, \"When used properly, the laugh guy’s job is to smooth out the soundtrack — nothing more.\" Phil Rosenthal confirmed that he \"relentlessly manipulated the laughs\" on \"Everybody Loves Raymond\". \"I worked on shows in the past where the 'sweetener' was ladled on with a heavy hand, mainly because there were hardly any laughs from the living. The executive producers would say, 'Don't worry — you know who will love that joke? Mr. Sweet man.'\" Bickelhaupt confirmed this observation, admitting there are many occasions he has created all audience responses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "604532",
"title": "The Crystal Maze",
"section": "Section::::Hosts and characters.:Richard O'Brien.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "According to the production team, the short monologue to camera scenes originated when O'Brien began joking with the cameramen during filming of an episode. When the production team reviewed the footage and realized what it could bring to the show they \"asked him to do it all the time\", to which O'Brien felt that looking straight at the camera, \"unknowingly added a complicity between me and the audience at home\". However, he also \"often appeared detached from proceedings, bordering on deadpan\", sometimes making subtle jokes related to the show itself and its production, while his comments were comic \"light-hearted quips at contestants\". According to h2g2, \"his improvised jokes and little wisecracks on the contestants' stupidity were enough to keep the Maze going. He hammed it up marvelously and introduced a certain amount of campness into the show.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24nqcn
|
When we look back at ancient cultures we always try to estimate what year those people would have been in an area, doing a certain thing, etc. Would those people have known what year it was?
|
[
{
"answer": "How are you defining year? Plenty of cultures used their own calendars to keep track of years, many of which we have coordinated with our own to determine dates. Care to elaborate?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "hi! you're basically asking about all people that ever existed anywhere. This kind of \"throughout history\" question is against the rules here (because there are an infinite number of answers, so no-one can fully answer it), but rather than remove it, I'll direct you to these sections of the FAQ*, which can get you started:\n\n* [Other dating systems](_URL_0_)\n\n* [How did the world agree on what year it is?](_URL_1_) - includes a link to a recent AskHistorians podcast\n\nIf you still have questions about a specific ancient culture (or people living in a region during some period), consider posting a new question, so it will catch the eye of someone who specializes in that subject.\n\n\n*see the link on the sidebar or the wiki tab",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "442948",
"title": "Calendar era",
"section": "Section::::Ancient dating systems.:Olympiad dating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Among the ancient Greek historians and scholars, a common method of indicating the passage of years was based on the Olympic Games, first held in 776 BC. The Olympic Games provided the various independent city-states with a mutually recognizable system of dates. Olympiad dating was not used in everyday life. This system was in use from the 3rd century BC. The modern Olympic Games (or Summer Olympic Games beginning 1896) do not continue the four year periods from ancient Greece: the 669th Olympiad would have begun in the summer of 1897, but the modern Olympics were first held in 1896.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1463021",
"title": "Elder race",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Ancients in the Tripods trilogy by John Christopher, referring to people from the 20th century (from the era before the Tripods' rule of Earth) and their accomplishments such as the Great Cities of the Ancients (urban metropoles like London and Paris).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151735",
"title": "Aztec calendar",
"section": "Section::::Xiuhmolpilli.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "The ancient Mexicans counted their years by means of four signs combined with thirteen numbers, obtaining periods of 52 years, which are commonly known as \"Xiuhmolpilli\", a popular but incorrect name; the correct Nahuatl word for this cycle is Xiuhnelpilli. We can see below the table with the current years:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "903191",
"title": "Fort Ancient",
"section": "Section::::Archaeological record.:Chronology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "During the Montour phase (1550 to 1700), the people inhabited their villages year-round, although less densely in the winter than in the summer months. This may indicate that during the winter, family groups and hunting parties may have returned to the regions previously occupied by their ancestors. Such a pattern was observed during historic times, for example, among the Miami and Potawatomi. By their trading, the Fort Ancient people had access to European trade items, such as glass, iron, brass, and copper, which have been found as grave goods at sites such as Lower Shawneetown and Hardin Village. Such artifacts appeared and were used in the area before the arrival of European explorers or settlers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3267983",
"title": "Borujen",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "The exact foundation date is not well known. However, based on the most ancient graveyard found in the city dating back to 1596 AD (1004 Hijri Qamari ), one can calculate the date in which the people started to live in the region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "468629",
"title": "Attic calendar",
"section": "Section::::Dating events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "By contrast, the Attic calendar had little interest in ordering the sequence of years. As in other Greek cities, the name of one of the yearly magistrates, at Athens known as the eponymous archon, was used to identify the year in relation to others. The sequence of years was matched to a list of names that could be consulted. Instead of citing a numbered year, one could locate a year in time by saying that some event occurred \"when X. was archon\". That allowed the years to be ordered back in time for a number of generations into the past, but there was no way of dating forward beyond ordinary human reckoning (as in expressions such as \"ten years from now\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15927465",
"title": "The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries ( \"\", also known as Chronology of Ancient Nations or Vestiges of the Past, after the translation published by Eduard Sachau in 1879) by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, is a comparative study of calendars of different cultures and civilizations, interlaced with mathematical, astronomical, and historical information, exploring the customs and religions of different peoples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lyaza
|
why are there economic theories that differ so drastically? shouldn't there be more economic consensus if it's studied so much?
|
[
{
"answer": "Economics is a social science. It isn't like biology, chemistry, etc where you can test something in a completely controlled environment. Since we can never control all of the variables, there will never be consensus among economists.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the real answer is that most economists don't even know what the fuck they're doing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because different economic theories have worked in the past.\n\nTo keep it really simple I'll say two different, mainstream economic theories that have both been implemented.\n\nKeynesian economics: Demand does not equal the productive capability of an economy and have many factors. So to keep it really short and sweet, usually the government should intervene and help up the economy. Keynesian economics was put into use during the Great Depression with FDR's \"Great Deal\" and with World War II the USA quickly got out of the depression and became a superpower. \n\nThis was the de facto economic thinking until the 1970s when several recessions affected the world and another theory, which was developed around the same time as Keynesian economics by an economist called Friedrich Hayek. \n\nHayek pretty much said that the markets should be left alone and everything will sort itself out. During the recessions of the 1970s this theory was tested out by the governments of Regan, Thatcher and others and sure enough it worked.\n\nSo now there are two different economic theories that have both worked and many, many economists, analysts and such have different interpretations on both ideas and blah blah.\n\nIf you've guessed it by now usually (but not always), Democrats usually stick with the Keynesian viewpoint and Republicans usually stick with Hayek's theory but this is over-generalizing it. \n\nOh and here is a good and funny video comparing both theories.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nHope this helps! I'd be happy to answer any other questions or clarify on anything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In most of what people call \"hard\" sciences, it's easy to carry out experiments that are controlled. If you want to see how two chemicals interact, you can make sure you only have those chemicals present.\n\nEconomic theory, however, is more of a \"soft\" science, and with economics you can't really control what you're studying in the same way. You can't just take a multi-trillion economy, and then decide to pull all government funding of, say, the arms industry, just to see what the economic result would be. So there's a lot more disagreement in economics because economists are basing their observations on what's happened with actual economies the past, and because they can't isolate things out the way a chemist could, there's more subjective evaluation.\n\nFor example, if a country's economy shows a lot of improvement in one year, and the government of that country made 5 important economic policy changes that year, which one, or ones, is responsible? Are any of them even responsible, or would the improvement have happened regardless of what the government did?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a [surprising amount of agreement](_URL_0_) among economists.\n\nMuch of the disagreement among macroeconomists comes from the facts that (1) macroeconomists can't run controlled experiments very easily, and (2) **[the data of macroeconomics](_URL_2_) is not very informative.** There isn't much of it and a lot of it is consistent with many variations on similar theories.\n\nRegardless, more than half of practicing economists think that price stickiness matters (a core Keynesian proposition) and most policy-relevant economics is done within the bounds of the mainstream New Keynesian paradigm.\n\nA third reason that there seems to be \"drastic differences\" among economic theories is that the economy is highly complex, so different economic models make simplifications about different parts of it. The Solow growth model abstracts from business cycles (because it's designed to explain growth); the IS/LM model abstracts from growth (because it's designed to study business cycles). [A good economist](_URL_1_) can always explain how the short-run and long-run models fit together, or how their micro model fits into their macro model. \n\nSource: I'm an economist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they're both right. \n\n\nYou allude to the right and the left wing. In general terms, the right believes that if you give more money and resources to producers (factory owners and manufacturers) then they will make things more cheaply, and people will be able to buy more things, creating more jobs, and generally making everyone better off. \n\n\nThe left believes that if you give money to consumers, then they will be able to buy more things, creating more jobs, and generally making everyone better off.\n\n\nThey are both right. In a single closed market (picture a city in a snow globe with only a certain amount of money in it) you need the left's idea of redistributing money to the consumers at the bottom, otherwise all the money in the snow globe will end up with one factory owner.\n\n\nHowever, if there are two cities in one snow globe, the factory owners will all move to the city with the cheapest tax and least redistribution - taking all their jobs with them. \n\n\nSO economics is always a balancing act between these two forces - business competition and redistribution. Sometimes it tips too far one way, but it will always tip back again, and in this way we stay somewhere near the middle. If any one idea wins, then you get either communism or slavery and the system breaks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "197963",
"title": "Information good",
"section": "Section::::Economic theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Economic theory faces the problem of constantly dealing with two contradictory concepts of information at the same time. If efficiency is the dominant aspect of analyses, it is likely that commodification is considered to be harmful. If incentive for creation is the dominant aspect of analyses, the protection of the creator is then likely to be dominant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312085",
"title": "Common good",
"section": "Section::::In political economic theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "On the other hand, economic theory typically points to social gains from competition as a rationale for the use of markets. Thus, Smith described the “invisible hand,” whereby the mechanism of the market converts individuals’ self-interested activity into gains for society. This insight is formalized in the First Theorem of Welfare Economics. However, economic theory also points to market failures, including the underprovision of public goods by markets and the failure of self-interested individuals to internalize externalities. Because of these factors, purely self-interested behaviour often detracts from the common good.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3473088",
"title": "Tendency of the rate of profit to fall",
"section": "Section::::20th century Marxist controversies.:Transformation problem.:Value theory as add-on.:Eclecticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "An integral, consistent economic theory becomes impossible with the add-on approach, since market prices, product-values and social relations are always in different baskets. This theoretical eclecticism results in low explanatory power, and low predictive power – there exist multiple different theories and concepts at once, which all can interrelate/combine in all kinds of possible and \"ad hoc\" configurations, like a kaleidoscope, and therefore \"explain\" and \"predict\" everything and nothing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3540587",
"title": "Robert Ayres (scientist)",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "Mainstream economics today is based to a large extent on bad ideas. Economic concepts, from foundational issues like markets, supply and demand and “free trade”, to money and finance, lack any systematic awareness of the physical process of production or the implications of the Laws of Thermodynamics for those processes. A corollary, almost worthy of being a separate bad idea on its own, is that energy doesn’t matter (much) because the cost share of energy in the economy is so small that it can be ignored e.g. {Denison, 1984 #6184}. The so-called “production functions” used by all schools of economic thought that build growth models omit any necessary role for energy, as if output could be produced by labor and capital alone—or as if energy is merely a form of man-made capital that can be produced (as opposed to extracted) by labor and capital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6741125",
"title": "Essays in Positive Economics",
"section": "Section::::The Methodology of Positive Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "The essay argues that a useful economic theory should \"not\" be judged primarily by its tautological completeness, however important in providing a consistent system for classifying elements of the theory and validly deriving implications therefrom. Rather a theory (or hypothesis) must be judged by its:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48764624",
"title": "Sustainable capitalism",
"section": "Section::::Governance and economic aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Economic aspects are clearest, perhaps because the economy is most easily associated with capitalism. Sustainable capitalism, as a policy outline, is an attempt to address and tackle the use of admittedly insufficient tools used today to measure the economic growth and the real value of countries, such as GDP or GO. Criticism of this form of growth measurement is centered on the fact that GDP fails to account for labor conditions and other environmental factors which have a long-term influence on the value which it measures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "638834",
"title": "Economic model",
"section": "Section::::Tests of macroeconomic predictions.:Critique of hubris in planning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "A key strand of free market economic thinking is that the market's invisible hand guides an economy to prosperity more efficiently than central planning using an economic model. One reason, emphasized by Friedrich Hayek, is the claim that many of the true forces shaping the economy can never be captured in a single plan. This is an argument that cannot be made through a conventional (mathematical) economic model, because it says that there are critical systemic-elements that will always be omitted from any top-down analysis of the economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
uof0t
|
Why don't rising C02 levels get cancelled out by more global plant growth?
|
[
{
"answer": "carbon dioxide isn't the factor limiting tree growth, so increasing its concentration shouldn't have a significant effect on growth rate",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the answer is that the real world is a lot messier than a lot of people want to believe. There's a concept in agriculture called [Liebig's Law of the Minimum](_URL_0_) that basically states that plant growth is affected by the nutrient in the shortest supply. When you look at studies in a greenhouse and try to apply that to the real world, things get messy. In a greenhouse it's very easy to control the conditions for optimal plant growth. You can give them the right amount of water, enough space to limit competition for light, you can protect them from herbivores and pathogens, and you can control the nutrients they require for growth. If they don't have enough CO2 you can give them more and they will grow more. \n\nIn the real world plants don't have anyone to pamper them. They get trampled or eaten, they have to compete for water, nutrients, and light and have to contend with all sorts of other hazards. Plants also differ genetically. If we ask: \"Why aren't plants growing more with increasing levels of CO2?\", then the answer must lie with other factors and we can refer back to Liebig's law. Your question assumes that the only limiting factor for plants is CO2 (that they also produce themselves) and that's just not the case. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61910",
"title": "Climate change and agriculture",
"section": "Section::::Impact of climate change on agriculture.:Effect of elevated carbon dioxide on crops.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide affects plants in a variety of ways. Elevated CO increases crop yields and growth through an increase in photosynthetic rate, and it also decreases water loss as a result of stomatal closing The growth response is greatest in C plants, C plants ,are also enhanced but to a lesser extent, and CAM Plants are the least enhanced species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1251925",
"title": "Soil fertility",
"section": "Section::::Light and CO limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "While typically limited by nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, low levels of carbon dioxide can also act as a limiting factor on plant growth. Peer-reviewed and published scientific studies have shown that increasing CO is highly effective at promoting plant growth up to levels over 300 ppm. Further increases in CO can, to a very small degree, continue to increase net photosynthetic output.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26198824",
"title": "Climate change feedback",
"section": "Section::::Negative.:Carbon cycle.:Net Primary Productivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Net primary productivity changes in response to increased CO, as plants photosynthesis increased in response to increasing concentrations. However, this effect is swamped by other changes in the biosphere due to global warming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61910",
"title": "Climate change and agriculture",
"section": "Section::::Impact of climate change on agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "More favourable effects on yield tend to depend to a large extent on realization of the potentially beneficial effects of carbon dioxide on crop growth and increase of efficiency in water use. Decrease in potential yields is likely to be caused by shortening of the growing period, decrease in water availability and poor vernalization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "85746",
"title": "Stoma",
"section": "Section::::Stomata and climate change.:Response of stomata to environmental factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Decreasing stomatal density is one way plants have responded to the increase in concentration of atmospheric CO ([CO]). Although changes in [CO] response is the least understood mechanistically, this stomatal response has begun to plateau where it is soon expected to impact transpiration and photosynthesis processes in plants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19928041",
"title": "Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity",
"section": "Section::::Modern Context.:Effects of CO.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1029,
"text": "CO concentrations have been steadily rising for more than two centuries. Increases in atmospheric CO concentration affect how plants photosynthesise, resulting in increases in plant water use efficiency, enhanced photosynthetic capacity and increased growth. Increased CO has been implicated in ‘vegetation thickening’ which affects plant community structure and function. Depending on environment, there are differential responses to elevated atmospheric CO between major ‘functional types’ of plant, such as and plants, or more or less woody species; which has the potential among other things to alter competition between these groups. Increased CO can also lead to increased Carbon : Nitrogen ratios in the leaves of plants or in other aspects of leaf chemistry, possibly changing herbivore nutrition. Studies show that doubled concentrations of CO will show an increase in photosynthesis in C3 plants but not in C4 plants. However, it is also shown that C4 plants are able to persist in drought better than the C3 plants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37063005",
"title": "Effects of global warming on human health",
"section": "Section::::Impact on nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "It must also be noted that small increases in levels can cause a fertilization effect where the growth and reproduction abilities of C plants such as soybeans and rice are actually enhanced by 10-20% in laboratory experiments. This does not take into account, however, the additional burden of pests, pathogens, nutrients and water affecting the crop yield.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a0z5ja
|
why does the sin wave not look circular?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because you don't want a circle, you want to know it's respective cos or sin value of a point on the circle. So when you travel around the circle and map out the sinus values, you get the sinus wave.\n\nSee this animation to show you how every point on a circle mapped out creates the sinus wave.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "324749",
"title": "Sine wave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "The sine wave is important in physics because it retains its wave shape when added to another sine wave of the same frequency and arbitrary phase and magnitude. It is the only periodic waveform that has this property. This property leads to its importance in Fourier analysis and makes it acoustically unique.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3335767",
"title": "Meander",
"section": "Section::::Meander geometry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "In contrast to sine waves, the loops of a meandering stream are more nearly circular. The curvature varies from a maximum at the apex to zero at a crossing point (straight line), also called an inflection, because the curvature changes direction in that vicinity. The radius of the loop is the straight line perpendicular to the down-valley axis intersecting the sinuous axis at the apex. As the loop is not ideal, additional information is needed to characterize it. The orientation angle is the angle between sinuous axis and down-valley axis at any point on the sinuous axis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "324749",
"title": "Sine wave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "A sine wave or sinusoid is a mathematical curve that describes a smooth periodic oscillation. A sine wave is a continuous wave. It is named after the function sine, of which it is the graph. It occurs often in pure and applied mathematics, as well as physics, engineering, signal processing and many other fields. Its most basic form as a function of time (\"t\") is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33516",
"title": "Wave",
"section": "Section::::Sine waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "The sinusoid is defined for all times and distances, whereas in physical situations we usually deal with waves that exist for a limited span in space and duration in time. An arbitrary wave shape can be decomposed into an infinite set of sinusoidal waves by the use of Fourier analysis. As a result, the simple case of a single sinusoidal wave can be applied to more general cases. In particular, many media are linear, or nearly so, so the calculation of arbitrary wave behavior can be found by adding up responses to individual sinusoidal waves using the superposition principle to find the solution for a general waveform. When a medium is nonlinear, then the response to complex waves cannot be determined from a sine-wave decomposition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "140710",
"title": "Electrical reactance",
"section": "Section::::Inductive reactance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Because a square wave has multiple amplitudes at sinusoidal harmonics, the average current flowing through an inductance formula_10 in series with a square wave AC voltage source of RMS amplitude formula_13 and frequency formula_3 is equal to:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33516",
"title": "Wave",
"section": "Section::::Sine waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Although arbitrary wave shapes will propagate unchanged in lossless linear time-invariant systems, in the presence of dispersion the sine wave is the unique shape that will propagate unchanged but for phase and amplitude, making it easy to analyze. Due to the Kramers–Kronig relations, a linear medium with dispersion also exhibits loss, so the sine wave propagating in a dispersive medium is attenuated in certain frequency ranges that depend upon the medium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147230",
"title": "Golomb coding",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "One signal that does not match a geometric distribution is a sine wave, because the differential residues create a sinusoidal signal whose values are not creating a geometric distribution (the highest and lowest residue values have similar high frequency of occurrences, only the median positive and negative residues occur less often).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7ch77c
|
This Week's Theme: Oral Traditions
|
[
{
"answer": "**[Previously](_URL_1_)**\n\n**Current**: Oral Traditions\n\n**Upcoming**: Substance Abuse\n\n**In the hole**: Sovereignty\n\nRemember to ask theme-related questions in [a new thread!](_URL_0_)! If your submission doesn't get automatically flaired, [send us a modmail](_URL_2_) with a link!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33869005",
"title": "NAMM Oral History Program",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "The NAMM Oral History program is unique, unlike any other collection in the world. The heart of the collection is the depth of its narratives that cover innovative creations, the evolution of musical instruments, the ever-changing world of music retail, as well as our collective quest to improve music education around the globe. Oral History participants have come from over 72 different countries, 49 U.S. states and were born between 1903 and 1997. This collection is our journal, our own way of chronicling ourselves and our community—the community we so eagerly embrace at the NAMM shows and so proudly celebrate throughout the year. This library of video interviews, now over 3,500 strong and always growing, contains the story of our industry told by those who helped to shape it and have watched it expand and develop through the years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33869005",
"title": "NAMM Oral History Program",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "The NAMM Oral History Program is a collection of one-on-one interviews with people involved in the music products industry, including music instrument retailers, instrument and product creators, suppliers and sales representatives, music educators and advocates, publishers, live sound and recording pioneers, innovators, founders, and artists. The mission of the program is to preserve the history of the music products industry, including industry innovations, the evolution of musical instruments and music retail, as well as improving music education worldwide. The Oral History Program was established by the National Association of Music Merchants (NAMM) in 2000. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7272440",
"title": "Oral Tradition (journal)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "Oral Tradition is a peer-reviewed academic journal established in 1986 by John Miles Foley covering studies in oral tradition and related fields. As well as essays treating certifiably oral traditions, the journal presents investigations of the relationships between oral and written traditions, as well as brief accounts of important fieldwork, a symposium section (in which scholars may reply at some length to prior essays), review articles, occasional transcriptions and translations of oral texts, a digest of work in progress, and a regular column for notices of conferences and other matters of interest. \"Oral Tradition\" spans a number of academic fields and disciplines, including, folklore, cultural anthropology, social anthropology, ethnography, ethnomusicologylinguistics, classics, and comparative literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13777186",
"title": "Oral History Association",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "The Oral History Association (OHA) is a professional association for oral historians and others interested in oral history. It is based in the United States but has international membership. Its mission is \"to bring together all persons interested in oral history as a way of collecting and interpreting human memories to foster knowledge and human dignity.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38656910",
"title": "Baylor University Institute for Oral History",
"section": "Section::::Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "In July 2009, BUIOH conducted its first online workshop, \"Getting Started with Oral History\". Fifteen oral history newcomers hailing from Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Georgia, Florida, Arizona, and Texas took part in the two-session interactive workshop. Participants are able to listen to the BUIOH staff explain key areas of oral history while viewing multimedia presentations on the topics. Practice project assignments are ascribed and Q&A sessions held after each session. BUIOH has since offered its workshop online twice a year and has serviced a total of 117 participants to date from five countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39199071",
"title": "Samuel Proctor Oral History Program",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "The Samuel Proctor Oral History Program (SPOHP) is the official oral history program at the University of Florida. With over 6,500 interviews and more than 150,000 pages of transcribed material, it is one of the premier oral history programs in the United States. SPOHP's mission is \"to gather, preserve, and promote living histories of individuals from all walks of life.\" The program involves staff, undergraduate and graduate students, and community volunteers in its operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27273477",
"title": "Roadside Heritage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Roadside Heritage is a program designed to document and publicize the history, culture, and scientific background of the Eastern Sierra Nevada and the Owens Valley in the United States. It uses schoolchildren to interview scientists, Native Americans, and others and to record the interviews. These result in \"audio stories\" which can be downloaded from the website for use by travelers and others interested in the area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ow6s4
|
With a strong enough fan placed at a right angle to a speaker output would you hear anything from the speaker when the fan is blowing?
|
[
{
"answer": "With a powerful enough fan you will \"blow the sound away\", albeit at some angle away from the speaker (not 90 degrees).\n\nLet's change the scenario to a wind blowing directly at the speaker at 340 m/s (speed of sound). This is exactly the same as if the speaker were travelling through still air at the speed of sound, no? So the sound will not be able to travel forward from the speaker. Increase the speed further and the sound will only go backwards from the speaker.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39358688",
"title": "Axial fan design",
"section": "Section::::Causes of unstable flow.:Fan surge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "This unstable operation results from the development of pressure gradients in the opposite direction of the flow. Maximum pressure is observed at the discharge of the impeller blade and minimum pressure on the side opposite to the discharge side. When the impeller blades are not rotating these adverse pressure gradients pump the flow in the direction opposite to the direction of the fan. The result is the oscillation of the fan blades creating vibrations and hence noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3214951",
"title": "Whole-house fan",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "A whole house fan pulls air out of a building and forces it into the attic space or, in the case of homes without attics, through an opening in the roof or an outside wall. This causes a positive pressure differential in the attic forcing air out through the gable and/or soffit vents, while at the same time producing a negative pressure differential inside the living areas which draws air in through open windows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41387454",
"title": "Quad Electrostatic Loudspeaker",
"section": "Section::::Speaker.:Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 951,
"text": "Contrary to the flat appearance of the loudspeaker, all three panels are slightly curved along the vertical axis to improve quality. The panels themselves are flat, but obtain their curvature by being slightly bent to a curved backing. With the bipolar nature of the speaker emitting sound from both front and back surfaces as it does, the application of a felt sheet to the rear of the panels damps and absorbs high frequencies radiating from the back. A crossover network, set at 500 Hz, remains necessary to adjust for back-to-front interference causing loss in output at low frequencies. In addition, the speaker should stand in free space to achieve optimum sound. The instructions book contains advice against placement of the speaker in corners or positions close to or parallel with walls, and further explains that a corner placement will adversely affect bass response and be detrimental to the midrange because of standing waves generated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12877572",
"title": "Fan (machine)",
"section": "Section::::Noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Fans generate noise from the rapid flow of air around blades and obstacles causing vortexes, and from the motor. Fan noise has been found to be roughly proportional to the fifth power of fan speed; halving speed reduces noise by about 15 dB.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12877572",
"title": "Fan (machine)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Mechanically, a fan can be any revolving vane or vanes used for producing currents of air. Fans produce air flows with high volume and low pressure (although higher than ambient pressure), as opposed to compressors which produce high pressures at a comparatively low volume. A fan blade will often rotate when exposed to an air fluid stream, and devices that take advantage of this, such as anemometers and wind turbines, often have designs similar to that of a fan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31848205",
"title": "Bladeless fan",
"section": "Section::::Dyson model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "The air flows through the channel in the pedestal of the fan when the motor is turned on. After that, the air flows through the hollow tube. Then the air is shot out through 16-mm slits. This air flows smoothly, rather than turbulently as with a traditional fan (fan with blades). The curvature of the inner wall of the fan creates an area of negative pressure like an airplane wing to draw more air into the flow, hence \"multiplying\" it. This property of the air is called inducement. Further, the air surrounding the edges of the fan also begins to flow with the direction of the breeze, or is \"entrained\" to it. Dyson says that the air-multiplier technology increases the output of the air flowing through the tube by at least 15 times compared to the airflow taken in at the base of the fan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43828558",
"title": "Hafler circuit",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Thus, if rear speakers are fed with the difference between the stereo channels, audience noises and reverberation from the auditorium may be heard from behind the listener. This can be most easily achieved by wiring two similar additional rear speakers in series between the live feeds (positive terminals) from the stereo amplifier. Alternatively, one rear speaker can be used on its own. This is the type of quad setup used by Seeburg jukeboxes that had quadraphonic sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6f0zz0
|
board of directors vs. owners/shareholders
|
[
{
"answer": "In the most simple ownership structures, the shareholders own the company and elect the board of directors. The board of directors then hire the CEO.\n\nYou're describing a scenario where a founder (person who started the company) has sold the company, in whole or in part, to other people/entities. Often that person is kept on as the CEO and sometimes is also elected to the board.\n\nThat person might have a large share of the company, but usually not an outright majority (think less than 51%).\n\nIn that case, they will for sure be influencal but if the majority of shareholders agree, they could be removed from the board and fired from the company itself. They'd still own part of it, but not be running it.\n\nSo, even if you have a large share of the company, if the majority doesn't agree with you you don't get your way. Your only option in those cases is to suck it up, or sell your shares.\n\nNote that all kinds of much more complicated ownership arrangements can exist, usually where multiple share classes exist and only certain shares classes have voting rights - that allows the company to get money from the public markets without surrendering control, or to allow distribution of shares to employees without giving actual control to the employees etc...\n\nEdit: Spelling",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4822",
"title": "Board of directors",
"section": "Section::::Non-corporate boards.:Membership organizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "The setup of a board of directors vary widely across organizations and may include provisions that are applicable to corporations, in which the \"shareholders\" are the members of the organization. A difference may be that the membership elects the officers of the organization, such as the president and the secretary, and the officers become members of the board in addition to the directors and retain those duties on the board. The directors may also be classified as officers in this situation. There may also be ex-officio members of the board, or persons who are members due to another position that they hold. These ex-officio members have all the same rights as the other board members.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4822",
"title": "Board of directors",
"section": "Section::::Corporations.:Governance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Another feature of boards of directors in large public companies is that the board tends to have more \"de facto\" power. Many shareholders grant proxies to the directors to vote their shares at general meetings and accept all recommendations of the board rather than try to get involved in management, since each shareholder's power, as well as interest and information is so small. Larger institutional investors also grant the board proxies. The large number of shareholders also makes it hard for them to organize. However, there have been moves recently to try to increase shareholder activism among both institutional investors and individuals with small shareholdings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4822",
"title": "Board of directors",
"section": "Section::::Corporations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "In a publicly held company, directors are elected to represent and are legally obligated as fiduciaries to represent owners of the company—the shareholders/stockholders. In this capacity they establish policies and make decisions on issues such as whether there is dividend and how much it is, stock options distributed to employees, and the hiring/firing and compensation of upper management.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4822",
"title": "Board of directors",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 868,
"text": "In an organization with voting members, the board is accountable to, and might be subordinate to, the organization's full membership, which usually vote for the members of the board. In a stock corporation, non-executive directors are voted for by the shareholders, with the board having ultimate responsibility for the management of the corporation. The board of directors appoints the chief executive officer of the corporation and sets out the overall strategic direction. In corporations with dispersed ownership, the identification and nomination of directors (that shareholders vote for or against) are often done by the board itself, leading to a high degree of self-perpetuation. In a non-stock corporation with no general voting membership, the board is the supreme governing body of the institution, and its members are sometimes chosen by the board itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235657",
"title": "Corporate governance",
"section": "Section::::Stakeholders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "In private for-profit corporations, shareholders elect the board of directors to represent their interests. In the case of nonprofits, stakeholders may have some role in recommending or selecting board members, but typically the board itself decides who will serve on the board as a 'self-perpetuating' board. The degree of leadership that the board has over the organization varies; in practice at large organizations, the executive management, principally the CEO, drives major initiatives with the oversight and approval of the board.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4822",
"title": "Board of directors",
"section": "Section::::Non-corporate boards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "The role and responsibilities of a board of directors vary depending on the nature and type of business entity and the laws applying to the entity (see types of business entity). For example, the nature of the business entity may be one that is traded on a public market (public company), not traded on a public market (a private, limited or closely held company), owned by family members (a family business), or exempt from income taxes (a non-profit, not for profit, or tax-exempt entity). There are numerous types of business entities available throughout the world such as a corporation, limited liability company, cooperative, business trust, partnership, private limited company, and public limited company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235657",
"title": "Corporate governance",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms and controls.:Internal corporate governance controls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "In publicly traded U.S. corporations, boards of directors are largely \"chosen\" by the President/CEO and the President/CEO often takes the Chair of the Board position for him/herself (which makes it much more difficult for the institutional owners to \"fire\" him/her). The practice of the CEO also being the Chair of the Board is fairly common in large American corporations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
65a3ip
|
In the U.S., why are many major cities governed by their own counties or parishes, yet surrounding suburbs tend to be comprised of many cities and towns under a common county or parish?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm assuming that you are not from the United States. First the federal government has no oversight into how the States organize their local entities. Second county organization has nothing to do with white flight as county organization occurred well before.\n\nEach state is different in how it organizes villages, towns, cities and counties. This also reflects the state's unique history. For example we'll take my home state New York. New York has 57 counties excluding New York City, which just complicates matters. Each county and its boundaries are decided by the state legislature. Now cities, towns and villages separating from one county to join an adjoining one or form an entirely new one has happened. For example the towns cities and villages of the current Nassau County were apart of Queens County. Queens County became a part of New York City and those towns and villages who did not want to be a part of New York City were allowed by the state legislature to form Nassau. However, this had nothing to do with \"white flight\" at all since this occurred in the late 19th century. Indeed most county organization has occurred before white flight was a phenomena in the U.S. There are exceptions for example La Paz County in Arizona was formed out of the northern parts of Yuma County in 1983. However, it took time for this to happen mainly because there wasn't enough of a population in northern Yuma County to support a county government and afterwards Arizona made it much more difficult for counties to separate since then. \n\nAnyway back to NY, each county can decide a method of governance whether it be a County Administrator, a County Legislature or a county charter. New York's counties were given delineated powers by the state legislature. Counties are municipal divisions that contain villages, towns and cities. Some county organization is historical, like in the lower Hudson Valley (their shapes, names etc). Counties cover large areas, Westchester County in lower NY cover 450 sq miles, Orange County cover 839 square miles, Essex County in upstate NY covers 1916 square miles. So as you see there is a big difference in county size. Mainly this has to do with population size but not always. Westchester is right above New York City with a population of just under a million while Essex has 39,000.\n\nTowns cities villages can switch to another county. However, it is not easy to do. Since counties are merely administrative divisions it doesnt make much sense to switch. I'm not sure why there is some confusion as to why neighboring towns could be in two different counties things work differently in the U.S. and terminology is different. As I said county boundaries are historical, geographical, or are drawn to divide population administratively. There arent many instances where it matters if you are in one county or another. Like I said taxes, funding or maybe a certain law but otherwise there isn't much difference. If your town borders on Westchester County and you want to join Putnam County (which is right above) you would actually lose more than you gain. Westchester receives different funding from the state due to its high population and needs but it also doesn't mean a town can just decide to leave Putnam County and join Westchester. If a town or a group of people want to change something in their county they do it via the county government or state legislature.\n\nNow New York City is a whole another monster. Due to its immense economic power and high population different rules apply to it. For example New York City contains 5 counties that we call also boroughs. New York County (Manhattan), Queens County, Kings County (Brooklyn) Richmond County (Staten Island), Bronx County. New York had for a long time been trying to combine the outlying areas which is another history lesson. New York is unique in that it incorporated Brooklyn (Brooklyn at the time was the third largest city in America), the towns and villages of Queens County, the towns and villages of the Bronx (which was a part of Westchester County, the Bronx was not a separate city when it combined with NYC but a collection of towns and villages), and the towns and villages of Staten Island in the late 1890's. However, New York City and its boroughs are not governed by a county government there are borough offices which influence policy, administer city services etc, but they do not govern.\n\nI hope this helps and let me know if you need any further clarification!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So couple things. States define counties not the feds. So most of this will differ in a state by state basis. Now in states that started out as territories generally used the public land survey system. Which was much more uniform than the original colonies. Some states in the West like Texas and Louisiana are more based on other systems. But in many cases the counties are older than the cities. Now something else to consider is the structure of state governments can differ widely, the civil war and reconstruction influanced changes in many southern states constitutions.\n\nSo you end up with counties being often defined in the constitution of the state. So your question could be seen as asking why the Kansas/Missouri border isn't shifted over so all of Kansas city is in Kansas.\n\nNow in some states the city is actually cut out of the county, this is more common in New England. It's more common for cities and counties to share jurisdiction. \n\nSo what does a city do, in my stae we have weak cities, essentially its a tax district. It provides police, fire, water, drainage, contributes to roads. The county provides police outside the city, and most importantly the state constitution requires it to handle the courts. This is why the city doesn't tend expand outside the county. So they only have to deal with one counties court system. \n\nOutside of this we have other tax districts like MUDs that provide services like water/fire. In the 90s the city almost annexed a part of the teritory but they would have to of taken over the mud that carried that areas debt. These special tax districts aren't limited to one county, school districts famously cover many in sparse areas.\n\nThe cities can have their own laws(called ordinances here) so suburbs in neighboring counties often set them up, but often times these satellite cities doen't cover the same services and leave it to MUDs. But sometimes another small city will grow in size to fill the role.\n\nCity politics is complicated, we have enclaves and areas we've annexed than de-annax later. Counties are meant not to change. Part of this is we have vincinage requirements. When you break a law you have to be tried in the county the crime occured. This would be complicated if the county changed.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27052",
"title": "Administrative division",
"section": "Section::::Examples of administrative divisions.:English terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "Within those entities are the large and small cities or towns, which may or may not be the county seat. Some of the world's larger cities culturally, if not officially, span several counties, and those crossing state or provincial boundaries have much in common culturally as well, but are rarely incorporated within the same municipal government. Many sister cities share a water boundary, which quite often serves as a border of both cities and counties. For example, Cambridge and Boston, Massachusetts appear to the casual traveler as one large city, while locally they each are quite culturally different and occupy different counties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53123",
"title": "Unitary authority",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "In Virginia, all municipalities with \"city\" status are, by definition, independent from any county. Three other cities across the United States are also independent of any county government: Baltimore, Maryland, St. Louis, Missouri, and Carson City, Nevada. There are also several consolidated cities where the county government and municipal government are unified. San Francisco and Philadelphia are two examples, wherein the city and county are coterminous and have one singular governing body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "445321",
"title": "Political divisions of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Population centers may be organized into incorporated cities, towns, villages, and other types of municipalities. Municipalities are typically subordinate to a county government, with some exceptions. Certain cities, for example, have consolidated with their county government as consolidated city-counties. In Virginia, cities are completely independent from the county in which they would otherwise be a part. In some states, particularly in New England, towns form the primary unit of local government below the state level, in some cases eliminating the need for county government entirely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "445321",
"title": "Political divisions of the United States",
"section": "Section::::States and their subdivisions.:Counties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Counties may contain a number of cities, towns, villages, or hamlets, or sometimes just a part of a city. Some cities are consolidated with, and coterminous with, their counties, including Philadelphia, Honolulu, San Francisco, Nashville, and Denver—that is to say, these counties consist in their entirety of a single municipality the government of which also operates as the county government. Some counties, such as Arlington County, Virginia, do not have any additional subdivisions. Some states contain independent cities that are not part of any county. Each of the five boroughs of New York City is coterminous with a county.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "385237",
"title": "Civil township",
"section": "Section::::Northeastern states.:New England and New York.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "In New York, counties are further subdivided into towns and cities, the principal forms of local government. Towns fulfill a function similar to those of townships in other states. As is the case in most of New England, every square foot of New York's territory is incorporated; all New York residents who do not live in a city or a Native American reservation live in a town. New York towns contain one or more incorporated villages, and village residents pay both town and village taxes. Towns also include a number of unincorporated hamlets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32451017",
"title": "Independent city (United States)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "In the United States, an independent city is a city that is not in the territory of any county or counties with exceptions noted below. Of the 41 independent U.S. cities, 38 are in Virginia, whose state constitution makes them a special case. The three independent cities outside Virginia are Baltimore, Maryland; St. Louis, Missouri; and Carson City, Nevada. The U.S. Census Bureau uses counties as its base unit for presentation of statistical information, and treats independent cities as county equivalents for those purposes. The most populous of them is Baltimore, Maryland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6260215",
"title": "Southwest Virginia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Unlike other states in the U.S., Virginia draws a sharp distinction between cities and other incorporated communities, all of which are designated as towns. Under state law, all municipalities incorporated as cities are independent of any county. By contrast, places incorporated as towns are included within counties. Independent cities in Southwest Virginia include Bristol, Buena Vista, Covington, Galax, Lexington, Martinsville, Norton, Radford, Roanoke, and Salem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10fspq
|
What are the most genius political power plays in your period?
|
[
{
"answer": "I honestly believe the first triumvirate between Caesar, Crassus, and Pompeius has to be one of the greatest political power plays of all time. The length of time they managed to keep it a secret, and then the way in which they revealed it was so theatrical it genuinely thrills me. Caesar had just made his first public blunder in the senate. The oligarchs rallied together against his agrarian reforms, then Caesar goes before the tribal assembly flanked by Crassus and Pompeius. One man was worth $180 billion dollars, the other was the (currently) greatest military leader and had the most loyal and trained legions at his command. Three men who should have had nothing in common but mutual enmity shook the republic to its core.\n\nJust brilliant. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Otto von Bismark once played a game of poker with his rival, the Austrian ambassador, exceedingly recklessly so that the guy would think he was a loose cannon not worth worrying about. About a year later, Prussia was running the german league and austria was out on its ass.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "FDR is known for the failure of his Southern party purge during the 1938 midterms. What is much less known is that this was an attempt at a repeat of something Woodrow Wilson *successfully* did in 1918. Wilson, though no civil rights hero, was tired of the way the most vicious race-baiters hurt the Democratic Party in the North and how, particularly in the Senate, their ultraconservatism blocked progressive legislation. \n\nWilson, as a native of Virginia, was able to intervene in Southern Democratic primaries in a way Roosevelt, a New Yorker, never could. I'd have to look up the exact numbers, but Wilson was able to take down some exceedingly powerful people, basically ending their careers, see James K. Vardaman, senator and former governor of Mississippi as an example. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "157476",
"title": "Assemblywomen",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "According to Erich Segal, reading the play as a genuine exploration of communism and female power is incorrect. It follows Aristophanes’ conflict structure of the republic in trouble, a solution suggested and that solution ultimately failing. Aristophanes’ plays mostly derive their narratives on absurd political and social innovations derived from the evolution of the state towards empowering effeminate men while displacing traditionally strong and masculine leadership. The ascent of women in political power in \"Assemblywomen\" is yet another commentary on what Aristophanes saw as the shameful effeminacy of the men currently in power in Athens. The fact that women in this instance could enter the assembly and successfully pass as men was a commentary on politicians being indistinguishable from women in costume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29383533",
"title": "Power Politics (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "In a 1994 survey of wargames \"Computer Gaming World\" gave \"Power Politics\" two-plus stars out of five, criticizing the requirement that all historical candidates run in 1992 (\"Quemoy and Matsu do not translate well into contemporary economic issues\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23695893",
"title": "Characters of Shakespear's Plays",
"section": "Section::::Critical response.:1970–2000: Revival.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 212,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 212,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "Kinnaird further delves into the ideas in \"Characters of Shakespear's Plays\", especially that of \"power\" as involved in Shakespeare's plays and as investigated by Hazlitt, not only the power in physical force but the power of imagination in sympathising with physical force, which at times can overcome our will to the good. He explores Hazlitt's accounts of Shakespeare's tragedies—\"Macbeth\", \"Hamlet\", \"Othello\", \"King Lear\", and especially \"Coriolanus\"—where he shows that Hazlitt reveals that our love of power in sympathising with what can involve evil can overcome the human desire for the good. This, Kinnaird points out, has serious implications in considering the meaning and purpose of tragic literature in general.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7057086",
"title": "Will Power (performer)",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "A pioneer in the genre of hip hop theatre, Power has created a unique fusion of original music, rhymed dialogue, and choreography. His adaptation of the Greek tragedy \"Seven against Thebes\", entitled \"The Seven\", had a successful Off-Broadway run at the New York Theatre Workshop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9533321",
"title": "Marcellinus (magister militum)",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Military career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "During the dying days of the western half of the empire there remained four main players which participated in the power games revolving around the throne; the Eastern Roman Empire as one continued to play a significant political role as did the western Roman military which made up the other three. The Gallic army was prominent, especially under Aegidius in the 460's, the Italian army was the main influence for Ricimer, and the forces of Dalmatia gave a solid base of power and support between 450 and 480 for Marcellinus and later his nephew Western Emperor Julius Nepos\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22307021",
"title": "French theatre of the late 18th century",
"section": "Section::::Politics and the theatre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "The worlds of politics and drama converged, since some leading playwrights of this period were also politicians. For example, tragedian Marie-Joseph Chenier belonged to the Paris Jacobins and was elected to the National Convention; Collot d'Herbois wrote both comedies and tragedies, while being an active member of the Committee for Public Safety; and interior minister François de Neufchâteau was also a popular playwright of the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1651321",
"title": "Government simulation game",
"section": "Section::::Computer gaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1238,
"text": "The 1992 game \"Power Politics\" (and, before it, 1981's President Elect) focused on domestic United States political campaigns (but not the running of the country upon election). In 1996, this was adapted to the \"Doonesbury Election Game\", designed by Randy Chase (who also did Power Politics) and published by Mindscape, in which players conducted a campaign with the assistance of a pool of advisors selected from characters in the \"Doonesbury\" comic strip. A successor entitled \"Power Politics III\" was released in 2005. In 2004, Stardock published \"Political Machine\", in which the player steers a candidate through a 41-week election cycle for United States President, developing policies and tailoring talk show appearances and speech content. The game is heavily tied to modern polling methods, using real-time feedback for how campaign strategy impacts polling numbers. In 2006, TheorySpark released \"President Forever 2008 + Primaries\", an election simulation game that allows the player to realistically control an entire election campaign through both the Primaries and General Election. \"President Forever 2008 + Primaries\" itself a follow-up to the highly successful general election sim \"President Forever\", released in 2004\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1pqzqa
|
Why is it useful to hyperventilate during childbirth?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of the changes in maternal physiology during pregnancy is an increase in minute ventilation (hyperventilation). This occurs even before labor (evidenced by decreased PaCO2 =mild respiratory alkalosis).\n\nMany times we (physicians, nurses) tell people to focus on their breathing. This is mainly a distraction to take their mind of something else (stressor,pain, etc.) Rarely is it necessary to remind someone to breathe (e.g., recovery room after anesthesia). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54748148",
"title": "Emergency childbirth",
"section": "Section::::Maternal complications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Complications of emergency childbirth include the complications that occur during normal childbirth. Maternal complications include perineal tearing during delivery, excessive bleeding (postpartum hemorrhage), retained products of conception in the uterus, hypertension, and seizures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8788707",
"title": "Amniotic fluid embolism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "An amniotic fluid embolism (AFE) is a rare childbirth (obstetric) emergency in which amniotic fluid enters the blood stream of the mother to trigger a serious reaction. This reaction then results in cardiorespiratory (heart and lung) collapse and massive bleeding (coagulopathy).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55223808",
"title": "Miscarriage and grief",
"section": "Section::::Psychological impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Unsuccessful attempts to become pregnant through in vitro fertilization (IVF) can also illicit a similar grief response in women. Those experiencing a late miscarriage may have more significant distress compared to those who have experienced a miscarriage in the first trimester. Even depression can occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23242525",
"title": "Obstetric labor complication",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Amniotic fluid embolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "An amniotic fluid embolism (AFE) is a rare childbirth (obstetric) emergency in which amniotic fluid, enters the blood stream of the mother to trigger a serious reaction. This reaction then results in cardiorespiratory (heart and lung) collapse and massive bleeding (coagulopathy).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16024353",
"title": "Amniotic fluid index",
"section": "Section::::Causes of low amniotic fluid.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Maternal complications may cause low amniotic fluid. Some factors such as hypertension, diabetes, dehydration, preeclampsia, and chronic hypoxia in a woman can have an effect on amniotic fluid levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11897003",
"title": "Hypercoagulability in pregnancy",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Also, pregnancy can cause hypercoagulability by other factors, e.g. the prolonged bed rest that often occurs \"post partum\" that occurs in case of delivery by forceps, vacuum extractor or Caesarean section. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46537830",
"title": "Neonatal resuscitation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Neonatal resuscitation also known as newborn resuscitation is the resuscitation of newborn children with birth asphyxia. About a quarter of all neonatal deaths globally are caused by birth asphyxia, and depending on how quickly and successfully the infant is resuscitated, hypoxic damage can occur to most of the infant's organs (heart, lungs, liver, gut, kidneys), but brain damage is of most concern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1pi2fh
|
how is it that the taliban, removed from power in 2001, still able to fight and thrive against the afghan government and nato to this day?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Taliban was effectively pushed out of Afghanistan in December 2001 during Operation Jawbreaker. CIA paramilitaries, backed up by northern militias with loose ties to the US from their guerrilla war against the Russians. They effectively moved into the tribal regions of Afghanistan and blended into their Pashtun supporters. They retook parts of Kandahar, Helmand and Paktika in mid 2002 as the US military focused on Iraq. When the Iraq war kicked off they capitalized and proceeded with a full resurgence, taking the majority of the southern territory in 2003. Their primary advantages were a US military focused on Saddam, control over and cultural connections to the local Pashtuns who were experiencing ethnic cleansing by vengeful northern groups. Insurgency is a tough war to fight. They are most likely coordinated from inside Pakistan. Their IED based fighting has caused a multitude of changes in basic US military tactics and their insurgency is not to be underestimated. They avoid direct action with the superior firepower of the coalition forces and try to push them into retreat toward belts of IEDs using sustained contact from 500-1000m, then they just disappear. The leadership was probably involved in the largely successful campaign against the Russians in the early 1980s. \n\nEDIT: Forgot to mention Op JB also included 200-400 US Army Delta and other international special forces.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22634730",
"title": "History of guerrilla warfare",
"section": "Section::::Since 1990.:Afghanistan (2001-2016).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "The Taliban uprising took place after Afghanistan's invasion by Allied forces in 2001. As in the earlier wars against the British and Soviets, Afghan resistance to the NATO intervention took the traditional form of a Muslim \"holy war (Jihad) against the infidels\". As with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 20 years earlier, the Taliban took refuge in the Pakistani Mountain areas and continue to move across the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan, often evading Pakistani and NATO forces. The Taliban have now become a dominant role in the Afghan life once again. The Pakistani Government have been accused of supporting and/or turning a blind eye to the Afghan Taliban, while the Pakistani Government has accused NATO of doing the same.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19666611",
"title": "War in Afghanistan (2001–present)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1789,
"text": "Following defeat in the initial invasion, the Taliban was reorganized by its leader Mullah Omar, and launched an insurgency against the Afghan government and ISAF in 2003. Though outgunned and outnumbered, insurgents from the Taliban (and its ally Haqqani Network) - and to a lesser extent Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin and other groups - waged asymmetric warfare with guerrilla raids and ambushes in the countryside, suicide attacks against urban targets, and turncoat killings against coalition forces. The Taliban exploited weaknesses in the Afghan government to reassert influence across rural areas of southern and eastern Afghanistan. From 2006 the Taliban made significant gains and showed an increased willingness to commit atrocities against civilians – ISAF responded by increasing troops for counter-insurgency operations to \"clear and hold\" villages. Violence sharply escalated from 2007 to 2009. Troop numbers began to surge in 2009 and continued to increase through 2011 when roughly 140,000 foreign troops operated under ISAF and U.S. command in Afghanistan. Of these 100,000 were from the U.S. On 1 May 2011, United States Navy SEALs killed Osama bin Laden in Abbotabad, Pakistan. NATO leaders in 2012 commended for withdrawing their forces, and later the United States announced that its major combat operations would end in December 2014, leaving a residual force in the country. In October 2014, British forces handed over the last bases in Helmand to the Afghan military, officially ending their combat operations in the war. On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF combat operations in Afghanistan and officially transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government. The NATO-led Operation Resolute Support was formed the same day as a successor to ISAF.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6574204",
"title": "Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "The Taliban ruled most of Afghanistan until October 2001 when they were dethroned by a coalition of the United States of America with the Northern Alliance consisting of Jamiat-e Islami, Junbish-i Milli, Hizb-i-Wahdat, Harakat-i-Inqilab-i-Islami and the Eastern Shura. The UN and US fostered a new government led by Hamid Karzai, who was succeeded in 2014 by Ashraf Ghani. Nevertheless, , war was still raging in Afghanistan between the Taliban and the official government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4512092",
"title": "Taliban insurgency",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "The Taliban insurgency began shortly after the group's fall from power following the 2001 War in Afghanistan. The Taliban forces are fighting against the Afghan government, formerly led by President Hamid Karzai, now led by President Ashraf Ghani, and against the US-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). The insurgency has spread to some degree over the Durand Line border to neighboring Pakistan, in particular the Waziristan region and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The Taliban conduct low-intensity warfare against Afghan National Security Forces and their NATO trainers. Regional countries, particularly Pakistan and Iran, are often accused of funding and supporting the insurgent groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22738",
"title": "Operation Enduring Freedom",
"section": "Section::::Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF).:Result.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "The U.S.-led coalition initially removed the Taliban from power and seriously crippled al-Qaeda and associated militants in Afghanistan. However, success in quelling the Taliban insurgency since the 2001 invasion has been mixed. Many believe the Taliban cannot be defeated as long as it has sanctuary in neighboring Pakistan and that Operation Enduring Freedom has transformed into a continuing full-fledged war with no end in sight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10689543",
"title": "Contemporary history",
"section": "Section::::Modern era.:Post-1945.:Late contemporary times.:Terrorism and warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "The multinational infantry actions, with additional ground forces supplied by the Afghan Northern Alliance, and aerial bombing campaign removed the Taliban from power, but Taliban forces have since regained some strength. The war has been less successful in achieving the goal of restricting al-Qaeda's movement than anticipated. Since 2006, Afghanistan has seen threats to its stability from increased Taliban-led insurgent activity, record-high levels of illegal drug production, and a fragile government with limited control outside of Kabul. At the end of 2008, the war had been unsuccessful in capturing Osama bin Laden and tensions have grown between the United States and Pakistan due to incidents of Taliban fighters crossing the Pakistan border while being pursued by coalition troops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60274077",
"title": "History of War in Afghanistan (2001–present)",
"section": "Section::::U.S. invasion of Afghanistan.:2015 Taliban resurgence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 1149,
"text": "The Taliban began a resurgence due to several factors. At the end of 2014, the US and NATO combat mission ended and the withdrawal of most foreign forces from Afghanistan reduced the risk the Taliban faced of being bombed and raided. In June 2014, the Pakistani military's Operation Zarb-e-Azb, launched in the North Waziristan tribal area in June 2014, dislodged thousands of mainly Uzbek, Arab and Pakistani militants, who flooded into Afghanistan and swelled the Taliban's ranks. The group was further emboldened by the comparative lack of interest from the international community and the diversion of its attention to crisis in other parts of the world, such as Syria, Iraq, Yemen, Ukraine, Libya, Nigeria, and Somalia. Afghan security forces also lack certain capabilities and equipment, especially air power and reconnaissance. The political infighting in the central government in Kabul and the apparent weakness in governance at different levels are also exploited by the Taliban. In May 2015, Russia has closed a key military transport corridor which allowed NATO to deliver military supplies to Afghanistan through the Russian territory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2tv1fv
|
why do we become out of breath?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ok, so when you run, or do exercise, you can't breath enough oxygen for your cells to respire (produce energy) normally so you start to respire anaerobically (without oxygen) so that you provide enough energy to keep on running. Obviously there is a catch, and the catch is that you produce an acid as well. Acids are bad, so your body neutralises it, producing CO2, which goes into the bloodstream. Lots of CO2 is produced and so you need to get rid of it, as the CO2 lowers the acidity of the body (in large quantities) and then enzymes can't function and you die. Which sucks. So instead you breath heavily in order to get the CO2 out, which can take a while depending on how much you have exercised. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "304033",
"title": "Iron lung",
"section": "Section::::Method and use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Humans, like most mammals, breathe by \"negative pressure\" breathing: the rib cage expands and the diaphragm contracts, expanding the chest cavity. This causes the pressure in the chest cavity to decrease, and the lungs expand to fill the space. This, in turn, causes the pressure of the air inside the lungs to decrease (it becomes negative, relative to the atmosphere), and air flows into the lungs from the atmosphere: inhalation. When the diaphragm relaxes, the reverse happens and the person exhales. If a person loses part or all of the ability to control the muscles involved, breathing becomes difficult or impossible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24130492",
"title": "Suicide bag",
"section": "Section::::Physiological mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "The urge to breathe in normal humans is mainly controlled by blood carbon dioxide concentration and the acidity that it causes. A rise in carbon dioxide concentration caused by the inability to inhale fresh gas will cause a strong reflex to breathe, accompanied by increasing distress as the level rises, culminating in panic and desperate struggle for air. However, if the supplied breathing gas is free of carbon dioxide, the blood carbon dioxide levels will remain low while breathing occurs, and there will be no distress or urge to increase breathing rate, as the sensitivity in normal people to blood oxygen level as a breathing stimulus is very low. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30206738",
"title": "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "Narrowing of the airways occurs due to inflammation and scarring within them. This contributes to the inability to breathe out fully. The greatest reduction in air flow occurs when breathing out, as the pressure in the chest is compressing the airways at this time. This can result in more air from the previous breath remaining within the lungs when the next breath is started, resulting in an increase in the total volume of air in the lungs at any given time, a process called hyperinflation or air trapping. Hyperinflation from exercise is linked to shortness of breath in COPD, as breathing in is less comfortable when the lungs are already partly filled. Hyperinflation may also worsen during an exacerbation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3167994",
"title": "Shallow breathing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Shallow breathing, or chest breathing is the drawing of minimal breath into the lungs, usually by drawing air into the chest area using the intercostal muscles rather than throughout the lungs via the diaphragm. Shallow breathing can result in or be symptomatic of rapid breathing and hyperventilation. Most people who breathe shallowly do it throughout the day and are almost always unaware of the condition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485575",
"title": "Inhalation",
"section": "Section::::Inhalation of air.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Inhalation of air, as part of the cycle of breathing, is a vital process for all human life. As such, it happens automatically (though there are exceptions in some disease states) and does not need conscious control or effort. However, breathing can be consciously controlled or interrupted (within limits).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66723",
"title": "Respiratory system",
"section": "Section::::Mammals.:Mechanics of breathing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The automatic rhythmical breathing in and out, can be interrupted by coughing, sneezing (forms of very forceful exhalation), by the expression of a wide range of emotions (laughing, sighing, crying out in pain, exasperated intakes of breath) and by such voluntary acts as speech, singing, whistling and the playing of wind instruments. All of these actions rely on the muscles described above, and their effects on the movement of air in and out of the lungs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20903424",
"title": "Breathing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Breathing (or ventilation) is the process of moving air into and out of the lungs to facilitate gas exchange with the internal environment, mostly by bringing in oxygen and flushing out carbon dioxide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fd785x
|
what prevents the cell from getting too large?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's frankly poorly understood. It seems to be a network of several regulatory pathways tied to metabolic activity in combination with cell cycle control.\n\n[Björklund, 2019](_URL_0_) has an overview on the current state of research.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Doesn’t Myostatin have a big roll in governing the size of cells? I’m not an expert at all but I know there are such things as Myostatin inhibitors (or deficiency) that have drastically changed the size of animals and even humans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "564779",
"title": "Cell growth",
"section": "Section::::Cell size.:Cell cycle regulation in mammals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "A postulated model for mammalian size control situates mass as the driving force of the cell cycle. A cell is unable to grow to an abnormally large size because at a certain cell size or cell mass, the S phase is initiated. The S phase starts the sequence of events leading to mitosis and cytokinesis. A cell is unable to get too small because the later cell cycle events, such as S, G2, and M, are delayed until mass increases sufficiently to begin S phase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8599335",
"title": "Gravitational biology",
"section": "Section::::Gravity and life on Earth.:Animal struggles with gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Cells which were naturally larger than the size that gravity alone would allow for had to develop means to protect against internal sedimentation. Several of these methods are based upon protoplasmic motion, thin and elongated shape of the cell body, increased cytoplasmic viscosity, and a reduced range of specific gravity of cell components relative to the ground-plasma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34463932",
"title": "Peto's paradox",
"section": "Section::::Metabolic and cell size considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "A 2014 paper in \"Evolutionary Applications\" by Maciak and Michalak emphasized what they termed \"a largely underappreciated relation of cell size to both metabolism and cell-division rates across species\" as key factors underlying the paradox, and concluded that \"larger organisms have bigger and slowly dividing cells with lower energy turnover, all significantly reducing the risk of cancer initiation.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25398225",
"title": "Start point (yeast)",
"section": "Section::::Cell Nutrient Growth and Size Control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "The external nutrient concentrations are extremely important to proceeding through the Start checkpoint. The availability of nutrients is strongly correlated to cell growth size. Cells will not proceed if they do not reach a certain size due to nutrient deprivation, usually nitrogen. Thus, larger cells spend less time in the Start checkpoint compared to smaller cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9729302",
"title": "Hashimoto's encephalopathy",
"section": "Section::::Pathogenesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "This would occur most likely through each cell shrinking in size in response to the energy deficit (and/or in extreme situations from some cells dying via either apoptosis or necrosis, depending on location). This may occur as a result of there not being enough ATP to maintain cellular functions: notably failure of the Na/K ATPase, resulting in a loss of the gradient to drive the Na/Ca antiporter which normally keeps out of cells so that it does not build to toxic levels that will rupture cell lysosomes leading to apoptosis. An additional feature of a low energy state is failure to maintain axonal transport via Dynein/Kinesin ATPases, which in many diseases results in neuronal injury to both the brain and/or periphery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "564779",
"title": "Cell growth",
"section": "Section::::Cell size.:Other experimental systems for the study of cell size regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Increases in the size of plant cells are complicated by the fact that almost all plant cells are inside of a solid cell wall. Under the influence of certain plant hormones the cell wall can be remodeled, allowing for increases in cell size that are important for the growth of some plant tissues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22024362",
"title": "Wee1",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "The regulation of cell size is critical to ensure functionality of a cell. Besides environmental factors such as nutrients, growth factors and functional load, cell size is also controlled by a cellular cell size checkpoint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32t7b6
|
why do we take off our hats during the national anthem?
|
[
{
"answer": "It supposedly stems from medieval times when knights would remove their helmets to show trust. But really, it's just tradition. Each generation is taught that taking their hat off is respectful. There's no good reason. We could just as easily say taking your wristwatch off is a sign of respect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's modern-day etiquette and, like most such rules, often seem arbitrary, as if someone just wrote down a list of rules and everyone decided that they were right.\n\nBut many of these have origins in more sensible practices, they've just gotten twisted and mixed and stretched over time.\n\nThe rules governing hats likely evolved from rules governing helmets, namely those of armored knights. Saluting with your hand, and tipping with your hat, comes from the lifting of a visor to reveal your face. Likewise, the removal of a hat in a variety of cases stem from the removal of the helmet (again, to reveal your face).\n\nRevealing your face has significance. You are identifying yourself which is a sign of respect and an indication that you are not hostile to an stranger. A donned helmet means you are hiding your identity and are prepared for combat. It is defensive and stand-offish. Removing your helmet makes you somewhat vulnerable (since your head is exposed) and less able to attack (since you have to hold it). It is a sign of open honesty and peace.\n\nThis extends to our modern use of hats. They are generally to be taken off indoors, during cases where you are to display respect (anthems, funerals), and tip them when greeting individuals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This would be better posted in /r/AskHistorians but the long and short of it is that it is a tradition that goes back to the time of armour clad knights. As a sign of respect one would lift their visor so as to be easily identified by those to whom you spoke. People believed(and still do) that looking a person in the eyes as they speak to you will reveal their true intentions. This tradition later evolved into tipping the hat and then the complete doffing/donning of hats in social situations. \n\nIt goes even further back when discussing hat etiquette in a religious setting. It's in the bible that Paul dictated that men should not wear hats in church because man is the image of god and should not hide it(it goes on to condemn men with long hair shortly after that). Women of course are not the image of god and should cover their heads.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Same thing with handshaking. Basically when you hand your stronger hand, you are saying I am no threat to you (your sword wielding hand is busy holding his hand) hence it became a salutation, I trust you etc. I wonder were there any ambidextrous people to exploit that, I certainly would.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To add to what has already been said [people in the USA put their hand over the heart for this reason](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't think not wearing a hat indoors has anything to do with patriotism. Hats were made to be worn outside.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What if im wearing a hat made of the flag? Wouldnt it be better if i kept it on and pointed it at the flag!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I notice a lot of religious people take it seriously. I'm guessing it's because they have to in church. As someone with sensitive eyes it pisses me off when i walk into a bright ass building and some prude tries to make me take my hat off because \"it's not like it's bright inside.\" -_-",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I used to have a roommate who was a veteran of Afghanistan from 07 to 10 and seen some pretty messed up stuff. Super patriotic and has every right to be. \n\nWell one time we were at a country music concert and the \"take off your hats\" announcement came over the speaker for the national anthem. About 10 seconds goes by as everybody is stirring about waiting for the singer to get situation on stage and I just hear a \"HEY, HE SAID TAKE OFF YOUR HAT.\" \n\nI look over to him and, dead serious, he is looking at this girl in front of us wearing a fedora looking hat and she looks at him, looks at her friend, then apprehensively takes it off while facing forward. I was surprised since he is the nicest guy you'll ever meet and pretty effing hilarious but don't go bashing his 'MURICA. \n\nSo to answer your question - we do it so patriots don't yell at you. That's why. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Removing your hat is a sign of respect. It is the same reason that you take it off in class, take it off in church, take it off when a funeral procession goes buy, and take it off when entering someone else's house. \n\nIt is theorized to have evolved from taking off helmets during the middle ages and earlier to show that you trusted someone. Christian men are also instructed to have their heads uncovered as a sign of piety to God (this is also why monks saved the tops of their heads). Those two trends combined tells you how European society (and by extension American) came to see it as a sign of respect. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31064",
"title": "The Star-Spangled Banner",
"section": "Section::::Customs and federal law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1278,
"text": "Since 1998, federal law (viz., the United States Code ) states that during a rendition of the national anthem, when the flag is displayed, all present including those in uniform should stand at attention; Non-military service individuals should face the flag with the right hand over the heart; Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are present and not in uniform may render the military salute; military service persons not in uniform should remove their headdress with their right hand and hold the headdress at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart; and Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are in uniform should give the military salute at the first note of the anthem and maintain that position until the last note. The law further provides that when the flag is not displayed, all present should face toward the music and act in the same manner they would if the flag were displayed. Military law requires all vehicles on the installation to stop when the song is played and all individuals outside to stand at attention and face the direction of the music and either salute, in uniform, or place the right hand over the heart, if out of uniform. The law was amended in 2008, and since allows military veterans to salute out of uniform, as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31064",
"title": "The Star-Spangled Banner",
"section": "Section::::Customs and federal law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1787,
"text": "When the U.S. national anthem was first recognized by law in 1931, there was no prescription as to behavior during its playing. On June 22, 1942, the law was revised indicating that those in uniform should salute during its playing, while others should simply stand at attention, men removing their hats. The same code also required that women should place their hands over their hearts when the flag is displayed during the playing of the national anthem, but not if the flag was not present. On December 23, 1942, the law was again revised instructing men and women to stand at attention and face in the direction of the music when it was played. That revision also directed men and women to place their hands over their hearts only if the flag was displayed. Those in uniform were required to salute. On July 7, 1976, the law was simplified. Men and women were instructed to stand with their hands over their hearts, men removing their hats, irrespective of whether or not the flag was displayed and those in uniform saluting. On August 12, 1998, the law was rewritten keeping the same instructions, but differentiating between \"those in uniform\" and \"members of the Armed Forces and veterans\" who were both instructed to salute during the playing whether or not the flag was displayed. Because of the changes in law over the years and confusion between instructions for the Pledge of Allegiance versus the National Anthem, throughout most of the 20th century many people simply stood at attention or with their hands folded in front of them during the playing of the Anthem, and when reciting the Pledge they would hold their hand (or hat) over their heart. After 9/11, the custom of placing the hand over the heart during the playing of the national anthem became nearly universal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28977",
"title": "Salute",
"section": "Section::::Civilian salutes.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 176,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 176,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "In the United States, civilians may salute the national flag by placing their right hand over their heart or by standing at attention during the playing of the national anthem or while reciting the U.S. Pledge of Allegiance, or when the flag is passing by, as in a parade. Men and boys remove their hats and other headgear during the salute; religious headdress (and military headdress worn by veterans in uniform, who are otherwise civilians) are exempt. The nature of the headgear determines whether it is held in the left or right hand, tucked under the left arm, etc. However, if it is held in the right hand, the headgear is not held over the heart but the hand is placed in the same position it would be if it were not holding anything.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30876661",
"title": "Negaraku",
"section": "Section::::Etiquette.:Individual conduct.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Whenever the National Anthem is played or sung or whenever the abridged or short version is played, all persons present shall stand to attention as a mark of respect except where it is played or sung as part of a radio or television broadcast or newsreels. All headgear (except religious and military ones) must be removed and all those in attendance must face the \"Jalur Gemilang\", if it is present. Servicemen in uniform must give a salute when the Anthem plays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1931734",
"title": "Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô!",
"section": "Section::::March (format).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "The anthem is written as a European-style march, consistent with many national anthems around the world. The march is traditionally a military style, with a strong and even beat, originally meant to help troops \"march\" in step while traveling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83943",
"title": "Indonesia Raya",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "During the rendition or singing of the national anthem, all present except those in uniform should stand, face toward the music, and pay respect. Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are present and not in uniform may render the military salute; those not should stand still.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12821413",
"title": "Majulah Singapura",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Salutes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "When the national flag is raised or lowered and the anthem is played, persons in military or paramilitary uniforms who are outdoors don their head dress and face the flag. If they are in formation under the orders of a commander, only the commander salutes; otherwise, all service personnel salute. Saluting is unnecessary if service personnel are indoors when a flag raising or lowering ceremony takes place. In such cases, persons need only stop what they are doing and stand at attention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ee1wz2
|
why do so many cultures use onions and garlic in their cuisine?
|
[
{
"answer": "Onions, garlic, and leeks are really easy to grow and they grow in cold weather and warm weather too.\n\nThey give a lot of flavor. For instance to beans or soups. They're a vegetable, but they act like a spice. A wide variety of spices wasn't always available. Before global marketing, most people were stuck with what grew locally.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you ever cook for a girl, just toss onion and garlic in a pan and the aroma alone will make her think you’re a bomb cook",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51258",
"title": "Onion",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Origin and history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Because the wild onion is extinct and ancient records of using onions span western and eastern Asia, the geographic origin of the onion is uncertain, with likely domestication worldwide. Onions have been variously described as having originated in Iran, western Indian subcontinent and Central Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55698720",
"title": "List of garlic dishes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "This is a list of garlic dishes, comprising dishes and foods that use garlic as a main ingredient. Garlic is a species in the onion genus, \"Allium\". Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive, and \"Chinese onion\". Garlic is native to Central Asia and northeastern Iran, has a history of several thousand years of human consumption and use, and has long been used as a seasoning worldwide. It was known to Ancient Egyptians, and has been used both as a food flavoring and as a traditional medicine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50469",
"title": "Garlic",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Culinary uses.:Regions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Garlic is a fundamental component in many or most dishes of various regions, including eastern Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, northern Africa, southern Europe, and parts of Latin America. Latin American seasonings, particularly, use garlic in sofritos and mofongos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2401051",
"title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
"section": "Section::::Prohibited foods.:Vegetables.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "In certain versions of Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism, vegetables of the onion genus are restricted according to Shastras. Many Hindus discourage eating onion and garlic along with non-vegetarian food during festivals or Hindu holy months of Shrawan, puratassi and Kartik. However, shunning onion and garlic is not very popular among Hindus as compared to avoiding non-vegetarian foods, so many people do not follow this custom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51258",
"title": "Onion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Onions are cultivated and used around the world. As a food item, they are usually served cooked, as a vegetable or part of a prepared savoury dish, but can also be eaten raw or used to make pickles or chutneys. They are pungent when chopped and contain certain chemical substances which irritate the eyes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50469",
"title": "Garlic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Garlic is native to Central Asia and northeastern Iran, and has long been a common seasoning worldwide, with a history of several thousand years of human consumption and use. It was known to ancient Egyptians, and has been used both as a food flavoring and as a traditional medicine. In Ancient Rome, it was \"\"much used for food among the poor\"\". China produces some 80% of the world supply of garlic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51258",
"title": "Onion",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Culinary uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "Onions are commonly chopped and used as an ingredient in various hearty warm dishes, and may also be used as a main ingredient in their own right, for example in French onion soup, creamed onions, and onion chutney. They are versatile and can be baked, boiled, braised, grilled, fried, roasted, sautéed, or eaten raw in salads. Their layered nature makes them easy to hollow out once cooked, facilitating stuffing them, as in Turkish sogan-dolma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7pft8c
|
In the film 'Inglorious Basterds' the French citizens under Nazi occupation are portrayed as more or less continuing their daily lives, just with Nazi soldiers everywhere. Is this accurate?
|
[
{
"answer": "I get that Quentin Tarantino wasn't exactly setting out to make a documentary, I just found his portrayal of Nazi-occupied Paris as fairly regular French life with some Nazi officers overseeing things as taking some serious liberties.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You might be interested in this answer by /u/commiespaceinvader:\n\n[In Inglorious Basterds France is portrayed relatively peaceful although uneasy, it seems so much different then how Poland was occupied for example. How accurate is the portrayal of Vichy France, and how if at all was the everyday Frenchmen affected by the occupation?](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1197238",
"title": "Zazou",
"section": "Section::::Origins of the movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "During the German occupation of France, the Vichy regime, which collaborated with the Nazi occupiers, had an ultra-conservative morality and started to use a whole range of laws against a youth that was restless and disenchanted. These young people expressed their resistance and nonconformity through aggressive dance competitions, sometimes against soldiers from the occupying forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11544253",
"title": "Section spéciale",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "In France during the German occupation, a young German naval officer is killed in Paris by a group of leftist activists. The compliant Vichy government seeks to appease the Germans by locating the perpetrators and agreeing to the execution of six people, and a special section is set up for this purpose. The section consists of judges who are too ambitious, cowardly or inhuman to refuse such work. The flames of totalitarianism must be stoked, even with innocent blood, and it is especially convenient to the government if the accused are thoroughly expendable in their eyes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9156211",
"title": "Germaine Lubin",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "I have suffered an enormous injustice. They curtailed my career by ten years — my own people! The fact is that I knew some of the Germans when they came to Paris during the occupation. This gave my enemies the chance to satisfy their envy … If I saw the Germans in Paris —and they had been more than kind to me— it was to save my compatriots. It was my way of serving my country at that particular moment. Nobody knows how many prisoners I had released … When I spent three years in prison, they confiscated my château at Tours and my possessions. Did anyone bother to ask me why I did not accept Winifred Wagner’s invitations to sing in Germany during the occupation? But my trial was a complete vindication: I was completely cleared. Yes, they gave back most of what they had taken …\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83938",
"title": "French Resistance",
"section": "Section::::Cultural personalities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 229,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 229,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "The well-known personalities of France – intellectuals, artists, and entertainers – faced a serious dilemma in choosing to emigrate or to remain in France during the country's occupation. They understood that their post-war reputations would depend, in large part, on their conduct during the war years. Most who remained in France aimed to defend and further French culture and thereby weaken the German hold on occupied France. Some were later ostracized following accusations that they had collaborated. Among those who actively fought in the Resistance, a number died for it – for instance the writer Jean Prévost, the philosopher and mathematician Jean Cavaillès, the historian Marc Bloch, and the philosopher Jean Gosset; among those who survived and went on to reflect on their experience, a particularly visible one was André Malraux.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20599016",
"title": "Vichy France",
"section": "Section::::Decline of the regime.:Purges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 189,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 189,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "Some imply that France did too little to deal with collaborators at this stage, by selectively pointing out that in absolute value (numbers), there were fewer legal executions in France than in its smaller neighbour Belgium, and fewer internments than in Norway or the Netherlands. However, the situation in Belgium was not comparable as it mixed collaboration with elements of a war of secession: The 1940 invasion prompted the Flemish population to generally side with the Germans in the hope of gaining national recognition, and relative to national population a much higher proportion of Belgians than French thus ended up collaborating with the Nazis or volunteering to fight alongside them; The Walloon population in turn led massive anti-Flemish retribution after the war, some of which, such as the execution of , remained controversial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47012170",
"title": "Art and World War II",
"section": "Section::::Persecuted artists.:Artists in internment camps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "In France, Austro-German citizens also became “enemy aliens” at the outbreak of war and were sent in internment camps. The Camp des Milles, near Aix-en-Provence, where German artists such as Max Ernst and Hans Bellmer were imprisoned, was famous for its artistic life. As France was invaded, the situation of exiled German artists got more complicated and dangerous. They risked deportation, forced labour and extermination in the case of Jewish artists, both in occupied France and in the Vichy Republic. Most chose to emigrate further while others went into hiding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8051251",
"title": "Suite française (Némirovsky novel)",
"section": "Section::::Books.:\"Dolce\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "The small town of Bussy and its neighbouring farms are the scene throughout. The German occupation seems sweetly peaceful but there is no doubt over the balance of power. The Germans get whatever they ask for; official notices promise the death penalty for those who disobey their regulations, and French collaborators, including the Péricands, make their own settlement with their German overlords.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5iyckv
|
how can personality traits be passed down genetically?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is some debate on nature vs nurture for character traits we consider \"genetic\". Some times it is the cultural or socioeconomic background which makes it appear like a family has similar traits. Maybe the daughter was given a lot of scientific models or books as a youngster, or the parents pushed for or encouraged a science background in her education. It is hard to separate upbringing from genetics, but there is a possible scientific component.\n\n\nLike you said, genes code for proteins. Proteins do more than just contribute visible traits which you can recognize as Mendelian (hair color, eye color, blood type). Some genes may differ in how often they are expressed, or read. This can lead to an over- or underproduction of things like hormones or neurotransmitters which have an effect on behavior and mood. For instance if high testosterone levels are correlated with aggression and if the mutation that overproduces testosterone is inheritable then the offspring may be predisposed to aggressive behaviors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18143331",
"title": "Neurogenetics",
"section": "Section::::Behavioral neurogenetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1261,
"text": "Advances in molecular biology techniques and the species-wide genome project have made it possible to map out an individual's entire genome. Whether genetic or environmental factors are primarily responsible for an individual's personality has long been a topic of debate. Thanks to the advances being made in the field of neurogenetics, researchers have begun to tackle this question by beginning to map out genes and correlate them to different personality traits. There is little to no evidence to suggest that the presence of a \"single\" gene indicates that an individual will express one style of behavior over another; rather, having a specific gene could make one more predisposed to displaying this type of behavior. It is starting to become clear that most genetically influenced behaviors are due to the effects of many variants within \"many\" genes, in addition to other neurological regulating factors like neurotransmitter levels. Due to fact that many behavioral characteristics have been conserved across species for generations, researchers are able to use animal subjects such as mice and rats, but also fruit flies, worms, and zebrafish, to try to determine specific genes that correlate to behavior and attempt to match these with human genes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9703",
"title": "Evolutionary psychology",
"section": "Section::::Main areas of research.:Survival and individual level psychological adaptations.:Personality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 1401,
"text": "Personality traits are conceptualized by evolutionary psychologists as due to normal variation around an optimum, due to frequency-dependent selection (behavioral polymorphisms), or as facultative adaptations. Like variability in height, some personality traits may simply reflect inter-individual variability around a general optimum. Or, personality traits may represent different genetically predisposed \"behavioral morphs\" – alternate behavioral strategies that depend on the frequency of competing behavioral strategies in the population. For example, if most of the population is generally trusting and gullible, the behavioral morph of being a \"cheater\" (or, in the extreme case, a sociopath) may be advantageous. Finally, like many other psychological adaptations, personality traits may be facultative – sensitive to typical variations in the social environment, especially during early development. For example, later born children are more likely than first borns to be rebellious, less conscientious and more open to new experiences, which may be advantageous to them given their particular niche in family structure. It is important to note that shared environmental influences do play a role in personality and are not always of less importance than genetic factors. However, shared environmental influences often decrease to near zero after adolescence but do not completely disappear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24984",
"title": "Personality psychology",
"section": "Section::::Personality theories.:Biopsychological theories.:Genetic basis of personality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Previously, genetic personality studies focused on specific genes correlating to specific personality traits. Today's view of the gene-personality relationship focuses primarily on the activation and expression of genes related to personality and forms part of what is referred to as behavioural genetics. Genes provide numerous options for varying cells to be expressed; however, the environment determines which of these are activated. Many studies have noted this relationship in varying ways in which our bodies can develop, but the interaction between genes and the shaping of our minds and personality is also relevant to this biological relationship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17874491",
"title": "Psychological evaluation",
"section": "Section::::Personality Assessment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Personality traits are an individual's enduring manner of perceiving, feeling, evaluating, reacting, and interacting with other people specifically, and with their environment more generally. Because reliable and valid personality inventories give a relatively accurate representation of a person's characteristics, they are beneficial in the clinical setting as supplementary material to standard initial assessment procedures such as a clinical interview; review of collateral information, e.g., reports from family members; and review of psychological and medical treatment records.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18334122",
"title": "16PF Questionnaire",
"section": "Section::::The original Big Five traits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "From the beginning of his research, Cattell found personality traits to have a multi-level, hierarchical structure (Cattell, 1946). The first goal of these researchers was to find the most fundamental primary traits of personality. Next they factor-analyzed these numerous primary traits to see if these traits had a structure of their own—i.e. if some of them naturally went together in self-defining, meaningful groupings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34864435",
"title": "Hierarchical structure of the Big Five",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "It has become common practice to use factor analysis to derive personality traits. The Big Five model proposes that there are five basic personality traits. These traits were derived in accordance with the lexical hypothesis. These five personality traits: Extraversion, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and Openness to Experience have garnered widespread support .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39807",
"title": "Nature versus nurture",
"section": "Section::::Personality traits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "Personality is a frequently cited example of a heritable trait that has been studied in twins and adoptees using behavioral genetic study designs. The most famous categorical organization of heritable personality traits were created by Goldberg (1990) in which he had college students rate their personalities on 1400 dimensions to begin, and then narrowed these down into \"\"The Big Five\"\" factors of personality—openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. The close genetic relationship between positive personality traits and, for example, our happiness traits are the mirror images of comorbidity in psychopathology. These personality factors were consistent across cultures, and many studies have also tested the heritability of these traits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d8p519
|
negative product placement in movies / shows
|
[
{
"answer": "Stevia isn't a brand. It's a sweetener derived from the leaves of the plant *Stevia rebaudiana.* So there's no one to pay for the namedrop. It'd be like saying that \"Maple Syrup\" is a brand name.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Stevia is not a brand like others said. He could be bashing sugar instead. But it is a valid Q of what happens if a valid brand is bashed in a movie. \n\nCompanies can sue over un-authorized use of their brands. Mattel did sue an artist that used Barbie dolls in a way they did not like, and lost: _URL_1_\n\nThe defense if Fair Use laws, that are based on Freedom of Speech: \n _URL_2_ \n_URL_0_ \n\nOne case where brand owner can win is Libel, which mean other persons presenting information that that know to be incorrect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "276598",
"title": "Product placement",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Ethics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 201,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 201,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Many argue that product placement is ethically questionable, because it manipulates people against their will. A contrary view is, even if product placement is only perceived unconsciously, it is still evaluated by our mind. It cannot make people act against their beliefs. Most people also appreciate the fact that movies look more realistic with real brands and do not feel disturbed by the placements. Additionally, further research argues that product placement is not any different from other marketing tactics when it comes to ethics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "276598",
"title": "Product placement",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Effectiveness.:Negative effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 170,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 170,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Under specific circumstances, product placement can lead to no or even negative effects. This usually happens if the product placement is too obvious, while the audience also feels it is being manipulated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4156850",
"title": "Drugs I Need",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "The animation parodies a regular pharmaceutical television commercial, detailing the benefits of a drug whose use isn't described in detail. Instead, a large number of side effects are sung to an upbeat musical jingle, which emphasizes that the consumer should buy the fictional drug \"Progenitorivox\"— even if the generic drug is half the cost— if only to be like a family on TV. The animation ends with a seemingly random disclaimer, also a parody of pharmaceutical or \"drug\" advertisements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24897",
"title": "Persuasion",
"section": "Section::::Theories.:Inoculation theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "This often occurs in negative advertisements and comparative advertisements—both for products and political causes. An example would be a manufacturer of a product displaying an ad that refutes one particular claim made about a rival's product, so that when the audience sees an ad for said rival product, they refute the product claims automatically.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18931065",
"title": "Seeding trial",
"section": "Section::::In marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Product Placement is an advertising technique used by companies to subtly promote their products through a non-traditional advertising technique, usually through appearances in film, television, or other media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "276598",
"title": "Product placement",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "A variant of product placement is advertisement placement. In this case an advertisement for the product (rather than the product itself) appears in the production. Examples include a Lucky Strike cigarette advertisement on a billboard or a truck with a milk advertisement on its trailer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5908044",
"title": "Advertainment",
"section": "Section::::General references.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "BULLET::::12. Gupta, P. B., & Gould, S. J. (1997). Consumers' Perceptions of the Ethics and Acceptability of Product Placements in Movies: Product Category and Individual Differences. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 19(1), 37-50.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
got6o
|
What's the evolutionary advantage of a circadian rhythm that doesn't match the Earth's rotation?
|
[
{
"answer": "Things don't have to make sense. They're there because they haven't reduced fecundity.\n\nStuff happens because it can. Organisms are historical documents, not perfectly tuned machines.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It isn't easy to get a super accurate clock and 1) the main clock is set by light but other peripheral clocks can be set by temperature; both of which change throughout the year 2)species expand and being able to adjust parts of your clock to fit your new environment's lighting condition is probably good 3) different kinds of species (nocturnal vs diurnal ) will vary their responses to day lengths differently 4) people don't have nearly to need nowadays to be matched with nature\n\n\nSome organisms do have a CR very close to that of the 24 hour day, some birds; and the golden hamster (only off by about 3 minutes each day). Some few animals have such a finely turned circa-annual rhythm",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It doesn't neccesarily have to be an advantage. It could also just not be that much of a disadvantage. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56565",
"title": "Circadian rhythm",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes. They thus enable organisms to better capitalize on environmental resources (e.g. light and food) compared to those that cannot predict such availability. It has therefore been suggested that circadian rhythms put organisms at a selective advantage in evolutionary terms. However, rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating \"internal\" metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the \"environment\". This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions, as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioral, but not physiological, circadian rhythms in quail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "17971017",
"title": "Circadian advantage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "A circadian advantage is an advantage gained when an organism's biological cycles are in tune with its surroundings. It is not a well studied phenomenon, but it is known to occur in certain types of cyanobacteria, whose endogenous cycles, or circadian rhythm, \"resonates\" or aligns with their environment. It is know to occur in plants also, suggesting that any organism which is able to attune its natural growth cycles with its environment will have a competitive advantage over those that do not. Circadian advantage may also refer to sporting teams gaining an advantage by acclimatizing to the time zone where a match is played. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "56144090",
"title": "Drosophila circadian rhythm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1117,
"text": "Biological rhythms were first studied in \"Drosophila\". \"Drosophila\" circadian rhythm have paved the way for understanding circadian behaviour and diseases related to sleep-wake conditions in other animals, including humans. This is because the circadian clocks are fundamentally similar. \"Drosophila\" circadian rhythm was discovered in 1935 by German zoologists, Hans Kalmus and Erwin Bünning. American biologist Colin S. Pittendrigh provided an important experiment in 1954, which established that circadian rhythm is driven by a biological clock. The genetics was first understood in 1971, when Seymour Benzer and Ronald J. Konopka reported that mutation in specific genes changes or stops the circadian behaviour. They discovered the gene called \"period\" (\"per\"), mutations of which alter the circadian rhythm. It was the first gene known to control behaviour. After a decade, Konopka, Jeffrey C. Hall, Michael Rosbash, and Michael W. Young discovered novel genes including \"timeless\" (\"tim\"), \"Clock\" (\"Clk\"), \"cycle\" (\"cyc\"), \"cry\". These genes and their product proteins play a key role in the circadian clock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28483",
"title": "Solstice",
"section": "Section::::Relationship to seasons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "The seasons occur because the Earth's axis of rotation is not perpendicular to its orbital plane (the plane of the ecliptic) but currently makes an angle of about 23.44° (called the obliquity of the ecliptic), and because the axis keeps its orientation with respect to an inertial frame of reference. As a consequence, for half the year the Northern Hemisphere is inclined toward the Sun while for the other half year the Southern Hemisphere has this distinction. The two moments when the inclination of Earth's rotational axis has maximum effect are the solstices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1408530",
"title": "Circadian clock",
"section": "Section::::Variation in circadian clocks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "While a precise 24-hour circadian clock is found in many organisms, it is not universal. Organisms living in the high arctic or high antarctic do not experience solar time in all seasons, though most are believed to maintain a circadian rhythm close to 24 hours, such as bears during torpor. Much of the earth's biomass resides in the dark biosphere, and while these organisms may exhibit rhythmic physiology, for these organisms the dominant rhythm is unlikely to be circadian. For east-west migratory organisms—and especially should an organism circumnavigate the globe—the absolute 24-hour phase might deviate over months, seasons, or years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56565",
"title": "Circadian rhythm",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1053,
"text": "What drove circadian rhythms to evolve has been an enigmatic question. Previous hypotheses emphasized that photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms may have originated together in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting replicating DNA from high levels of damaging ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. However, evidence for this is lacking, since the simplest organisms with a circadian rhythm, the cyanobacteria, do the opposite of this - they divide more in the daytime. Recent studies instead highlight the importance of co-evolution of redox proteins with circadian oscillators in all three domains of life following the Great Oxidation Event approximately 2.3 billion years ago. The current view is that circadian changes in environmental oxygen levels and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the presence of daylight are likely to have driven a need to evolve circadian rhythms to preempt, and therefore counteract, damaging redox reactions on a daily basis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22398456",
"title": "Bacterial circadian rhythm",
"section": "Section::::Adaptive significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1675,
"text": "Do circadian timekeepers enhance the fitness of organisms growing under natural conditions? Despite the expectation that circadian clocks are usually assumed to enhance the fitness of organisms by improving their ability to adapt to daily cycles in environmental factors, there have been few rigorous tests of that proposition in any organism. Cyanobacteria are one of the few organisms in which such a test has been performed. The adaptive fitness test was done by mixing cyanobacterial strains that express different circadian properties (i.e., rhythmicity vs. arhythmicity, different periods, etc.) and growing them in competition under different environmental conditions. The idea was to determine if having an appropriately functional clock system enhances fitness under competitive conditions. The result was that strains with a functioning biological clock out-compete arhythmic strains in environments that have a rhythmic light/dark cycle (e.g., 12 hours of light alternating with 12 hours of darkness), whereas in \"constant\" environments (e.g., constant illumination) rhythmic and arhythmic strains grow at comparable rates. Among rhythmic strains with different periods, the strains whose endogenous period most closely matches the period of the environmental cycle is able to out-compete strains whose period does not match that of the environment. Therefore, in rhythmic environments, the fitness of cyanobacteria is improved when the clock is operational and when its circadian period is similar to the period of the environmental cycle. These were among the first rigorous demonstrations in any organism of a fitness advantage conferred by a circadian system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b47y8p
|
Did the advent of cooking food correlate with an increased longer lifespan, and/or have an obvious impact on early human evolution?
|
[
{
"answer": "It may not have had a direct nutritional effect. But indirectly it may have been a factor. \n\nCooking food helps break the tightly bound carbohydrates within foods such as rice and wheat. Perhaps the advent of cooking provided early man a ready nutritious food source at his/ her doorstep. No going out for hunting once a week and risking your life. You live longer.\n\nYou start cultivation. You live in communities. You have others looking after you and your kids. You love longer. \n\nYou have a good source of food even in the cold winters. You love longer.\n\nPerhaps I'm over simplifying it, but the advent of cooking definitely had a huge impact on the direction in which our evolution progressed with respect to our life spans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My thought is that it definitely has an impact on human lifespan. The heat used to cook food kills many microorganisms present in the food that could possibly cause diseases in humans.\n\nAlso. Because cooking food breaks down the molecules in food to form simpler substances, this would also mean our bodies expend less energy to completely digest the food consumed and absorb nutrients from the food. As such, naturally, less food is required to provide enough energy for a human to function. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25842601",
"title": "The 10,000 Year Explosion",
"section": "Section::::Summary.:Agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "Farming, which, the authors note, produces 10 to 100 times more calories per acre than foraging, carried this trend further. Over the period from 10,000 BC to AD 1, the world population increased about a hundredfold - estimates range from 40 to 170 times. An accelerated rate of evolution is a direct result of the larger human population. More people will have more mutations, thereby increasing opportunity for evolutionary change under natural selection. The spread of rapidly expanding populations eventually outpaced the spread of favourable mutations under selection in those populations, so for the first time in human history favourable mutations could not fully disperse throughout the human species. In addition, of course, selection pressures changed once farming was adopted, favouring distinctive adaptations in different geographic areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53970984",
"title": "Pleistocene human diet",
"section": "Section::::Neolithic adaptations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "The evolution of the human diet has not stopped since the end of the Paleolithic. Major functional adaptations have arisen in the last few thousand years as human technology has altered the environment. The most prevalent dietary adaptation since the Neolithic is lactase persistence, an adaptation that allows humans to digest milk. This adaptation appears roughly 4000 years ago in Europe. For populations more dependent on agriculture and domesticated animals, the importance of being able to add another edible resource should be noted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43496313",
"title": "Millennium Ecosystem Assessment",
"section": "Section::::Findings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "BULLET::::- Over the past 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than in any comparable period of time in human history, largely to meet rapidly growing demands for food, fresh water, timber, fiber and fuel. This has resulted in a substantial and largely irreversible loss in the diversity of life on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53970984",
"title": "Pleistocene human diet",
"section": "Section::::General trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1183,
"text": "Many specifics of the evolution of the human diet change regularly as new research and lines of evidence become available. Through the Paleolithic across the last 2.8 million years there has been a pattern of human and human ancestor’s biology adapting to an additionally available food source with resulting greater brain size, with the subsequent broadening and diversification of human diet. \"Homo habilis\" incorporated larger amounts of animal protein and fat into its diet, then as \"Homo erectus\" evolved it increased the breadth of its diet through fire and more advanced tool use. \"Homo sapiens\" in turn evolved the ability to consume cooked starch and marine life, which led to a further increase in brain size then greater technological diversification that ultimately allowed modern humans to adapt to a wide variety of ecological niches. The initial technological and biological adaptations each have knock on effects that allow a greater range of species to be used as food. This culminates in the Neolithic when suites of plants and animals are ultimately domesticated. In short, if there is a clear universal human Paleolithic diet, it is the use of fire to cook food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "641274",
"title": "Raw foodism",
"section": "Section::::Role of cooking in human evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 938,
"text": "Richard Wrangham, professor of biological anthropology at Harvard University, proposes that cooked food played a pivotal role in human evolution. Evidence of a cooked diet, according to Wrangham, can be seen as far back as 1.8 million years ago in the anatomical adaptations of \"Homo erectus\". Reduction in the size of teeth and jaw in \"H. erectus\" indicate a softer diet, requiring less chewing time. This combined with a smaller gut and larger brain indicate to Wrangham that \"H. erectus\" was eating a higher quality diet than its predecessors. To explain a decreased gut providing the amount of energy required for an increased brain size, Wrangham links his research on the digestive effects of cooked versus raw foods with the lower reproductive abilities of female raw foodists, and BMI in both sexes, to support his hypothesis that cooked starches provided the energy necessary to fuel evolution from \"H. erectus\" to \"H. sapiens\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47677316",
"title": "Childhood obesity in Australia",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "As early evolution has it, prehistoric ancestors in the form of hunter/gathers maintained the mentality that food supplies were unpredicted and their next meal was unknown. In this way, ancestors would eat whenever possible and efficiently store the energy absorbed as fat to use when resources were scarce. Since then, the environment in which we live in, has evolved rapidly with food supplies readily and effortlessly available. Consequently, the approach to conservation of energy from food has now been transformed into overeating and under-activity, generating a recipe of chronic disease and premature death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2629125",
"title": "Richard Wrangham",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "Wrangham's latest work focuses on the role cooking has played in human evolution. He has argued that cooking food is obligatory for humans as a result of biological adaptations and that cooking, in particular the consumption of cooked tubers, might explain the increase in hominid brain sizes, smaller teeth and jaws, and decrease in sexual dimorphism that occurred roughly 1.8 million years ago. Some anthropologists disagree with Wrangham's ideas, pointing out that there is no solid evidence to support Wrangham's claims., though Wrangham and colleagues, among others, have demonstrated in the lab the effects of cooking on energetic availability: cooking denatures proteins, gelatinizes starch, and helps kill pathogens. The mainstream explanation is that human ancestors, prior to the advent of cooking, turned to eating meats, which then caused the evolutionary shift to smaller guts and larger brains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2tpgnu
|
Why did US coinage transition from generic symbols of liberty to presidents and people?
|
[
{
"answer": "The 20th Century had three distinct eras of coin design. The first was the Golden Age marked by the work of famous sculptor August Saint-Gaudens gold issues but also included the coins made during the 1910s. The end of the Golden Age was marked by the Great Depression and President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Executive Order 1602, the government’s reacquisition of gold by making it illegal to own numismatically and historically insignificant coins. Both the coins OP mentioned the Peace Dollar and Walking Liberty were made during this Golden Age. However, about half of the redesigns are the next era, the Modern Era\n\n**The (Saint-Gaudens) Golden Age:**\n*The Era of Lady Liberty, Native Americans and Americana*\n\nMany coins saw one design change; the change took place in the 1830s. When the first American coins were made artistic images were not a top concern. Then when artist were consulted during the 1830s Lady Liberty was placed on nearly every single coin. The nation had changed a lot but the coins have stayed the same and people were ready for something new. The Coinage Act of 1890 stated that any coin design, after being minted for 25 year, was eligible to be redesigned. This act was to encourage coins to be redesigned. \n\nAugustus Saint-Gaudens won the competition to design the President Theodore Roosevelt's inauguration medal. Roosevelt very impressed by the submission charged with redesigning the American Gold coins, [$10](_URL_4_) and [$20 coin](_URL_9_). At this point all of these previous coins had circulated with the same design for at least 50 years. The bust of Lady Liberty was \"antiquated ... and an embarrassment to aesthetes and to the U.S. Mint itself.” The design at the time was popular and America did not want to have living people on coins like the monarchs of England and France notably King George V and Napoleon III who had their image on every single coin. \n\nGold coins were used in important transactions, to be kept in banks, or as a collector’s item, the average person did not see or use them. Important Americana ideas were kept on coins, an Indian Head replaced Lady Liberty on the obverse and the eagle was repositioned on the reverse. Saint-Gaudens designs were heavily influenced by the popular art movements at the time, Beaux-Arts, Arts and Crafts Movement, Art Deco and largely by Art Noveau.\n\nWhile President Roosevelt was redesigning coins, he hired Victor David Brenner in 1909 to commemorate Abraham Lincoln on the centennial of his birth, based on a design VDB had already made into a series of plaques and medals. The previous penny, the [Indian Head penny](_URL_14_) had first started circulating in 1859 but looks like was a new early twentieth century coin. The coin featured an Indian head, not Lady Liberty, on the obverse and a wreath wrapped around the words “one cent” on the reverse. [The \\(uniquely right facing\\) Abraham Lincoln](_URL_11_) that replaced the Indian Head on the obverse was the predecessor for the Presidents Jefferson, Roosevelt, Washington and Kennedy to appear on coins. \n\nThe [Buffalo \\(or Indian Head\\) Nickel](_URL_13_) was one of the first coins to replace a Lady Liberty design. The Indian Head is no stranger to American coins, appearing on the $10 gold coin and the aforementioned Indian Head Penny. The previous design was [Liberty Head Nickel](_URL_15_) that started circulating in 1883. The obverse of course, featured Lady Liberty’s head and the reverse featured the words “United States of America” and “Cents” wrapped around a wreath wrapped around a large “V” the Roman numeral five. The Buffalo nickel featured a composite of three major Indian chiefs. The buffalo is also purportedly a composite of buffalos but is commonly believed to be Black Diamond of the Bronx Zoo.\n\nThe [Mercury Dime](_URL_2_) replaced the French styled Liberty head [Barber Dime](_URL_6_) in 1916. The Barber dime, named after designer Chief Engraver of the United States Mint Charles Barber started circulating in 1891. The Barber Dime obverse featured Lady Liberty’s head while the reverse featured a laurel wreath wrapped around the words “one dime”. The Mercury Dime, mistakenly named after the Roman Messenger god in fact features the Roman god Liberty. As such it is rightly known as the Winged Liberty Head but the inaccuracy persists. The obverse features the goddess’s head with word “Liberty” and the reverse feature a fasces, a bundle of sticks, with an olive branch wrapped around it. This symbolizes war and peace preparedness after World War One. \n\nThe [Barber Quarter](_URL_16_) was also replaced in 1916 after being circulated just the 25 years needed before being able to be redesigned. The Barber Quarter featured the same obverse design, the same head as the Barber Dime. The reverse was quite different than that of the dime and patriotically featured the Great Seal of the United States and the words “United States of America” and “Quarter Dollar” on the reverse. The new [Standing Liberty](_URL_12_) design featured, as the name would suggest, Lady Liberty standing, looking off to the right on the obverse and a soaring eagle on the reverse. \n\nThe [Barber half dollar](_URL_5_), also minted during the same time as the previous two coins, featured the exact same design on the obverse and reverse as the Barber Quarter. The mint directors were especially eager to change the designs and make each denomination their own unique design. The half dollar, like the other Barber coinage kept Lady Liberty, only modernizing her style. The [Walking Liberty half dollar](_URL_0_) feature Lady Liberty beckoning, walking towards the sun while the reverse features an eagle that looks ready to flap off and leave his perch.\n\nThe dollar coin was reintroduced in 1921 with the [Peace Dollar](_URL_1_). Production of dollar coins stopped in 1904 after the long declining popularity of the coin and lack of use. Production resumed because of the increase use of coins for technology such as vending machines and slot machines. The coin was meant to commemorate the victory of World War One and compared to other coins was minted in much smaller numbers. The coin continued to be minted until 1935 until the dollar coin ceased to be produced again. \n\n**The Modern Era:**\n*The Age of Presidents and Politics*\n\nThe Modern Era started off in the Great Depression and went until largely unpopular Susan B. Anthony dollar. One by one every coin got redesigned, the next redesign becoming more popular than the last. It was during this time that America stopped fearing placing its political identity on the international stage. America would soon become the major military and economic power and American coinage would circulate more widely than ever before depicting the great men of a great country.\n\nThe first president to emerge on a coin in the modern era was George Washington. The [Washington Quarter design](_URL_7_) started circulating in 1932. Congress wanted George Washington on a coin for only 1932 to celebrate the bicentennial of his birth. However due to the popularity of the coin Washington remains on the quarter today.\n\nAfter the Buffalo nickel design had been minted for the required 25 years a new design quickly replaced it in 1938, the nickel design still used today, the [Jefferson Nickel](_URL_8_). After a competition was held, a design featuring Thomas Jefferson on the obverse and his house, the landmark Monticello on the reverse was chosen as the winner. \n\nAfter President Franklin Roosevelt’s death in 1945 Congress called for a replacement of the Mercury Dime with Roosevelt’s image. The Mercury dime had been circulating for 30 years at this time and was a stereotypical art style of the late 1910s and 1920s, making the coin due for a redesign. In 1946 the [Roosevelt dime](_URL_3_) started to circulate and despite some bogus Communist complaints against the design, it proved popular enough to continue circulating to today. \n\nThe [JFK half dollar](_URL_10_) has much the same story, JFK was assassinated and Congress immediately chose to honor him on a coin. The previous half dollar, which replaced the Walking Liberty half was the Franklin Half. Despite replacing a revered forefather, the Kennedy half was released to unprecedented public demand.\n\n\n**TL;DR Lady Liberty had her day, now it is the Presidents turn.**\n\n**Edit**: Added pictures\n\nSources:\n\nThe End of the Modern Era of United States Coins by Charles Morgan and Robert Walker\n\nChange in the Air by Andy Smith\n\nThe coins of 1916 by David W. Lange\n\nTransitional Pairs, Part 5 by David W. Lange",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "572040",
"title": "Coinage Act of 1792",
"section": "Section::::Authorization and free coinage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Images of Liberty would remain a standard part of US coinage through the 19th century and into the early 20th. While European coins typically included a portrait of the reigning monarch, the idea of depicting a real, as opposed to an allegorical, figure was considered unacceptable in the republican United States. The image of Liberty used on US coins generally reflected contemporary standards of female beauty, and was redesigned every few decades to reflect the changing times, although the Seated Liberty image which graced coins starting in 1837 would end up being used for over half a century. Not until the Lincoln cent, issued in 1909 to commemorate the centenary of President Lincoln's birth, would a real person be depicted on a US coin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "65508",
"title": "Great Seal of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Notable depictions.:Coins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "The Coinage Act of 1792 established the U.S. Mint and created the U.S. system of currency, and most of its rules were followed for many years. Among them was a basic design for any gold or silver coins; the obverse was required to have an \"impression emblematic of liberty\", with the reverse having a \"figure or representation of an eagle\". While using a depiction of the national arms was not necessary, various different arms designs were often used until the early 1900s, and still sometimes appear today on commemorative coins. Even before the mint, the 1787 Brasher Doubloon had a depiction of the arms on one side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "572040",
"title": "Coinage Act of 1792",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "Although some of the provisions in the 1792 Coinage Act were adjusted as time went by, the majority of the rules specified in this Act remained in effect for decades. Essentially, it provided the framework for all subsequent coinage design and production. While the first draft of the Act stipulated that all coins would employ a portrait of the president on the obverse, the final version called for an image emblematic of liberty as well as the word \"liberty\". The Act also authorized construction of a mint building in Philadelphia, the nation's capital at the time. This was the first federal building erected under the United States Constitution. Mint director David Rittenhouse laid the building's cornerstone on July 31.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2205026",
"title": "Seated Liberty dollar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "In 1866, \"In God We Trust\" was added to the dollar following its introduction to United States coinage earlier in the decade. Seated Liberty dollar production was halted by the Coinage Act of 1873, which authorized the trade dollar for use in foreign commerce. Representatives of silver interests were unhappy when the metal's price dropped again in the mid-1870s; they advocated the resumption of the free coinage of silver into legal tender, and after the passage of the Bland–Allison Act in 1878, production resumed with the Morgan dollar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "572040",
"title": "Coinage Act of 1792",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "The Coinage Act or the Mint Act, passed by the United States Congress on April 2, 1792, created the United States dollar as the country's standard unit of money, established the United States Mint, and regulated the coinage of the United States. The long title of the legislation is \"An act establishing a mint, and regulating the Coins of the United States\". This act established the silver dollar as the unit of money in the United States, declared it to be lawful tender, and created a decimal system for U.S. currency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339776",
"title": "Liberty (personification)",
"section": "Section::::Depictions in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "BULLET::::- Many denominations of American coins have depicted Liberty in both bust side-view and full-figure designs; see also the Liberty dollar, Seated Liberty dollar, Liberty dime, Indian Head cent, Gold Eagle, American Innovation dollar, and others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "336573",
"title": "Phrygian cap",
"section": "Section::::As a symbol of liberty.:In the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 841,
"text": "In the 18th century, the cap was often used in English political prints as an attribute of Liberty. In the years just prior to the American Revolutionary War of independence from Great Britain, Americans copied or emulated some of those prints in an attempt to visually defend their inherited liberties as Englishmen. Later, the symbol of republicanism and anti-monarchial sentiment appeared in the United States as headgear of Columbia, who in turn was visualized as a goddess-like female national personification of the United States and of Liberty herself. The cap reappears in association with Columbia in the early years of the republic, for example, on the obverse of the 1785 \"Immune Columbia\" pattern coin, which shows the goddess with a helmet seated on a globe holding in a right hand a furled U.S. flag topped by the liberty cap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lyiqq
|
Does the discovery of the Higgs Boson particle mean that we've proved string theory and does that mean we now have the elusive "Theory of Everything"?
|
[
{
"answer": "Short answer: no. The Higgs boson is predicted by the Standard Model (SM), and its confirmation just serves to strengthen that model. Since we know that SM can't be the whole story its predictions should fail at some point. The discovery of the Higgs boson merely tells us that we still haven't reached that point.\n\nEdit: grammar",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "357353",
"title": "Large Hadron Collider",
"section": "Section::::Findings and discoveries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "An initial focus of research was to investigate the possible existence of the Higgs boson, a key part of the Standard Model of physics which is predicted by theory but had not yet been observed before due to its high mass and elusive nature. CERN scientists estimated that, if the Standard Model were correct, the LHC would produce several Higgs bosons every minute, allowing physicists to finally confirm or disprove the Higgs boson's existence. In addition, the LHC allowed the search for supersymmetric particles and other hypothetical particles as possible unknown areas of physics. Some extensions of the Standard Model predict additional particles, such as the heavy W' and Z' gauge bosons, which are also estimated to be within reach of the LHC to discover.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36772327",
"title": "Search for the Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Identification and study of 2012 particle as a candidate Higgs boson.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Therefore, the search for the Higgs boson did not conclude with the 2012 particle's discovery – proof that a particle exists is not proof that the particle is indeed a Higgs boson, or that the discovered particle matches a specific theory about the Higgs boson, or that it could not be some other unknown particle which behaves \"in some ways\" like a Higgs boson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18516910",
"title": "List of British innovations and discoveries",
"section": "Section::::20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 184,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 184,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "BULLET::::- The first theory of the Higgs boson is put forward by Peter Higgs, a particle-physics theorist at the University of Edinburgh, and five other physicists. The particle is discovered in 2012 at CERN's Large Hadron Collider and its existence is confirmed in 2013.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::History.:Experimental search.:The new particle tested as a possible Higgs boson.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "Following the 2012 discovery, it was still unconfirmed whether or not the 125 GeV/\"c\" particle was a Higgs boson. On one hand, observations remained consistent with the observed particle being the Standard Model Higgs boson, and the particle decayed into at least some of the predicted channels. Moreover, the production rates and branching ratios for the observed channels broadly matched the predictions by the Standard Model within the experimental uncertainties. However, the experimental uncertainties currently still left room for alternative explanations, meaning an announcement of the discovery of a Higgs boson would have been premature. To allow more opportunity for data collection, the LHC's proposed 2012 shutdown and 2013–14 upgrade were postponed by 7 weeks into 2013.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36772327",
"title": "Search for the Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Identification and study of 2012 particle as a candidate Higgs boson.:Premature media reports of confirmation as a Higgs boson.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "In late 2012, \"Time\", Forbes, \"Slate\", \"NPR\", and others announced incorrectly that the existence of the Higgs boson had been confirmed. Numerous statements by the discoverers at CERN and other experts since July 2012 had reiterated that a particle was discovered but it was not yet confirmed to be a Higgs boson. It was only in March 2013 that it was announced officially. This was followed by the making of a documentary film about the hunt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19376148",
"title": "Stephen Hawking",
"section": "Section::::Career.:2000–2018.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "As part of another longstanding scientific dispute, Hawking had emphatically argued, and bet, that the Higgs boson would never be found. The particle was proposed to exist as part of the Higgs field theory by Peter Higgs in 1964. Hawking and Higgs engaged in a heated and public debate over the matter in 2002 and again in 2008, with Higgs criticising Hawking's work and complaining that Hawking's \"celebrity status gives him instant credibility that others do not have.\" The particle was discovered in July 2012 at CERN following construction of the Large Hadron Collider. Hawking quickly conceded that he had lost his bet and said that Higgs should win the Nobel Prize for Physics, which he did in 2013.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "357353",
"title": "Large Hadron Collider",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "BULLET::::- is the mass of elementary particles being generated by the Higgs mechanism via electroweak symmetry breaking? It was expected that the collider experiments will either demonstrate or rule out the existence of the elusive Higgs boson, thereby allowing physicists to consider whether the Standard Model or its Higgsless alternatives are more likely to be correct.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bal355
|
how do people lose coordination while playing vr games?
|
[
{
"answer": "Have you played it?\n\nThere's big difference between looking lifelike, and looking good enough to throw off your senses.\n\nIf it's good enough to make you believe it's moving, your mind is getting different signals from your equilibrium and balancing sensors (in your ears) and your eyes. \n\nThink about it like motion sickness, even if you know you're moving in a car, your body still gets confused and you get sick. \n\nThe same thing is happening here. Your eyes are telling your brain you're in a moving cart, or falling down, and it responds and gets confused. \n\nNo matter how enlightened you think you are, or in touch with your body, when your eyes get deceived and they send the motion signals to your brain, there's nothing you can do about it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "402119",
"title": "Game studies",
"section": "Section::::Other areas of research.:Cognitive Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "The overcoming of the condition known as dyslexia is also considered an improvement due to the continuous utilization of controllers for the video games. This continuous process helps to train the users to overcome their condition which impedes in their abilities of interpretation. The ability of hand-eye coordination is also improved thanks in part to video games, due to the need to operate the controller and view the screen displaying the content all at the same time. The coordination of the player is enhanced due the playing and continuous observation of a video game since the game gives high mental stimulation and coordination is important and therefore enhanced due to the constant visual and physical movement that is produced from the playing of the video game.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43368717",
"title": "Virtual reality sickness",
"section": "Section::::Theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "The physiology behind VR sickness is not currently clearly understood. Fortunately, research has uncovered some clear indications of certain conditions that cause VR sickness. It seems that the images projected from virtual reality have a major impact on sickness. The refresh rate of on-screen images is often not high enough when VR sickness occurs. Because the refresh rate is slower than what the brain processes, it causes a discord between the processing rate and the refresh rate, which causes the user to perceive glitches on the screen. When these two components do not match up, it can cause the user to experience the same feelings as simulator and motion sickness which is mentioned below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43368717",
"title": "Virtual reality sickness",
"section": "Section::::Newest technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1085,
"text": "While certain features are known to moderate VR sickness in head-mounted displays, such as playing from a seated position rather than standing, it has also been found that this merely puts off the onset of sickness, rather than completely preventing it. This inherently presents an issue, in that this type of interactive VR often involves standing or walking for a fully immersive experience. Gaming VR specialists argue that this unique brand of VR sickness is only a minor issue, claiming that it disappears with time spent (multiple days) using the head-mounted displays, relating it to \"getting your sea legs\". However, getting users interested in sickness for multiple days with the promise of \"probably getting over it\" is a struggle for developers of head-mounted gaming tech. These same developers also argue that it has more to do with the individual game being played, and that certain gaming aspects are more likely to create issues, such as change in speed, walking up stairs, and jumping, which are all, unfortunately, fairly normal game functions in predominant genres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56065176",
"title": "VRChat",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Although the game was named \"VRChat\", it is not necessary to have VR equipment to play the game. The game also offers a desktop version for those who don't have VR headsets, but it has limitations such as the inability to freely move an avatar, as well as certain game maps making use of both hands, such as a shooting game where the player must use their other hand to reload a weapon well holding it with the primary hand. Desktop Mode users are restricted to a single hand for interacting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2292497",
"title": "Video game addiction",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:American Psychiatric Association.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Some players become more concerned with their interactions in the game than in their broader lives. Players may play many hours per day, neglect personal hygiene, gain or lose significant weight due to playing, disrupt sleep patterns to play resulting in sleep deprivation, play at work, avoid phone calls from friends, or lie about how much time they spend playing video games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27399297",
"title": "Management of cerebral palsy",
"section": "Section::::Others.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "While there is great interest in using video game rehabilitation with children with cerebral palsy, it is difficult to compare outcomes between studies, and therefore to reach evidence-based conclusions on its effectiveness. Because video gaming is popular, it may help children's motivation to continue with the therapy. There is moderate evidence for improvements with balance and motor skills in children and teens, but it is not recommended as an effective therapy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5363",
"title": "Video game",
"section": "Section::::Behavioral effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "It has been shown that action video game players have better hand–eye coordination and visuo-motor skills, such as their resistance to distraction, their sensitivity to information in the peripheral vision and their ability to count briefly presented objects, than nonplayers. Researchers found that such enhanced abilities could be acquired by training with action games, involving challenges that switch attention between different locations, but not with games requiring concentration on single objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
alx4ac
|
why is it so much easier to eat a spoonful of sugar than a spoonful of salt?
|
[
{
"answer": "Humans are wired to find more sugar. A spoonful of sugar will not kill you. 10,000 years ago a spoonful of sugar would be hard to find, and a very nice energy boost to a person who generally had to still hunt for food. High energy, carbohydrate dense sources taste sweet and pleasant because 1) eating more of them is good in the short term and 2) it will not kill you, since carbs are an essential macronutrient needed in pretty large amounts every day. IIRC the recommended daily intake of carbs is like 270 grams, which isn't small.\n\nSalt is also important. We have sodium taste receptors that tell us when something is salty. We need it to survive. No sodium, no life. However, it is much easier to overdose and die from too much salt because it's needed at a careful dose every day to maintain body function. You need it to feel, move, breathe, pretty much everything. A big ol' mouthful of salt is pretty close to your maximum intake for the day. As a result, we've evolved to the point where that tastes really dreadful, since eating too many of those will make your kidneys unable to process that sodium, and you'll die. Eating lots of salt in the short term is acutely bad and poisonous even, and you need far less salt than sugar to survive. A spoonful only of salt probably will not kill you, but it's not super far off.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50337",
"title": "Fructose",
"section": "Section::::Physical and functional properties.:Fructose solubility and crystallization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Fructose has higher water solubility than other sugars, as well as other sugar alcohols. Fructose is, therefore, difficult to crystallize from an aqueous solution. Sugar mixes containing fructose, such as candies, are softer than those containing other sugars because of the greater solubility of fructose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1723515",
"title": "Kosher salt",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:General cooking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Because the salt has a purer flavor due to the lack of metallic or bitter-tasting additives such as iodine, fluoride or dextrose, it is often used in the kitchen instead of additive-containing table salt, so such flavors are not introduced to prepared food. Estimating the amount of salt when salting by hand can also be easier due to the larger grain size. Some recipes specifically call for volume measurement of kosher/kitchen salt, which weighs less per measure due to its lower density and is therefore less salty than an equal volume measurement of table salt. Different brands of different salt vary dramatically; a measure of one brand may be twice as salty as a measure of another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46294636",
"title": "Bliss point (food)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "The bliss point for salt, sugar, or fat is a range within which perception is that there is neither too much nor too little, but the \"just right\" amount of saltiness, sweetness, or richness. The human body has evolved to favor foods delivering these tastes: the brain responds with a \"reward\" in the form of a jolt of endorphins, remembers what we did to get that reward, and makes us want to do it again, an effect run by dopamine, a neurotransmitter. Combinations of sugar, fat, and salt act synergistically, and are more rewarding than any one alone. In food product optimization, the goal is to include two or three of these nutrients at their bliss point.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1605200",
"title": "Salt",
"section": "Section::::Edible salt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "Salt is essential to the health of humans and other animals, and it is one of the five basic taste sensations. Salt is used in many cuisines around the world, and it is often found in salt shakers on diners' eating tables for their personal use on food. Salt is also an ingredient in many manufactured foodstuffs. Table salt is a refined salt containing about 97 to 99 percent sodium chloride. Usually, anticaking agents such as sodium aluminosilicate or magnesium carbonate are added to make it free-flowing. Iodized salt, containing potassium iodide, is widely available. Some people put a desiccant, such as a few grains of uncooked rice or a saltine cracker, in their salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help break up salt clumps that may otherwise form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11993608",
"title": "Cured fish",
"section": "Section::::Sugar curing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Sugar is sometimes added when curing fish, particularly salmon. The sugar can take many forms, including honey, corn syrup solids, and maple syrup. Adding sugar alleviates the harsh flavor of the salt. It also contributes to the growth of beneficial bacteria like \"Lactobacillus\" by feeding them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14878724",
"title": "Oral hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Food and drink.:Harmful foods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "Sucrose (table sugar) is most commonly associated with cavities. The amount of sugar consumed at any one time is less important than how often food and drinks that contain sugar are consumed. The more frequently sugars are consumed, the greater the time during which the tooth is exposed to low pH levels, at which point demineralisation occurs (below 5.5 for most people). It is important therefore to try to encourage infrequent consumption of food and drinks containing sugar so that teeth have a chance to be repaired by remineralisation and fluoride. Limiting sugar-containing foods and drinks to meal times is one way to reduce the incidence of cavities. Sugars from fruit and fruit juices, e.g., glucose, fructose, and maltose can also cause cavities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5916342",
"title": "Sugar spoon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "A sugar spoon is a piece of cutlery used for serving granulated sugar. This type of spoon resembles a teaspoon, except that the bowl is deeper and often molded in the shape of a sea shell, giving it the name \"sugar shell\". Sugar spoons are sometimes called \"sugar shovels\" because of their rectangular shape and deep bowl.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ecezc
|
What were the Origins of the Seljuk Dynasty?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'll begin in what's known as the Islamic Golden Age under Haroon. Haroon, while leader of the Abbasid Caliphate, brought his empire to unprecedented heights, but \"he may have undermined its strength by over-taxation, the unvarying disease of old empires.\"* After he died in 809, his son Mamoon was able to wrest control. It was Mamoon who formally founded the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, which contributed greatly to advancements in mathematics and astronomy. But Mamoon also allowed Khurasan to become autonomous. Because of this, when Mutasim took over after Mamoon, he could no longer rely on army recruits from Khurasan as his predecessors had done. So he brought in slave boys from Turkestan. These turks would end up becoming the bulk of the empire's military. To quote Glubb again, \"the Turks were mostly heathen, did not even trouble to learn Arabic, and were hated by the public.\" Mutasim would also move the capital to Samarra, a move that angered the Arabs in his empire as it suggested a preference on Mutasim's part for the Turks. \n\nAfter Mutasim died, his son took over. He would rule for six years and die, and the next Kahlif would be Mutawakkil. Mutawakkil chose to remain at Samarra surrounded by his Turkish guards. His son, the heir-apparent, lost his title after messing around with a Greek concubine, but a high-ranking Turkish slave talked Muntasir into having his father murdered. Muntasir was then named Khalif. And so begins the disintegration of Arab hegemony and the rise of a Turkish military order. We would see the capital returned to Baghdad in 892, but by this time \"the Arab Empire had virtually ceased to exist.\" The glue had had help the empire together was claimed descendence from the Prophet, but the population soon realized the khalif was now a mere front, and that Turks were exercising the real power, and so provinces began to fall away. Mutahdid took over in 892, but by this time he was only able to collect taxes from a small area in central Iraq, and simply lacked the funds to maintain a sufficient mercenary army.\n\nAn event that illustrates the severity of the rift between Arabs and Turks was the Carmathian rebellion. The Carmathians arose out of the Arabian peninsula, and were Shiites, yes, but their motive for rebellion was most likely anger at foreign influence in the empire, notably Turkish militarism. The khalifate did not seek to reconcile with these Arabs but labeled them enemies. Due to Turkish and Persian influence, the khailfate held no respect for Arab tribes anymore.\n\nFast-forwarding, we see the khalifate become ,at one point, a puppet of the Shiite Dailamites. The Abbasid Empire was effectively no more. Baghdad devolved into chaos and there were multiple coups de'etat. The khalif in Baghdad would become a principally religious figure. We also see the Byzantine Empire becoming much stronger around this time.\n\nFast-fast-forwarding, the founder of the Seljuk Empire was Tughril Beg. He was a grandson of Seljuk, and before establishing his empire, he was a chief of the Ghuzz. The Ghuzz \"were a tribe of primitive Turkmans, who grazed on the steppes north of the Aral sea.\" Apparently \"Their principle occupation was war and their killing weapon was a short bow, which they used on horseback at full gallop.\" Tughril Beg was Muslim, despite the fact that most of his tribesman were not, and also, the khalifate in Baghdad had by this time regained some respect as a religious institution. The khalifate had no army, however, and Tughril Beg moved into the palaces, while the Ghuzz \"scattered over the fertile valley of Iraq, plundering and killing, and carrying off all the young women.\" \n\nTughril Beg dies in 1063, childless, still illiterate, the founder of an empire. He was succeeded by Alp Arslan, an energetic ruler who loved knowledge and diligent administration.\n\n*A Short History of the Arab Peoples, by Sir John Glubb\n\ntl;dr: Arabs come to rely on Turks in their military. Turks seize influence, undermining credibility of the khalifate. The khalifate was the glue of the empire, and so the empire begins to disintegrate. This disintegration coincides with a height in Byzantine power, which only contributes to an already chaotic power struggle/vacuum. A weakened Baghdad eventually falls to a Sunni Turk.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55762582",
"title": "Seljuk stucco figures",
"section": "Section::::Islamic art of Seljuk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "The Seljuks were a Turkic dynasty of Central Asian nomadic origins, who became the new rulers of the eastern Islamic world after defeating the Ghaznavids in the Battle of Dandanaqan, and the Buyid dynasty. Following these victories, the Seljuks established themselves as the new patrons of the Abbasid Caliphate and Sunni Islam. In only half-a-century, the Seljuks managed to create a vast empire encompassing modern Iran, Iraq, and much of Anatolia. Under the Seljuks, Iran enjoyed a period of cultural prosperity. Multitudes of architecture and arts were developed during the period, and influenced later artistic developments in the region and the surrounding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49853690",
"title": "Battle of Damghan (1063)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "The Seljuks were an Oghuz Turk dynasty that founded the Seljuk Empire in Iran during the 11th century. The founder of the empire, Tughril, died childless and willed the throne to Suleyman, younger son of his brother Chaghri Beg. (According to an old Turkic tradition Tughril had married to Chaghri's widow. So his nephews were also his step sons.) After Tughril's death however, the Seljuk prince Qutalmish hoped to become the new sultan, because Tughril was childless and he was the eldest living member of the dynasty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1630035",
"title": "Dulo",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "The Dulo clan was the ruling dynasty of the Bulgars. The origins of the Bulgars and Dulo clan are not known precisely, there are many theories about their origin. It is generally considered that they - or at least the elite caste - is intimately related to the origin and activity of the Huns and Western Turkic. Particularly, it is said that the Dulo descended from the rulers of Great Bulgaria, which was founded by Khan Asparukh's (679-700) father on the steppes of Ukraine. This state was a centralized monarchy from its inception unlike previous Hunno-Turkic political entities, which were tribal confederations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19786282",
"title": "Kankalis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "They first appear in history as a minor branch of the ancient Oghuz Turks. They formed one of the five sections into which the Oghuz khan divided his subjects. After the fall of the Pecheneg Khanate in the early 10th century, the role of the Kankali Turks became prominent. Different Pontic Steppe's Turkic nomadic peoples , who might have been separate and distinct earlier, would eventually become assimilated into each other by the 13th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13090194",
"title": "Seljuk Empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "Seljuk gave his name to both the empire and the Seljuk dynasty. The Seljuks united the fractured political landscape of the eastern Islamic world and played a key role in the first and second crusades. Highly Persianized in culture and language, the Seljuks also played an important role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition, even exporting Persian culture to Anatolia. The settlement of Turkic tribes in the northwestern peripheral parts of the empire, for the strategic military purpose of fending off invasions from neighboring states, led to the progressive Turkicization of those areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4006762",
"title": "Military history of Iran",
"section": "Section::::Seljuq Empire (1037 to 1187).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "The Seljuqs were a Turco-Persian Sunni Muslim dynasty that ruled parts of Central Asia and the Middle East from the 11th to 14th centuries. They set up an empire, the Great Seljuq Empire, which at its height stretched from Anatolia through Persia and which was the target of the First Crusade. The dynasty had its origins in the Turcoman tribal confederations of Central Asia and marked the beginning of Turkic power in the Middle East. After arriving in Persia, the Seljuqs adopted the Persian culture and are regarded as the cultural ancestors of the Western Turks – the present-day inhabitants of Azerbaijan, Turkey, and Turkmenistan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11194110",
"title": "Oghuz Khagan",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Oghuz Khan is sometimes considered the mythological founder of all Turkic peoples, and ancestor of the Oghuz subbranch. Even today, subbranches of Oghuz are classified in order of the legendary six sons and 24 grandsons of Oghuz Khan. In history, Turkmen dynasties often rebelled or claimed sovereignty by saying their rank was higher than the existing dynasty in this tribal classification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4z5hap
|
Why is liquid oxygen magnetic? Are there any other gases that are magnetic when in liquid form?
|
[
{
"answer": "The oxygen molecule has a magnetic moment because the two electrons in the two highest occupied molecular orbitals have parallel spin. Curie paramagnetism increases at lower temperatures and is quite noticeable at the boiling point.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Magnetism is peculiar. The way I think of it is everything is magnetic, however the real question is whether you can observe that magnetism. \n\nWhen one thinks of a magnet, we tend to think of a ferromagnet. But I shall come onto this in a sec. \n\nAt a molecular level, there are two classifications of magnetism; paramagnetism and dimagnetism. \n\nParamagnetism (as the name implies) is when you have electrons with the same spin parallel to each other. To gloss over the quantum mechanics associated with this, the result is the the molecule is attracted to a magnet. \n\nDimagnetism is when you have electrons with opposite spin (as in diagonal to each other). Again ignoring the QM, the result is that the molecule is repelled by the magnet. \n\nEvery molecule/atom is either paramagnetic or dimagnetic. However individually, their responses are so weak to typical fields (e.g. the Earths magnetic field or the Earth's gravitational field) that they appear to be not magnetic. Hence the question about whether you can OBSERVE magnetism.\n\nA ferromagnet is a material where all of these domains can align to enhance magnetic properties. The best way to consider this is think of ferromagnetism as enhanced paramagnetism. Iron (hence ferro) displays magnetism well, because its complexes can convey information about their electronic state very efficiently, and so the domains can align and this enhanced paramagnetism is observed. \n\nCurie's law (or more commonly the Curie-Weiss law, a more \"correct\" equation of Curie's law) tells us how magnetism varies as a function of temperature. M=C/T, where C is the Curie constant, M is a measure of magnetism and T is temperature. (Curie Weiss law is M=C/(T+k), where k is a constant. Why something observes magnetic behaviour is as a result of entropy. For something to observe enhanced paramagnetism, domains need to aline together. However this is only entropically favourable at lower temperatures, hence why liquid oxygen is magnetic!\n\nAll other gases will observe magnetism, but as I said, it depends whether we can physically observe it wrt background magnetic fields. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43399407",
"title": "Magnetism and temperature",
"section": "Section::::Oxygen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Oxygen, long known to be slightly magnetic in the gaseous state, is powerfully attracted in the liquid condition by a magnet, and the same is true, though to a less extent, of liquid air, owing to the proportion of liquid oxygen it contains. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2814939",
"title": "Solid oxygen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 839,
"text": "Oxygen molecules have attracted attention because of the relationship between the molecular magnetization and crystal structures, electronic structures, and superconductivity. Oxygen is the only simple diatomic molecule (and one of the few molecules in general) to carry a magnetic moment. This makes solid oxygen particularly interesting, as it is considered a 'spin-controlled' crystal that displays antiferromagnetic magnetic order in the low temperature phases. The magnetic properties of oxygen have been studied extensively. At very high pressures, solid oxygen changes from an insulating to a metallic state; and at very low temperatures, it even transforms to a superconducting state. Structural investigations of solid oxygen began in the 1920s and, at present, six distinct crystallographic phases are established unambiguously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22303",
"title": "Oxygen",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Properties and molecular structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "In the triplet form, molecules are paramagnetic. That is, they impart magnetic character to oxygen when it is in the presence of a magnetic field, because of the spin magnetic moments of the unpaired electrons in the molecule, and the negative exchange energy between neighboring molecules. Liquid oxygen is so magnetic that, in laboratory demonstrations, a bridge of liquid oxygen may be supported against its own weight between the poles of a powerful magnet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314402",
"title": "Liquid oxygen",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Liquid oxygen has a pale blue color and is strongly paramagnetic: it can be suspended between the poles of a powerful horseshoe magnet. Liquid oxygen has a density of 1.141 g/cm (1.141 kg/L or 1141 kg/m), slightly denser than liquid water, and is cryogenic with a freezing point of and a boiling point of at 101.325 kPa (760 mmHg). Liquid oxygen has an expansion ratio of 1:861 under and , and because of this, it is used in some commercial and military aircraft as a transportable source of breathing oxygen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314402",
"title": "Liquid oxygen",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "The tetraoxygen molecule (O) was first predicted in 1924 by Gilbert N. Lewis, who proposed it to explain why liquid oxygen defied Curie's law. Modern computer simulations indicate that although there are no stable O molecules in liquid oxygen, O molecules do tend to associate in pairs with antiparallel spins, forming transient O units.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314402",
"title": "Liquid oxygen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Liquid oxygen—abbreviated LOx, LOX or Lox in the aerospace, submarine and gas industries—is the liquid form of elemental oxygen. It was used as the oxidizer in the first liquid-fueled rocket invented in 1926 by Robert H. Goddard an application which has continued to the present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14553266",
"title": "Allotropes of oxygen",
"section": "Section::::Dioxygen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The ground state of has a bond length of 121 pm and a bond energy of 498 kJ/mol. It is a colourless gas with a boiling point of . It can be condensed from air by cooling with liquid nitrogen, which has a boiling point of . Liquid oxygen is pale blue in colour, and is quite markedly paramagnetic due to the unpaired electrons; liquid oxygen contained in a flask suspended by a string is attracted to a magnet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1b4x6f
|
Did the American military expect/plan for an attack from Mexico during world war 1?
|
[
{
"answer": "Mexico was undergoing a multi-sided civil war, and they were in no position to fight a war against anyone outside their borders. As for the US military, the so-called \"Punitive Expedition\" saw about 5,000 US troops chase one of the combatants, Pancho Villa, around Mexico for a year with the intent to kill or capture him, which was not successful. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11739998",
"title": "82nd Field Artillery Regiment",
"section": "Section::::Border War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "On 9 March 1916, the Mexican rebel General Francisco \"Pancho\" Villa ordered nearly 500 Mexican revolutionaries to make a cross-border attack into the United States at New Mexico. The raid was in response to Woodrow Wilson's recognition and support of the Carranza regime. Commander of the Army 8th Brigade John J. Pershing led a failed punitive expedition to kill or capture Villa. However, Villa was not caught and by 1919 had assembled a sizable force and had initiated several battles against Mexican military troops in an attempt to rally the Mexican people against President Carranza. On the morning of 15 June 1919, Villa's forces attacked Mexican military troops at Fort Hidalgo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151131",
"title": "Texas City, Texas",
"section": "Section::::History.:Founding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "The 2nd Division of the United States Army deployed to Texas City in 1913 to guard the Gulf Coast from incursions during the Mexican Revolution, essentially encamping nearly half of the nation's land military personnel there, due to the perceived double threat that the Mexican Revolution might spill over across the border or that the neighboring country might become a German ally in the incipient World War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34019501",
"title": "Raid on San Ygnacio",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1574,
"text": "Both the San Ignacio and San Benito raids, along with General Pershing expedition in Chihuahua, created a situation in the United States and Mexico that seemed to be a \"\"repetition of that process that brought Europe into war in 1914.\"\" Just two days after the raids, on June 18, President Woodrow Wilson announced that he was sending the remaining National Guard regiments to the border, not including the Arizona, New Mexico and Texas regiments which had already been in position since May. Within two weeks, American reinforcements began to arrive and by the end of the year over 150,000 militiamen were in position. Wilson also sent sixteen additional warships to patrol the Gulf of Mexico and Mexico's Pacific coast. Carranza followed suit by concentrating his forces along the border and issuing a \"\"general call to the civilians of Mexico to arm themselves\"\" in preparation for an American invasion. According to the \"New outlook, Volume 113;\" \"\"there were spectacles in the cities of the United States not since 1898\"\" during the Spanish–American War. In addition, thousands of Americans living in Mexico began fleeing north, or to the safety of the United States Navy. War would never come though, other than a raid near Fort Hancock, Texas on June 31, incursions into American territory ceased by July, which helped resolve some of the tension between the two nations. It wasn't until late 1917 that a new series of attacks would begin. But, like the engagement near Fort Hancock, they all occurred in West Texas, far away from where the Seditionists were active.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "161323",
"title": "Military history of the United States",
"section": "Section::::War with Mexico (1846–1848).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "In the Mexican–American War 1846–48, the U.S. Army under Generals Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott and others, invaded and after a series of victorious battles (and no major defeats) seized New Mexico and California, and also blockaded the coast, invaded northern Mexico, and invaded central Mexico, capturing the national capital. The peace terms involved American purchase of the area from California to New Mexico for $10 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21001269",
"title": "History of the United States Army",
"section": "Section::::Twentieth century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "In 1914 and 1916, U.S. troops were sent into Mexico during the Mexican Revolution. The Pancho Villa Expedition under Brigadier General John J. Pershing attempted to capture Pancho Villa, a Mexican who had mounted attacks on U.S. border towns. The skirmishes on the border later became known as the Border War (1910–19).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "867633",
"title": "United States color-coded war plans",
"section": "Section::::The Americas.:War Plan Green.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1013,
"text": "During the 1910s, relations between Mexico and the United States were often volatile. In 1912, U.S. President William Howard Taft considered sending an expeditionary force to protect foreign-owned property from damage during the Mexican Revolution. Thus War Plan Green was developed. In 1916, U.S. troops under General John Pershing invaded Mexico in search of Pancho Villa, whose army had attacked Columbus, New Mexico; earlier, American naval forces had bombarded and seized the Mexican port of Veracruz, and forced Victoriano Huerta to resign the presidency. In 1917, British intelligence intercepted a telegram from the German foreign ministry to its embassy in Mexico City offering an alliance against the United States and assistance in the Mexican reconquest of the Southwest. Released to American newspapers, the Zimmermann Telegram helped turn American opinion against Germany and further poisoned the atmosphere between the USA and Mexico. Relations with Mexico remained tense into the 1920s and 1930s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21073732",
"title": "Mexican–American War",
"section": "Section::::Conduct of the war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "After the declaration of war on May 13, 1846, U.S. forces invaded Mexican territory on two main fronts. The U.S. War Department sent a U.S. Cavalry force under Stephen W. Kearny to invade western Mexico from Jefferson Barracks and Fort Leavenworth, reinforced by a Pacific fleet under John D. Sloat. This was done primarily because of concerns that the British might also try to seize the area. Two more forces, one under John E. Wool and the other under Taylor, were ordered to occupy Mexico as far south as the city of Monterrey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2kwhbm
|
how come in zombie themed movies and tv shows the characters never refer to the zombies as zombies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because that would denote a previous knowledge of zombies, which one could presume to include knowledge of how to eliminate them as a threat. The scenario being depicted is more realistic if the unaffected do not have any knowledge about the threat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\n > A subtrope of the Sci-Fi Ghetto. Can be used to highlight how their monsters are different. Suppose your monsters are rotting shambling undead that want to drink your blood. Call them zombies and every casual reader's going to assume they're after \"braaaaaiiinnss,\" while calling them vampires brings up images of old black- & -white horror movies, Anne Rice and sparkles.\n\nWhat this article is saying is that it's an attempt to avoid being cataloged as a crappy zombie film, and portray the film/show as more realistic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, for anything made around the 60's-70's or so, like the classic Romero movies, it's simply that zombies weren't a part of popular culture, pretty much unless you lived in Haiti. Those movies made the word \"zombie\" a part of our lexicon.\n\nIn the case of the Walking Dead, it's actually been explained. In the world of the Walking Dead, those classic Romero zombie movies never existed. Which meant that people hadn't considered a zombie overrun, they hadn't learned the zombie tropes (don't let them bite, hit them in the head, etc). This meant that the infection spread easily and a lot of people died, which might not have happened in \"our\" world, since we're trained by horror flicks to hit corpses in the head and avoid teeth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13451",
"title": "Horror film",
"section": "Section::::Subgenres.:Zombie film.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 206,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 206,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Zombie films feature creatures who are usually portrayed as either reanimated corpses or mindless human beings. Distinct subgenres have evolved, such as the zombie comedy, which may or may not retain a significant horror theme, and often crosses into black comedy. Examples include: \"White Zombie\", \"Night of the Living Dead\", \"Dawn of the Dead\", \"REC\", \"28 Days Later\", \"Deadgirl\", \"Dead Snow\", \"Night of the Creeps\", and \"Messiah of Evil\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1105820",
"title": "List of zombie films",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "The following is a list of zombie feature films. Zombies are fictional creatures usually portrayed as reanimated corpses or virally infected human beings. They are commonly portrayed as cannibalistic in nature. While zombie films generally fall into the horror genre, some cross over into other genres, such as comedy, science fiction, thriller, or romance. Distinct subgenres have evolved, such as the \"zombie comedy\" or the \"zombie apocalypse\". Zombies are distinct from ghosts, ghouls, mummies, Frankenstein's monsters or vampires, so this list does not include films devoted to these types of undead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9810476",
"title": "Zombie",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 913,
"text": "How the creatures in contemporary zombie films came to be called \"zombies\" is not fully clear. The film \"Night of the Living Dead\" made no spoken reference to its undead antagonists as \"zombies\", describing them instead as \"ghouls\" (though ghouls, which derive from Arabic folklore, are demons, not undead). Although George Romero used the term \"ghoul\" in his original scripts, in later interviews he used the term \"zombie\". The word \"zombie\" is used exclusively by Romero in his 1978 script for his sequel \"Dawn of the Dead\", including once in dialog. According to George Romero, film critics were influential in associating the term \"zombie\" to his creatures, and especially the French magazine \"Cahiers du Cinéma\". He eventually accepted this linkage, even though he remained convinced at the time that \"zombies\" corresponded to the undead slaves of Haitian voodoo as depicted in Bela Lugosi's \"White Zombie\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9991663",
"title": "List of Highschool of the Dead characters",
"section": "Section::::Other characters.:Hisashi Igo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 426,
"text": " is a second year Fujimi High School student and Rei Miyamoto's classmate and boyfriend; he and Takashi are friends. He refers to the zombies as \"them\" since they are not quite like the ones seen in movies, and that becomes the name for any zombies the main group encounters in the series. On the way out of class, he is bitten by an infected teacher. After rising as one of \"them\", Takashi delivers a fatal blow to his head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21463984",
"title": "Zombie film",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "A zombie film is a film genre. Zombies are fictional creatures usually portrayed as reanimated corpses or virally infected human beings. They are commonly portrayed as cannibalistic in nature. While zombie films generally fall into the horror genre, some cross over into other genres, such as comedy, science fiction, thriller, or romance. Distinct subgenres have evolved, such as the \"zombie comedy\" or the \"zombie apocalypse\". Zombies are distinct from ghosts, ghouls, mummies, Frankenstein's monsters or vampires, so this list does not include films devoted to these types of undead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36849366",
"title": "List of zombie short films and undead-related projects",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Zombies are creatures usually portrayed as either reanimated corpses or mindless human beings, in both cases cannibalistic or more widely as undead bodies, ghouls, mummies, reanimated corpses, vampires and so on. While zombie films generally fall into the horror genre, some cross over into other genres, such as comedy, science fiction, thriller, or romance. Distinct subgenres have evolved, such as the \"zombie comedy\" or the \"zombie apocalypse\". Zombies in \"this\" article are not distinct from other types of undead like ghouls, ghosts, mummies, or vampires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1451559",
"title": "Zombies!!!",
"section": "Section::::Game interest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "\"Zombies!!!\" is an homage to zombies in fiction, particularly the zombie films of George A. Romero and Sam Raimi. The shambling movement of the zombies as compared to the players and the relative ease with which they are dispatched makes them weak enemies individually, but (as in the films) they are strong in large numbers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7gizps
|
if liquids turn to gas when heated, how is it that liquids like pancake mixture turn to solids when heated?
|
[
{
"answer": "Short version. \n\n\nYou're heating the moisture out of the pancake mix, while also changing the chemical structure of the mix, which is what cooking is, changing the chemical structure in your food. When the moisture leaves, you're left with the changed solid and some moisture trapped inside.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18993825",
"title": "Liquid",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1330,
"text": "Similarly, liquids are often used in cooking for their better heat-transfer properties. In addition to better conductivity, because warmer fluids expand and rise while cooler areas contract and sink, liquids with low kinematic viscosity tend to transfer heat through convection at a fairly constant temperature, making a liquid suitable for blanching, boiling, or frying. This phenomenon was also exploited to produce lava lamps. Even higher rates of heat transfer can be achieved by condensing a gas into a liquid. At the liquid's boiling point, all of the heat energy is used to cause the phase change from a liquid to a gas, without an accompanying increase in temperature, and is stored as chemical potential energy. When the gas condenses back into a liquid this excess heat-energy is released at a constant temperature. This phenomenon is used in processes such as steaming. Since liquids often have different boiling points, mixtures or solutions of liquids or gases can typically be separated by distillation, using heat, cold, vacuum, pressure, or other means. Distillation can be found in everything from the production of alcoholic beverages, to oil refineries, to the cryogenic distillation of gases such as argon, oxygen, nitrogen, neon, or xenon by liquefaction (cooling them below their individual boiling points).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52636",
"title": "Boiling",
"section": "Section::::Contrast with evaporation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "When a liquid reaches its boiling point bubbles of gas form in it which rise into the surface and burst into the air. This process is called boiling. If the boiling liquid is heated more strongly the temperature does not rise but the liquid boils more quickly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10915",
"title": "Fluid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Liquids form a free surface (that is, a surface not created by the container) while gases do not. Viscoelastic fluids like Silly Putty appear to behave similar to a solid when a sudden force is applied. Also substances with a very high viscosity such as pitch appear to behave like a solid (see pitch drop experiment).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37461",
"title": "State of matter",
"section": "Section::::The four fundamental states.:Liquid.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a (nearly) constant volume independent of pressure. The volume is definite if the temperature and pressure are constant. When a solid is heated above its melting point, it becomes liquid, given that the pressure is higher than the triple point of the substance. Intermolecular (or interatomic or interionic) forces are still important, but the molecules have enough energy to move relative to each other and the structure is mobile. This means that the shape of a liquid is not definite but is determined by its container. The volume is usually greater than that of the corresponding solid, the best known exception being water, HO. The highest temperature at which a given liquid can exist is its critical temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1753669",
"title": "Boiling tube",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "They are designed to be wide enough to allow substances to boil violently as opposed to a test tube, which is too narrow; a boiling liquid can explode out of the end of test tubes when they are heated, as there is no room for bubbles of gas to escape independently of the surrounding liquid. This phenomenon is called Bumping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "652816",
"title": "Mixing (process engineering)",
"section": "Section::::Gas–solid mixing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Gas–solid mixing may be conducted to transport powders or small particulate solids from one place to another, or to mix gaseous reactants with solid catalyst particles. In either case, the turbulent eddies of the gas must provide enough force to suspend the solid particles, which otherwise sink under the force of gravity. The size and shape of the particles is an important consideration, since different particles have different drag coefficients, and particles made of different materials have different densities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41068",
"title": "Drop (liquid)",
"section": "Section::::Surface tension.:Viscosity and pitch drop experiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Some substances that appear to be solid, can be shown to instead be extremely viscous liquids, because they form drops and display droplet behavior. In the famous pitch drop experiments, pitch – a substance somewhat like solid bitumen – is shown to be a liquid in this way. Pitch in a funnel slowly forms droplets, each droplet taking about 10 years to form and break off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xm5fx
|
the argentine economic crisis
|
[
{
"answer": "I'll have a go.\n\nAn important concept in economics is the Impossible Trinity: free flow of goods/capital, control over interest rates, fixed exchange rates. Essentially, only 2 of these 3 are ever possible to maintain. \n\nArgentina tried to maintain all three. Free flow of goods and capital and having control over your country's interest rates are very important for economic growth. Fixed exchange rates are typically used to help your exports grow.\n\nArgentina had its currency fixed with the dollar. Prior to the crisis in Argentina, many similar regimes (trying to hold the impossible trinity, e.g. Thailand, Brazil, Russia) fell victim to the results of the impossible trinity, the fears that other such regions would fall victim became a self-fulfilling prophecy. The way governments maintain fixed exchange rates is to buy and sell in the foreign exchange markets. Global investors saw that Argentina was having to spend dangerously in order to maintain their exchange rates but knew the pressure for rate change would eventually cause the government to relent. In simple terms they put increasing pressure on the currency's relative value despite heavy intervention in the markets by the Argentine government. Eventually, the government realised it would go broke trying to fight the market and capitulated resulting in disaster. All of a sudden, the peso is worthless and anyone who had debt denominated in foreign currency could no longer pay up. E.g. you had $10m in debt, prior to the crisis this was equal to 20m pesos (figures are hypothetical). Now, all of a sudden, it will take you 2bn pesos to pay off that debt. You can see how default becomes the only option.\n\nInflation in Argentina at the time plays into this, as does the contagion effects of Brazil's crisis (i.e. a closely linked economy), but I think the currency situation and the idea of the impossible trinity are often overlooked.\n\nNot an expert, I took a class about international finance and the currency crises of this period were discussed extensively. Open to criticisms, corrections and comments.",
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"answer": "**If you really don’t care that much about decade-old problems, you should start reading this at the fourth paragraph**. The first thing that needs to be taken into account is that this is not a problem limited to 1998-2002. Origins could be traced back all to way back to WWII, but leaving excruciating details aside, the fact is that Argentinean economics after WWII were heavily conditioned by inflation. From 1945 onwards, inflation would reach peaks of up to 113% annually, with an average of 25% from 1945-71, and up to 60% the following years. \n\nThis situation was of course worsened by the military dictatorships’ policies, in addition to the economic crisis of 1980, as well as the Falklands war. The last dictatorship fell in 1983 due to (you guessed it!) economic hardship and the first democratic president, Raúl Alfonsín, was elected. He implemented a plan to change the currency by removing zeros and changing its name to the “Austral”, in addition to other structural reforms. To get an idea of the currency’s constant loss of value: by 1945, 4 Argentinean pesos could be exchanged for 1 USD, then by 1985, 1 new Austral was worth 1 billion pesos (1 USD ≈ 1 Austral = 1,000,000,000 m$n). \n\nThis “Austral” plan of course failed miserably, since it did nothing to really change the underlying problem of inflation. The Austral started off almost at parity with the US dollar in 1985, but by 1990 you would need 10,000 Australes to buy one dollar, and the percentage of inflation was measured in the thousands. Unsurprisingly, Alfonsín was promptly sacked.\n\nAfter that, Carlos Menem is elected president and this is when things begin to take shape to create the scenario for the crisis. Menem was a diehard neoliberal heavily influenced by the principles of the Washington consensus. One of the most notable acts of the Menem administration was the privatization of many state owned companies such as Entel or Aerolineas Argentinas, and subsequently companies linked to TV, railways, oil and gas. Also, he dismantled many regulations on the economy such as quotas, duty taxes, restrictions on imports and controlled prices. Lastly, in an attempt to stop hyperinflation, he implemented something that translated roughly to “Convertibility Law”. This law would strictly tie the national currency to the US dollar, and subsequently created a new currency (once again…) called the “Peso convertible”. \n\nFrom this point on, the exchange rate could not fluctuate; it was a fixed 1 dollar for 1 peso. This obviously meant that the central bank had to guarantee with its own reserves that each peso could be exchanged for a dollar or for its value in gold. This would later turn out to be too heavy of a burden for the government to bear, but for the first years it did drastically stop inflation. Also, Argentina’s GDP began to grow steadily for the first half of the 90’s, although growth was not homogenously distributed among different economic sectors. Some sectors were heavily damaged and unemployment began to be more and more a growing concern. At the end, the legacy of the Menem administration was a huge government budget deficit of 7 billion pesos, an equally huge foreign debt of 145 billion and a burden on the central bank to maintain the Convertibility Law. \n\nSo after Menem failed to change the constitution in order to be elected for the 3rd consecutive time, Fernando de la Rúa was elected as the new president in 1999… and this is when shit really starts to go down. The foreign debt was proving to be too big of a burden and it was adding to the already huge government budget deficit. Many big banks were heavily invested in the national government, so there was an increasing fear that the government could default. This fear was exponentially bigger within the general population whose savings were in those banks whose solvency depended on the government being able to pay its debts. So after a failed attempt to calm the market down by injecting 40 billion dollars and by postponing payments farther in the future, **the public finally panicked**. People started to massively withdraw their money from banks, 5 billion US dollars worth of deposits were lost from January to March 2001. \n\nThe government then tried to negotiate a package of 29.5 billion dollars with the IMF and some private banks in an attempt to reduce the burden of the foreign debt. However, as it is tradition with the IMF, they only agreed to the package if the Argentinean government implemented unpopular measures that were basically a big fuck-you to its citizens. At the end this served for close to nothing and capital outflow and recession continued at a staggering pace. \n\nAt this point, the government imposed heavy restrictions which would later be called **“El Corralito”** or little “corral”. For those of you who don’t know what a corral is, it’s [this](_URL_0_). An enclosed space in which livestock is kept, **a very appropriate term**.\n\nThe Corralito consisted on restrictions, both on financial entities and common people, as a last resort to stop deposit outflow and to discourage speculation that the “Convertibility Law” would be dismantled. These restrictions were very harsh; people could only get access to $250 a week, even if you had tens of thousands in your account and had many expenses. So of course this sudden restriction of liquidity halted all economic activity: it paralyzed commerce, froze credit, people and companies could not make payments to other people or companies who subsequently also couldn’t make payments. Ultimately, this created such civil unrest that de la Rúa was deposed. \n\nThen Rodriguez Saá assumed the presidency for two weeks, in which he declared that the government would default, the biggest default in history. However, he refused to leave the Convertibility Law, reason for which he was deposed. Eduardo Duhalde then took office, and the first thing he did was to dismantle the Convertibility Law and to turn all credit to Pesos. With the Convertibility Law, the peso was fixed at one dollar, so even if you could only access $250 a week, theoretically the money you had in the bank would not lose its value. However, after the Law was waived, a new exchange rate was established: 1 USD = 1.40 Pesos. This literary meant that people lost tons of money overnight. However, debt owed to the financial system would still be paid at 1 USD = 1 Peso, this was called “asymmetric pesification”. And then finally, after the damage was done, the end of “The Corralito” was announced in December 2002. The Supreme Court backed the government’s “pesification” at $1.40 for every dollar, plus inflation, and a 4% annual interest rate. At the end, after the deposits were freed, the final result was around 3 pesos for every dollar. So yeah… many people got fucked over.\n\nI understand that I left out many things, like the IMF constant meddling, cold war relations, the Mexican crisis of 1994, military dictatorships, etc. But this turned out pretty long as it is; it’s very hard to properly explain this without writing an actual paper on it. **So please cut me some slack.**\n\n**TL;DR** Argentina has a historical problem with inflation. Many attempts were made stop inflation. These attempts were shit and actually lead to hyperinflation. Inflation was finally stopped with a series of neoliberal reforms and a fixed exchange rate of 1 dollar = 1 peso. The fixed exchange rate was a huge burden on the central bank and the government’s budget. **Menem left a shitstorm after his presidency**. The government’s foreign debt was extremely big, people worried that it could default. Banks were heavily invested in the government, so people worried about their savings. People began to massively withdraw their money from banks. The government followed with it usual ineptitude. People kept withdrawing money. The government stopped playing by the rules and restricted withdrawals, people could not access their money. The government defaulted, biggest default in history. The fixed exchange rate was removed. All debt was turned into Pesos. New exchange rate disfavored the average Joe. People lost tons of money and their faith in humanity.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8671185",
"title": "Parque Arauco S.A.",
"section": "Section::::Entry into Argentina.:Argentine recession.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 954,
"text": "The Argentine economic crisis culminated in the government defaulting on its debt and the devaluation of the Argentine peso at the end of 2001. APSA's market value declined from $390 million to as low as $40 million. The damage to PASA's finances inspired a shakeup of the company's management. In an interview with the new general manager, Andrés Olivos, for the Chilean magazine \"La Capital\" in 2003, reporter Lorena Medel contended that \"it was rumored that Parque Arauco had had a grade-10 earthquake. That its finances were delicate, and that shareholders couldn't believe the level of debt that was permitted to arise with respect to Arauco Salud\" (the medical tower). Olivos denied the situation was ever as dire as some suspected and revealed that the company was opening a \"gastronomical boulevard\" for Parque Arauco Kennedy. He conceded that Arauco Maipú had failed as an outlet store center and had returned to its role as a traditional mall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305257",
"title": "Washington Consensus",
"section": "Section::::Argentina.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "The Argentine economic crisis of 1999–2002 is often held out as an example of the economic devastation said by some to have been wrought by application of the Washington Consensus. Argentina's former Deputy Foreign Minister Jorge Taiana, in an interview with the state news agency Télam on August 16, 2005, attacked the Washington Consensus. There never was a real consensus for such policies, he said, and today \"a good number of governments of the hemisphere are reviewing the assumptions with which they applied those policies in the 1990s\", adding that governments are looking for a development model to guarantee productive employment and the generation of real wealth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "814242",
"title": "Capital flight",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The Argentine economic crisis of 2001 was in part the result of massive capital flight, induced by fears that Argentina would default on its external debt (the situation was made worse by the fact that Argentina had an artificially low fixed exchange rate and was dependent on large levels of reserve currency). This was also seen in Venezuela in the early 1980s with one year's total export income leaving through illegal capital flight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "717772",
"title": "José Félix Uriburu",
"section": "Section::::1930 Coup d'Etat.:Economic Crisis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The world economic crisis in 1929, known as the Great Depression, had a profound impact on Argentina. It primarily affected the economy, since 80% of its revenue came from foreign trade. The crisis created a situation of social tension, with decreases in salary and increases in unemployment. This economic unrest created the political context for the 1930 coup. This crisis of democratic systems was seen throughout all of Latin America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67340",
"title": "Economic history of Argentina",
"section": "Section::::Economic crisis (1998 - 2002).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "The ensuing economic and political crisis was arguably the worst since the country's independence. By the end of 2002, the economy had contracted by 20% since 1998. Over the course of two years, output fell by more than 15%, the Argentine peso lost three-quarters of its value, and registered unemployment exceeded 25%. Income poverty in Argentina grew from an already high 35.4% in October 2001 to a peak of 54.3% in October 2002.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44816333",
"title": "2018 Argentine monetary crisis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "The 2018 Argentine monetary crisis was a big devaluation of the Argentine Peso, caused by the high inflation, an increase in the price of the United States dollar at the local markets, and other domestic and international reasons. As a result of it, the presidency of Mauricio Macri requested a loan from the International Monetary Fund. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15251",
"title": "International Monetary Fund",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 1005,
"text": "Argentina, which had been considered by the IMF to be a model country in its compliance to policy proposals by the Bretton Woods institutions, experienced a catastrophic economic crisis in 2001, which some believe to have been caused by IMF-induced budget restrictions—which undercut the government's ability to sustain national infrastructure even in crucial areas such as health, education, and security—and privatisation of strategically vital national resources. Others attribute the crisis to Argentina's misdesigned fiscal federalism, which caused subnational spending to increase rapidly. The crisis added to widespread hatred of this institution in Argentina and other South American countries, with many blaming the IMF for the region's economic problems. The current—as of early 2006—trend toward moderate left-wing governments in the region and a growing concern with the development of a regional economic policy largely independent of big business pressures has been ascribed to this crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
rukby
|
Is it beneficial to try to avoid coughing when sick?
|
[
{
"answer": "Coughing can help to remove sputum plugs and other irritants from the lungs. It most definitely has beneficial effects.\n\nThat said, an ineffective cough can be just as dangerous long term as it can hurt muscles and even lung tissue if continued for long periods. (this is very uncommon even among the extremely ill however)\n\nIn a typical cold, so long as you're not coughing all over people It's generally accepted to cough as needed. \n\nCodeine is a cough suppressant, and as such is included in many cough formula's, and can be helpful before bedtime to allow one to rest more easily.\n\nGaufanesin(I probably spelled it wrong, I always do) is an expectorant, meaning it can actually irritate the body and create a cough, and is also in a number of cold formula's.\n\n\n ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "196974",
"title": "Cough",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "According to the American Academy of Pediatrics the use of cough medicine to relieve cough symptoms is supported by little evidence and thus not recommended for treating cough symptoms in children. There is tentative evidence that the use of honey is better than no treatment or diphenhydramine in decreasing coughing. It does not alleviate coughing to the same extent as dextromethorphan but it shortens the cough duration better than placebo and salbutamol. A trial of antibiotics or inhaled corticosteroids may be tried in children with a chronic cough in an attempt to treat protracted bacterial bronchitis or asthma respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "302755",
"title": "Acute bronchitis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "Prevention is by not smoking and avoiding other lung irritants. Frequent hand washing and flu vaccination may also be protective. Treatment of acute bronchitis typically involves rest, paracetamol (acetaminophen), and NSAIDs to help with the fever. Cough medicine has little support for its use and is not recommended in children less than six years of age. Salbutamol is not effective in children with an acute cough who do not have restricted airways. There is weak evidence that salbutamol may be useful in adults with wheezing due to a restricted airway; however, it may result in nervousness, shakiness or a tremor. Antibiotics should generally not be used. An exception is when acute bronchitis is due to pertussis. Tentative evidence supports honey and pelargonium to help with symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1853763",
"title": "Post-nasal drip",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "Staying hydrated and avoiding alcoholic and caffeinated products which worsen symptoms is key. Avoiding cigarette smoke is also recommended because it can cause increased discomfort if inhaled. Drinking more fluids, especially those that can thin mucous (such as hot liquids), can be beneficial. Nasal irrigations such as saline-based nose sprays can be used to help with secretions in the throat which may be causing discomfort to the sufferer. Furthermore, people can ask their doctor to prescribe steroid-based nasal sprays which are safe and more effective than decongestant sprays that can be bought over the counter and may only remain helpful for a limited period of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13629466",
"title": "Bronchitis",
"section": "Section::::Acute bronchitis.:Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "Prevention is by not smoking and avoiding other lung irritants. Frequent hand washing may also be protective. Treatment for acute bronchitis usually involves rest, paracetamol (acetaminophen), and NSAIDs to help with the fever. Cough medicine has little support for its use, and is not recommended in children under the age of six. There is tentative evidence that salbutamol may be useful in treating wheezing; however, it may result in nervousness and tremors. Antibiotics should generally not be used. An exception is when acute bronchitis is due to pertussis. Tentative evidence supports honey and pelargonium to help with symptoms. Getting plenty of rest and drinking enough fluids are often recommended as well. Chinese medicinal herb are of unclear effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9716092",
"title": "Codeine",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.:Cough.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Evidence does not support its use for acute cough suppression in children or adults. In Europe it is not recommended as a cough medicine in those under twelve years of age. There is some tentative evidence it can reduce a chronic cough in adults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "266226",
"title": "Cold medicine",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "The efficacy of cough medication is questionable, particularly in children. A 2014 Cochrane review concluded that \"There is no good evidence for or against the effectiveness of OTC medicines in acute cough\". Some cough medicines may be no more effective than placebos for acute coughs in adults, including coughs related to upper respiratory tract infections. The American College of Chest Physicians emphasizes that cough medicines are not designed to treat whooping cough, a cough that is caused by bacteria and can last for months. No over-the-counter cough medicines have been found to be effective in cases of pneumonia. They are not recommended in those who have COPD, chronic bronchitis, or the common cold. There is not enough evidence to make recommendations for those who have a cough and cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "613640",
"title": "Upper respiratory tract infection",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Over-the-counter cough medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "No good evidence exists for or against the effectiveness of over-the-counter cough medications for reducing coughing in adults or children. Children under 2 years old should not be given any type of cough or cold medicine due to the potential for life-threatening side effects. In addition, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics, the use of cough medicine to relieve cough symptoms should be avoided in children under 4 years old, and the safety is questioned for children under 6 years old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ck3vy
|
/r/theredpill
|
[
{
"answer": "It's basically a more militant version of /r/mensrights, who believe that men are an actively oppressed group, and that feminists/women are responsible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just to expand on the original question; what is an alpha and why do men seem to care so much about it? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39293123",
"title": "Controversial Reddit communities",
"section": "Section::::Controversial subreddits.:TheRedPill.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "r/TheRedPill is a misogynistic subreddit which promotes male supremacy. It was profiled by the Southern Poverty Law Center. It has been associated with several right-wing movements and the alt-right because of its attacks on feminism and mockery of rape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51203509",
"title": "R/The Donald",
"section": "Section::::Similar subreddits.:r/The_Schulz.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "r/The_Schulz is a semi-serious subreddit created for the German politician Martin Schulz, the former president of the European Parliament and a member of the SPD. According to Spiegel Online, r/The_Schulz was created as a satire against r/The_Donald. Like r/The_Donald, the subreddit frequently uses slang terms, most notably \"MEGA,\" or \"Make Europe Great Again,\" and \"keine bremsen\" (German for \"no brakes\"). Since its creation in November 2016, the subreddit has been featured in many articles, both inside and outside of Germany. On January 30, 2017, Schulz gave the subreddit a shout-out on his YouTube channel. , r/The_Schulz has over 10,000 subscribers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32428604",
"title": "Digital Public Library of America",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1258,
"text": "The DPLA is a discovery tool, or union catalog, for public domain and openly licensed content held by the United States' archives, libraries, museums, and other cultural heritage institutions. It was started by Harvard University's Berkman Center for Internet & Society in 2010, with financial support from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, and has subsequently received funding from several foundations and government agencies, including the US National Endowment for the Humanities, and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. It \"aims to unify such disparate sources as the Library of Congress, the Internet Archive, various academic collections, and presumably any other collection that would be meaningful to include. ... They have yet to ... decide such issues as how near to the present their catalog will come. There is an ongoing dispute regarding so-called 'orphan works' and other questions of copyright.\" John Palfrey, co-director of the Berkman Center, stated in 2011: \"We aspire to establish a system whereby all Americans can gain access to information and knowledge in digital formats in a manner that is 'free to all.' It is by no means a plan to replace libraries, but rather to create a common resource for libraries and patrons of all types.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "964167",
"title": "DSLReports",
"section": "Section::::Community.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 972,
"text": "DSLReports operates over 200 forums, many of which focus on Internet and computer-related topics. Other forums are dedicated to general conversation, political discussions, do-it-yourself projects or regional discussions. There are over a 1.8 million total registered users on the DSLReports forums. A discussion forum is automatically created for every news and opinion article posted on the front page, which allows members to discuss the article in question. Although membership is free, the forum community allows for anonymous posting so the information or source in [anonymous] posts may be questionable as compared to posts made by actual frequent members of the site.There are also well hidden private invitation and very controversial forums such as the \"meatlocker\" which can be seen by adding the /forums/meatlocker suffix to he website address. It is said this private area is for nude and pornogrhapic material submitted by the moderators and special guests.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51203509",
"title": "R/The Donald",
"section": "Section::::Media reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Using latent semantic analysis, FiveThirtyEight analyzed the relationship between the r/The_Donald and 50,323 other active subreddits based on 1.4 billion comments made over a two-year period from 2015 to 2016, and found the community was related to a number of \"hate-based subreddits,\" such as the respectively banned r/fatpeoplehate and r/coontown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37045297",
"title": "Dolibarr",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Dolibarr ERP CRM is an open source, free software package for small and medium companies, foundations or freelancers. It includes different features for enterprise resource planning (ERP) and customer relationship management (CRM) but also other features for different activities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60772208",
"title": "Grav (CMS)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Grav is a free, open-source and self-hosted content management system (CMS) based on the PHP programming language and Symfony web application framework. It uses a flat file database for both backend and frontend. Grav is more widely used, and growing at a faster rate, than other leading flat-file CMS competitors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
eqv1te
|
How is asthma medication made?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's various different classes of asthma medication - inhaled corticosteroids, beta agonists, leukotriene modifiers. That's why you can't find a direct source on how it is made. Also, compared to rocket fuel, we are getting into really complex chemistry here, so you need to know what to look for. But I fear it won't be easy to understand without a thorough grounding in organic chemistry.\n\nHere is an overview on corticosteroids, for example: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1335820",
"title": "Inhaler",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "An inhaler (puffer or pump) is a medical device used for delivering medication into the body via the lungs. It is mainly used in the treatment of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Zanamivir, used to treat influenza, must be administered via inhaler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44905",
"title": "Asthma",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Medications.:Delivery methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Medications are typically provided as metered-dose inhalers (MDIs) in combination with an asthma spacer or as a dry powder inhaler. The spacer is a plastic cylinder that mixes the medication with air, making it easier to receive a full dose of the drug. A nebulizer may also be used. Nebulizers and spacers are equally effective in those with mild to moderate symptoms. However, insufficient evidence is available to determine whether a difference exists in those with severe disease. There is no strong evidence for the use of intravenous LABA for adults or children who have acute asthma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44905",
"title": "Asthma",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "The most effective treatment for asthma is identifying triggers, such as cigarette smoke, pets, or aspirin, and eliminating exposure to them. If trigger avoidance is insufficient, the use of medication is recommended. Pharmaceutical drugs are selected based on, among other things, the severity of illness and the frequency of symptoms. Specific medications for asthma are broadly classified into fast-acting and long-acting categories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1335820",
"title": "Inhaler",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 962,
"text": "The idea of directly delivering medication into the lungs was based on ancient traditional cures that involved the use of aromatic and medicinal vapours. These did not involve any special devices beyond the apparatus used for burning or heating to produce fumes. Early inhalation devices included one devised by John Mudge in 1778. It had a pewter mug with a hole allowing attachment of a flexible tube. Mudge used it for the treatment of coughs using opium. These devices evolved with modifications by Wolfe, Mackenzie (1872) and better mouth attachments such as by Beigel in 1866. Many of these early inhalers needed heat to vapourize the active chemical ingredient. The benefits of forced expiration and inspiration to treat asthma were noted by J. S. Monell in 1865. Chemicals used in inhalers included ammonia, chlorine, iodine, tar, balsams, turpentine camphor and numerous others in combinations. Julius Mount Bleyer used a variation in 1890 in New York.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2996528",
"title": "Metered-dose inhaler",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Before the invention of the MDI, asthma medication was delivered using a squeeze bulb nebulizer which was fragile and unreliable. The relatively crude nature of these devices also meant that the particles that they generated were relatively large, too large for effective drug delivery to the lungs. Nonetheless these nebulizers paved the way for inhalation drug delivery providing the inspiration for the MDI.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2996528",
"title": "Metered-dose inhaler",
"section": "Section::::Spacers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Metered-dose inhalers are sometimes used with add-on devices referred to as holding chambers or spacers, which are tubes attached to the inhaler that act as a reservoir or holding chamber and reduce the speed at which the aerosol enters the mouth. They serve to hold the medication that is sprayed by the inhaler. This makes it easier to use the inhaler and helps ensure that more of the medication gets into the lungs instead of just into the mouth or the air. With proper use, a spacer can make an inhaler somewhat more effective in delivering medicine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61415748",
"title": "Exhalation delivery system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Exhalation delivery systems (EDS) deliver medications to the internal nose. Developed in 2006, EDS devices use the patient's exhaled breath to propel medication, such as steroids, into the nasal cavities. The method can deliver medication deeper into the nasal passages than intranasal sprays, and at a lower pressure than nasal irrigation methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
318rrv
|
How did plants get by before the Angiosperm?
|
[
{
"answer": "Just because a plant doesn't produce a flower doesn't mean they don't produce seeds. \n\n[Gymnosperms](_URL_0_) are an ancient plant type (cycads, ginkgo, pine, etc.). Their seeds develop either on the surface of scales or leaves, often modified to form cones, or at the end of short stalks as in Ginkgo. We still have many extant species of gymnosperm around.\n\n[Bryophytes](_URL_2_) are the oldest of all lineages of land plants and they produce neither seed nor flower. Instead they create enclosed reproductive structures (gametangia and sporangia) which are released for fertilization. You can sometimes find both male and female cells on one plant, depending on the species. \n\nFinally, let's not forget [Pteridophytes](_URL_1_) which are our ferns, horsetails and club mosses. These very old plants reproduce and disperse via spores. Ferns first appear in the fossil record 360 million years ago so they've been doing their thing long before Angiosperms.\n\nSo as you can see there were plenty of ways plant reproduced before flowers came along and one of them was seed production.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45372257",
"title": "Geoxyle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "A geoxyle is a plant in which an enlarged, woody structure occurs beneath the surface of the ground. Such plants have developed independently in various plant lineages, mostly evolving in the Pliocene and subsequently diverging within the last two million years. In contrast to their close relatives, these plants have developed in areas with both high rainfall and a high frequency of fires. They are sometimes known as underground trees, and the areas where they grow as underground forests.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2546065",
"title": "Chromalveolata",
"section": "Section::::Groups and classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Historically, many chromalveolates were considered plants, because of their cell walls, photosynthetic ability, and in some cases their morphological resemblance to the land plants (Embryophyta). However, when the five-kingdom system (proposed in 1969) took prevalence over the animal–plant dichotomy, most of what we now call chromalveolates were put into the kingdom Protista, but the water molds and slime nets were put into the kingdom Fungi, while the brown algae stayed in the plant kingdom. These various organisms were later grouped together and given the name Chromalveolata by Cavalier-Smith. He believed them to be a monophyletic group, but this is not the case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "313953",
"title": "Lenticel",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1269,
"text": "The extinct arboreal plants of the genera \"Lepidodendron\" and \"Sigillaria\" were the first to have distinct aeration structures that rendered these modifications. \"Parichnoi\" (singular: parichnos) are canal-like structures that, in association with foliar traces of the stem, connected the stem's outer and middle cortex to the mesophyll of the leaf. Parichnoi were thought to eventually give rise to lenticels as they helped solve the issue of long-range oxygen transport in these woody plants during the Carboniferous period. They also evolved to acquire secondary connections as they evolved to become transversely elongated to efficiently aerate the maximum number of vertical rays as well as the central core tissue of the stem. The evolutionary significance of these parichnoi was their functionality in the absence of cauline stomata, where they can also be affected and destroyed by pressure similar to what can damage to stomatal tissue. Evidently, in both conifers and Lepidodendroids, the parichnoi, as the primary lenticular structure, appear as paired structures on either side of leaf scars. The development and increase in the number of these primitive lenticels were key to providing a system that was open for aeration and gas exchange in these plants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15029087",
"title": "Aglaophyton",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "\"Aglaophyton\" is among the first plants known to have had a mycorrhizal relationship with fungi, which formed arbuscules in a well-defined zone in the cortex of its stems. \"Aglaophyton\" lacked roots, and like other rootless land plants of the Silurian and early Devonian may have relied on mycorrhizal fungi for acquisition of water and nutrients from the soil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4373920",
"title": "Neoregelia",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "The inflorescences of these plants form in the shallow central depression - the \"cup\" - of the plant, which often fills partway with water, through which the flowers bloom. Neoregelias, like most bromeliads, bloom only once in their lifetime and then begin to die, but normally not before producing several pups - small clones of the parent plant - around the central flowering rosette on stolons. These offshoots eventually replace the mother plant and form a cluster around it - though in cultivation, the offshoots can be severed and replanted when about two-thirds the size of the adult plant. The leaves immediately surrounding the inflorescence are very often brightly colored, even in species otherwise not brightly marked - an adaptation to attract pollinating insects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57354590",
"title": "Thursophyton",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "\"Thursophyton\" is a genus of terrestrial vascular plants which flourished in the Middle Devonian period. These plants consisted of aerial stems branching dichotomously, trichotomously or pseudomonopodially, at least the main axes clothed in spirally arranged spines up to 7 mm long, which are not leaves as they are not vascularised and leave no scar when removed. The stems contain an elliptical exarch xylem having both annular and spirally thickened tracheids; very little is known about the sporangia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "331755",
"title": "Transitional fossil",
"section": "Section::::History.:The rise of plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "The \"Rhynia\" plant was small and stick-like, with simple dichotomously branching stems without leaves, each tipped by a sporangium. The simple form echoes that of the sporophyte of mosses, and it has been shown that \"Rhynia\" had an alternation of generations, with a corresponding gametophyte in the form of crowded tufts of diminutive stems only a few millimetres in height. \"Rhynia\" thus falls midway between mosses and early vascular plants like ferns and clubmosses. From a carpet of moss-like gametophytes, the larger \"Rhynia\" sporophytes grew much like simple clubmosses, spreading by means of horizontal growing stems growing rhizoids that anchored the plant to the substrate. The unusual mix of moss-like and vascular traits and the extreme structural simplicity of the plant had huge implications for botanical understanding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
47kewt
|
what is it about potatoes that cause them to retain the heat of four suns as opposed to the other ingredients in the soup?
|
[
{
"answer": "That starchy sponge soaks up lots of water. Not only is it insulated, but water has a very high specific heat, so they take longer to cool down than most of your soup.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Potatoes are made of mainly water. Water has a very good ability to store heat.\n\nYou may be thinking \"but suop's water too\". Yes, but the soup has a quite high surface when in a dish making it possible to evapourate whick takes the same enery that water needs to heat up 83 °C. Yes, literally THAT much.\n\nHowever, in the potatoe the water cant evaporate because it's sourrounded by the soup. Also, the water in the potatoe can't really \"move\" or mix with the water in the soup which is why they can't get rid of the heat as fast as the soup.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "762763",
"title": "Baked potato",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Wrapping the potato in aluminium foil before cooking in a standard oven will help to retain moisture, while leaving it unwrapped will result in a crisp skin. When cooking over an open fire or in the coals of a barbecue, it may require wrapping in foil to prevent burning of the skin. A potato buried directly in coals of a fire cooks very nicely, with a mostly burned and inedible skin. A baked potato is fully cooked when its internal temperature reaches .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2381355",
"title": "Salt potatoes",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "The resulting potatoes are creamy, as the starch in the potatoes cooks more completely due to the higher boiling temperature of the extra-salty water. The salty skin stands up particularly well to both herbed and plain melted butter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "762763",
"title": "Baked potato",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Once a potato has been baked, some people discard the skin and eat only the softer and moister interior, while others enjoy the taste and texture of the crisp skin, which is rich in dietary fiber. Potatoes baked in their skins may lose between 20 and 40% of their vitamin C content because heating in air is slow and vitamin inactivation can continue for a long time. Small potatoes bake more quickly than large ones and therefore retain more of their vitamin C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3263089",
"title": "Resistant starch",
"section": "Section::::Processing effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Other types of processing increase resistant starch content. If cooking includes excess water, the starch is gelatinized and becomes more digestible. However, if these starch gels are then cooled, they can form starch crystals resistant to digestive enzymes (Type RS3 or retrograded resistant starch), such as those occurring in cooked and cooled cereals or potatoes (e.g., potato salad). Cooling a boiled potato overnight increases the amount of resistant starch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10834",
"title": "Food preservation",
"section": "Section::::Traditional techniques.:Burial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1022,
"text": "Many root vegetables are very resistant to spoilage and require no other preservation than storage in cool dark conditions, for example by burial in the ground, such as in a storage clamp. Century eggs are traditionally created by placing eggs in alkaline mud (or other alkaline substance), resulting in their \"inorganic\" fermentation through raised pH instead of spoiling. The fermentation preserves them and breaks down some of the complex, less flavorful proteins and fats into simpler, more flavorful ones. Cabbage was traditionally buried during Autumn in northern US farms for preservation. Some methods keep it crispy while other methods produce sauerkraut. A similar process is used in the traditional production of kimchi. Sometimes meat is buried under conditions that cause preservation. If buried on hot coals or ashes, the heat can kill pathogens, the dry ash can desiccate, and the earth can block oxygen and further contamination. If buried where the earth is very cold, the earth acts like a refrigerator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16863666",
"title": "Maconochie",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Though the stew was tolerable, most soldiers detested it. As one soldier put it, \"warmed in the tin, Maconochie was edible; cold, it was a man-killer.\" Others complained about how the potatoes appeared to be black lumps. A reporter once described the stew as \"an inferior grade of garbage\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13379346",
"title": "Red Pontiac",
"section": "Section::::Cooking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "It can be used in recipes for baking, boiling, mashing, roasting or in salads, and can be cooked in a microwave oven. It is not so suitable for frying. Red potatoes may be cooked with the skin on, and should be scrubbed and rinsed before preparation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
352oq9
|
Is it possible for the wind to blow hard enough to change the direction of a photon?
|
[
{
"answer": "**Short answer:** Nope. \n\n**Long answer:** There was actually [a very good experiment done around 1900](_URL_1_) that tested whether the speed of light would change in moving medium - flowing water in particular. It was found that it didn't. This was a big deal, and it meant that something really peculiar was going on with the motion of light. This exact experiment was actually a big piece of Einstein's inspiration when developing the special theory of relativity. \n\nLight will follow the same path whether or not the medium is moving, up to a small relativistic correction. However, in reality, moving fluids tend to also have funny pressure and temperature gradients, and that can change the index of refraction of the light, slightly warping the image that you're looking at. This is the source of stars twinkling, [road mirages](_URL_0_), among other familiar experiences with light. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Rayleigh scattering increases with the wavelength of the photon. If wind is moving at relativistic speeds towards the light, then from the air's point of reference, the photon is higher wavelength, so it's more likely to scatter. Photons also are more likely to scatter at right angles, so changing the wind can also change what direction that will end up being. However, this is very different from light just bending. If you looked at it, it would end up looking foggy, since some of the light will be deflected completely, rather than just appearing to be in a slightly different direction as it would if the light was all deflected slightly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11439",
"title": "Faster-than-light",
"section": "Section::::Justifications.:Lorentz symmetry violation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "The breaking of rotation and boost invariance causes direction dependence in the theory as well as unconventional energy dependence that introduces novel effects, including Lorentz-violating neutrino oscillations and modifications to the dispersion relations of different particle species, which naturally could make particles move faster than light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "299901",
"title": "Optical tweezers",
"section": "Section::::Physics.:Detailed view.:Electric dipole approximation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Since the scattering is isotropic, the net momentum is transferred in the forward direction. On the quantum level, we picture the gradient force as forward Rayleigh scattering in which identical photons are created and annihilated concurrently, while in the scattering (radiation) force the incident photons travel in the same direction and ‘scatter’ isotropically. By conservation of momentum, the particle must accumulate the photons' original momenta, causing a forward force in the latter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "624714",
"title": "Thomson scattering",
"section": "Section::::Description of the phenomenon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1082,
"text": "In the low-energy limit, the electric field of the incident wave (photon) accelerates the charged particle, causing it, in turn, to emit radiation at the same frequency as the incident wave, and thus the wave is scattered. Thomson scattering is an important phenomenon in plasma physics and was first explained by the physicist J. J. Thomson. As long as the motion of the particle is non-relativistic (i.e. its speed is much less than the speed of light), the main cause of the acceleration of the particle will be due to the electric field component of the incident wave. In a first approximation, the influence of the magnetic field can be neglected. The particle will move in the direction of the oscillating electric field, resulting in electromagnetic dipole radiation. The moving particle radiates most strongly in a direction perpendicular to its acceleration and that radiation will be polarized along the direction of its motion. Therefore, depending on where an observer is located, the light scattered from a small volume element may appear to be more or less polarized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "299901",
"title": "Optical tweezers",
"section": "Section::::Physics.:Detailed view.:Ray optics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "If the particle is located at the center of the beam, then individual rays of light are refracting through the particle symmetrically, resulting in no net lateral force. The net force in this case is along the axial direction of the trap, which cancels out the scattering force of the laser light. The cancellation of this axial gradient force with the scattering force is what causes the bead to be stably trapped slightly downstream of the beam waist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4132010",
"title": "Saltation (geology)",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "Once the wind speed reaches a certain critical value, termed the \"impact\" or \"fluid threshold\", the drag and lift forces exerted by the fluid are sufficient to lift some particles from the surface. These particles are accelerated by the fluid, and pulled downward by gravity, causing them to travel in roughly ballistic trajectories. If a particle has obtained sufficient speed from the acceleration by the fluid, it can eject, or \"splash\", other particles in saltation, which propagates the process. Depending on the surface, the particle could also disintegrate on impact, or eject much finer sediment from the surface. In air, this process of \"saltation bombardment\" creates most of the dust in dust storms. In rivers, this process repeats continually, gradually eroding away the river bed, but also transporting-in fresh material from upstream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "615108",
"title": "Poynting–Robertson effect",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Robertson considered dust motion in a beam of radiation emanating from a point source. A. W. Guess later considered the problem for a spherical source of radiation and found that for particles far from the source the resultant forces are in agreement with those concluded by Poynting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25880",
"title": "Refractive index",
"section": "Section::::Microscopic explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "BULLET::::- If the electrons emit a light wave which is 270° out of phase with the light wave shaking them, it will cause the wave to travel faster. This is called \"anomalous refraction\", and is observed close to absorption lines (typically in infrared spectra), with X-rays in ordinary materials, and with radio waves in Earth's ionosphere. It corresponds to a permittivity less than 1, which causes the refractive index to be also less than unity and the phase velocity of light greater than the speed of light in vacuum \"c\" (note that the signal velocity is still less than \"c\", as discussed above). If the response is sufficiently strong and out-of-phase, the result is a negative value of permittivity and imaginary index of refraction, as observed in metals or plasma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
496kdz
|
My friend says, that during medieval times 90% of an army would consist of drafted peasants with no prior fighting experience and sub par equipment (like sharpened pieces of wood as an improvised spear) is this true?
|
[
{
"answer": "A reply to /u/themantheycallsven\n\nYou may want to read /u/mi13 's answer here\n\n_URL_0_?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, it depends on what you mean by \"medieval times.\" In the early middle ages, then yeah, most armies were primarily made up of militias. For instance, in Anglo-Saxon England (I've got a friend who does Anglo-Saxon history, so I've heard a lot about this!), the bulk of the military was made up of the [fyrd](_URL_3_) who were for the most part, conscripted peasantry. The experienced nucleus of the army were the [comitatus](_URL_2_) who were the professional retainers/bodyguards/goons of the noble class. (See also: [thegns](_URL_0_) or [housecarls](_URL_1_)) but they were relatively few in number compared to the militia. For example, at Hastings, Harold's housecarls fought to the death, even after their king died.\n\nBasically, you only start to see professional armies in the later middle ages because earlier governments were too decentralized to support them, and a centrally organized army was something that local nobility had no interest in seeing (After all, it could be used against them!)\n\nNow, whether the peasantry had no experience is hard to say, but it'd be likely that some would, just because they survived past campaigning seasons.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45361083",
"title": "Croquant rebellions",
"section": "Section::::The 1594/95 uprisings.:The Uprisings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1084,
"text": "These saw themselves overpowered and were not able to contain the advance of the peasant troops. According to Jean Tarde, there was one soldier for each 100 peasants, and their military organisation owed itself to the fact that a good number of artisans, \"sons of good families\" (some historians, such as Mousnier and Bercé, include some minor nobles, or squirearchs, joining the revolt), and former soldiers were accompanying them. On the other hand, although the King had decreed an end to the movement, he also had expressed a certain benevolence toward the rebels and had promised to hear their complaints, and so for months the nobles felt indecisive about the degree of violence to employ in the repression, and their answer was due soon. As the reinforcements that the governor of Bourdeille had asked the King for were slow in coming, the nobility and the wealthy classes of the cities organised their own armed League. Months later, the reinforcements required by the King arrived from Jean de Sourches de Malicorne, governor of Poitou, and Jean du Chasteigner, M. de Albin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31324533",
"title": "Georg, Truchsess von Waldburg",
"section": "Section::::\"Bauernjörg\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "When the German peasants revolted in 1525, most Imperial troops were fighting in Italy. Georg von Waldburg could only recruit 4,000 unreliable Landsknechts and could do nothing more than to negotiate with the peasants. But after the victory against France in the Battle of Pavia, many war veterans returned to Southern Germany and were enlisted by Waldburg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8217499",
"title": "Races and nations of Warhammer Fantasy",
"section": "Section::::Realms of Men.:Kingdom of Bretonnia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "Some more well-off peasants may still serve as \"Men-at-arms\" in their lord's forces, each aristocrat being able to raise a few hundred men-at-arms from their peasant tenant families. These part-time soldiers are paid a marginal wage and are provisionally given basic armor and carry pikes or spears as their armaments. Each is also required to wear the livery of his lord's house. Though organized and markedly courageous, they are mostly poorly trained and under-supplied as their lords will rarely spare the time and resources to properly equip them. As such, men-at-arms often rely on salvaged or captured arms and other war gear from the battlefield.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1069393",
"title": "Early modern France",
"section": "Section::::Political history.:Wars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1005,
"text": "In 1445, the first steps were made towards fashioning a regular army out of the poorly disciplined mercenary bands that French kings traditionally relied on. The medieval division of society into \"those who fought (nobility), those who prayed (clergy), and those who worked (everyone else)\" still held strong and warfare was considered a domain of the nobles. Charles VIII marched into Italy with a core force consisting of noble horsemen and non-noble foot soldiers, but in time the role of the latter grew stronger so that by the middle of the 16th century, France had a standing army of 5000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry. The military was reorganized from a system of legions recruited by province (Norman legion, Gascon legion, etc.) to regiments, an arrangement which persisted into the next century. However, the nobility and troops were often disloyal to the king, if not outright rebellious, and it took another army reform by Louis XIV to finally transform the French army into an obedient force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5904639",
"title": "Battle of Mello",
"section": "Section::::The Road to Battle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "The armies were composed very differently: the peasant army under the leadership of Guillaume Cale numbered several thousand Beauvais peasants with a core of 400 Parisians, sent by Etienne Marcel, the leader of the Paris commune following a simultaneous uprising in the city. The force was poorly armed and untrained, though a few mercenaries and members of the lesser nobility provided limited leadership. The motives of the latter for joining the uprising were mixed. Some were subsequently to claim that they acted under duress, while others may have been convinced that the Jacquerie were acting on behalf of the imprisoned king.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2726726",
"title": "Military logistics",
"section": "Section::::History.:5th to 15th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Through the medieval period (the 5th to 15th century in Europe), soldiers were responsible for supplying themselves, either through foraging, looting, or purchases. Even so, military commanders often provided their troops with food and supplies, but this would be provided in lieu of the soldiers' wages, or soldiers would be expected to pay for it from their wages, either at cost or even with a profit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46674",
"title": "Battle of Tours",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Contemporary historical analysis may be more accurate than the medieval sources, as the modern figures are based on estimates of the logistical ability of the countryside to support these numbers of men and animals. Both Davis and Hanson point out that both armies had to live off the countryside, neither having a commissary system sufficient to provide supplies for a campaign. Other sources give the following estimates: \"Gore places the Frankish army at 15,000–20,000, although other estimates range from 30,000 to 80,000. In spite of wildly varying estimates of the Muslim force, he places that army as around 20,000–25,000. Other estimates also range up to 80,000, with 50,000 not an uncommon estimate.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21qdrk
|
What causes voltage?
|
[
{
"answer": "Voltage isn't the potential per unit charge. It's a potential difference between two points. Potential is potential *energy* per unit charge.\n\nEssentially, it's the amount of potential the circuit has to accelerate a unit of change to a velocity such that the charge has a kinetic energy of qV. In the same way that gravitational potential is the amount of potential a grav. field (the Earth's, for example) has to accelerate a mass.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "319613",
"title": "Voltage spike",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Voltage spikes, also known as surges, may be created by a rapid buildup or decay of a magnetic field, which may induce energy into the associated circuit. However voltage spikes can also have more mundane causes such as a fault in a transformer or higher-voltage (primary circuit) power wires falling onto lower-voltage (secondary circuit) power wires as a result of accident or storm damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9550",
"title": "Electricity",
"section": "Section::::Electricity and the natural world.:Physiological effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "A voltage applied to a human body causes an electric current through the tissues, and although the relationship is non-linear, the greater the voltage, the greater the current. The threshold for perception varies with the supply frequency and with the path of the current, but is about 0.1 mA to 1 mA for mains-frequency electricity, though a current as low as a microamp can be detected as an electrovibration effect under certain conditions. If the current is sufficiently high, it will cause muscle contraction, fibrillation of the heart, and tissue burns. The lack of any visible sign that a conductor is electrified makes electricity a particular hazard. The pain caused by an electric shock can be intense, leading electricity at times to be employed as a method of torture. Death caused by an electric shock is referred to as electrocution. Electrocution is still the means of judicial execution in some jurisdictions, though its use has become rarer in recent times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "319613",
"title": "Voltage spike",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "The effect of a voltage spike is to produce a corresponding increase in current (current spike). However some voltage spikes may be created by current sources. Voltage would increase as necessary so that a constant current will flow. Current from a discharging inductor is one example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35778443",
"title": "Leading and lagging current",
"section": "Section::::Lagging current.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "In circuits with primarily inductive loads, current lags the voltage. This happens because in an inductive load, it is the induced electromotive force that causes the current to flow. Note that in the definition above, the current is produced by the voltage. The induced electromotive force is caused by a change in the magnetic flux linking the coils of an inductor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65894",
"title": "Electromotive force",
"section": "Section::::Voltage difference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "BULLET::::1. For a circuit as a whole, such as one containing a resistor in series with a voltaic cell, electrical voltage does not contribute to the overall emf, because the voltage difference on going around a circuit is zero. (The ohmic \"IR\" voltage drop plus the applied electrical voltage sum to zero. See Kirchhoff's voltage law). The emf is due solely to the chemistry in the battery that causes charge separation, which in turn creates an electrical voltage that drives the current.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31036",
"title": "Triode",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "The magnitude of this current can be controlled by a voltage applied between the cathode and the grid. The grid acts like a gate for the electrons. A more negative voltage on the grid will repel some of the electrons, so fewer get through to the anode, reducing the anode current. A positive voltage on the grid will attract more electrons from the cathode, so more reach the anode, increasing the anode current. Therefore, a low power varying (AC) signal applied to the grid can control a much more powerful anode current, resulting in amplification. Variation in the grid voltage will cause identical proportional variations in the anode current. By placing a suitable load resistance in the anode circuit, the varying current will cause a varying voltage across the resistance which can be much larger than the input voltage variations, resulting in voltage gain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2061045",
"title": "Counter-electromotive force",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "For example, the voltage appearing across an inductor or \"coil\" is due to a change in current which causes a change in the magnetic field within the coil, and therefore the self-induced voltage. The polarity of the voltage at every moment opposes that of the change in applied voltage to keep the current constant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9sstwb
|
how come most people can't sing in tune, but crowds of people hit the right tones.
|
[
{
"answer": "You can't hear each individuals pitch. You end up getting the closest common pitch. It's like looking at a single piece of clear plastic. On its own, it's perfectly clear but when you stack 1000 of these sheets, they become the greenish greyish color that they all actually are",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most people *can* carry a tune. What they can't do is carry a tune loudly, that's one of the big things that separates professionals from shower virtuosos.\n\nIn a crowd, you don't have to sing loudly, and you are better able to keep in tune by listening to those around you. Also, if you are out of tune, enough people are in tune to compensate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Former choir boy here--the larger the singing group, the less noticeable any mistakes are because any one member's mistimed or off-pitch musical note will generally be drowned out by everyone else's correct notes. Unless a note is particularly tricky to hit, it's unlikely multiple people will botch it at the same time.\n\nOn top of that, a member can quickly prevent further mistakes by listening and getting the correct pitch from the other members around them--this is a process of bottom-up synchronization that can be scientifically and mathematically described by complexity theory and nonlinear dynamics.\n\nOn the other hand, an example of top-down group synchronization would be a group of singers following the directions of a conductor, or a stadium of fans following a vocalist on a mic or and/or reading from a jumbotron sing-along video.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "890709",
"title": "Caller (dancing)",
"section": "Section::::The modern Western square dance caller.:Training to call.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Sometimes people who get the desire to call believe that it is enough to stand up on a platform, and sing the provided text to a square dance song, or call a pre-written sequence of patter. Difficult as even that can be for some, with some natural talent, a good ear for rhythm and timing, an engaging stage presence, and perhaps a robust singing voice, even a beginner can sound good.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10685",
"title": "Filk music",
"section": "Section::::Filk circles.:Etiquette.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Disruptions and distractions are discouraged during a song. This includes walking through the circle, general noise, and conversations. If between-song conversations and noise get out of hand, it is common to hear someone shout \"Filker up!\" as a signal to end the conversations so that the next person can have their turn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "668442",
"title": "Lip sync",
"section": "Section::::In music.:Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "\"[S]ome of the most talented singers have been caught in the act of lip-synching\". Arts journalist Chuck Taylor says that it is considered \"an egregious offense\", but he points out that when singers are dancing and doing complex stage shows, it is hard to sing live. On some TV show performances, \"the singer's microphone is still on. On the parts they're not confident on or if the performance is physically demanding, the artist will sing quieter, and more of the performance [backing] track vocals can be heard.\" There are \"very few artists who [...] completely lip-sync\" while a backing track is playing with \"full lead vocals\", a practice done due to \"weather conditions, technical issues, or sickness.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22872782",
"title": "Lombard effect",
"section": "Section::::Choral singing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Choral singers experience reduced feedback due to the sound of other singers upon their own voice. This results in a tendency for people in choruses to sing at a louder level if it is not controlled by a conductor. Trained soloists can control this effect but it has been suggested that after a concert they might speak more loudly in noisy surroundings, such as after-concert parties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1602257",
"title": "Presbycusis",
"section": "Section::::Popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Abilities of young people to hear high frequency tones inaudible to those over 25 or so has led to the development of technologies to disperse groups of young people around shops (The Mosquito), and development of a cell phone ringtone, Teen Buzz, for students to use in school, that older people cannot hear. In September 2006 this technique was used to make a dance track called 'Buzzin'. The track had two melodies, one that everyone could hear and one that only younger people could hear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3459904",
"title": "Barred parakeet",
"section": "Section::::Aviculture.:Learning to talk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Sometimes they will mimic a specific person’s tone, normally the person they spend the most time with. They might additionally learn to imitate noises that are undesirable for them to repeat. Unwanted vocalizations can be minimised by not rewarding the bird with laughter or attention, or redirecting by getting the bird to perform another known trick.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1297518",
"title": "Music of Crete",
"section": "Section::::Categories.:Instrumental (dances, \"kondylies, kantadha\").:Mantinadas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Singers, professional and amateur alike, frequently improvise in the moment \"which\" mantinadas they sing or improvise entirely new ones on the spot. Sometimes a certain pairing of a particular mantinada with a particular melody (e.g., based on a well-known professional recording) will also congeal among much of the population and therefore tend to be repeated in performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cr5qvb
|
Do SSRIs actually work and why is there so much scaremongering about them?
|
[
{
"answer": "These communities you speak of are peddling quackery. Selective Serotonin Re-Update Inhibitors do indeed function as described, but they are not intended to be used exclusively with the expectation that they will \"cure\" depression or anxiety. Any mental health professional worth their salt will use SSRIs in concert with Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, in order to help the patient build a repertoire of coping mechanisms, as well as mindfulness to recognize when they are experiencing \"miss-shoots\" as a result of neurochemical imbalance.\n\nSelf-help communities are often lead by celebrity motivational speakers who intertwine religion or sports training into their talks as a means of appealing to target audiences and they are ultimately committing highly unethical practices by giving what is ultimately medical advice without having a medical license or degree. \n\nFor those people who claim that SSRIs never helped them, this is entirely believable, however. No two brains are exactly alike, and that is why there are so many different SSRIs-- the process involves finding which one actually works for you. They also have the unavoidable problem of losing efficacy over time as your brain adjusts to their chemical presence, so it can be a constant battle with a dysfunctional brain to keep it working the way it should be. That is why CBT (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy) is so important, because the principal of neuroplasticity allows you to actually \"reprogram\" your brain through behavioral change. The SSRIs just help that process along, or allow it to begin in the first place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've seen some of those claims. I think they're worth looking at, but not really conclusive.\n\nTo begin with, every one of the SSRIs on the market had to go through a rigorous process with placebo-controlled trials to be FDA-approved in the first place. That process might not be perfect, but someone who's going to claim that all of these trials somehow showed ineffective drugs to be effective needs to have something pretty good to back it up.\n\nI think that a big part of the reason that some of these studies show more pessimistic results for SSRIs than the original FDA trials has to do with the patient selection. SSRIs are not magical happy pills. They restore closer to normal levels of serotonin in the brain, which aids in executive function and lets the brain regulate thoughts and emotions normally. But not all cases of depression are caused by low levels of serotonin. If a person who doesn't have a serotonin deficiency takes an SSRI, it won't do any good (apart from a possible placebo effect). People who are depressed simply because they lack the coping mechanisms to deal with real or perceived life circumstances will not benefit from SSRIs, and should be treated with cognitive behavioral therapy instead.\n\nNow imagine a large data set of people who take SSRIs. Were these prescriptions appropriate for all of them? Suppose that the prescriptions were appropriate for half of them. Then the other half of the patients would get no benefits from the SSRIs, so the *average* benefit over the whole group would only be half of that seen for patients who actually have low serotonin. I don't really have a good feel for what percentage of SSRI prescriptions are appropriate. But it's not too hard to imagine that a drug that works well *for the patients for whom it was designed* could fail to show statistically significant benefits when applied less selectively.\n\nThere's no lab test that tells a doctor whether serotonin is low, so the only way to find out if an SSRI will help is to try it. The side effects are mild enough (though as you note, up to 40% of men may have some degree of sexual side effects) that doctors are usually pretty willing to let patients try them. So I don't find it surprising that real-world data sets would have a lot of people on SSRIs who don't actually need them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Adding to the other comments in this question, I am surprised nobody has yet brought up patient compliance. You can feel quite shitty when taking SSRIs, nausea and gaining weight being the prime side effects.\n\nYou have to take these pills for two to three weeks before measureable changes in patients occurs. During this time, many patients stop the therapy by themselves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "SSRI are staple antidepressants. This doesn’t mean that everyone should take them, or that they are a panacea of sorts.\n\nWhat we have been witnessing for some time now is a loss of trust in the pharmaceutical and medical professions due to an exacerbation of -in first line- profit-seeking. Not in every country and from every medical professional, but when medicine becomes a business it’s not primarily serving the patients any longer.\n\nThe backlash is a loss of trust that needs to be addressed as it could spiral out of control, as it already is with antivaxxers and other unsavory quackers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " SSRIs are complicated, but they do work for the most part. However, they don’t work for everyone. Let me dig into a few points: \n \n\n1. SSRIs are the main treatment for depression due to a few reasons, the first and foremost is patient safety and liability for the doctor, and the second is a (relatively) low side-effect profile. They replaced a different class of anti-depressants called tricyclics for the aforementioned reasons. Although in many cases tricyclics can be more effective for depression, with a shorter period of time required for them to take effect, they have a higher side-effect profile, largely due to their anti-muscarinic effects, but they also can kill you if you OD. This last point is important. If someone were to get really depressed and see taking their entire bottle of their AD as the solution, doing so with a tricyclic will more than likely kill you, where doing so with an SSRI will not. This increases patient safety and frees up the doctor to be liable for deaths related to tricyclics. BTW, tricyclics are also serotonin reuptake inhibitors, but they are not selective. They inhibit the reuptake of norepinephrine as well and usually effect a number of receptors (buttons in the brain and body that neurotransmitters activate), depending on which tricylcic.\n\n2. SSRIs are effective, but we don’t know how they work. The “Serotonin Theory of Depression”, that depression often results from a simple lack of the neurotransmitter serotonin, is wholly insufficient to explain why SSRIs work and has largely been dismissed. If it were simply serotonin levels, then SSRIs should not take weeks to work, but would work right away. Instead, scientists are leaning toward changes in serotonin receptor density (called 5HT receptors) being the likely mechanism of why they work. When you increase the levels of serotonin by inhibiting SERT (the serotonin transporter, the main mechanism through which SSRIs work), you have a change in the number of various serotonin receptors pre- and post-synaptically. Some researches point to downregulation (a lower amount of a receptor being displayed on the cell surface) of a receptor called 5HT2a being the main mechanism through which SSRIs function. This is a likely possibility IMO, and has explanatory power.\n\n3. Not all SSRIs are the same. Just because one doesn’t work, that doesn’t mean another won’t, as all SSRIs tend to do a little more than inhibiting SERT, depending on which SSRI. Setraline (Zoloft) also has a mild affinity for the dopamine transporter (DAT) and the sigma 1 receptor. Fluoxetine (Paxil) has a super-strong inhibition of SERT. If SSRIs don’t work after 2 of them, their sister drugs, SNRIs can very possibly work, which also inhibit the reuptake of norepinephrine by inhibiting the norepinephrine transporter (NET). Like SSRIs, there are a variety of SNRIs that also do different thing by having additional effects at different receptors.\n\n4. There are lot more treatments for depression than SSRIs. Don’t lose hope if they don’t work for you. As I mentioned, there are SNRIs, and a bunch of other antidepressants that work on a large variety of different mechanisms, all of which have a significant chance of working, in a variety of different ways. The MAOB-I Selegiline is a very potent AD by inhibiting the breakdown of dopamine without stimulant-like effects. The tetracyclic AD mirtazapine blocks serotonin receptors 5-HT2a and 5-HT2c. The atypical SSRIs Vortioxetine and Vilazodone are SSRIs that also modulate a receptor called 5-HT1a. RIMAs reversibly inhibit MAOA without the dangers of typical MAOIs. There are even more options that what I’ve listed here. Don’t lose hope if even if 4 medicines have failed you (extremely unlikely). There are a lot more than SSRIs, and even more than that.\n\nI hope this answers some questions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They don't work for everyone, and they come with risks. A lot of people are on one extreme or the other - they talk about them as if they work for everyone, or as though they're awful for everyone. Neither is true.\n\nAny particular antidepressent doesn't work for most people. Check out this link for an overview on that [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\nThere's also no real way to know whether taking antidepressants help or hurt you, because there's so many things that affect depression and the various symptoms of it - if you improve, how do you know whether it's because of the antidepressants? If you get worse (ex. more suicidal, more depressed, vivid dreams, nightmares, etc. are all potential \"side effects\"), how do you know it's because of the antidepressant? You can take a guess if going on antidepressants is the only life change you've made, but often people do lots of things at once to try to improve their mental health, and life changes in ways we don't control, so you can't actually KNOW.\n\nIMO, if you're seriously depressed and not improving, they are worth trying, starting at a *low* dose to mitigate the risk of severe side effects and increasing if it doesn't work, before moving on to another drug if it still doesn't work (that said, it is sometimes good to start at higher doses if you are at very high risk for suicide or for giving up on treatment - you and your prescriber should discuss all this). I'd also suggest you make sure to go over side effects with your prescriber and talk about any concerns, and read for yourself about potential side effects. I've had issues that were very likely caused by antidepressants, and my psychologist was IMO grossly negligent with going over the risks, even though they knew I was at particularly high risk for certain side effects.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59743",
"title": "Panic attack",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Medication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "SSRIs carry a relatively low risk due to the fact that they are not associated with much of a tolerance or dependence, and are difficult to overdose with. TCAs are similar to SSRIs in their many advantages, but come with more common side effects such as weight gain and cognitive disturbances. They are also easier to overdose on. MAOIs are generally suggested for patients who have not responded to other forms of treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23592",
"title": "Paraphilia",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Medications.:SSRIs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are used, especially with exhibitionists, non-offending pedophiles, and compulsive masturbators. They are proposed to work by reducing sexual arousal, compulsivity, and depressive symptoms. They have been well received and are considered an important pharmacological treatment of paraphilia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23058155",
"title": "Serotonin releasing agent",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "SSRAs have been used clinically as appetite suppressants, and they have also been proposed as novel antidepressants and anxiolytics with the potential for a faster onset of action and superior efficacy relative to the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44152139",
"title": "Development and discovery of SSRI drugs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, or serotonin-specific re-uptake inhibitor (SSRIs), are a class of chemical compounds that have contributed to the major advances as antidepressants where they have revolutionised the treatment of depression and other psychiatric disorders. The SSRIs are therapeutically useful in the treatment of panic disorder (PD), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), social anxiety disorder (also known as social phobia), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) and anorexia. There is also clinical evidence of SSRIs efficiency in the treatment of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia and their ability to prevent cardiovascular diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26383679",
"title": "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism of action.:Versus TCAs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 153,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 153,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "SSRIs are described as 'selective' because they affect only the reuptake pumps responsible for serotonin, as opposed to earlier antidepressants, which affect other monoamine neurotransmitters as well, and as a result, SSRIs have fewer side effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19064282",
"title": "Management of depression",
"section": "Section::::Medication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1589,
"text": "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as sertraline (Zoloft, Lustral), escitalopram (Lexapro, Cipralex), fluoxetine (Prozac), paroxetine (Seroxat), and citalopram, are the primary medications considered, due to their relatively mild side effects and broad effect on the symptoms of depression and anxiety, as well as reduced risk in overdose, compared to their older tricyclic alternatives. Those who do not respond to the first SSRI tried can be switched to another. If sexual dysfunction is present prior to the onset of depression, SSRIs should be avoided. Another popular option is to switch to the atypical antidepressant bupropion (Wellbutrin) or to add bupropion to the existing therapy; this strategy is possibly more effective. It is not uncommon for SSRIs to cause or worsen insomnia; the sedating noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressant (NaSSA) antidepressant mirtazapine (Zispin, Remeron) can be used in such cases. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia can also help to alleviate the insomnia without additional medication. Venlafaxine (Effexor) may be moderately more effective than SSRIs; however, it is not recommended as a first-line treatment because of the higher rate of side effects, and its use is specifically discouraged in children and adolescents. Fluoxetine is the only antidepressant recommended for people under the age of 18, though, if a child or adolescent patient is intolerant to fluoxetine, another SSRI may be considered. Evidence of effectiveness of SSRIs in those with depression complicated by dementia is lacking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26383679",
"title": "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The main indication for SSRIs is major depressive disorder; however, they are frequently prescribed for anxiety disorders, such as social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), eating disorders, chronic pain, and, in some cases, for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). They are also frequently used to treat depersonalization disorder, although generally with poor results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2xb3w0
|
why is the border between canada and the us so straight in comparison to the rest of the worlds borders?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most borders were caused by mountain ranges, rivers, and centuries of conflict back and forth. The US/Canada border was formed by a treaty where we placed a bunch of monuments along the border and declared that to be the official boundary. When that wasn't good enough, the two governments cut a 20 foot wide clearing along the entire border to make sure you know where the boundary is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[It's not. It's really not](_URL_0_)\n\nIt's actually incredibly jagged.\n\nIt only appears straight because of how small the angles are from space, and because on maps they go by where the border should be, not where it is.\n\nThe border is supposed to be on the 49^th parallel, but in reality there are a few flaws.\n\n1 - They didn't have GPS back then, so they more or less sent a bunch of guys out with a compass and a map and told them to mark the land.\n\n2 - There are lakes and such that couldn't be conveniently cut straight through. Such as one between Minnesota and Manitoba. Since maps were incomplete, many arrangements were things such as \"Go from the northwest corner until it reaches the Mississippi River\" except that the river stops short of the border, so a later round decided that it was just easier to cut off a chunk of the Canadian side for the USA.\n\n3 - Vancouver Island would have been cut into two parts, seeing this though, the nations decided to let Canada have the island. Point Roberts isn't so lucky so now students have to go from USA into Canada and then back into the USA in the morning and then again in the afternoon to get to and from school.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The border is set at the 49th parallel north. Quick history lesson:\n\nWhile the U.S. became independent in the late 18th century, Canada remained a British colony. In 1803, Napoleon sold the Louisiana Territory to the U.S., doubling the size of the country. This was followed by border dispute between the U.S. and British-controlled Canada. The Anglo-American Convention of 1818 set the border at the 49th parallel north, giving some of the Louisiana Territory to the British and some of what was previously Canada to the Americans. The treaty also allowed joint settlement and occupation of the disputed Oregon Country, located to the west of the Louisiana Territory.\n\nBut in the 1840s, there was a rising tide of American nationalism. President James K. Polk believed that it was America's \"manifest destiny\" to expand to the Pacific. Party hardliners demanded the entire Oregon Country with the slogan, \"fifty-four forty or fight!\" In 1846, the Oregon Treaty settled the issue with a comprise, extending the 49th-parallel border to the Pacific. The area to the south became the Oregon Territory (later, Oregon, Washington, and Idaho) while the area to the north became British Columbia. And, of course, the border stayed there when Canada became independent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The same reason that most of the states and provinces have straight borders. They were all defined by maps and treaties and there was mostly nothing there. Most other countries have been defined by centuries of war and conflict. One army beats back another army to a river, lake or mountain range which is not easy to cross, so they stop there and that becomes the new border. It also provides a nice defense, if you want to invade my new country, you need to march your army over a bunch of mountains before you can attack me. Odds are most of your army will die before you get here so you might not try.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Maybe to add to your question. It isn't uncommon or rather it is actually pretty common for countries that came into existence due to colonization to have straight borders. An example would be Iraq or Libya (and for that a lot of other African countries). \n\nThe people in charge of colonization just took a ruler and drew lines on a map.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5199",
"title": "Canada–United States relations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1333,
"text": "Canada–United States relations refers to the bilateral relations between the bordering countries of Canada and the United States. Relations between Canada and the United States historically have been extensive, given a shared border and ever-increasing close cultural, economical ties and similarities. The shared historical and cultural heritage has resulted in one of the most stable and mutually beneficial international relationships in the world. For both countries, the level of trade with the other is at the top of the annual combined import-export total. Tourism and migration between the two nations have increased rapport, but border security was heightened after the September 11 terrorist attacks on the United States in 2001. The U.S. is approximately 9.25 times larger in population and has the dominant cultural and economic influence. Starting with the American Revolution, when anti-American Loyalists fled to Canada, a vocal element in Canada has warned against US dominance or annexation. The War of 1812 saw invasions across the border. In 1815, the war ended with the border unchanged and demilitarized, as were the Great Lakes. The British ceased aiding First Nation attacks on American territory, and the United States never again attempted to invade Canada. Apart from minor raids, it has remained peaceful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "630260",
"title": "Canada–United States border",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "The Canada–United States border (), officially known as the International Boundary (), is the longest international border in the world between two countries. It is shared between Canada and the United States, the second- and fourth/third largest countries by area, respectively. The terrestrial boundary (including portions of maritime boundaries in the Great Lakes, and on the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic coasts) is long, of which is Canada's border with Alaska. Eight Canadian provinces and territories (Yukon, British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, and New Brunswick), and thirteen U.S. states (Alaska, Washington, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine) are located along the border.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5042916",
"title": "Canada",
"section": "Section::::Government and politics.:Foreign relations and military.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partner. Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full relations with Cuba, and declining to officially participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Canada also maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Francophonie. Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5199",
"title": "Canada–United States relations",
"section": "Section::::Trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Canada and the United States have the world's largest trading relationship, with huge quantities of goods and people flowing across the border each year. Since the 1987 Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, there have been no tariffs on most goods passed between the two countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "390903",
"title": "Rush–Bagot Treaty",
"section": "Section::::Outcome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "The Canada–United States border was demilitarized, including the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain. The U.S. and the British agreed to joint control over the Oregon Territory. The Rush–Bagot Agreement laid the foundation for the world's longest east–west boundary—8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi), and the longest demilitarized border in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17206485",
"title": "Canada–United States trade relations",
"section": "Section::::By sector.:Energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "The strength of the Canada–U.S. relationship is demonstrated by impressive bilateral trade of approximately $1.9 billion a day, along the world's longest undefended border. Energy trade is the largest component of this cross-border commerce. Canada has the third-largest oil reserves (after Saudi Arabia and Venezuela), thanks to its oil-sands resources. The United States has historically been Canada's only foreign market for natural gas, oil, and hydropower. In 2010, almost 100% of Canada's exports in these commodity classes were destined for the United States. Canada is the largest foreign supplier of crude oil (25% of oil imports) and natural gas to the United States. In short, this energy relationship has enhanced U.S. energy security and provided Canada with a steady demand for its energy exports.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21570162",
"title": "Borders of Canada",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Canada shares borders with the United States in 8 out of 13 provinces and territories. The provinces and territories that do not share a border with the United States share a provincial border with at least one that does except for Prince Edward Island.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
n8zzo
|
Should I listen to music while studying?
|
[
{
"answer": "Theoretically, you're worse off studying with music (unless you're listening to the music during the exam and the music doesn't distract you *at all*). However, if you're able to do an hour of study without music or three hours with, I'd use music.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Studying with no music is theoretically the best way to study because the room you take your test in will likely also be silent. However, if you need some noise then music without singing is better than music with singing because the words from the singer can interfere with your ability to put into memory the words you are studying.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was diagnosed with ADD or something like that in high school, and I remember a book I read explaining it as though there is a certain level of brain activity required to maintain interest, and for people with ADD, that level is a little bit higher. I read many books on ADD (mother made me), and honestly I don't remember much about them, to know if this is even somewhat correct. Supposedly, that's why stimulants are given-to create a level of static brain activity, that makes focusing possible. In other words, that the brain activity needed to pay attention is kinda stacked on top of just white noise.\n\nANYWAY, when I listen to music, especially music with subtle/sparse vocals, I study much much better. My rationale was that music acts as that stimulus, so that the homework can actually keep my attention.\n\nIs this correct even a little bit?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Listen to white noise. It helps me concentrate far better than any other method",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Theoretically, you're worse off studying with music (unless you're listening to the music during the exam and the music doesn't distract you *at all*). However, if you're able to do an hour of study without music or three hours with, I'd use music.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Studying with no music is theoretically the best way to study because the room you take your test in will likely also be silent. However, if you need some noise then music without singing is better than music with singing because the words from the singer can interfere with your ability to put into memory the words you are studying.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was diagnosed with ADD or something like that in high school, and I remember a book I read explaining it as though there is a certain level of brain activity required to maintain interest, and for people with ADD, that level is a little bit higher. I read many books on ADD (mother made me), and honestly I don't remember much about them, to know if this is even somewhat correct. Supposedly, that's why stimulants are given-to create a level of static brain activity, that makes focusing possible. In other words, that the brain activity needed to pay attention is kinda stacked on top of just white noise.\n\nANYWAY, when I listen to music, especially music with subtle/sparse vocals, I study much much better. My rationale was that music acts as that stimulus, so that the homework can actually keep my attention.\n\nIs this correct even a little bit?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Listen to white noise. It helps me concentrate far better than any other method",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47963845",
"title": "Music learning theory",
"section": "Section::::Sound Before Sight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Contemporary music pedagogies emphasize \"sound before sight\", or the idea that in order to develop an understanding of music and music notation, individuals must first become comfortable with listening to, singing, and performing tonal and rhythm patterns before reading and writing music. Modern studies by Luce (1965), McPherson (1993, 1995, 2005), and Bernhard (2004) all suggest a significant positive correlation with playing by ear and the ability to sight read, and experimental research by Haston (2004) and Musco (2006) also suggest that spending classroom time playing by ear does not negatively impact students' abilities to develop music reading skills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60632306",
"title": "Musical literacy",
"section": "Section::::Pedagogy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Stewart, Walsh & Frith (2004) state that “music reading is an automatic process in trained musicians” whereby the speed of information and psychomotor processing occurs at a high level (Kopiez, Weihs, Ligges & Lee, 2006). The coding of visual information, motor responses, and visual-motor integration make up several processes that occur both dependently and independently of one another; while “the ability to play by ear may have a moderate positive correlation to music reading abilities”, studies also demonstrate that concepts of pitch and timing are perceived separately.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8128722",
"title": "Eye movement in music reading",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with eye movement in language reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "Another critical difference between reading music and reading language is the role of skill. Most people become reasonably efficient at language reading by adulthood, even though almost all language reading is sight reading. By contrast, some musicians regard themselves as poor sight readers of music even after years of study. Thus, the improvement of music sight reading and the differences between skilled and unskilled readers have always been of prime importance to research into eye movement in music reading, whereas research into eye movement in language reading has been more concerned with the development of a unified psychological model of the reading process. It is therefore unsurprising that most research into eye movement in music reading has aimed to compare the eye movement patterns of the skilled and the unskilled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47472740",
"title": "Colm Keegan",
"section": "Section::::CKonLine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "\"This unique, exciting prospect bears no limits to what can be achieved. We can take people with no experience in Music theory and have them reading music and, more importantly, understanding music in just a matter of weeks.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1602747",
"title": "Educational music",
"section": "Section::::Effects of music on education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "There have been many studies on the use of music to aid in teaching, as well as how an individual who plays music fares in their education. Results show that using music when teaching children to read, for example, can help children learn how to read and give lasting results. A study on elementary students even showed that students with music training have overall better verbal memory, compared to the memory of those students of the same demographic without music training.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8128722",
"title": "Eye movement in music reading",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Eye movement in music reading is the scanning of a musical score by a musician's eyes. This usually occurs as the music is read during performance, although musicians sometimes scan music silently to study it. The phenomenon has been studied by researchers from a range of backgrounds, including cognitive psychology and music education. These studies have typically reflected a curiosity among performing musicians about a central process in their craft, and a hope that investigating eye movement might help in the development of more effective methods of training musicians' sight reading skills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20358",
"title": "Music lesson",
"section": "Section::::Theory and history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "To fully understand music being played, the student must learn the basics of the underlying music theory. Along with musical notation, students learn rhythmic techniques—like controlling tempo, recognizing time signatures, and the theory of harmony, including chords and key signatures. In addition to basic theory, a good teacher stresses \"musicality\", or how to make the music sound good. This includes how to create good, pleasing tone, how to do musical phrasing, and how to use dynamics (loudness and softness) to make the piece or song more expressive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
18q097
|
The Black Death as the crucial factor that ended feudalism and began the Protestant Reformation - accurate? too simple? both?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is too simplistic. No major world events can be boiled down to one cause. For example, World War I: The popular answer to \"what caused it?\" is the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand. However, such an answers ignores other factors such as increased colonial aggression and the naval race.\n\nFor your question, saying that Black Death was the cause of the Reformation is entirely too reductionistic. It may have had an influence, but there are a variety of other factors which helped to cause the Reformation, such as indulgences and general corruption within the Roman Catholic Church. Basically, the Reformation was the result of approximately a century of build-up pre-Luther of discontent within the Church and had many contributing factors.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Hi! I'm studying for a history degree at the moment, and two of my papers are the high/later middle ages in Britain, so if I may have a swing at the feudalism aspect I would enjoy that.\n\nAt the start of learning about medieval society, I was expressly told that I was never to use the word 'feudalism'. A feudal relationship is one in which land is exchanged for military service; in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest, William doled out land to his followers on the condition that in times of war they provide a certain number of knights- naturally round numbers. However, even then, this type of landholding relationship was far from ubiquitous- there were financial arrangements, exemptions, urban landholding relationships and the like. Furthermore, William was very keen on making sure that the knightly subtenants knew that he was ultimately the one in charge, and that all land derived from him eventually; he made all, not just his barons but also the 'landholding men of any account (source: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, can't remember which version) swear fealty to him above all others at Salisbury in 1086. As such, 'feudalism' is really an inappropriate way of talking about the social system even then.\n\nNow, before we get to the Black Death, we should pitstop in the reign of Henry II. By this time, landholding was even more complex. The institution of 'scutage', or shield money, allowed landholders to provide money for mercenaries instead of direct military commitment. This had evolved for two reasons- first of all, often the knights provided were of variable quality. The archbishop of Canterbury, Anselm, in the reign of William Rufus eventually exiled himself after being accused of providing 'substandard knights'. From the king's point of view it was usually better to take the money and hire rather than use knights of unknown quality with a time limit- usually forty days per year. A partial response to this was the Assize of Arms of 1181, but it shows the cracks in the feudal systems in place. Secondly, if you have a landholding that owes one knight to its landlord, and sell half of it, what happens? Especially this soon after the Anarchy of King Stephen, many barons argued over what they owed or owed 16 and 1/3 knights or some similarly unworkable number. Equally, if a knightly subtenant owns land from two barons, who does he go to war with? These kind of problems inherent in the system again lead to a system of scutage and the decline of feudal relationships. Furthermore, the institution of the Common Law put the king's justice at the hands of all free men for a very affordable price, thus effectively invalidating the baronial court- seeing as a royal judgement would over-rule a baronial one; why go to a local court when the loser would inevitably appeal to the King's justice anyway (Source: Glanvil)?\n\nSo by the Black Death, military feudal relationships (which is what feudalism actually refers to) were limited already. However, the impact of the Black Death on serfdom and the end of unfree tenancies is huge, as you rightly identify. The Statute of Labourers in 1351 was intended to combat the new power gained by labourers who for the first time really had some worth. There's an excellent quote from an article called 'England in the Aftermath of the Black Death' in Past and Present by J. Hatcher saying that 'in the aftermath, even the smallest of the poor had been imbued with value'. Ultimately labour legislation failed for a variety of reasons, and the decline of villeinage in the late 14th and early 15th century was gradual but had so much momentum at the time it must have seemed inevitable. One of my favourite historical anecdotes comes from the 'Good Parliament' in 1376 where a commons petition to arrest and imprison any new labourer in an area on principle until it could be investigated whether or not he had illegally left his last manor. Where they were planning on putting these people, who was going to do the investigation and most importantly how on earth they were going to pay for it I have no idea, and apparently neither did the leaders of the commons, who threw it out.\n\nI can provide sources for most of this stuff if you would like, though it would take quite a lot of digging! I'm afraid some, especially the earlier stuff is from lectures but I reckon I can find it out from somewhere. Any further questions on any of this from anyone I would be very happy to answer to the best of my ability!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52992201",
"title": "Agriculture in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Feudalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "A major factor contributing to the death of feudalism in most of Europe was the Black Death of 1347–1351 and subsequent epidemics which killed one-third or more of the people of Europe. In the aftermath of the Black Death, land was abundant and labor was scarce and the rigid relationships among farmers. the church, and the nobility changed. Feudalism is generally regarded as having ended in western Europe around 1500, although serfs were not finally freed in Russia until 1861. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16392927",
"title": "Bubonic plague",
"section": "Section::::History.:Second pandemic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1575,
"text": "In the Late Middle Ages (1340–1400) Europe experienced the most deadly disease outbreak in history when the Black Death, the infamous pandemic of bubonic plague, hit in 1347, killing a third of the European human population. Some historians believe that society subsequently became more violent as the mass mortality rate cheapened life and thus increased warfare, crime, popular revolt, waves of flagellants, and persecution. The Black Death originated in Central Asia and spread from Italy and then throughout other European countries. Arab historians Ibn Al-Wardni and Almaqrizi believed the Black Death originated in Mongolia. Chinese records also showed a huge outbreak in Mongolia in the early 1330s. Research published in 2002 suggests that it began in early 1346 in the steppe region, where a plague reservoir stretches from the northwestern shore of the Caspian Sea into southern Russia. The Mongols had cut off the trade route, the Silk Road, between China and Europe which halted the spread of the Black Death from eastern Russia to Western Europe. The epidemic began with an attack that Mongols launched on the Italian merchants' last trading station in the region, Caffa in the Crimea. In late 1346, plague broke out among the besiegers and from them penetrated into the town. When spring arrived, the Italian merchants fled on their ships, unknowingly carrying the Black Death. Carried by the fleas on rats, the plague initially spread to humans near the Black Sea and then outwards to the rest of Europe as a result of people fleeing from one area to another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20993417",
"title": "Black Death in England",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.:Economic, social and political effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Among the most immediate consequences of the Black Death in England was a shortage of farm labour, and a corresponding rise in wages. The medieval world-view was unable to interpret these changes in terms of socio-economic development, and it became common to blame degrading morals instead. The landowning classes saw the rise in wage levels as a sign of social upheaval and insubordination, and reacted with coercion. In 1349, King Edward III passed the Ordinance of Labourers, fixing wages at pre-plague levels. The ordinance was reinforced by Parliament's passing of the Statute of Labourers in 1351. The labour laws were enforced with ruthless determination over the following decades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29227373",
"title": "Economics of English towns and trade in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Mid-medieval economic crisis - the Great Famine and the Black Death (1290-1350).:Black Death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1169,
"text": "The Black Death epidemic first arrived in England in 1348, re-occurring in waves during 1360-2, 1368-9, 1375 and more sporadically thereafter. The most immediate economic impact of this disaster was the widespread loss of life, between around 27% mortality amongst the upper classes, to 40-70% amongst the peasantry. Despite the very high loss of life, few settlements were abandoned during the epidemic itself, but many were badly affected or nearly eliminated altogether. The medieval authorities did their best to respond in an organised fashion, but the economic disruption was immense. Building work ceased and many mining operations paused. In the short term, efforts were taken by the authorities to control wages and enforce pre-epidemic working conditions. Coming on top of the previous years of famine, however, the longer term economic implications were profound. In contrast to the previous centuries of rapid growth, the English population would not begin to recover for over a century, despite the many positive reasons for a resurgence. The crisis would dramatically affect English agriculture, wages and prices for the remainder of the medieval period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29233173",
"title": "Economics of English Mining in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Mid-medieval economic crisis - the Great Famine and the Black Death (1290–1350).:Black Death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1133,
"text": "The Black Death epidemic first arrived in England in 1348, re-occurring in waves during 1360-2, 1368-9, 1375 and more sporadically thereafter. The most immediate economic impact of this disaster was the widespread loss of life, between around 27% mortality amongst the upper classes, to 40-70% amongst the peasantry. Despite the very high loss of life, few settlements were abandoned during the epidemic itself, but many were badly affected or nearly eliminated altogether. The medieval authorities did their best to respond in an organised fashion, but the economic disruption was immense. Building work ceased and many mining operations paused. In the short term, efforts were taken by the authorities to control wages and enforce pre-epidemic working conditions. Coming on top of the previous years of famine, however, the longer term economic implications were profound. In contrast to the previous centuries of rapid growth, the English population would not begin to recover for over a century, despite the many positive reasons for a resurgence. The crisis would affect English mining for the remainder of the medieval period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23000701",
"title": "Christianity in the 15th century",
"section": "Section::::Western Christianity.:Protestant Reformation roots and precursors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1311,
"text": "The outcome of the Black Death encouraged a radical reorganization of the economy and eventually of European society. In the emerging urban centers, however, the calamities of the 14th and early 15th century, and the resultant labor shortages, provided a strong impetus for economic diversification and technological innovations. Following the Black Death, the initial loss of life from famine, plague, and pestilence contributed to an intensification of capital accumulation in the urban areas and thus a stimulus to trade, industry, and burgeoning urban growth in fields as diverse as banking (the Fugger banking family in Augsburg and the Medici family of Florence being the most prominent); textiles, armaments, especially stimulated by the Hundred Years' War, and mining of iron ore with the booming armaments industry. Accumulation of surplus, competitive overproduction, and heightened competition to maximize economic advantage contributed to civil war, aggressive militarism, and thus to centralization. As a direct result of the move toward centralization, leaders like Louis XI of France sought to remove all constitutional restrictions on the exercise of their authority. In England, France, and Spain the move toward centralization begun in the 13th century was carried to a successful conclusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28714419",
"title": "Economy of England in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Mid-medieval economic crisis – the Great Famine and the Black Death (1290–1350).:Black Death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 1171,
"text": "The Black Death epidemic first arrived in England in 1348, re-occurring in waves during 1360–62, 1368–69, 1375 and more sporadically thereafter. The most immediate economic impact of this disaster was the widespread loss of life, between around 27% mortality amongst the upper classes, to 40–70% amongst the peasantry. Despite the very high loss of life, few settlements were abandoned during the epidemic itself, but many were badly affected or nearly eliminated altogether. The medieval authorities did their best to respond in an organised fashion, but the economic disruption was immense. Building work ceased and many mining operations paused. In the short term, efforts were taken by the authorities to control wages and enforce pre-epidemic working conditions. Coming on top of the previous years of famine, however, the longer-term economic implications were profound. In contrast to the previous centuries of rapid growth, the English population would not begin to recover for over a century, despite the many positive reasons for a resurgence. The crisis would dramatically affect English agriculture, wages and prices for the remainder of the medieval period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9wm3vs
|
why do videos sound terrifyingly deeper when slowed down?
|
[
{
"answer": "Higher pitched sounds are just sound waves vibrating really fast. So when you slow a video down you’re also slowing the sound down making the vibrations slower and the sound deeper. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "173175",
"title": "Motion blur",
"section": "Section::::Negative effects of motion blur.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "In video games the use or not of motion blur is somewhat controversial. Some gamers claim that the blur actually makes gaming worse since it does blur images, making more difficult to recognize objects, especially in fast-paced moments. This does become noticeable the lower the frame rate is. Improvements in the visual quality of modern post-process motion blur shaders as well as a tendency towards high frame rate video games has lessened the visual detriment of undersampled motion blur effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173175",
"title": "Motion blur",
"section": "Section::::Negative effects of motion blur.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Conversely, extra motion blur can unavoidably occur on displays when it is not desired. This occurs with some video displays (especially LCD) that exhibits motion blur during fast motion. This can lead to more perceived motion blurring above and beyond the preexisting motion blur in the video material. See display motion blur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2572370",
"title": "Flicker-free",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Higher refresh rates, while they reduce flicker, may cause other problems. Simply redisplaying the fields may cause judder, particularly on fast moving images, as the image is displayed repeatedly in the same location, rather than moving smoothly. Conversely, interpolation (which avoids judder and may create more fluid motion than in the original video) can instead cause blurring, particularly visible on fast scrolling text. See motion interpolation for further discussion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173175",
"title": "Motion blur",
"section": "Section::::Negative effects of motion blur.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "In televised sports, where conventional cameras expose pictures 25 or 30 times per second, motion blur can be inconvenient because it obscures the exact position of a projectile or athlete in slow motion. For this reason special cameras are often used which eliminate motion blurring by taking rapid exposures on the order of 1 millisecond, and then transmitting them over the course of the next 30 to 40 milliseconds. Although this gives sharper slow motion replays it can look strange at normal speed because the eye expects to see motion blurring and is not provided with blurred images. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12544853",
"title": "Display motion blur",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Many motion blur factors have existed for a long time in film and video (e.g. slow camera shutter speed). The emergence of digital video, and HDTV display technologies, introduced many additional factors that now contribute to motion blur. The following factors are generally the primary or secondary causes of perceived motion blur in video. In many cases, multiple factors can occur at the same time within the entire chain, from the original media or broadcast, all the way to the receiver end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "149129",
"title": "Progressive scan",
"section": "Section::::Usage in TVs, video projectors, and monitors.:Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "In the case of most media, such as DVD movies and video games, the video is blurred during the authoring process itself to subdue interline twitter when played back on interlace displays. As a consequence, recovering the sharpness of the original video is impossible when the video is viewed progressively. A user-intuitive solution to this is when display hardware and video games come equipped with options to blur the video at will, or to keep it at its original sharpness. This allows the viewer to achieve the desired image sharpness with both interlaced and progressive displays. An example of video games with this feature is the Super Smash Bros. series starting with \"Melee\", where a \"Deflicker\" option exists. Ideally, it would be turned on when played on an interlaced display to reduce interline twitter, and off when played on a progressive display for maximum image clarity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5874488",
"title": "Find the Colour",
"section": "Section::::Music video.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "It was noted by frontman Grant Nicholas in an interview on now-defunct TV channel The Amp that as the video is seen in slow motion from start to end, it has done something not done by many or any music videos in the past.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4icjde
|
How does car wax work to protect the paint colour?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well I can help with some parts of your question:\n\nWaxing a car in the traditional sense puts a microscopic layer between the world and clearcoat/paint. Water/acids/etc eat away at that first before they get to work on the clearcoat. Should enough time go by the clear coat will get eaten away and then the color starts to go rather quick. (Clear coat failure) \n\nUV rays are damaging to many things (skin/paint/color in fabric/etc) There are synthetic waxes with UV inhibitors in them that help take some of the punch of UV rays away. The color that's in car paint is in many ways the same as the color in a flag left out in the sun for years. It fades unless it's been treated with something special. I've never really heard of \"wax\" in general protecting from the sun, and by that I mean the 4 dollar bottle of turtle wax at walmart isn't going to keep your car safe from UV rays. As an example - when a the ZR1 variant of the C6 corvette was released, it had a clear coated carbon fiber roof, the clear coat had an additive mixed in to protect it from UV rays (so the carbon wouldn't yellow) This additive costs thousands of dollars per gallon. \n\n_URL_0_\n(references the special paint they use with UV blocking\n\nOn the more physical side of things (vs chemical) waxes help fill in all the microscopic valleys/bumps/etc in the clear coat, giving you that smooth feel and shine. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15456253",
"title": "Paint sealant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Paint sealant works by filling into the pores and irregular surface of the body thereby creating a smooth finish on top. The way it helps is it denies a sticking surface to foreign substance and they come off the car easily without further damaging the car surface\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "308765",
"title": "Case modding",
"section": "Section::::Less common modifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "BULLET::::- Automotive paint & other finishes: Automotive paint refers to the paint typically seen on cars and trucks. This type of finish requires a compressed air source, such as an air compressor or CO2 tank, and a spray gun. It is more expensive than a finish using spray cans, but when done skillfully it can be better looking and much more durable. Other methods of painting can include powder coating which is highly durable though not quite as aesthetically pleasing to many modders as automotive paint. Electroplating can also be done on steel computer cases and parts. Aluminum cases can be plated or anodized as well, and processes are available to plate plastic cases. Plated coatings can range from nickel to chrome and even gold. More elaborate finishes can be crafted by using a combination of techniques, such as chrome plating with a transparent color coat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11814346",
"title": "Automotive paint",
"section": "Section::::Processes and coatings.:Base Coat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "BULLET::::- Solid paints have no sparkle effects except the color. This is the easiest type of paint to apply, and the most common type of paint for heavy transportation vehicles, construction equipment and aircraft. It is also widely used on cars, trucks, and motorcycles. Clear coat was not used on solid colors until the early 1990s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11814346",
"title": "Automotive paint",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Automotive paint is paint used on automobiles for both protection and decoration purposes. Water-based acrylic polyurethane enamel paint is currently the most widely used paint for reasons including reducing paint's environmental impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3813953",
"title": "Rustproofing",
"section": "Section::::Vehicle rustproofing.:Factory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "In the factory, car bodies are protected with special chemical formulations, typically phosphate conversion coatings. Some firms galvanize part or all of their car bodies before the primer coat of paint is applied. If a car is body-on-frame, then the frame (chassis) must also be rustproofed. Paint is the final part of the rustproofing barrier between the body shell (apart from on the underside) and the atmosphere. On the underside, an underseal rubberized or PVC-based coating is sprayed on. These products will be breached eventually and can lead to unseen corrosion that spreads underneath the underseal. Old 1960s and 1970s rubberized underseal can become brittle on older cars and is particularly liable to this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "346451",
"title": "Abrasive",
"section": "Section::::Manufactured abrasives.:Other abrasives and their uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "Cutting compound used on automotive paint is an example of an abrasive suspended in a liquid, paste or wax, as are some polishing liquids for silverware and optical media. The liquid, paste or wax acts as a binding agent that keeps the abrasive attached to the cloth which is used as a backing to move the abrasive across the work piece. On cars in particular, wax may serve as both a protective agent by preventing exposure of the paint of metal to air and also act as an optical filler to make scratches less noticeable. Toothpaste contains calcium carbonate or silica as a \"polishing agent\" to remove plaque and other matter from teeth as the hardness of calcium carbonate is less than that of tooth enamel but more than that of the contaminating agent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10719702",
"title": "Paint protection film",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Paint protection film (PPF, also called clear bra, clear film or clear paint film) is a thermoplastic urethane often self healing film applied to painted surfaces of a new or used car in order to protect the paint from stone chips, bug splatters, and minor abrasions. This film is also used on airplanes, RVs, cell phones, electronics, screens, motorcycles and many other areas. Paint protection film is OEM approved by virtually all car manufacturers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9d8ucj
|
why do you burn fat better at a lower heart rate than your cardio zone?
|
[
{
"answer": "You don't. You burn a larger *percentage* of fat calories in that heart rate zone than in a higher zone. But, because you're burning more calories in total, you actually burn more fat calories in total at higher heart rates. \n\nSee _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oxygen is required to metabolize fat, therefore you need to exercise in a zone where you are getting plenty of oxygen into the blood to complete this process (aerobic exercise). When you exercise more vigorously (anaerobic exercise) you will ultimately burn more calories, but your body will not be able to break down fat as the primary source or fuel. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So you have two forms of exercise aerobic and anaerobic. In reality the two forms of exercise tend to burn fat at the same rate overall but anaerobic is not feasible for long periods of time.\n\nAnaerobic or high intensity exercise utilises a shortened less efficient cycle for energy. This process has some ‘harmful’ products most commonly known as lactic acid. A build up of this acid eventually leads to us having to stop anaerobic activity. This form of energy will eventually lead to more fat burn simply because the energy you get from one molecule of fat is grossly inefficient. However most of the energy comes immediately from the blood and cells own storage of sugars. Taking adipose tissues and turning it into useful glycogens etc takes time to kick in and get moving. \n\nThese harmful products will eventually be broken down/converted back into less dangerous molecules using aerobic activity so in the same length of time you are using the same amount of oxygen but having to break down more glucose molecules.\n\nOkay so to put it into an analogy:\n\nImagine you are having a drag race and you have two identical cars.\n\nCar A shoots off the line accelerating hard the whole way producing awful black smoke in the process. And empties half it’s tank but completes the race very quickly. However you can collect the black smoke and create fuel taking you back up to 3/4 of a tank.\n\nCar B slowly pulls off the line producing a much cleaner emission and continues durdling along until it reaches the finish lines after quite a length of time. Now the car has used only 1/4 of a tank but with a lot less effort and after a much greater amount of time.\n\nSo in reality both cars while having very different approaches used the same amount of fuel. With car A possibly using more because catching and converting the black fuel is not 100% efficient.\n\nHowever it is important to note that Car A will require much more downtime and maintenance in between races than Car B",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "More like \"burn more fat at a lower heart rate because you'll do that exercise for longer\" than burning it \"better\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At some point your body can no longer convert body fat to energy fast enough to fuel your body. Usually this point is around 140-160 bpm. So it switches to fast burning sugars usually from foods we’ve eaten recently. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Questions with a Flawed Premise\n > > These are questions that are often based on a misconception, misinformation or myth/folklore. As such, they cannot be explained; the answer to them is \"This is not correct\".\n\n+ + Possibly loaded question.\n\nThere's no scientific consensus weather or not your body uses fat as fuel at different heart rates. \n\nSo that means both the premise is flawed and the top comment responses are bro-science, speculative etc which means they aren't objective.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1184654",
"title": "Body for Life",
"section": "Section::::Exercise.:Aerobic exercise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Phillips maintains that aerobic exercise is more effective for fat loss when done first thing in the morning, because it raises the metabolism for the remainder of the day, and because the body draws more heavily on its fat stores after fasting overnight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54712",
"title": "Abdominal obesity",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Myths.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "There is a common misconception that spot exercise (that is, exercising a specific muscle or location of the body) most effectively burns fat at the desired location, but this is not the case. Spot exercise is beneficial for building specific muscles, but it has little effect, if any, on fat in that area of the body, or on the body's distribution of body fat. The same logic applies to sit-ups and belly fat. Sit-ups, crunches and other abdominal exercises are useful in building the abdominal muscles, but they have little effect, if any, on the adipose tissue located there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54712",
"title": "Abdominal obesity",
"section": "Section::::Prevention and treatments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "A 2006 study published in the International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, suggests that combining cardiovascular (aerobic) exercise with resistance training is more effective than cardiovascular training alone in getting rid of abdominal fat. An additional benefit to exercising is that it reduces stress and insulin levels, which reduce the presence of cortisol, a hormone that leads to more belly fat deposits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1274608",
"title": "Crunch (exercise)",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Strength exercises such as sit-ups and crunches do not cause the spot reduction of fat. Achieving \"six pack abs\" requires both abdominal muscle hypertrophy training and fat loss over the abdomen—which can only be done by losing fat from the body as a whole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40402574",
"title": "Body Shape Index",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "A criticism of BMI is that it does not distinguish between muscle and fat mass and so may be elevated in people with increased BMI due to muscle development rather than fat accumulation from overeating. A higher muscle mass may actually reduce the risk of premature death. A high ABSI appears to correspond to a higher proportion of central obesity, or abdominal fat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "419094",
"title": "Adipose tissue",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "Fat cells have an important physiological role in maintaining triglyceride and free fatty acid levels, as well as determining insulin resistance. Abdominal fat has a different metabolic profile—being more prone to induce insulin resistance. This explains to a large degree why central obesity is a marker of impaired glucose tolerance and is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease (even in the absence of diabetes mellitus and hypertension). Studies of female monkeys at Wake Forest University (2009) discovered that individuals suffering from higher stress have higher levels of visceral fat in their bodies. This suggests a possible cause-and-effect link between the two, wherein stress promotes the accumulation of visceral fat, which in turn causes hormonal and metabolic changes that contribute to heart disease and other health problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6057429",
"title": "General fitness training",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Diet itself helps to increase calorie burning by boosting metabolism, a process further enhanced while gaining more lean muscle. An aerobic exercise program can burn fat and increase the metabolic rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a7xphd
|
What were Catherine the Great favourite books from Voltaire?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi! This is a great question. My name is Lena and I work on Voltaire and his library. Here are some examples from their correspondence of Catherine's favourite works by Voltaire, by no means an exhaustive list (she specifically ordered that all of his published works be sent to St. Petersburg along with his private library after his death). One would have to do a bit more digging to see her letters specifically to other Russian nobles, but I would hazard a guess that she did not keep these works to herself :-) She also admired Montesquieu's Esprit des Lois and used it in drafting the Nakaz, Russia's reformed legal code (which she then sent to Voltaire for feedback).\n\n* September 16 1763 CII writes to V: \"By chance your works fell into my hands, I could not stop reading them, and I wouldn't want book that wasn't as well written, and from which so much could not be profited.\"\n* June 1765: Looks like Essai sur les mœurs was a big one: \"She \\[CII in 3rd person\\] has read this great book from one end to the other with much pleasure...She is persuaded that this book will prove her thoughts, it will be purified by fire, in Paris, which will give it an even greater shine.\"\n* October 17 1771: Questions sur l'Encyclopedie, in particular the article on fanaticism, \"which I read with the greatest satisfaction in the book of the Questions sur l'encyclopédie.\"\n\nIf you have a university subscription, I would recommend searching through their correspondence on [Electronic Enlightenment](_URL_0_). *Ecrasez l'infame*!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7108572",
"title": "Russian Enlightenment",
"section": "Section::::Catherine the Great.:Catherine and Voltaire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 814,
"text": "Voltaire played an important role in promoting Catherine's image in Europe. He has been described as Catherine's \"most distinguished western partisan, her most enthusiastic devotee, and her most indefatigable and eloquent propagandist.\" In addition to singing her praises among his circles of friends, Voltaire wrote pamphlets that supported Catherine's policies and had her pronouncements and letters published in the western press, particularly targeting anti-Russian publications such as the \"Gazette de France\", the \"Gazette de Cologne\", and the \"Courrier d'Avignon\". Voltaire even succeeded in convincing the French historian Claude-Carloman de Rulhière not to publish his \"Histoire ou anecdotes sur la révolution de Russie en l'année 1762\", which provided a disparaging account of Catherine's rise to power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7108572",
"title": "Russian Enlightenment",
"section": "Section::::Catherine the Great.:Catherine and Voltaire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "The main topics of discussion in the Voltaire-Catherine letters were Russia's foreign and domestic affairs. Despite their mutual affection for literature, art and philosophy, very rarely did Catherine and Voltaire discuss such topics. One scholar has suggested that Catherine did not have the intellectual capacity to have such discussions with Voltaire, and that Catherine brought up primarily political affairs in her letters in order to impart her political ideas onto Voltaire. They did discuss cultural matters in the year 1772, which suggests that Catherine wanted to distract Voltaire from her recent partition of Poland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18977855",
"title": "The Maid of Orleans (poem)",
"section": "Section::::Scandal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Voltaire was undoubtedly one of the most controversial writers and philosophers of the Enlightenment Age, and \"The Maid of Orleans\" was also certainly one of his more contentious works. An epic and scandalous satire concerning the life of the not-yet-canonised Joan of Arc (\"the Maid of Orleans\"), the poem was outlawed, burned and banned throughout a great portion of Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries. Containing mockery and satirical commentary on the life and antics of its subject, the poem itself has variously been described as \"bawdy\" and \"licentious\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32375",
"title": "Voltaire",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Geneva and Ferney.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Early in 1759, Voltaire completed and published \"Candide, ou l'Optimisme\" (\"Candide, or Optimism\"). This satire on Leibniz's philosophy of optimistic determinism remains the work for which Voltaire is perhaps best known. He would stay in Ferney for most of the remaining 20 years of his life, frequently entertaining distinguished guests, such as James Boswell, Adam Smith, Giacomo Casanova, and Edward Gibbon. In 1764, he published one of his best-known philosophical works, the \"Dictionnaire philosophique\", a series of articles mainly on Christian history and dogmas, a few of which were originally written in Berlin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6629",
"title": "Candide",
"section": "Section::::Creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "Born François-Marie Arouet, Voltaire (1694–1778), by the time of the Lisbon earthquake, was already a well-established author, known for his satirical wit. He had been made a member of the Académie Française in 1746. He was a deist, a strong proponent of religious freedom, and a critic of tyrannical governments. \"Candide\" became part of his large, diverse body of philosophical, political and artistic works expressing these views. More specifically, it was a model for the eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century novels called the \"contes philosophiques\". This genre, of which Voltaire was one of the founders, included previous works of his such as \"Zadig\" and \"Micromegas\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32375",
"title": "Voltaire",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Château de Cirey.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1067,
"text": "Voltaire and the Marquise also studied history, particularly those persons who had contributed to civilization. Voltaire's second essay in English had been \"Essay upon the Civil Wars in France\". It was followed by \"La Henriade\", an epic poem on the French King Henri IV, glorifying his attempt to end the Catholic-Protestant massacres with the Edict of Nantes, and by a historical novel on King Charles XII of Sweden. These, along with his \"Letters on the English\" mark the beginning of Voltaire's open criticism of intolerance and established religions. Voltaire and the Marquise also explored philosophy, particularly metaphysics, the branch of philosophy that deals with being and with what lies beyond the material realm, such as whether or not there is a God and whether people have souls. Voltaire and the Marquise analyzed the Bible and concluded that much of its content was dubious. Voltaire's critical views on religion are reflected in his belief in separation of church and state and religious freedom, ideas that he had formed after his stay in England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32375",
"title": "Voltaire",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Great Britain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1562,
"text": "In England, Voltaire lived largely in Wandsworth, with acquaintances including Everard Fawkener. From December 1727 to June 1728 he lodged at Maiden Lane, Covent Garden, now commemorated by a plaque, to be nearer to his British publisher. Voltaire circulated throughout English high society, meeting Alexander Pope, John Gay, Jonathan Swift, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough, and many other members of the nobility and royalty. Voltaire's exile in Great Britain greatly influenced his thinking. He was intrigued by Britain's constitutional monarchy in contrast to French absolutism, and by the country's greater support of the freedoms of speech and religion. He was influenced by the writers of the age, and developed an interest in earlier English literature, especially the works of Shakespeare, still relatively unknown in continental Europe. Despite pointing out his deviations from neoclassical standards, Voltaire saw Shakespeare as an example that French writers might emulate, since French drama, despite being more polished, lacked on-stage action. Later, however, as Shakespeare's influence began growing in France, Voltaire tried to set a contrary example with his own plays, decrying what he considered Shakespeare's barbarities. Voltaire may have been present at the funeral of Isaac Newton, and met Newton's niece, Catherine Conduitt. In 1727, he published two essays in English, \"Upon the Civil Wars of France, Extracted from Curious Manuscripts\" and \"Upon Epic Poetry of the European Nations, from Homer Down to Milton\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5w4vwm
|
why third world countries are so cheaper in comparison with first world countries even for goods that both import/produce?
|
[
{
"answer": "Labor and property values.\n\nWhen you buy a cup of coffee at Starbucks, you aren't just paying for the coffee. You are paying for the people who made the coffee and for the rent and utilities on the building. Of that $4 you are paying, maybe $0.50 is for coffee, milk, and the cup. Around $3 is for labor and overhead, and the rest is profit.\n\nIn a developing country, they might pay $0.50 for labor and overhead, and be happy with half the profit, so your coffee only costs $1.25.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "140763",
"title": "Import substitution industrialization",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1434,
"text": "By placing high tariffs on imports and other protectionist, inward-looking trade policies, the citizens of any given country, using a simple supply-and-demand rationale, will substitute the less-expensive good for the more expensive. The primary industry of importance would gather its resources, such as labor from other industries in this situation; the industrial sector would use resources, capital, and labor from the agricultural sector. In time, a third-world country would look and behave similar to a first-world country, and with a new accumulation of capital and an increase of TFP (total factor productivity) the nation's industry would, in principle, be capable of trading internationally and competing in the world market. Bishwanath Goldar, in his paper ‘Import Substitution, Industrial Concentration and Productivity Growth in Indian Manufacturing’ wrote: \"Earlier studies on productivity for the industrial sector of developing countries have indicated that increases in total factor productivity, (TFP) are an important source of industrial growth,\" (Goldar 143). He continued: \"a higher growth rate in output, other things remaining the same, would enable the industry to attain a higher rate of technological progress (since more investment would be made) and create a situation in which the constituent firms could take greater advantage of scale economies;\" it is believed that ISI will allow this (Goldar 148).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1743758",
"title": "Penn effect",
"section": "Section::::Understanding the Penn effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Most things are cheaper in poor (low income) countries than in rich ones. Someone from a \"first world\" country on vacation in a \"third world\" country will usually find their money going a lot further abroad than at home. For instance, a Big Mac cost $7.84 in Norway and $2.39 in Egypt in January 2013, at the prevailing USD exchange rate for those two local currencies, despite the fact the two products are essentially the same.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4036973",
"title": "Sustainable tourism",
"section": "Section::::Sustainable Tourism in Developing Nations.:Sustainable tourism as part of a development strategy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Third World countries are especially interested in international tourism, and many believe it brings countries a large selection of economic benefits including employment opportunities, small business development, and increased in payments of foreign exchange. Many assume that more money is gained through developing luxury goods and services in spite of the fact that this increases a countries dependency on imported products, foreign investments and expatriate skills. This classic 'trickle down' financial strategy rarely makes its way down to brings its benefits down to small businesses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15382",
"title": "Invisible balance",
"section": "Section::::Balance of payments problems and the invisible balance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "If a country's exchange rate is too high, its exports will become uncompetitive as buyers in foreign countries require more of their own currency to pay for them. In the meantime, it also becomes cheaper for the citizens of the country to buy goods from overseas,as opposed to buying locally produced goods), because an overvalued currency makes foreign products less expensive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29897836",
"title": "Spaghetti bowl effect",
"section": "Section::::Challenges posed by FTAs according to J. Bhagwati.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "BULLET::::- Freer trades are a useful tool for least developed countries to obtain more capital, new technologies and better business practices. However, those countries often offer fewer market and investment opportunities, thus more developed countries will choose to direct their negotiations capacities toward richer regions. In 2017, the European Union had 5 FTAs with Sub-Saharan countries out of a total of 43 FTAs in place. As developed countries effectively lower trade barriers and tariffs between them, countries at the margin are faced with higher tariffs which are hurtful for their development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14227703",
"title": "History of trade of the People's Republic of China",
"section": "Section::::Foreign trade.:Trading partners.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Third World countries have long served as a market for Chinese agricultural and light industrial products. In 1986 developing countries purchased about 15 percent of Chinese exports and supplied about 8 percent of China's imports. China has increased trade and investment ties with many African countries such as Chad, the Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of Congo, partly to secure strategic natural resources such as oil and minerals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14552",
"title": "Primary sector of the economy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "Developed countries are allowed to maintain and develop their primary industries even further due to the excess wealth. For instance, European Union agricultural subsidies provide buffers against fluctuating inflation-rates and prices of agricultural produce. This allows developed countries to export their agricultural products at extraordinarily low prices. This makes them extremely competitive against those of poor or underdeveloped countries that maintain free-market policies and low or non-existent tariffs to counter cheap goods. Such price differences also come about due to more efficient production in developed economies, given farm machinery, better information available to farmers, and (often) larger scale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1dwkm7
|
why do people gravitate towards hatefulness rather than kindness and love?
|
[
{
"answer": "**Game Theory**\n\n\nSomeone who is kind or loving can be taken advantage of by someone. that person who takes advantage of them is not necessarily hateful, but possibly ignorant of their actions. \n\n\nAs this happens people realise that being kind and loving allows people to take advantage of them. So people start to put up basic defences to help prevent people taking advantage of them. \n\n\nAs this grows we find countries fighting other countries - in case those countries get too strong and decide to attack them. If two peasants strolled along a road coming from opposite sides and saw a sword in the middle. Both would see the sword, then see the other. Each one is likely to want to get hold of the sword before the other, just in case. A struggle may evolve and one may even kill the other one. \n\n\nA kind and loving person who did not adhere to Game Theory, would leave the sword and walk past. And 99 out of 100 times they'd be safe. But the possibility is that someone drawn to desperation or glamoured by ignorance will take up that sword against them to rob them for food if they are starving or for money or something else if they're desperate or ignorant. \n\n\n___\n\n\nWant to know more?\n\n\nOther examples are where 'green' companies who do not exploit cheap labour are inherently handicapped with higher costs to companies who do outsource. Examples like this mean that a company can do very bad things in the name of surviving against their competition which isn't directly hateful. \n\n\nAnother example is a bank robbery where a team of 10 may partake in separate jobs for the robbery like driver, safe cracker, gun man, communications etc. If the team were distrustful of eachother as they're all criminals they will naturally suspect the possibility of one or more of them trying to take all the money and killing the rest. A situation may develop where one person takes the money and another person refuses to let them hold the money, person A thinking person B wants to take the money for their own secret plan, person B thinking person A may have a plan. As you can imagine the criminals may kill each-other when they probably don't want to murder anyone just get their fair share. \n\n\n___\n\nTLDR - if you didn't understand my point or read the text that's fine. \n\n\n* I'm basically saying that people need to be *defensive* when they do things with other people so they're not taken advantage of.\n\n\n* Applying this type of thinking is called 'Game Theory' a lot of us do it all the time. It is not hateful in nature but can lead to actions one'd expect could arise from hate. \n\n\n* [This video](_URL_0_) gives the **best example of an answer to OP**. The two people are probably happy to share the money but may chose to steal it out of mistrust of one another. \n\n* It all stems from IGNORANCE of a person or situation. So arguably, ignorance is the core reason, game theory is the implication of that ignorance into actions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "because we know that not everyone is good.\n\nI like to think I am a nice and good person. I know i used to be. But the job I work at is not. If a company can have a personality all on its own (and the law says corporations are people), then this company would have some kind of psychosis or personality disorder.\n\nthe result, is that the employees are hateful. they have all been screwed over so much. so much the only way to survive is to make sure that someone else gets screwed over first.\n\nso if you try to be nice or kind at this job, even with someone you think is nice and kind, you are just lowering your guard until they can destroy you, or until you find a chance to throw them under the bus.\n\nand you probably will, because the alternative is to be hurt yourself.\n\nthe only defense I have is to not interact with people. I don't talk to anyone there, I'm not friendly, I don't give information, or empathy, or anything. I try to go unnoticed. people see me as cold or rude. blunt or mean. but it is the only thing I can do protect myself without turning into them. If I push people away, I can keep my true, nice self, protected at work, so that at home he can come out and be good again.\n\nI just hope there is still someone left by the time I get out of here.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "341658",
"title": "Apathy",
"section": "Section::::History and other views.:Social origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "Apathy has been socially viewed as worse than things such as hate or anger. Not caring whatsoever, in the eyes of some, is even worse than having distaste for something. Author Leo Buscaglia is quoted as saying \"I have a very strong feeling that the opposite of love is not hate-it's apathy. It's not giving a damn.\" Helen Keller claimed that apathy is the \"worst of them all\" when it comes to the various evils of the world. French social commentator and political thinker Charles de Montesquieu stated that \"the tyranny of a prince in an oligarchy is not so dangerous to the public welfare as the apathy of a citizen in the democracy.\" As can be seen by these quotes and various others, the social implications of apathy are great. Many people believe that not caring at all can be worse for society than individuals who are overpowering or hateful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "515983",
"title": "The Theory of Moral Sentiments",
"section": "Section::::\"The Theory of Moral Sentiments\": The Sixth Edition.:Part I: Of the propriety of action.:Part I, Section I: Of the Sense of Propriety.:Part I, Section I, Chapter II: Of Pleasure and mutual sympathy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Not only do we get pleasure from the sympathy of others, but we also obtain pleasure from being able to successfully sympathize with others, and discomfort from failing to do so. Sympathizing is pleasurable, failing to sympathize is aversive. Smith also makes the case that failing to sympathize with another person may not be aversive to ourselves but we may find the emotion of the other person unfounded and blame them, as when another person experiences great happiness or sadness in response to an event that we think should not warrant such a response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34963497",
"title": "Insignificance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "People may face feelings of insignificance due to a number of causes, including having low self-esteem, being depressed, living in a huge, impersonal city, comparing themselves to wealthy celebrity success stories, working in a huge bureaucracy, or being in awe of a natural wonder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177681",
"title": "Schadenfreude",
"section": "Section::::Scientific studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "A \"New York Times\" article in 2002 cited a number of scientific studies of \"Schadenfreude\", which it defined as \"delighting in others' misfortune\". Many such studies are based on social comparison theory, the idea that when people around us have bad luck, we look better to ourselves. Other researchers have found that people with low self-esteem are more likely to feel \"Schadenfreude\" than are those who have high self-esteem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "161961",
"title": "William Hazlitt",
"section": "Section::::Life and works.:Return to philosophy, second marriage, and tour of Europe (1823–1825).:Philosopher, again.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "The pleasure of hating, like a poisonous mineral, eats into the heart of religion, and turns it to rankling spleen and bigotry; it makes patriotism an excuse for carrying fire, pestilence, and famine into other lands: it leaves to virtue nothing but the spirit of censoriousness, and a narrow, jealous, inquisitorial watchfulness over the actions and motives of others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2352876",
"title": "Science of man",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "Hume identifies sympathy as a passion that causes us to feel for other humans because of their similarity to us. This includes our tendency to feel, to some degree, emotions that we observe in other humans. Man has been naturally inclined to develop the rules of justice over time in order to maximize pleasure. Given the tendency of self-interest to overpower the pleasure felt through sympathy, the eventual accumulation of wealth necessitated the development of some form of government, initially somewhat monarchical, to ensure that the rules of justice were followed. Hume bases his further discussions of humans as individuals and in society in \"A Treatise of Human Nature\" on the initial premises set by his \"science of man.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26918063",
"title": "Hate Man",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1088,
"text": "Hawthorne created a philosophy he called oppositionality, which is centered on treating people kindly even though one is in a bad mood. The reason he greeted people with, \"I hate you,\" he explained, is because saying \"I love you\" is too often used as a form of manipulation. He created his own following. The group has a practice, initiated by Hawthorne, of pushing one another for what they want. Hawthorne indicated that this is about feeling out the other person's energy and communicating something to the other person about \"where they are coming from\". The idea is to avoid negative conflict by bringing such differences out in the open, rather than creating situations where people rob or con one another for what they want. For a couple of years, he initiated a nightly \"hate camp\" drum circle at Sproul Plaza, where local people released their animosity. \"Hate camp\" was known as the camp that formed around him. Camping there made you a \"hate camper\", with a \"true hate camper\" being someone who believed in the camp and took an active role in helping the community it created.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1566st
|
Where did the Etruscans come from?
|
[
{
"answer": "Possibly from the [Villanovan culture](_URL_0_). The further back you go, though, the less clear history becomes, so I don't know if we can definitively trace where the Etruscans came from. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No one really knows, there are two main theories, either they developed in Italy, or they developed in Anatolia prior to coming to Italy. I generally subscribe to the latter as the Etruscan language is not Indo-European, as well as genetic evidence from several studies that show that that modern people from Tuscany have different genetics than other Italian people around them, and that they share a certain similarities with modern day Turks. This is all very speculative, as people have been moving around since far before written history and the genetic make-up of people changes throughout history because of migration, war or other social reasons. The best we can do is guess. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37353",
"title": "Etruscan civilization",
"section": "Section::::Legend and history.:Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1139,
"text": "The origins of the Etruscans are mostly lost in prehistory, although Greek historians as early as the 5th century BC repeatedly associated the Tyrrhenians (\"Turrhēnoi\"/Τυρρηνοί, \"Tursēnoi\"/Τυρσηνοί) with Pelasgians, which could both be broad descriptive terms. Strabo and the \"Homeric Hymn\" to Dionysus make mention of the Tyrrhenians as pirates. Thucydides, Herodotus and Strabo all denote Lemnos as settled by Pelasgians, whom Thucydides identifies as \"belonging to the Tyrrhenians\" (τὸ δὲ πλεῖστον Πελασγικόν, τῶν καὶ Λῆμνόν ποτε καὶ Ἀθήνας Τυρσηνῶν). Although both Strabo and Herodotus agree that Tyrrhenus / Tyrsenos, son of Atys, king of Lydia, led the migration, Strabo specifies that it was the Pelasgians of Lemnos and Imbros who followed Tyrrhenus to the Italian Peninsula. A link between Lemnos and the Tyrrhenians was further manifested by the discovery of the Lemnos Stele, whose inscriptions were written in a language which shows strong structural resemblances to the language of the Etruscans. This has led to the suggestion of a \"Tyrrhenian language group\" comprising Etruscan, Lemnian, and the Raetic spoken in the Alps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6704476",
"title": "Military history of Italy",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Italy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "The Etruscans (\"Etrusci\" or \"Tusci\" in Latin) were settled north of Rome in Etruria (modern northern Lazio, Tuscany and part of Umbria). They founded cities like Tarquinia, Veii and Volterra and deeply influenced Roman culture, as clearly shown by the Etruscan origin of some of the mythical Roman kings. The origins of the Etruscans are lost in prehistory. Historians have no literature, no texts of religion or philosophy; therefore much of what is known about this civilization is derived from grave goods and tomb findings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21967718",
"title": "History of Rome",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Rome.:Earliest history.:Italic context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "The Etruscans (\"Etrusci\" or \"Tusci\" in Latin) were settled north of Rome in Etruria (modern northern Lazio, Tuscany and part of Umbria). They founded cities such as Tarquinia, Veii, and Volterra and deeply influenced Roman culture, as clearly shown by the Etruscan origin of some of the mythical Roman kings. The origins of the Etruscans are lost in prehistory. Historians have no literature, no texts of religion or philosophy; therefore, much of what is known about this civilisation is derived from grave goods and tomb findings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62583",
"title": "History of Italy",
"section": "Section::::Iron Age.:Etruscan civilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "The Etruscan civilization flourished in central Italy after 800 BCE. The origins of the Etruscans are lost in prehistory. The main hypotheses are that they are indigenous, probably stemming from the Villanovan culture, or that they are the result of invasion from the north or the Near East. A more recent study has suggested a Near Eastern origin. The researchers conclude that their data, taken from the modern Tuscan population, 'support the scenario of a post-Neolithic genetic input from the Near East to the present-day population of Tuscany'. In the absence of any dating evidence, there is however no direct link between this genetic input and the Etruscans. By contrast, a mitochondrial DNA study of 2013 has suggested that the Etruscans were probably an indigenous population. Among ancient populations, ancient Etruscans are found to be closest to a Neolithic population from Central Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37353",
"title": "Etruscan civilization",
"section": "Section::::Legend and history.:Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "The Etruscans called themselves \"Rasenna\", which was syncopated to \"Rasna\" or \"Raśna,\" while the ancient Romans referred to the Etruscans as the \"Tuscī\" or \"Etruscī\" (singular \"Tuscus\"). Their Roman name is the origin of the terms \"Toscana\", which refers to their heartland, and \"Etruria\", which can refer to their wider region. In Attic Greek, the Etruscans were known as Tyrrhenians (, \"Turrhēnoi\", earlier \"Tursēnoi\"), from which the Romans derived the names \"Tyrrhēnī\", \"Tyrrhēnia\" (Etruria), and \"Mare Tyrrhēnum\" (Tyrrhenian Sea), prompting some to associate them with the \"Teresh\" (Sea Peoples).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11101869",
"title": "Etruscan history",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Modern archaeologists have come to suggest that the history of the Etruscans can be traced relatively accurately, based on the examination of burial sites, artifacts, and writing. A separate Etruscan culture distinguishable from that of the possibly ancestral Villanovan people emerged in the beginning of the 8th century BC, evidenced by the inscriptions in a script similar to that used for Euboean Greek. The burial tombs, some of which had been fabulously decorated, promotes the idea of an aristocratic city-state, with centralized power structures maintaining order and constructing public works, such as irrigation networks, roads, and town defenses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51320",
"title": "Ancient history",
"section": "Section::::History by region.:Europe.:Etruria, Greece and Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 166,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 166,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "The history of the Etruscans can be traced relatively accurately, based on the examination of burial sites, artifacts, and writing. Etruscans culture that is identifiably and certainly Etruscan developed in Italy in earnest by 800 BC approximately over the range of the preceding Iron Age Villanovan culture. The latter gave way in the 7th century to a culture that was influenced by Greek traders and Greek neighbors in Magna Graecia, the Hellenic civilization of southern Italy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
89dx3z
|
How do squids propel themselves without using the tentacles?
|
[
{
"answer": "Jets is the right term. Squids have a moveable opening in their mantle cavity which they can use to direct a jet of water to quickly propel themselves. They usually use the flaps on the side of their bodies for smaller movement.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16082877",
"title": "Japanese flying squid",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "Adult squid have several distinguishing features. The mantle encloses the visceral mass of the squid, and has two fins, which are not the primary method of propulsion. Instead, the squid has a siphon, a muscle which takes in water from one side, and pushes it out the other side: jet propulsion. The squid has eight arms and two tentacles with suction cups along the backs. In between the arms sits the mouth, or beak. Inside the mouth is a tooth-tongue-like appendage called the radula. Squid have ink sacs, which they use as a defense mechanism against possible predators. Squid also have three hearts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10425409",
"title": "Chiroteuthis veranii",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "To wield its exceptionally long arms, this squid species builds up internal fluid pressure by contracting its muscles, which allows it to expel two long tentacles at a high speed in order to catch prey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "633533",
"title": "Bigfin squid",
"section": "Section::::Feeding behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Almost nothing is known about the feeding behavior of these squid. Scientists have speculated that bigfin squid feed by dragging their arms and tentacles along the seafloor, and grabbing edible organisms off the floor. Alternatively, they may simply use a trapping technique, waiting passively for prey, such as zooplankton, to bump into their arms. (See Cephalopod intelligence.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31528468",
"title": "Cephalopod attack",
"section": "Section::::Defenses.:Tentacles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Tentacles are the major organs used by squid for defending and hunting. They are often confused with arms—octopuses have eight arms, while squid and cuttlefish have eight arms and two tentacles. These tentacles are generally longer than arms and typically have suckers only on their ends instead of along the entire length. The giant squid and colossal squid have some of the largest tentacles in the world, with suckers capable of producing suction forces more than ) and with pointed teeth at the tips.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "603690",
"title": "Voltage clamp",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Squids squirt jets of water when they need to move quickly, as when escaping a predator. To make this escape as fast as possible, they have an axon that can reach 1 mm in diameter (signals propagate more quickly down large axons). The squid giant axon was the first preparation that could be used to voltage clamp a transmembrane current, and it was the basis of Hodgkin and Huxley's pioneering experiments on the properties of the action potential.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215419",
"title": "Giant squid",
"section": "Section::::Morphology and anatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Giant squid have small fins at the rear of their mantles used for locomotion. Like other cephalopods, they are propelled by jet—by pulling water into the mantle cavity, and pushing it through the siphon, in gentle, rhythmic pulses. They can also move quickly by expanding the cavity to fill it with water, then contracting muscles to jet water through the siphon. Giant squid breathe using two large gills inside the mantle cavity. The circulatory system is closed, which is a distinct characteristic of cephalopods. Like other squid, they contain dark ink used to deter predators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42195237",
"title": "Sthenoteuthis pteropus",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Squid can move fast through the water by jet propulsion, expelling a jet of water through a flexible siphon located on the ventral surface just behind the head. Some species can even launch themselves out of the water and move rapidly through air, remaining airborne for several metres. The phenomenon has been little studied because it happens so rarely and so unexpectedly, but it has been photographed on a small number of occasions, and \"Sthenoteuthis pteropus\" has sometimes tentatively been identified. The squid seems to be engaging in an active flying process rather than a passive glide as the fin is spread widely and the arms are held in such a position as might help provide lift. The squid were found to travel five times as fast in air as in water and it is thought that the behaviour may occur during long distance migrations in order to conserve energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eye9xo
|
_url_0_, inc. not paying income tax despite being legally considered a person.
|
[
{
"answer": "You’re allow to deduct your losses on your tax return. 3 years retroactively and 20 years prospectively. \n\nAmazon focused on growth for many years at the expense of profitability and is now using the tax loss carry forwards (Deferred tax assets) to offset their taxable income in profitable years.\n\nPerfectly legal, all companies have this ability, it’s part of the tax code. Politically popular to point out that someone isn’t paying taxes while ignoring they losses they incurred for 1.5 decades.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14548522",
"title": "Claim of right doctrine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "In the tax law of the United States the claim of right doctrine causes a taxpayer to recognize income if they receive the income even though they do not have a fixed right to the income. For the income to qualify as being received there must be a receipt of cash or property that ordinarily constitutes income rather than loans or gifts or deposits that are returnable, the taxpayer needs unlimited control on the use or disposition of the funds, and the taxpayer must hold and treat the income as its own. This law is largely created by the courts, but some aspects have been codified into the Internal Revenue Code.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12501066",
"title": "Tom Cryer",
"section": "Section::::Assertions about taxation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "On his website, Cryer made a variety of assertions about the legality of the federal income tax in the United States, mostly in regard to taxes on wages. He claimed that \"the law does not tax [a person's] wages\", and that the federal government cannot tax \"[m]oney that you earned [and] paid for with your labor and industry\" because \"the Constitution does not allow the federal government to tax those earnings\" (referring to \"wages, salaries and fees that [a person] earn[s] for [himself]\"). Cryer stated:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4844332",
"title": "Internal Revenue Code section 61",
"section": "Section::::Types of § 61 income.:Compensation for services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "A taxpayer may receive taxable income from the taxpayer's employer when the employer pays the taxpayer's taxes. In 1929, the United States Supreme Court decided the case of \"Old Colony Trust Co. v. Commissioner\". The employer paid incomes taxes on behalf of an employee, and the Court questioned whether that payment constituted additional taxable income to the employee. The Court decided that the payment constituted income to the employee because \"the discharge by a third person of an obligation to him is equivalent to receipt by the person taxed.\" Thus, even when a taxpayer does not directly receive compensation for services, the compensation may be considered gross income if the payment releases the taxpayer from an obligation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22025005",
"title": "Tax protester constitutional arguments",
"section": "Section::::Definition of income.:Corporate profits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "One argument repeatedly made by tax protesters is that the income of individuals is not taxable because income should mean only \"corporate profits\" or \"corporate gain\". This is the \"Merchants' Loan\" argument, named after the case of \"Merchants' Loan & Trust Company, as Trustee of the Estate of Arthur Ryerson, Deceased, Plaintiff in Error v. Julius F. Smietanka, formerly United States Collector of Internal Revenue for the First District of the State of Illinois\". The argument is essentially that \"income\" for federal income tax purposes means \"only\" the income of a corporation — not the income of a non-corporate taxpayer — because the United States Supreme Court in that case, in discussing the meaning of income, mentioned a statute enacted in 1909 that taxed the income of corporations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22025005",
"title": "Tax protester constitutional arguments",
"section": "Section::::Taxing labor or income from labor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Similarly, tax protester Tom Cryer, who was acquitted of willful failure to file U.S. Federal income tax returns in a timely fashion, argued that \"the law does not tax [a person's] wages\", and that the federal government cannot tax \"[m]oney that you earned [and] paid for with your labor and industry\" because \"the Constitution does not allow the federal government to tax those earnings\" (referring to \"wages, salaries and fees that [a person] earn[s] for [himself]\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22025005",
"title": "Tax protester constitutional arguments",
"section": "Section::::Federal government authority.:Sovereign individual and government privilege.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The argument that a person's income is not taxed when the person rejects or renounces United States citizenship because the person claims to be a citizen exclusively of a state, and variations of this argument, have been officially identified as legally frivolous federal tax return positions for purposes of the $5,000 frivolous tax return penalty imposed under Internal Revenue Code section 6702(a).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22025005",
"title": "Tax protester constitutional arguments",
"section": "Section::::Fifth Amendment.:Due Process Clause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Protesters argue that the income tax violates the Fifth Amendment right that no person shall be \"deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law\". However, people can be deprived of life, liberty, or property \"with\" due process of law — this is what the courts do. Legal commentator Daniel B. Evans describes:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fvmkro
|
In movies and TV shows, why does removing an object that has impaled a character often make them bleed more?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not just in movies and TV, in real life too! An object stabbing into you will cut and rip tissue and blood vessels, causing injury. But as long as the object is in there, it’s effectively holding everything in place still. It’s like that experiment where you take a plastic zip bag full of water and shove a pencil through it. As long as the pencil is in there, it’s plugging the hole. Remove the pencil, and water starts to flow. Same thing happens in a body. \n\nIn real life, removal of the penetrating object should only be done once you reach a hospital and a medical professional can safely do it. Our gut reaction is “get this out of me!” But your chances of survival drop drastically if you remove the object and start bleeding uncontrollably.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17253537",
"title": "Censorship",
"section": "Section::::By media.:Video games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "For example, in the Japanese and PAL Versions of \"No More Heroes\", blood splatter and gore is removed from the gameplay. Decapitation scenes are implied, but not shown. Scenes of missing body parts after having been cut off, are replaced with the same scene, but showing the body parts fully intact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1888770",
"title": "Viserys Targaryen",
"section": "Section::::TV adaptation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "I've never had to die on camera before, let alone in such a grisly way. So you just have to kind of give it everything. You talk to the two actors holding you and say, ‘Let's not pansy around here. I'm gonna absolutely try and get out of this, so don't let me.' Then, you let it rip. It can't be some sort of half-assed whimpering – you've got to really believe the pain and the fear. It's actually quite liberating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18004158",
"title": "List of regionally censored video games",
"section": "Section::::Seventh generation (2004-2013).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"No More Heroes\" - In the versions released in PAL territories and Japan, blood spatter is removed. Decapitation scenes are implied, but not shown. Scenes of missing body parts after having been cut off, are replaced with the same scene, but showing the body parts fully intact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "693320",
"title": "Dismemberment",
"section": "Section::::Examples in fiction.:Film.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Dismemberment has been portrayed in many films; although a few are depictions of historical or actual events, a significant number are within the horror genre. Filmmakers can be quite innovative in the methods depicted, and thus reflect the public's fear and fascination with this method of torture, homicide, and/or body disposal. The following movies portray or imply dismemberment in some form; exceptional methods or motives are described.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3177982",
"title": "The Flesh Eaters (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The film has developed a cult following due to its gruesome, if primitive, special effects, including some memorably bloody death scenes. One character is eaten from the inside out by the titular monsters, resulting in a gushing fountain of intestinal matter. Another victim is stabbed with a wooden stake, then shot twice in the face, with resultant gaping bullet holes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1747268",
"title": "The Face on the Cutting-Room Floor",
"section": "Section::::Plot introduction.:Explanation of the novel's title.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The proverbial \"face on the cutting room floor\" is a character in a movie who, after the shooting is completed, is completely removed from the film, for whatever reason. The same idea also holds true for documentaries, where in the editing process the large amount of raw footage is cut down to a manageable size and where it can happen that a particular part of the film is completely removed from the final version.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2052806",
"title": "Cartoon Action Hour",
"section": "Section::::Season 1.:Reflecting the Genre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "BULLET::::- Characters cannot be killed. Rather, they just go \"Out of the Fight\" (or OOF) for the remainder of the combat scene. Characters \"can\" die in a \"Movie\" episode, however, even there character deaths are not common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ehoi10
|
why is a larger digital camera sensor better than a smaller one?
|
[
{
"answer": "When you have bigger pixel buckets, the buckets stay cooler and are more likely to absorb the light accurately. \n\nThink of it like this, the more light that hits your pixel buckets, the more they heat up. If you imagine it like water, the more light that hits the sooner that water starts to boil and gets very bubbly. If you have small buckets then the water boils faster. When the water boils, it bounces up and down and isn't smooth. This is like your pixels not recording the correct color - noise. So if you have a bigger bucket of water the more it takes to make the water boil. \n\nIf you have a bigger sensor, and bigger buckets, the more likely you'll record the light more correctly and smoothly between the buckets.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52797",
"title": "Digital camera",
"section": "Section::::Types of digital cameras.:Compacts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "For low cost and small size, these cameras typically use image sensor formats with a diagonal between 6 and 11 mm, corresponding to a crop factor between 7 and 4. This gives them weaker low-light performance, greater depth of field, generally closer focusing ability, and smaller components than cameras using larger sensors. Some cameras use a larger sensor including, at the high end, a pricey full-frame sensor compact camera, such as Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX1, but have capability near that of a DSLR.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52797",
"title": "Digital camera",
"section": "Section::::Types of digital cameras.:Digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLR).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "These cameras have much larger sensors than the other types, typically 18 mm to 36 mm on the diagonal (crop factor 2, 1.6, or 1). The larger sensor permits more light to be received by each pixel; this, combined with the relatively large lenses provides superior low-light performance. For the same field of view and the same aperture, a larger sensor gives shallower focus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15803912",
"title": "35 mm equivalent focal length",
"section": "Section::::Conversions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "For historical reasons, sensor size specifications such as 1/2.5\" do not match the actual sensor size, but are a bit larger (typically about a factor of 1.5) than the actual sensor diagonal. This is because these sensor size specifications refer to the size of a camera tube, while the usable sensor size is about 2/3 of the size of the tube. Tubes are not used on digital cameras, but the same specifications are used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "470685",
"title": "Four Thirds system",
"section": "Section::::Advantages, disadvantages and other considerations.:Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1030,
"text": "BULLET::::- The main disadvantage of a smaller sensor, with a pixel count that matches a larger sensor, is the reduction in incoming light hitting the light sensitive part of each pixel of the sensor. This is true even if the Four Thirds camera and lens are properly designed to focus all captured light onto the smaller light circle circumscribing the smaller sensor. The reason is that a smaller pixel has a disproportionately smaller light sensitive area because the pixel loses a larger proportion of its total area to secondary circuitry and edge shading than a larger pixel. With less captured light to work with each pixel output voltage requires additional amplification with associated higher signal noise, resulting in increased chromatic and color noise as well as reduced dynamic range. A telecentric lens design helps reduce this problem but still leaves a smaller sensor, with smaller pixels, more sensitive to the angle of incoming light, among other things producing a more pronounced image corner light fall off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "470685",
"title": "Four Thirds system",
"section": "Section::::Advantages, disadvantages and other considerations.:Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "BULLET::::- The smaller sensor size makes possible smaller and lighter camera bodies and lenses. In particular, the Four-Thirds system allows the development of compact, large aperture lenses. Corresponding lenses become larger, heavier and more expensive when designed for larger sensor formats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52797",
"title": "Digital camera",
"section": "Section::::Image sensors.:Sensor size and angle of view.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Cameras with digital image sensors that are smaller than the typical 35mm film size have a smaller field or angle of view when used with a lens of the same focal length. This is because angle of view is a function of both focal length and the sensor or film size used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1004947",
"title": "Digital camera back",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "The resolution of digital camera backs (in 2017, up to 101 megapixels, IQ3 100) is higher than any fixed sensor digital camera (in 2017, up to 51 megapixels, Hasselblad X1D). and captures more detail per pixel due to the omission of an anti-aliasing filter. Each pixel is also able to capture more dynamic range due to higher quality electronics and larger pixel pitch. The use of active cooling systems such as internal fans and Peltier effect electric cooling systems also contributes to image quality. The Sinar eXact creates images in excess of 1 GB in multi-shot mode from a 49 MB sensor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1cp6y9
|
Would plants grow differently in an environment with less gravity?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Here](_URL_0_) is an article reporting on an experiment on plant growth in weightlessness conducted on the Space Shuttle. There was a variety of impacts on plant growth -- for the stem, for roots, even for the pegs that bump out of germinated seeds.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well certain aspect of plant functionality are based on working against gravity. An example would be the way in which resources are transported up the phloem and xylem. In this example the flow is maintained by resources being used/expelled from the leaves of said plant which creates an action potential, this sucks the resources through the roots and upwards to the point of expulsion.\n\nThis action of sucking is working against gravity to pull the resources up the stem, with less gravity it would make sense that the flow rate would increase providing the expulsion rate stayed the same.\n\nThere are obviously many other points which could be considered :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38349107",
"title": "Space farming",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:Technical challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Plants grown inflight experience a microgravity environment, and plants grown on the surface of Mars experience approximately 1/3 the gravity that earth plants do. However, so long as plants are provided with directional light, those grown in low gravity environments still experienced normal growth. Normal growth is classified as opposite root and shoot growth direction. This being said many plants grown in a space flight environment have been significantly smaller than those grown on earth's surface and grew at a slower rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1044136",
"title": "Aeroponics",
"section": "Section::::Aeroponics in space.:Space plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "Subsequent research went on to investigate the effect of low gravity on plants at the organismic, cellular, and subcellular levels. At the organismic level, for example, a variety of species, including pine, oat, mung bean, lettuce, cress, and \"Arabidopsis thaliana\", showed decreased seedling, root, and shoot growth in low gravity, whereas lettuce grown on Cosmos showed the opposite effect of growth in space (Halstead and Scott 1990). Mineral uptake seems also to be affected in plants grown in space. For example, peas grown in space exhibited increased levels of phosphorus and potassium and decreased levels of the divalent cations calcium, magnesium, manganese, zinc, and iron (Halstead and Scott 1990).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19828134",
"title": "Plant",
"section": "Section::::Structure, growth and development.:Factors affecting growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Biotic factors also affect plant growth. Plants can be so crowded that no single individual produces normal growth, causing etiolation and chlorosis. Optimal plant growth can be hampered by grazing animals, suboptimal soil composition, lack of mycorrhizal fungi, and attacks by insects or plant diseases, including those caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses, and nematodes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40013071",
"title": "Plants in space",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Several experiments have been focused on how plant growth and distribution compares in micro-gravity, space conditions versus Earth conditions. This enables scientists to explore whether certain plant growth patterns are innate or environmentally driven. For instance, Allan H. Brown tested seedling movements aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia in 1983. Sunflower seedling movements were recorded while in orbit. They observed that the seedlings still experienced rotational growth and circumnation despite lack of gravity, showing these behaviors are instinctual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10494220",
"title": "Astrobotany",
"section": "Section::::Results of experiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "Several experiments have been focused on how plant growth and distribution compares in micro-gravity, space conditions versus Earth conditions. This enables scientists to explore whether certain plant growth patterns are innate or environmentally driven. For instance, Allan H. Brown tested seedling movements aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia in 1983. Sunflower seedling movements were recorded while in orbit. They observed that the seedlings still experienced rotational growth and circumnation despite lack of gravity, showing these behaviors are built-in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13885392",
"title": "Crop coefficient",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Even in agricultural crops, where ideal conditions are approximated as much as is practical, plants are not always growing (and therefore transpiring) at their theoretical potential. Plants have growth stages and states of health induced by a variety of environmental conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34165756",
"title": "Breeding for drought stress tolerance",
"section": "Section::::Dehydration stress in crop plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "In nature or crop fields, water is often the most limiting factor for plant growth. If plants do not receive adequate rainfall or irrigation, the resulting dehydration stress can reduce growth more than all other environmental stresses combined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1trz3q
|
During WW2, how was the traffic between Switzerland and other countries handled?
|
[
{
"answer": "At the Évian Conference the Swiss stated that they can just be used for transit emigration. Fugitives were temporarily tolerated. Since the outbreak of war all foreigners required a visa to enter Swiss territory. Excluded from this were political refugees, but this status were not given to Jews. Illegal immigration were nontheless well known.\n\nAll in all the Swiss handled soldiers from other countries according to the Hague Conventions. Between 1939-1945 there were more than 100'000 army members interned (34'500 French, 24'400 Italians, 17'100 Poles, 7'200 Germans und Austrians, 5'800 Brits, 2'100 Yugoslavs, 1'600 Americans an 8'400 Sowjets + others) Only members of the SS troups were rejected by swiss authorities.\n\nInterment camps were established in Büren an der Aare, Girenbad, Adliswil, Wauwilermoos and elsewhere. Others were held in disused hotels. Conditions were not the very best, especially some were overcrowded and not well planned.\nShort news about american pilots being shot down over germany and landed in neutral switzerland. Don't know how biased this is. [CBSNews](_URL_2_)\n\nI hope some historians with experience can elaborate in depth.\n\nSources (in german):\n_URL_1_ (Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz: Internierungen)\n_URL_0_ (HLS: 2. Weltkrieg - Flüchtlinge)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15380880",
"title": "Swiss neutrality",
"section": "Section::::The World Wars.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1077,
"text": "From 1943 Switzerland stopped American and British aircraft, mainly bombers, overflying Switzerland during the Second World War. On numerous occasions during the war, Allied aircraft trespassed on Swiss airspace; mostly damaged Allied bombers returning from raids over Italy and Germany whose crews preferred internment by the Swiss to becoming prisoners of war. Over a hundred Allied aircraft crews were interned and placed in ski resorts which were left abandoned due to the lack of tourists after the outbreak of war. They were to be held in there until the war had ended. At least 940 American airmen attempted to escape into France after the invasion of Normandy, but Swiss authorities intercepted 183 internees. Over 160 of these airmen were incarcerated in a Swiss prison camp known as Wauwilermoos, which was located near Lucerne and commanded by André Béguin, a pro-Nazi Swiss officer. The American internees remained in Wauwilermoos until November 1944 when the U.S. State Department lodged protests against the Swiss government and eventually secured their release.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "365897",
"title": "Büsingen am Hochrhein",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "During the Second World War, Switzerland effectively shut down the border, leaving Büsingen cut off from the rest of the Third Reich. German soldiers on home leave were required to deposit their weapons at the border guards' posts in Gailingen am Hochrhein. The Swiss customs officers would then supply them with greatcoats to cover up their German uniforms for the duration of their short journey through Dörflingen (Swiss territory) to their homes in Büsingen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26748",
"title": "Switzerland",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "Switzerland's trade was blockaded by both the Allies and by the Axis. Economic cooperation and extension of credit to the Third Reich varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion and the availability of other trading partners. Concessions reached a peak after a crucial rail link through Vichy France was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland (together with Liechtenstein) entirely isolated from the wider world by Axis controlled territory. Over the course of the war, Switzerland interned over 300,000 refugees and the International Red Cross, based in Geneva, played an important part during the conflict. Strict immigration and asylum policies as well as the financial relationships with Nazi Germany raised controversy, but not until the end of the 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1120468",
"title": "Switzerland during the World Wars",
"section": "Section::::Financial relationships with Nazi Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1695,
"text": "Switzerland's trade was blockaded by both the Allies and by the Axis. Each side openly exerted pressure on Switzerland not to trade with the other. Economic cooperation and extension of credit to the Third Reich varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion, and the availability of other trading partners. Concessions reached their zenith after a crucial rail link through Vichy France was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland completely surrounded by the Axis. Switzerland relied on trade for half of its food and essentially all of its fuel but controlled vital trans-alpine rail tunnels between Germany and Italy. Switzerland's most important exports during the war were precision machine tools, watches, jewel bearings (used in bomb sights), electricity, and dairy products. Until 1936, the Swiss franc was the only remaining major freely convertible currency in the world, and both the Allies and the Germans sold large amounts of gold to the Swiss National Bank. Between 1940 and 1945, the German Reichsbank sold 1.3 billion francs (approximately 18 billion Francs adjusted for inflation to 2019) worth of gold to Swiss Banks in exchange for Swiss francs and other foreign currency, which were used to buy strategically important raw materials like tungsten and oil from neutral countries. Hundreds of millions of francs worth of this gold was monetary gold plundered from the central banks of occupied countries. A total of 581,000 francs' worth of \"Melmer\" gold taken from Holocaust victims in eastern Europe was sold to Swiss banks. In total, trade between Germany and Switzerland contributed about 0.5% to the German war effort and did not significantly lengthen the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26367132",
"title": "Trams in Basel",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "During the two World Wars, services were suspended on the parts of the line extending beyond Switzerland's borders. After World War II, several lines were closed. In 1958, the total length of the network's routes was .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11597705",
"title": "Bombings of Switzerland in World War II",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "Switzerland was a neutral country during World War II, but adjacent to and at times almost completely surrounded by Axis, or Axis-occupied, countries. On several occasions, Allied bombing raids hit targets in Switzerland resulting in fatalities and property damage. Such events led to diplomatic exchanges. While Allied forces explained the causes of violations as navigation errors, equipment failure, weather conditions, and pilots' errors, in Switzerland fear was expressed that some neutrality violations were intended to exert pressure on the country to end its economic cooperation with Nazi Germany. In addition to bombing raids, air attacks by individual fighter planes strafed Swiss targets toward the end of the war. The Swiss military, in turn, attacked Allied aircraft overflying Switzerland with fighters and anti-aircraft cannons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1120468",
"title": "Switzerland during the World Wars",
"section": "Section::::World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1151,
"text": "Switzerland maintained a state of armed neutrality during the First World War. However, with two of the Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary) and two of the Entente Powers (France and Italy) all sharing borders and populations with Switzerland, neutrality proved difficult. From December 1914 until the spring of 1918 Swiss troops were deployed in the Jura along the French border over concern that the trench war might spill into Switzerland. Of lesser concern was the Italian border, but troops were also stationed in the Unterengadin region of Graubünden. While the German-speaking majority in Switzerland generally favored the Central Powers, the French- and, later, Italian-speaking populations sided with the Entente Powers, which would cause conflict in 1918. However, the country managed to keep out of the war. During the war Switzerland was blockaded by the Allies and therefore suffered some difficulties. However, because Switzerland was centrally located, neutral, and generally undamaged, the war allowed the growth of the Swiss banking industry. For the same reasons, Switzerland became a haven for refugees and revolutionaries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jhfy2
|
why hollywood releases movie that are so similar in plot and so close in time intervals.examples are this is the end and the worlds end; oblivion and after earth, etc...
|
[
{
"answer": "allegedly it's because of *Save the Cat! The Last Book on Screenwriting You'll Ever Need*.\n\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably the Save the Cat reply, but another idea could be market saturation. You can undercut your competitors by making what they release feel like it's been done already, but that's more prevalent in TV. Eg, every freakin' singing and dancing show being thrown in our faces year after year. By the time one ends, you feel indifferent to the one starting on another channel.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One movie studio hears about the development of a film, and they produce a similar movie - usually on a faster timeline in order to match release dates. This not only potentially steals viewers from another movie (or shares them), it also capitalizes on interest that will be generated by either movie's advertisements.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would suggest it is just a matter of [dueling movies](_URL_0_). What I had read a while ago, but can't find the link, is that someone will be shopping a script around and some of the people who turned it down decide to make their own version of it. Either that or one movie house hears about another making a movie about a particular topic and another decides to beat them to the punch, but with only some of the background. The Abyss, Deep Star Six and Leviathan are great examples of this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4168522",
"title": "Jaco Van Dormael",
"section": "Section::::Themes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "His films also typically end with a death, which is portrayed not as a tragedy, but as a happy moving on where the deceased looks down happily at the world below. \"Between Heaven and Earth\" ends with a birth, but it is similarly handled the passing of a character into a new world. This pattern is continued in \"Mr. Nobody\", where two deaths open the film and a unique twist on death at the end of the film conveys a wistful sense of happiness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31908",
"title": "Until the End of the World",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "\"Until the End of the World\" was poorly received in its first release, and was both a critical and commercial failure. In the United States, the film was released by Warner Bros. in December 1991, and was on a small number of screens with almost no advertising. The U.S. box office grossed $752,856.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378695",
"title": "Independent film",
"section": "Section::::History.:New Hollywood and independent filmmaking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "In retrospect, it can be seen that Steven Spielberg's \"Jaws\" (1975) and George Lucas's \"Star Wars\" (1977) marked the beginning of the end for the New Hollywood. With their unprecedented box-office successes, these movies jump-started Hollywood's blockbuster mentality, giving studios a new paradigm as to how to make money in this changing commercial landscape. The focus on high-concept premises, with greater concentration on tie-in merchandise (such as toys), spin-offs into other media (such as soundtracks), and the use of sequels (which had been made more respectable by Coppola's \"The Godfather Part II\"), all showed the studios how to make money in the new environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60590208",
"title": "The End (1953 film)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Critic P. Adams Sitney described \"The End\" as a \"a deliberately conclusive work\" that \"mixes the prophecy of immediate doom with nostalgia, as if the earth were already gone\". Fred Camper wrote in the \"Chicago Reader\" that it was \"among the greatest films I've ever seen…[and] unlike any others I know\". In his review in \"The Moving Image\", Richard Suchenski called it \"Maclaine's best film,…one of the definitive cinematic expressions of the Beat sensibility.\" Dennis Lim of the \"Los Angeles Times\" described \"The End\" as \"some kind of masterpiece, a Beat-inflected vision of nuclear paranoia.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "473268",
"title": "Hollywood Ending",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Hollywood Ending is a 2002 American comedy film written and directed by Woody Allen, who also plays the principal character. It tells the story of a once-famous film director who suffers hysterical blindness due to the intense pressure of directing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "482383",
"title": "The King of Comedy (film)",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Debate about ending.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Film scholar David Bordwell, writing in \"Film Viewer's Guide\", mentioned the (un)reality of the ending as a topic for debate, as there is no definitive answer as to whether the ending is reality or fantasy. By the end of the film the line between fantasy and reality is blurred for the audience as well as the character. Scorsese doesn't offer a clear answer but forces each viewer to make up his or her own mind as to how to interpret the film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1689394",
"title": "Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "Walt Disney Pictures released the film in the United States on May 25, 2007. Critical reviews were mixed; the film was praised for its performances, musical score, action scenes, humor, and special effects but was criticized for its plot and running time. Despite this, \"At World's End\" was a box office hit, becoming the highest-grossing film of 2007 with over $960 million. It was nominated at the 80th Academy Awards for the Academy Award for Best Makeup and the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects, which it lost to \"La Vie en Rose\" and \"The Golden Compass\", respectively. A sequel, \"\", the first in the series to neither be directed by Verbinski nor star Bloom and Knightley, was released on May 20, 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
orgje
|
the naming conventions of sea vessels, hms, ss, rms etc.
|
[
{
"answer": "\n\n\nAHT\tAnchor Handling Tug\n\nAHTS\tAnchor Handling Tug Supply vessel\n\nCRV\tCoastal Research Vessel\n\nC/F\tCar Ferry\n\nCS\tCable Ship\n\nDB\tDerrick Barge\n\nDEPV\tDiesel Electric Paddle Vessel\n\nDLB\tDerrick Lay Barge\n\nDCV\tDeepwater Construction Vessel\n\nDSV\tDiving Support Vessel/ Deep Submergence Vehicle\n\nDV\tDead vessel[1]\n\nERRV\tEmergency Response Rescue Vessel[citation needed]\n\nFPSO\tFloating Production, Storage and Offloading Vessel\n\nFPV\tFree Piston Vessel\n\nFPV\tFishery Patrol Vessel\n\nFV\tFishing Vessel\n\nGTS\tGas Turbine Ship\n\nHLV\tHeavy lift vessel\n\nHSC\tHigh Speed Craft\n\nHSF\tHigh Speed Ferry\n\nHTV\tHeavy Transport Vessel\n\nIRV\tInternational Research Vessel\n\nISV\tInternational Space Vehicle\n\nLB\tLiftboat\n\nLNG/C\tLiquefied natural gas carrier\n\nLPG/C\tLiquefied petroleum gas carrier\n\nMF\tMotor Ferry\n\nMS (M/S)\tMotor Ship (interchangeable[citation needed] with MV)\n\nMSV\tMultipurpose support/supply vessel\n\nMSY\tMotor Sailing Yacht\n\nMT\tMotor Tanker\n\nMV (M/V)\tMotor Vessel (interchangeable[citation needed] with MS)\n[citation needed]\n\nMY\tMotor Yacht\n\nnb\tNarrowboat\n\nNRV\tNATO Research Vessel\n\nNS\tNuclear Ship\n\nOSV\tOffshore Supply Vessel\n\nPS\tPaddle Steamer\n\nPSV\tPlatform Supply Vessel\n\nRV\tResearch Vessel\n\nRMS\tRoyal Mail Ship or Royal Mail Steamer\n\nSB\tSailing Barge\n\nSS (S/S)\tSteamship (with screw propellers, can be either coal- or oil-\nfired)\n\nSSCV\tSemi-Submersible Crane Vessel\n\nSSV\tSailing School Vessel, Submarine and Special Warfare Support \nVessel[2]\n\nST\tSteam Tug\n\nSTS\tSail Training Ship\n\nSTV\tSail Training Vessel or Steam Turbine Vessel\n\nSV\tSailing Vessel\n\nSY\tSailing Yacht or Steam Yacht\n\nTEV\tTurbine Electric Vessel\n\nTIV\tTurbine Installation Vessel\n\nTS\tTraining Ship\n\nTSS\tTurbine Steam Ship or Twin Screw Steamer\n\nTV\tTraining vessel\n\n\nthere are also prefixes for certain countries (USS would be United States Ship, FS is French Ship, JDS is Japan Defense Ship, HMS is His/Her Majesty's Ship/Submarine, ect)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "LE stands for Long Éireann or Irish Ship.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "HMS - His/Her majesty's ship - British Royal Navy\nUSS - United states Ship - US Navy\nSS - Steam Ship - not necessarily powered by steam, designation for Us merchant ships \nEach country has their own traditional ship designations. NATO also has designations for Navy ships from all nations ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Question: isn't the difference between a boat and a ship classified by the way that it makes a turn?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unless I'm mistaken, there used to be a naming convention by *types* of ships too in the US Navy. For example, battleships were named after states, carriers were named after presidents, submarines were named after fish, etc.\n\nI don't know how strictly this was followed or how long this went on, though. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "HMCS Stands for Her(His) Majesty's Canadian Ship. \n\nIn Britain it's the same without the \"Canadian\" ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26061",
"title": "Royal Navy",
"section": "Section::::Titles and naming.:Of ships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 158,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 158,
"end_character": 924,
"text": "Royal Navy ships in commission are prefixed since 1789 with Her Majesty's Ship (His Majesty's Ship), abbreviated to \"HMS\"; for example, . Submarines are styled HM Submarine, also abbreviated \"HMS\". Names are allocated to ships and submarines by a naming committee within the MOD and given by class, with the names of ships within a class often being thematic (for example, the Type 23s are named after British dukes) or traditional (for example, the s all carry the names of famous historic ships). Names are frequently re-used, offering a new ship the rich heritage, battle honours and traditions of her predecessors. Often, a particular vessel class will be named after the first ship of that type to be built. As well as a name, each ship and submarine of the Royal Navy and the Royal Fleet Auxiliary is given a pennant number which in part denotes its role. For example, the destroyer displays the pennant number 'D32'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "786056",
"title": "Cargo ship",
"section": "Section::::Vessel prefixes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "A category designation appears before the vessel's name. A few examples of prefixes for naval ships are \"USS\" (United States Ship), \"HMS\" (Her/His Majesty's Ship), \"HMCS\" (Her/His majesty's Canadian Ship) and \"HTMS\" (His Thai Majesty's Ship), while a few examples for prefixes for merchant ships are \"RMS\" (Royal Mail Ship, usually a passenger liner), \"MV\" (Motor Vessel, powered by diesel), \"MT\" (Motor Tanker, powered vessel carrying liquids only) \"FV\" Fishing Vessel and \"SS\" (Screw Steamer, driven by propellers or screws, often understood to stand for Steamship). \"TS\", sometimes found in first position before a merchant ship's prefix, denotes that it is a \"T\"urbine \"S\"teamer. (For further discussion, see Ship prefixes.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314855",
"title": "Cruise ship",
"section": "Section::::Organization.:Ship naming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Many cruise lines have a common naming scheme they use for their ships. Some lines use their name as a prefix or suffix in the ship name (such as the prefixes of \"Carnival\", \"AIDA\", \"Disney\", or \"Norwegian\" and the suffix of \"Princess\"). Other lines use a unique word or phrase (such as the prefix of \"Pacific\" for P&O Cruises Australia or the suffixes \"of the Seas\" for Royal Caribbean International or \"-dam\" for ships of the Holland America Line). The addition of these prefixes and suffixes allows multiple cruise lines to use the same popular ship names while maintaining a unique identifier for each ship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164340",
"title": "Ship prefix",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "In terms of vessels used by nations’ armed services, prefixes primarily reflect ownership – but may also indicate a vessels type or purpose as a sub-set. Historically, the most significant navy was Britain’s Royal Navy, which has usually used the prefix \"HMS\", standing for \"His/Her Majesty's Ship\". The Royal Navy also adopted nomenclature that reflected a vessel’s type or purpose, e.g. HM Sloop. Commonwealth navies adopted a variation, with, for example, HMAS, HMCS, and HMNZS pertaining to Australia, Canada, and New Zealand respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1608846",
"title": "Laforey-class destroyer (1913)",
"section": "Section::::Naming system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "As was previous Royal Navy practice, the first 20 ships were originally allocated names with no particular systematic theme, although the majority were given names taken from Shakespearean or (Sir Walter) Scott characters. However, whilst still building in 1913 they were allocated to the L class and these original names were replaced on 30 September 1913 by new names beginning with the class letter 'L', the first ships to follow this new convention (see naming conventions for destroyers of the Royal Navy). The last pair - \"Lochinvar\" and \"Lassoo\" - were renamed in February 1915.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20518076",
"title": "United States Navy",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Ships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 1047,
"text": "The names of commissioned ships of the U.S. Navy are prefixed with the letters \"USS\", designating \"United States Ship\". Non-commissioned, civilian-manned vessels of the navy have names that begin with \"USNS\", standing for \"United States Naval Ship\" The names of ships are officially selected by the secretary of the navy, often to honor important people or places. Additionally, each ship is given a letter-based hull classification symbol (for example, CVN or DDG) to indicate the vessel's type and number. All ships in the navy inventory are placed in the Naval Vessel Register, which is part of \"the Navy List\" (required by article 29 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea). The register tracks data such as the current status of a ship, the date of its commissioning, and the date of its decommissioning. Vessels that are removed from the register prior to disposal are said to be \"stricken\" from the register. The navy also maintains a reserve fleet of inactive vessels that are maintained for reactivation in times of need.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1176720",
"title": "United States Navy ships",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "The names of commissioned ships of the United States Navy all start with USS, for \"United States Ship\". Non-commissioned, primarily civilian-manned vessels of the U.S. Navy under the Military Sealift Command have names that begin with USNS, standing for \"United States Naval Ship\". A letter-based hull classification symbol is used to designate a vessel's type. The names of ships are selected by the Secretary of the Navy. The names are those of states, cities, towns, important persons, important locations, famous battles, fish, and ideals. Usually, different types of ships have names originated from different types of sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6xvmfc
|
how did joel olsteen end up with a net worth of $57 million, despite average preachor wages being around $50,000?
|
[
{
"answer": "Predominantly through book sales. He's been investigated and was found to have crossed all the t's and dotted the i's. He's a dick but keeps clean books.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "because thats not what averages mean. however I suspect your not really asking this as a question, you can take soapbox statements to other subs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "He preaches the prosperity gospel. That essentially says that in order to be \"blessed\" by success by God you have to give your money to these preachers. It's all legal since people voluntarily give their money. The guy sells a lot of merch and is a great salesman. Still a scumbag though and hopefully his reaction to Harvey has opened people's eyes to him. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25031688",
"title": "Cory Luebke",
"section": "Section::::Professional career.:San Diego Padres.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "On March 30, 2012, Luebke agreed to a four-year extension with the Padres worth a guaranteed $12 million that includes 2 club options for 2016 and 2017. He received a $500,000 bonus for the deal. He earned $0.5 million in 2012, $1 million in 2013, $3 million in 2014 and $5.25 million in 2015. His 2016 option was worth $7.5 million and had a $1.75 million buyout, and his 2017 option was worth $10 million with a $250,000 buyout. Luebke could have earned up to $27.75 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48067837",
"title": "2016 St. Louis Cardinals season",
"section": "Section::::Regular season summary.:September.:Cardinals activate Matt Holliday, refuse his $17 mil. 2017 option.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 204,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 204,
"end_character": 1346,
"text": "He signed a $120 million seven-year extension deal after the 2009 season in the largest contract in Cardinals' history. He averaged 147 games played for the first five years, but injuries severely hurt his playing time in 2015 and this year. He posted five 20-homer seasons and four 90-RBI seasons. Holliday produced a cumulative WAR of 24.1 in those eight years. According to Fangraphs, which created a tool to convert WAR to dollars in order to estimate the value of a player, Holliday has been worth $168.6 million since 2010. He was active in the community with many charity appearances. He will turn 37 in mid-January 2017, after playing 13 major league seasons, the first five with the Colorado Rockies, and first half of 2009 with the Oakland Athletics until traded on July 24 to the Cardinals. After what could be his final at-bat with the Cardinals at home on September 30, against the Pittsburgh Pirates, he hit his first ever pinch-hit home run, his 20th of the season, giving him 61 RBIs for the season, in his 980th game with the Cardinals that included six 20-homer seasons. With his 20th home run, Holliday became the sixth Cardinals' player to reach that mark, tying the NL record held by the 1965 Milwaukee Braves, and later 2003 Atlanta Braves. The homer also extended the team's pinch-hit home run major league record, now 17.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32275108",
"title": "Chris Moorman",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 466,
"text": ", his $10.2 million career earnings stood as the highest all-time online career total. His largest payout was $235,592 for a 3rd-place finish in the 2404-player $1000+60 March 28–29, 2011 Full Tilt Poker - $1K Monday $2 Million Tournament. His largest online wins were the 2,700-player $240+16 March 14, 2010 Full Tilt Poker - The Sunday Brawl for $109,620 and the 20-player $5000+200 March 9, 2008 winner-take-all PokerStars - Sunday $5,200 Freezeout for $100,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36021167",
"title": "Theodore Rinaldo",
"section": "Section::::Move to Seattle.:\"The Group\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "In the early 1970s, Rinaldo began to bring up the subject of buying property at the meetings. His followers began to donate money. One estimated that over the years, he contributed $30,000. A couple reported that they had made a $20,000 donation to Rinaldo, believing they were donating to a religious organization. A woman estimated that over 5.5 years she had contributed around $10,000, despite the fact that she had a low income and was in fact unemployed for 20 months during that period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38652317",
"title": "Bruce Rauner",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Rauner's exact net worth is unclear, but has been estimated at, minimally, several hundred million dollars. During his campaign for governor he promised that he would accept only $1 in salary and no benefits from his office, including forgoing a pension and reimbursement for travel expenses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6767172",
"title": "Matt Belisle",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Colorado Rockies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Before the 2012 season, he agreed to a two-year extension (which added a $4.1 million salary for 2013 and included a mutual option for 2014) at a minimum of $4.35 million. He went on to pitch to a 3.71 earned run average with a 3-9 record as well as 69 strikeouts in 80 innings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "981199",
"title": "Barry Greenstein",
"section": "Section::::Poker career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "He accepted a bet of $10,000 from 2+2 Poker Forums to say \"lol donkaments\" on an episode of \"High Stakes Poker\", which he did after winning a hand against professional poker player Erick Lindgren. After the initial $10,000, he also received a further $45,000 in donations from other charitable poker players who were amused by the bet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2icp28
|
Does distance affect heat produced from light?
|
[
{
"answer": "The amount of energy an object will receive per unit of time (power) from a light source certainly does change with distance but the size (and even sign) of the effect depends on the nature of the light source.\n\nLets start off with a normal point source like a light bulb. The light leaving the bulb at any given time expands outward at the same speed in *all* directions. You can visualize this as a spherical shells centered about and expanding from the light source. As you move further and further from the bulb these shell gets larger and larger, so for energy to be conserved the power per unit area has to continually decrease. The area of a sphere increases with its radius squared, so for the total energy to be held constant the power per unit area has to fall off like the distance from the light source squared. If an object was 30 units away from the source but now is 60 units away it is going to receive (30/60)^2 = 1/4 as much power.\n\nThe case of the laser is a bit more complicated because laser light is collimated and does not radiate evenly in all directions. The exact outcome would depend on how the light from that particular laser is focused. The fundamental laws of optics prevent any laser from being perfectly collimated so far from the laser the power per area will always fall off in a manner very close to the distance from the source squared. If you are close to the laser it may fall off much slower though or in some situations the power may actually temporarily increase as you move away from the source (if the laser beam is focused near your object). \n\nLastly, it should be noted that there are many factors that effect the temperature of an object. It would certainly not scale proportionally with the power received by a nearby light source, although receiving more power would certainly lead to a higher temperature measurement.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "256310",
"title": "John Tyndall",
"section": "Section::::Main scientific work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "BULLET::::- He consolidated and enhanced the results of Desains, Forbes, Knoblauch and others demonstrating that the principal properties of visible light can be reproduced for radiant heat – namely reflection, refraction, diffraction, polarisation, depolarisation, double refraction, and rotation in a magnetic field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16270616",
"title": "Glossary of environmental science",
"section": "Section::::A.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "BULLET::::- albedo - reflectance; the ratio of light from the Sun that is reflected by the Earth's surface, to the light received by it. Unreflected light is converted to infrared radiation (heat), which causes atmospheric warming (see \"radiative forcing\"). Thus, surfaces with a high albedo, like snow and ice, generally contribute to cooling, whereas surfaces with a low albedo, like forests, generally contribute to warming. Changes in land use that significantly alter the characteristics of land surfaces can alter the albedo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22939",
"title": "Physics",
"section": "Section::::Core theories.:Classical physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 884,
"text": "Optics, the study of light, is concerned not only with visible light but also with infrared and ultraviolet radiation, which exhibit all of the phenomena of visible light except visibility, e.g., reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, dispersion, and polarization of light. Heat is a form of energy, the internal energy possessed by the particles of which a substance is composed; thermodynamics deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. Electricity and magnetism have been studied as a single branch of physics since the intimate connection between them was discovered in the early 19th century; an electric current gives rise to a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic field induces an electric current. Electrostatics deals with electric charges at rest, electrodynamics with moving charges, and magnetostatics with magnetic poles at rest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15022",
"title": "Infrared",
"section": "Section::::Heat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Infrared radiation is popularly known as \"heat radiation\", but light and electromagnetic waves of any frequency will heat surfaces that absorb them. Infrared light from the Sun accounts for 49% of the heating of Earth, with the rest being caused by visible light that is absorbed then re-radiated at longer wavelengths. Visible light or ultraviolet-emitting lasers can char paper and incandescently hot objects emit visible radiation. Objects at room temperature will emit radiation concentrated mostly in the 8 to 25 µm band, but this is not distinct from the emission of visible light by incandescent objects and ultraviolet by even hotter objects (see black body and Wien's displacement law).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28376129",
"title": "Rayleigh sky model",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:Depolarization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Lastly, there is a clear wavelength dependence in Rayleigh scattering. It is greatest at short wavelengths, whereas skylight polarization is greatest at middle to long wavelengths. Initially it is greatest in the ultraviolet, but as light moves to the Earth's surface and interacts via multiple-path scattering it becomes high at middle to long wavelengths. The angle of polarization shows no variation with wavelength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1843931",
"title": "Luminous efficacy",
"section": "Section::::Luminous efficacy of radiation.:Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Luminous efficacy of radiation measures the fraction of electromagnetic power which is useful for lighting. It is obtained by dividing the luminous flux by the radiant flux. Light with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum reduces luminous efficacy, because it contributes to the radiant flux while the luminous flux of such light is zero. Wavelengths near the peak of the eye's response contribute more strongly than those near the edges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20694764",
"title": "Solar radiation management",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "By intentionally changing the Earth's albedo, or reflectivity, scientists propose that we could reflect more heat back out into space. We could also intercept sunlight before it reaches the Earth through a literal shade built in space. The effects are uncertain but it has been suggested that 2% albedo increase would roughly halve the effect of CO doubling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3el9hs
|
why do we go through so much security to get on an airplane but virtually none for any other mass transit?
|
[
{
"answer": "Mostly not especially logical hysteria post 9/11 for things like taking off your shoes and not bringing liquids. But airplanes have always had more security because airplanes are more vulnerable to attack and hijacking (which is what people *used* to be afraid of before terroists slammed them into skyscrapers) since they're so hard to operate.\n\nIf I want to take over a plane, I can kill the pilot and copilot and then essentially everyone on the plane is fucked. Best case scenario, after I'm subdued, an untrained person does an emergency landing and *maybe* doesn't kill everyone. \n\nIf I want to take over a cruise ship - so what? If I kill the captain, the boat floats there quietly for a while before the coast guard comes. Even if I manage to try and sink the damn thing, life rafts and the immediate availability of rescue are much safer than maybe slamming into the ground at 200mph. \n\nSame thing with trains - you can derail them, but you don't need to be on them to do that. Otherwise if the conductor dies or is incapacitated, you can generally stop the train just by pulling a lever and then everyone just gets off. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because a hijack or a bomb on a plane is \"spectacular\", and that's what makes air transport such a nice target for terrorists. Add to that the fact that many people are already nervous about flying, and that the numbers are small enough to make it reasonably manageable. \n\nNow imagine trying to screen everyone using the London Underground. It's already been a terrorist target (7/7/2005), but with a daily average of over 3 million passengers, airport-type screening is too much to expect. \n\nLondoners survived the Blitz and IRA bombs, they're not going to panic about a spot of \"terrorism\". Can you still call it \"terrorism\" if no-one is terrorised as a result? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "See also [these previous answers.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28203349",
"title": "Air transportation in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Airports.:Security and regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Air transportation security in the United States is regulated by the TSA, an agency of the US Department of Homeland Security. Passengers must provide a valid federal or state-issued ID in order to be allowed onto a flight. A person must also go through a pat-down procedure or a body scan before boarding a flight to ensure that they have no prohibited items. These security policies have been adopted by the US government ever since the 9/11 Terrorist Attacks in which terrorists managed to hijack several commercial airliners. Items that are prohibited on airplanes include firearms, tools, or other objects that can be used as weapons, explosive or flammable materials, and other dangerous or debilitating chemicals or substances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "284770",
"title": "Airport security",
"section": "Section::::Process and equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "In the United States non-passengers were once allowed on the concourses to meet arriving friends or relatives at their gates, but this is now greatly restricted due to the terrorist attacks. Non-passengers must obtain a gate pass to enter the secure area of the airport. The most common reasons that a non-passenger may obtain a gate pass is to assist children and the elderly as well as for attending business meetings that take place in the secure area of the airport. In the United States, at least 24 hours notice is generally required for those planning to attend a business meeting inside the secure area of the airport. Other countries, such as Australia do not restrict non-travellers from accessing the airside area, however non-travellers are typically subject to the same security scans as travellers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54531437",
"title": "Zunum Aero",
"section": "Section::::Concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "More frequent service from local airports can be provided by smaller aircraft for better transportation at ranges of . Travel times for San Francisco to Los Angeles () or Boston to Washington () could be halved using secondary airports with only carry-on luggage not needing baggage conveyor belts and requiring less elaborate airport security.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254083",
"title": "Stowaway",
"section": "Section::::Air travel.:Security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Since the September 11 attacks, it has become more difficult to be a stowaway on board transportation arriving to or departing from the United States. Airport security has dramatically increased, and among the new security measures is trained professionals watching over the fences from which stowaways usually gain entrance to an airport's runway.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2164548",
"title": "Airport rail link",
"section": "Section::::Mass transit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1094,
"text": "For airports built within or close to the city limits, extending mass transit urban rail systems like rapid transit or light rail to airport terminals allows full integration with other public transport in the city, and seamless transport to all parts of town. Service frequency will be high, although travel time is a drawback as the services make many intermediate stops before reaching the city center and thus there may not be enough space for the baggage commonly carried by airport-bound passengers. Furthermore, luggage stowing facilities are not commonly found on mass transit vehicles as their primary objective is to provide high-capacity transport, as in the Airport, Inner West & South Line in Sydney, Australia. A common solution involves building a separate people mover from a mass transit station to the airport terminal (see below), often using automated systems, allowing faster travel time and fare discrimination, for instance Orlyval. Because they are solely dedicated to passengers using the airport, luggage stowing facilities are more likely to appear on these systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53754908",
"title": "2017 electronics ban",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Screening security at American airports has also been questioned, with suggestions that some American airports should also force passengers to put laptops and other electronics in the airplane hold until security at these airports improves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2164548",
"title": "Airport rail link",
"section": "Section::::Mainline rail.:Shuttle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "In many cases, there is no train station directly at the airport, usually because the infrastructure on which the service operates makes it impractical to build such a station. When this happens, a shuttle system is required for the last part of the journey; using either a people mover (often automated, such as AirTrain JFK in New York City) or a bus. The former allows low operating costs and higher perceived quality; the latter does not require specialized infrastructure to be built, and is often the preferred choice at smaller or low-cost airports. Shuttles do not provide a direct connection, and often involve a wait for a transfer to the next stage of the journey. Thus their market shares are often lower.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
k9bs2
|
(or like... hs): why does my stomach get upset when i'm stressed?
|
[
{
"answer": "I've kind of wondered this as well, but I usually figure it's just emotional things making physical changes in your body.\n\nSometimes, it's because you strongly associate something with a physical reaction, so you have that reaction in response to those emotions. \n\nOther times, emotions will change the chemicals in your body, which you then react to. If you stress a lot, you may see rashes of little red bumps on your hands/other parts of your body. That's the stress creating cortisol, which your skin then reacts to. (In other words, don't use anti-itch cream on these. That's hydro-cortisol, which is essentially what your body is making.)\n\nI'm not sure which exactly it is in this case, so I hope someone has a better answer than my mulling and theories.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "stress is a response left over from the era when it was very likely for a lion (or some guy who wants our food) to try to kill us with very little warning. so when you feel like a lion could pop out at any moment, you become stressed. when you are stressed, your body's long term functions (digestion, immune system, cell growth) start to shut down in favor of your short term functions (running fast, reaction time, breathing). so when a lion finally did jump at you, you could run away faster then if you were trying to digest your food at the same time. \n\nhowever, that situation doesn't happen as much in america. instead of lions, we have things like morgages and shitty jobs. your body has the same stress reaction to these situations is it does to a lion, however, unlike a lion, these problems will remain for years at a time. so your body is in full stress mode 24/7, ready for it's fight-or-flight response, and feels like that is more important then digesting you hamburger, which will just sit there for much longer then it should. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I thought it was fight or flight. The blood going to your back muscles and others needed to fight. Isn't that what \"butterflies\" are? It would make sense to send more oxygen to these muscle cells than to your stomach, or so I thought. Great question. Thanks. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ok, so there is a mucus lining around your stomach to prevent your stomach acid from burning away your flesh. when you are stressed, this mucus lining gets thinner (immune system response, and other stuff too). If the lining gets thinner, obviously it can't protect you as well, and your stomach acid will leave you with ulcers. As someone who has ulcerative colitis, this is how it has always been explained to me. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've kind of wondered this as well, but I usually figure it's just emotional things making physical changes in your body.\n\nSometimes, it's because you strongly associate something with a physical reaction, so you have that reaction in response to those emotions. \n\nOther times, emotions will change the chemicals in your body, which you then react to. If you stress a lot, you may see rashes of little red bumps on your hands/other parts of your body. That's the stress creating cortisol, which your skin then reacts to. (In other words, don't use anti-itch cream on these. That's hydro-cortisol, which is essentially what your body is making.)\n\nI'm not sure which exactly it is in this case, so I hope someone has a better answer than my mulling and theories.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "stress is a response left over from the era when it was very likely for a lion (or some guy who wants our food) to try to kill us with very little warning. so when you feel like a lion could pop out at any moment, you become stressed. when you are stressed, your body's long term functions (digestion, immune system, cell growth) start to shut down in favor of your short term functions (running fast, reaction time, breathing). so when a lion finally did jump at you, you could run away faster then if you were trying to digest your food at the same time. \n\nhowever, that situation doesn't happen as much in america. instead of lions, we have things like morgages and shitty jobs. your body has the same stress reaction to these situations is it does to a lion, however, unlike a lion, these problems will remain for years at a time. so your body is in full stress mode 24/7, ready for it's fight-or-flight response, and feels like that is more important then digesting you hamburger, which will just sit there for much longer then it should. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I thought it was fight or flight. The blood going to your back muscles and others needed to fight. Isn't that what \"butterflies\" are? It would make sense to send more oxygen to these muscle cells than to your stomach, or so I thought. Great question. Thanks. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ok, so there is a mucus lining around your stomach to prevent your stomach acid from burning away your flesh. when you are stressed, this mucus lining gets thinner (immune system response, and other stuff too). If the lining gets thinner, obviously it can't protect you as well, and your stomach acid will leave you with ulcers. As someone who has ulcerative colitis, this is how it has always been explained to me. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57325596",
"title": "Depression and immune function",
"section": "Section::::Medical explanations for the association between inflammation and depression.:Depression as a disorder stemming from immune response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1002,
"text": "One explanation for the connection between inflammation and depression symptoms, is that depression is a disorder that stems from immune responses across the body. Due in large part to the systems that bring them about both involving the same pro-inflammatory cytokines, the suggestion is that strong or prolonged immune responses allow for those with susceptibilities to depression to experience it outside of experiences with any other risk factors. Of the ways this might happen, one is that those whose immune responses have been shifted to be pro-inflammatory without sufficient anti-inflammatory compensation have elevated risk of experiencing inflammation intense enough to cause depression. Another suggestion is that variation in neurotransmitter production or receptors may also play a role in one’s risk of experiencing inflammation-based depression if certain combinations result in increased risk of inflammation, similarly putting them at risk of maladaptive changes in brain chemistry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14083964",
"title": "Animal psychopathology",
"section": "Section::::Behavioral disorders.:Depression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Depression and low mood were found to be of a communicative nature. They signal yielding in a hierarchy conflict or a need for help. Low mood or extreme low mood (also known as depression) can regulate a pattern of engagement and foster disengagement from unattainable goals. \"Low mood increases an organism's ability to cope with the adaptive challenges characteristic of unpropitious situations in which effort to pursue a major goal will likely result in danger, loss, bodily damage, or wasted effort.\" Being apathetic can have a fitness advantage for the organism. Depression has also been studied as a behavioral strategy used by vertebrates to increase their personal or inclusive fitness in the threat of parasites and pathogens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21826111",
"title": "Caregiver stress",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Symptoms include depression, anxiety, and anger. Chronic stress can create medical problems including high blood pressure, diabetes, and a compromised immune system. The impact may reduce the care-giver's life expectancy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57325596",
"title": "Depression and immune function",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Major depression is often associated with increased immune function, and the two are thought to share similar physiological pathways and risk factors. Primarily seen through increased inflammation, this relationship is bidirectional with depression often resulting in increased immune response and illness resulting in prolonged sadness and lack of activity. This association is seen both long-term and short-term, with the presence of one often being accompanied by the other and both inflammation and depression often being co-morbid with other conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3875331",
"title": "Social determinants of health",
"section": "Section::::Chronic stress and health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "In addition to this, the way that an individual responds to stress can influence their health status. Often, individuals responding to chronic stress will develop potentially positive or negative coping behaviors. People who cope with stress through positive behaviors such as exercise or social connections may not be as affected by the relationship between stress and health, whereas those with a coping style more prone to over-consumption (i.e. emotional eating, drinking, smoking or drug use) are more likely to be see negative health effects of stress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70425",
"title": "Inflammation",
"section": "Section::::Inflammatory disorders.:Connection to depression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "In addition there is increasing evidence that inflammation can cause depression because of the increase of cytokines, setting the brain into a \"sickness mode\". Classical symptoms of being physically sick like lethargy show a large overlap in behaviors that characterize depression. Levels of cytokines tend to increase sharply during the depressive episodes of people with bipolar disorder and drop off during remission. Furthermore, it has been shown in clinical trials that anti-inflammatory medicines taken in addition to antidepressants not only significantly improves symptoms but also increases the proportion of subjects positively responding to treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "840273",
"title": "Depression (mood)",
"section": "Section::::Factors.:Non-psychiatric illnesses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Depressed mood can be the result of a number of infectious diseases, nutritional deficiencies, neurological conditions and physiological problems, including hypoandrogenism (in men), Addison's disease, Cushing's syndrome, hypothyroidism, Lyme disease, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, chronic pain, stroke, diabetes, and cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bwhf8g
|
why are g-protein receptors the target for more than half of the drugs?
|
[
{
"answer": "G-protein receptors are very common receptors that need to be activated in order to trigger a cascade of reactions within the cell. They are involved in a large amount of common processes that can often go wrong in people (e.g. inflammation, glucose homeostasis, etc.). This makes an obvious target for drugs because they stop these processes completely (because binding of G-protein receptors is often the first step) and they are easy to target because you just need a complementary molecule that can be transported in blood.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22519313",
"title": "Cell surface receptor",
"section": "Section::::Signal transduction.:G protein-coupled receptors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "G protein-coupled receptors comprise a large protein family of transmembrane receptors. They are found only in eukaryotes. The ligands which bind and activate these receptors include: photosensitive compounds, odors, pheromones, hormones, and neurotransmitters. These vary in size from small molecules to peptides and large proteins. G protein-coupled receptors are involved in many diseases, and thus are the targets of many modern medicinal drugs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12832",
"title": "G protein-coupled receptor",
"section": "Section::::History and significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "The 2012 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Brian Kobilka and Robert Lefkowitz for their work that was \"crucial for understanding how G protein-coupled receptors function\". There have been at least seven other Nobel Prizes awarded for some aspect of G protein–mediated signaling. As of 2012, two of the top ten global best-selling drugs (Advair Diskus and Abilify) act by targeting G protein-coupled receptors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12841",
"title": "G protein",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "G proteins are important signal transducing molecules in cells. \"Malfunction of GPCR [G Protein-Coupled Receptor] signaling pathways are involved in many diseases, such as diabetes, blindness, allergies, depression, cardiovascular defects, and certain forms of cancer. It is estimated that about 30% of the modern drugs' cellular targets are GPCRs.\" The human genome encodes roughly 800 G protein-coupled receptors, which detect photons of light, hormones, growth factors, drugs, and other endogenous ligands. Approximately 150 of the GPCRs found in the human genome still have unknown functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244115",
"title": "Lorazepam",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "The magnitude and duration of lorazepam effects are dose-related, meaning larger doses have stronger and longer-lasting effects, because the brain has spare benzodiazepine drug receptor capacity, with single, clinical doses leading only to an occupancy of some 3% of the available receptors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23624907",
"title": "LY-404,039",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Mechanism of action and pharmacodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The specific binding of LY-404,039 to human cloned mGlu receptors has been found to be highest for mGluR (K = 149 ± 11 nM) and relatively high for mGluR (K = 92 ± 14 nM). Research suggests that it does not have any appreciable affinity for other metabotropic glutamate receptors, ionotropic NMDA receptors, or kainate receptors, nor does it appear to have any affinity for adrenergic, benzodiazepine/GABAergic, histaminergic or muscarinic receptors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14958",
"title": "Immune system",
"section": "Section::::Manipulation in medicine.:Predicting immunogenicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 1360,
"text": "Larger drugs (500 Da) can provoke a neutralizing immune response, particularly if the drugs are administered repeatedly, or in larger doses. This limits the effectiveness of drugs based on larger peptides and proteins (which are typically larger than 6000 Da). In some cases, the drug itself is not immunogenic, but may be co-administered with an immunogenic compound, as is sometimes the case for Taxol. Computational methods have been developed to predict the immunogenicity of peptides and proteins, which are particularly useful in designing therapeutic antibodies, assessing likely virulence of mutations in viral coat particles, and validation of proposed peptide-based drug treatments. Early techniques relied mainly on the observation that hydrophilic amino acids are overrepresented in epitope regions than hydrophobic amino acids; however, more recent developments rely on machine learning techniques using databases of existing known epitopes, usually on well-studied virus proteins, as a training set. A publicly accessible database has been established for the cataloguing of epitopes from pathogens known to be recognizable by B cells. The emerging field of bioinformatics-based studies of immunogenicity is referred to as \"immunoinformatics\". Immunoproteomics is the study of large sets of proteins (proteomics) involved in the immune response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21524160",
"title": "Receptorome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "In practice, the receptorome now is considered to encompass not only traditional receptors but also ion channels and transporters in the human genome that are potential drug targets. Some of the most renowned types are the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) - targets for many medications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2zjfet
|
Does flushing help or hinder a drought?
|
[
{
"answer": "The problem with flushing is that you then fill your tank back up and use more water. If you live in an area with a drought, you should use less water, including flushing less regularly, taking shorter showers, turning off the water while brushing your teeth/washing you face, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "157664",
"title": "Physiological plant disorder",
"section": "Section::::Weather damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Drought can cause plants to suffer from water stress and wilt. Adequate irrigation is required during prolonged hot, dry periods. Rather than shallow daily watering, during a drought water should be directed towards the roots, ensuring that the soil is thoroughly soaked two or three times a week. Mulches also help preserve soil moisture and keep roots cool.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1228141",
"title": "Dry season",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "During the dry season, humidity is very low, causing some watering holes and rivers to dry up. This lack of water (and hence of food) may force many grazing animals to migrate to more fertile spots. Examples of such animals are zebras, elephants, and wildebeest. Because of the lack of water in the plants, bushfires are common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39856",
"title": "Biosalinity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "When properly applied (watering well in excess of evapotranspiration, maintaining soil structure for excellent drainage), brackish-water irrigation does not result in increased salinization of the soil. Sometimes this means that farmers have to add extra water after a rainstorm, to carry salts back down to below the root zone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219736",
"title": "Indoor air quality",
"section": "Section::::Effect of indoor plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Since extremely high humidity is associated with increased mold growth, allergic responses, and respiratory responses, the presence of additional moisture from houseplants may not be desirable in all indoor settings if watering is done inappropriately.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "216193",
"title": "Greywater",
"section": "Section::::Reuse.:Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Greywater reuse in toilet flushing and garden irrigation may produce aerosols. These could transmit legionella disease and bring a potential health risk for people. However, the result of the research shows that the health risk due to reuse of greywater either for garden irrigation or toilet flushing was not significantly higher than the risk associated with using clear water for the same activities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1500213",
"title": "Schlumbergera",
"section": "Section::::Cultivation of Christmas cacti.:Care of cultivars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Watering\" - They are more tolerant of drought than many house plants, but can be damaged by both under- and over-watering. Keeping the growing medium just moist throughout the year avoids either extreme.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17191332",
"title": "Vegetation and slope stability",
"section": "Section::::Removal of water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "The removal of water is also affected by the shading provided by vegetation. Shading helps prevent the desiccation of the soils which results in shrinkage and cracking allowing the deep penetration of rain water. Plants need to have a high leaf to root ratio and have the ability to persist through hot summer months in order to provide effective shading of the soils.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6vpk26
|
why do people feel mentally clear when fasting?
|
[
{
"answer": "I have lost about 35 pounds over the last 3 months using a combination of intermittent fasting and fasting. It has been the most effective way to lose weight I have tried. Problem is, while fasting, I am NOT clear headed. I am a miserable fuck. Wife and kids can't stand during that time. It is effective though. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you're fasting, the brain gets energy from ketone bodies instead of sugar, and some people experience mental clarity that way. [Some people use a ketogenic diet for epilepsy relief](_URL_0_) and adding supplemental ketones to the diet of Navy divers [prevents seizures related to oxygen toxicity.](_URL_1_)\n\nThe ketogenic diet is essentially the Atkins diet- your metabolism runs on ketones whether you're burning your own fat or eating fat. It is a high fat diet, which causes weight loss because it suppresses hunger, so it is easy to keep total calorie intake low.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2035419",
"title": "Islamic holidays",
"section": "Section::::Religious practices.:Fasting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "The act of fasting represents the condition experienced by the needy, who although already hungry must also fast for Ramadan. Muslims fast by denying themselves food, water and all related sexual activity with their spouses, but people with chronic diseases or unhealthy conditions such as diabetes, and children are exempt from fasting. Travelers, and women who are menstruating or nursing a baby, are exempt from fasting as well during their special situation but are required to fast later. A person's observance of fasting can be for naught if religiously forbidden acts are made, such as Ghibah (backbiting others) and deceiving others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18369071",
"title": "Twelver",
"section": "Section::::Shari'ah (Furu al-Din).:Fasting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 1269,
"text": "Nasr describes that Fasting is abstaining oneself from food, drink and sexual intercourse from the dawn to the sunset during the month of Ramadan. The Fast also requires the abstaining one's mind and tongue away from evil thoughts and words. It is obligatory from the age of adolescence until the time one possesses the physical strength to undertake it. The fast is not obligatory for the sick, those travelling and breast-feeding mothers, but they must make up the lost days when possible. According to Tabataba'ei, (Fasting) means to abstain oneself from something, which later in the development of the religion was applied to abstaining from some particular things, from break of dawn up to sunset, with intention (niyyah,النّيّة). Fasting results in piety i.e., to abstain oneself from gratifying worldly matters, results in the perfection of the spirit. He adds, one should care about matters which take him away from his Lord: this is called piety. This abstinence from common lawful things causes him to abstain from unlawful things and to come nearer to God. The end of Ramadan comes with the prayer of the Eid after which a sum of money equal to the cost of all the meals not eaten by oneself and one's family during this month is usually given to the poor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252866",
"title": "Altered state of consciousness",
"section": "Section::::Induction methods.:Pathologies/other.:Fasting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Coupled with deprivation of sleep and oxygen, another form of deprivation includes fasting. Fasting can occur because of religious purposes or from psychological conditions such as anorexia. Fasting refers to the ability to willingly refrain from food and possibly drinks as well. The dissociation caused by fasting is not only life-threatening but it is the reason why extended fasting periods can lead to ASC. Thus, the temporary dissociation from reality allows fasting to fall into the category of an ASC following the definition provided by Dr. Avner (2006).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5631523",
"title": "Fasting and abstinence of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria",
"section": "Section::::Fasting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "There are those who see fasting as an exercise in self-denial and Christian obedience that serves to rid the believer of his or her \"passions\" (what most modern people would call \"addictions\"). These often low-intensity and hard-to-detect addictions to food, television or other entertainments, sex, or any kind of self-absorbed pleasure-seeking are seen as some of the most significant obstacles for man seeking closeness to God. Through struggling with fasting, the believer comes face to face with the reality of his condition - the starting point for genuine repentance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26173",
"title": "Ramadan",
"section": "Section::::Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Ramadan fasting is safe for healthy people, but those with medical conditions should seek medical advice if they encounter health problems before or during fasting. The fasting period is usually associated with modest weight loss, but weight can return afterwards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187886",
"title": "Fasting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "In a physiological context, fasting may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight, or to the metabolic state achieved after complete digestion and absorption of a meal. Several metabolic adjustments occur during fasting. Some diagnostic tests are used to determine a fasting state. For example, a person is assumed to be fasting once 8–12 hours have elapsed since the last meal. Metabolic changes of the fasting state begin after absorption of a meal (typically 3–5 hours after eating).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3345949",
"title": "Nativity Fast",
"section": "Section::::The purpose of fasting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "Through the discipline of fasting, when practiced with prayer, repentance, and almsgiving, it is believed that by tempering the bodily desire for food, other passions are tempered as well, and that the soul can orient more away from worldly needs and more towards spiritual needs. Through this practice one is better enabled to draw closer to Christ, and engage in the continuous and synergistic process of becoming more Christ-like. While fasting is practiced with the body, it is important to note that emphasis is placed on the spiritual facet of the fast rather than mere physical deprivation. Orthodox theology sees a synthesis between the body and the soul, so what happens to one can be used to have an effect on the other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1m1v5i
|
What is the best Frederick the Great biography?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm actually not aware of too many scholarly biographies of Frederick the Great in English. [Gerhard Ritter's](_URL_1_) biography is a translation from German that's a bit older, but does a good job of putting Frederick's life into the context of European state absolutism and international relations. \n\nI do know that [Nancy Mitford](_URL_0_) wrote a biography of Frederick the Great that focuses much more on his private life, but I haven't read it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Iron Kingdom by Christopher Clark is more the general history of Prussia in 800 pages, from the Hohenzollern family all the way to the post-WWII division of Germany. While not specifically about Frederick the Great, it includes lots of material about the man and his rule. Great citation material for projects about Germany.\n\n_URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7138835",
"title": "David Abulafia",
"section": "Section::::Academic career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "One of his most influential books is \"Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor\", first published in England in 1988 and reprinted many times in several Italian editions. Here he looks at an iconic figure from the Middle Ages from a new perspective, criticizing the views of the famous German historian Ernst Kantorowicz concerning Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, whom Abulafia sees as a conservative figure rather than as a genius born out of his time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3947425",
"title": "John Van der Kiste",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "His first book, \"Frederick III\", appeared in 1981, and since then he has published several historical biographies, as well as books on local history, true crime, rock music, fiction and drama. He is also a contributor to the \"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography\" and \"Guinness Rockopaedia\", and has produced articles on historical, musical and art subjects in national and local journals, including \"Illustrated London News\", \"Royalty Digest\", \"European Royal History Journal\", \"Best of British (magazine)|Best of British\", \"BBC History Magazine\", \"Record Collector\", \"Antique Collector\", \"This England\", \"The Independent\" and \"Gibbons Stamp Monthly\". He has reviewed books and records for the press, written CD booklet notes, and between 1991 and 1996 edited and published the 1970s rock fanzine \"Keep on Rockin\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191001",
"title": "Johann Gustav Droysen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Johann Gustav Bernhard Droysen (; ; 6 July 180819 June 1884) was a German historian. His history of Alexander the Great was the first work representing a new school of German historical thought that idealized power held by so-called \"great\" men.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99613",
"title": "Frederick the Great",
"section": "Section::::Historiography and memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "Historian Leopold von Ranke was unstinting in his praise of Frederick's \"heroic life, inspired by great ideas, filled with feats of arms ... immortalized by the raising of the Prussian state to the rank of a power\". Johann Gustav Droysen was even more favorable. Nationalist historian Heinrich von Treitschke presented Frederick as the greatest German in centuries. Onno Klopp was one of the few German historians of the 19th century who denigrated and ridiculed Frederick. The novelist Thomas Mann in 1914 also attacked Frederick, arguing—like Empress Maria Theresa—that he was a wicked man who robbed Austria of Silesia, precipitating the alliance against him. Nevertheless, with Germany humiliated after World War I, Frederick's popularity as a heroic figure remained high in Germany. Frederick's place in British historiography was established by Thomas Carlyle's \"History of Frederick the Great\" (8 vol. 1858–1865), emphasizing the power of one great \"hero\" to shape history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "334560",
"title": "Johann Georg Ritter von Zimmermann",
"section": "Section::::Life and works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "He attended Frederick the Great during that monarch's last illness, and afterwards issued various books about him, of which the chief were \"Über Friederich den Grossen und meine Unterredung mit ihm kurz vor seinem Tode\" (\"\"On Frederick the Great and my conversation with him shortly before his death\",\" 1788) and \"Fragmente über Friedrich den Grossen\" (\"\"Fragments on Frederick the Great\"\", 1790). According to the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" Eleventh Edition, \"[t]hese writings display extraordinary personal vanity, and convey a wholly false impression of Frederick's character.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38877574",
"title": "Claude Fredericks",
"section": "Section::::The Journal of Claude Fredericks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 2175,
"text": "Above and beyond these accomplishments Fredericks’s greatest achievement is his \"Journal\", a personal diary that is unprecedented in its length, continuity, detail, and candor. \"The Journal of Claude Fredericks\", begun in 1932 when he was eight years old, and written by him over the course of more than eighty years, up until a week before his death, is a document of some 65,000 pages in length, one of the longest personal narratives in the language. In his 2015 biography of the poet James Merrill (\"James Merrill: Life and Art\", Knopf, 2015) Langdon Hammer at Yale, one of the trustees of The Claude Fredericks Foundation, writes: “...Over time \"The Journal\" would become a unique archival record and a massive literary work in its own right––a project of self-knowledge tirelessly pursued. It was purchased by the Getty Research Institute (at The Getty Center in Los Angeles) in 1988, at which point it consisted of more than 30 million words.” In a prospectus printed by The Stinehour Press in 1997, Fredericks described \"The Journal\" in this way: It is a book that is peopled with literally thousands of people but documents a life often passed in monkish solitude. At times the journal is compulsively detailed about the merest minutiae of daily life but at other times consciously and with as much art as the writer at any given moment has at his command seeks to create the reality of an hour, an evening, a day. There is a good deal of actual narrative—that of the writer’s own life and also that of the lives of innumerable other people—but also a great deal of introspection that seeks to understand the narrative and what it says about the nature of life itself. In 1995 Fredericks, with the collaboration of Marc Harrington, a former student at Bennington, began the vast project of editing this long journal for publication in its entirety and, since 2004, the first 4,000 pages have been published: \"The Journal of Claude Fredericks Volume One, Two, and Three\" (1932-1943). \"Volume Four\" (1944), which represents the next fifteen-hundred pages, ones that Fredericks was preparing in the months prior to his death, will be published as editing is completed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53148835",
"title": "Ernst Christoph von Nassau",
"section": "Section::::Military service.:Prussian service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "On 5 March 1746, he was elevated to the rank of a Prussian count and he received a golden tabloid from Frederick with a personal acknowledgement. He died on 19 November 1755 in Sagan. For his work, his name was immortalized in 1851 on one of the honorary plates on the Equestrian statue of Frederick the Great.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7fimel
|
Song Dynasty China was said to be close to an industrial revolution. Was there anything "lost" during periods afterwards? Was the Song really more likely to industrialize than it's successors?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would point you to the answers that others and I made in this [thread](_URL_0_) regarding Song state institutions, the role it played in the Song's tremendous economic growth, and how later dynasty's diverged from the Song model. \n\nI would also add that the Song was birthed from a unique period of time in Chinese history - the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. After the Anshi Rebellion, the military governors (*fanzhen*) carved out semi-independent fiefdoms for themselves and deprived the central government of the land tax revenue. This forced the state to become more creative in its taxation policies and the state began to rely increasingly on indirect taxation. The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, during which China was divided into several competing states, accelerated this process. Much of the Song's policies and practices can be traced from this period in time. Interstate competition did not disappear with the rise of the Song, as it faced strong enemies to the north and west (Khitans, Jurchens, Tanguts), and this competition paved the way for innovations in finance, economic policy, and military technology. By contrast, the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties never faced strong adversaries and therefore lacked the need to innovate. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7391958",
"title": "Great Divergence",
"section": "Section::::Conditions in pre-Great Divergence cores.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "During the Song Dynasty (960–1279), the country experienced a revolution in agriculture, water transport, finance, urbanization, science and technology, which made the Chinese economy the most advanced in the world from about 1100. Mastery of wet-field rice cultivation opened up the hitherto underdeveloped south of the country, while later northern China was devastated by Jurchen and Mongol invasions, floods and epidemics. The result was a dramatic shift in the center of population and industry from the home of Chinese civilization around the Yellow River to the south of the country, a trend only partially reversed by the re-population of the north from the 15th century. By 1300, China as a whole had fallen behind Italy in living standards though its wealthiest regions may have remained on par with those of Europe until the early 18th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9311753",
"title": "History of science and technology in China",
"section": "Section::::China's scientific revolution.:Song Dynasty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "The Song dynasty (960–1279) brought a new stability for China after a century of civil war, and started a new area of modernisation by encouraging examinations and meritocracy. The first Song Emperor created political institutions that allowed a great deal of freedom of discourse and thought, which facilitated the growth of scientific advance, economic reforms, and achievements in arts and literature. Trade flourished both within China and overseas, and the encouragement of technology allowed the mints at Kaifeng and Hangzhou to gradually increase in production. In 1080, the mints of Emperor Shenzong had produced 5 billion coins (roughly 50 per Chinese citizen), and the first banknotes were produced in 1023. These coins were so durable that they would still be in use 700 years later, in the 18th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10444037",
"title": "Economy of the Song dynasty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "For over three centuries during the Song dynasty (960–1279) China experienced sustained growth in per capita income and population, structural change in the economy, and increased pace of technological innovation. Movable print, improved seeds for rice and other commercial crops, gunpowder, water-powered mechanical clocks, the use of coal as a source of fuel for a variety of industries, improved techniques for iron and steel production, pound locks and many other technological innovations transformed the economy. In north China, the main fuel source for ceramic kilns and iron furnaces shifted from wood to coal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58511601",
"title": "Da Shu coinage",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1204,
"text": "Three decades after the Song dynasty was founded its government still had issues consolidating its power and rule over China and didn't properly address the most important social issues that plagued the population. The economy of the Song dynasty was in a bad shape during this period and around the country peasants were forming their own armies to rebel against the government and started killing corrupt government officials. The largest of these peasant revolts was organised by tea farmers and landless tenant farmers (旁戶, \"páng hù\") in the Shu region (蜀, the modern day province of Sichuan) where these peasants were protesting exploitation by rich landowners of the Sichuan Basin and the Song government's state monopoly on the purchasing of tea (博買務, \"bó mǎi wù\"), this monopoly prevented the tea farmers from obtaining a reasonable income to live off. Another contributing factor to the bad living conditions of the peasantry at the time was a severe drought that devastated the country while the Song dynasty was suffering heavy losses against both the Khitans and the Tanguts. By the year 993 the number of participants of the uprising in Sichuan had reached several hundred thousand farmers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21478413",
"title": "Economic history of China before 1912",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1150,
"text": "The Song period (960-1279 AD/CE) brought additional economic reforms. Paper money, the compass, and other technological advances facilitated communication on a large scale and the widespread circulation of books. The state's control of the economy diminished, allowing private merchants to prosper and a large increase in investment and profit. Despite disruptions during the Mongol conquest of 1279, the 2nd plague epidemic in the 14th century, and the large-scale rebellions that followed it, China's population was buoyed by the Columbian Exchange and increased greatly under the Ming (1368-1644 AD/CE). The economy was remonetised by Japanese and South American silver brought through foreign trade, despite generally isolationist policies. The relative economic status of Europe and China during most of the Qing (1644-1912 AD/CE) remains a matter of debate, but a Great Divergence was apparent in the 19th century, when British dependence on opium smuggling because of the Chinese Empire's demand for silver to pay for its tea exports led it into a series of wars that ended China's isolation and autonomy through a number of Unequal Treaties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10444037",
"title": "Economy of the Song dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "The economic development of China under the Song dynasty was marked by improvements in farm tools, seeds, and fertilizers. The Song inherited the plow innovations described in the Tang dynasty text \"The Classic of the Plow\", which documents their utilization in Jiangnan. The Song improved on the Tang curved iron plough and invented a special steel plough design specifically for reclaiming wasteland. The wasteland plough was not made of iron, but of stronger steel, the blade was shorter but thicker, and particularly effective in cutting through reeds and roots in wetlands in the Huai River valley. A tool designed to facilitate seedling called \"seedling horse\" was invented under the Song; it was made of jujube wood and paulownia wood. Song farms used bamboo water wheels to harness the flow energy of rivers to raise water for irrigation of farmland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10444102",
"title": "Science and technology of the Song dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Metallurgy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 891,
"text": "Due to the enormous amount of production, the economic historian Robert Hartwell noted that Chinese iron and coal production in the following 12th century was equal to if not greater than England's iron and coal production in the early phase of the Industrial Revolution during the late 18th century. However, the Chinese of the Song period did not harness the energy potential of coal in ways that would generate power mechanically, as in the later Industrial Revolution that would originate in the West. There were certain administrative prefectures during the Song era where the Chinese iron industry was mostly concentrated. For example, the poet and statesman Su Shi wrote a memorial to the throne in 1078 that specified 36 ironwork smelters, each employing a work force of several hundred people, in the Liguo Industrial Prefecture (under his governance while he administered Xuzhou).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
iex23
|
Can complex life evolve on a moon?
|
[
{
"answer": "The earth has lots of variation too; 24-hour day/night cycle, tilted axis causing seasonal changes, and the distance to the sun varies something like 5 million kilometers throughout the year. The reason why those changes aren't too bad for life, is because we have an atmosphere to help equalize the temperatures. With an atmosphere it takes longer to heat things up and longer to cool things down, and heat can spread around more evenly, so as long as there is at least *some* reasonable variations the atmosphere will stay within reasonable limits. If there is no atmosphere, then the difference between day and night is extreme. Variation is actually good for a climate: planets that are tidally locked to their star have one side that is extremely hot, and one side extremely cold. Moons can never tidally locked to the parent star!\n\nAnd specifically:\n\nOscillating distance (orbit): That's a negligible effect. For example, Europa only oscillates between extremes of about 1.2 million kilometers. The eccentrically of the parent planet's orbit is a much larger effect, and remember that the earth's distance varies a bit more, and it doesn't effect climate much at all. Also, the orbit of Europa is only a few days, so any difference is averaged out decently anyway. Why? Because if you imagine a really long period of oscillation, you'll have long periods of time where its too hot or too cold (assuming the effect is even that great), shorter is better.\n\nEclipses: Just adds a bit more complexity to the day/night cycle, but with a slight bias towards more night. Interestingly, if the moon is tidally locked (which most of them are) then only half of the moon would observe the eclipses. The the frequent eclipses would make things a bit colder on average, but the extra variation wouldn't matter much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Remember, though, that some bacteria on OUR planet thrive in extremely hot, dark places. They don't get their energy from sunlight, they get it from chemical energy from undersea vents. We tend to think of the possibilities of life forming in terms of how similar to earth other planets are, and in a lot of ways this is probably a valid way of speculating. Despite our earthly biases, we should keep an open mind about the possibilities of life forming in ways other than what we consider likely.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Personal thought not actual science]Considering that the vast majority of stars are brown dwarfs and planets in their habitable zone would tend to be tidally locked, I would think moons around them are far better suited for life (they are likely to have some rotation compared to the star). I don’t think we can say anything about complex life yet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7327506",
"title": "Richard Lathe",
"section": "Section::::Lunar theory of life's origins on Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1277,
"text": "Lathe's research has led him to develop a theory that without the Moon, there would be no life on Earth. When life began, Earth orbited much more closely to the Moon than it does now, causing massive tides every few hours, which in turn caused rapid cycling of salinity levels on coastlines and may have driven the evolution of early DNA. Lathe uses polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which amplifies DNA replication in the lab, as an example of the mechanisms that facilitate DNA replication, In the laboratory, PCR synthesis is achieved by cycling DNA between two extreme temperatures in the presence of certain enzymes. At lower temperatures, about 50 °C, single strands of DNA act as templates for building complementary strands. At higher temperatures, about 100 °C, the double strands break apart, doubling the number of molecules. The synthesis of DNA is started again by lowering the temperature, and so forth. Through this process, one DNA molecule can be converted into a trillion identical copies in just 40 cycles. Saline cycles triggered by rapid tidal activity would have amplified molecules such as DNA in a process similar to PCR, says Lathe, \"The tidal force is absolutely important, because it provides the energy for association and dissociation\" of polymers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "827792",
"title": "Rare Earth hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:The hypothesis appears anthropocentric.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "The hypothesis concludes, more or less, that complex life is rare because it can evolve only on the surface of an Earth-like planet or on a suitable satellite of a planet. Some biologists, such as Jack Cohen, believe this assumption too restrictive and unimaginative; they see it as a form of circular reasoning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9588",
"title": "Extraterrestrial life",
"section": "Section::::Cultural impact.:20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The possibility of extraterrestrial life on the Moon was ruled out in the 1960s, and during the 1970s it became clear that most of the other bodies of the Solar System do not harbor highly developed life, although the question of primitive life on bodies in the Solar System remains open.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55398573",
"title": "Ocean Worlds Exploration Program",
"section": "Section::::Science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "On Earth, itself an ocean world, liquid water is essential to life as we know it. A question is whether the dark, alien oceans of the outer Solar System could be habitable for simple life forms, and if so, what would their biochemistry be. Exploring these moons could help to answer the question of how life arose on Earth and whether it exists anywhere else in the Solar System. It may also be possible to find pre-biotic chemistry occurring, which could provide clues to how life started on Earth. Any life detected at the remote ocean worlds in the outer Solar System would likely have formed and evolved along an independent path from life on Earth, giving us a deeper understanding of the potential for life in the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34661457",
"title": "Planetary surface",
"section": "Section::::Surface materials.:Rare surface occurrences.:Extraterrestrial Organic compounds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "Increasingly organic compounds are being found on objects throughout the Solar System. While unlikely to indicate the presence of extraterrestrial life, all known life is based on these compounds. Complex carbon molecules may form through various complex chemical interactions or delivered through impacts with small solar system objects and can combine to form the \"building blocks\" of Carbon-based life. As organic compounds are often volatile, their persistence as a solid or liquid on a planetary surface is of scientific interest as it would indicate an intrinsic source (such as from the object's interior) or residue from larger quantities of organic material preserved through special circumstances over geological timescales, or an extrinsic source (such as from past or recent collision with other objects). Radiation makes the detection of organic matter difficult, making its detection on atmosphereless objects closer to the Sun extremely difficult.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46897596",
"title": "Sivamathiyin Jeevayoga Jothimayam",
"section": "Section::::II - Moon (Our Moon Life).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "\"Our Moon Life\" is a research organisation led by Sri Sivamathi M. Mathiyalagan. The research aims at creating a complete living condition for plants, animals and Human Life on the Moon, through fundamental understandings of Life on Planet Earth. The fundamentals of life combined with the scientific understanding of the Universe paves way for this phenomenal research path. The research path delves into multiples aspects of Science like\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40705820",
"title": "Guardian of Piri",
"section": "Section::::Story.:Teaser.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "The moon is in range of a planet but Computer has not offered any prediction as to whether it would support life. Kano informs Koenig that it has been scanning the planet continuously since they became aware the planet existed but still has insufficient data to make a prediction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6lp2yz
|
why do some artists choose not to upload their singles on youtube, even ones that are decades old? wouldn't they make lots of money from advertisement?
|
[
{
"answer": "A lot of songs are not property of the artist themselves, who would probably love to be making money off their own work..",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "770126",
"title": "Swedish hip hop",
"section": "Section::::History.:In the 21st century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Due to file sharing via the Internet and changing consumer markets, the number of records an artist has sold is not necessarily indicative of how popular or important that artist is. There are Swedish hip hop acts who release records for what they know is going to be an economic loss, in hope of earning their money through concerts and other ventures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4102558",
"title": "Parikrama (band)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "They are yet to release a full-length album, because they prefer giving out their music for free. They have had millions of downloads from their site and other related pages. They did release a free multimedia CD of their singles and videos in 2001. The band does not have any policies against their music being copied and distributed. They have made their music available for download on their official website.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18945847",
"title": "Hip hop music",
"section": "Section::::2000s.:Decline in sales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 1100,
"text": "Other journalists say the music is just as popular as it ever was, but that fans have found other means to consume the music, such as illegally downloading music through P2P networks, instead of purchasing albums and singles from legitimate stores. For example, Flo Rida is known for his low album sales regardless of his singles being mainstream and having digital success. His second album \"R.O.O.T.S.\" sold only 200,000+ total units in the U.S., which could not line up to the sales of the album's lead single \"Right Round\". This also happened to him in 2008. Some put the blame on the lack of strong lyrical content that hip hop once had. Another example is Soulja Boy Tell 'Em's 2007 debut album \"souljaboytellem.com\" was met with negative reviews. Lack of sampling, a key element of early hip hop, has also been noted for the decrease in quality of modern albums. For example, there are only four samples used in 2008's \"Paper Trail\" by T.I., while there are 35 samples in 1998's \"Moment of Truth\" by Gang Starr. The decrease in sampling is in part due to it being too expensive for producers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2292485",
"title": "Personal web page",
"section": "Section::::Motivations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "In the 2010s, some amateur writers, bands and filmmakers release digital versions of their stories, songs and short films online, with the aim of gaining an audience and becoming more well-known. While the huge number of aspiring artists posting their work online makes it unlikely for individuals and groups to become popular via the Internet, there are a small number of YouTube stars who were unknown until their online performances garnered them a huge audience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31201241",
"title": "Torrent poisoning",
"section": "Section::::High-profile cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Similarly, the band Barenaked Ladies released a number of tracks online in 2000 that appeared to be legitimate copies of tracks from the band's latest album. Each file contained a short sample of the song, followed by a clip of a band member saying, \"Although you thought you were downloading our new single, what you were actually downloading is an advertisement for our new album.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293055",
"title": "PRS for Music",
"section": "Section::::Licensing.:Enforcement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "In March 2009, the on line video-sharing site YouTube removed all premium music videos for UK users, even those supplied by record labels, due to a failure to find \"mutually acceptable terms for a new licence\" with PRS for Music. As a consequence, PRS for Music established the Fair Play for Creators campaign in order to provide a forum where musicians could \"publicly demonstrate their concern over the way their work is treated by online businesses\". David Arnold, Jazzie B, Billy Bragg, Guy Chambers, Robin Gibb, Pete Waterman, Mike Chapman, Wayne Hector, Pam Sheyne and Debbie Wiseman sent a letter to \"The Times\" newspaper in support of the campaign launched by PRS for Music. A rights deal was settled in September 2009 between PRS for Music and Google that allowed YouTube users in UK to view music videos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18938226",
"title": "Digital rights management",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives.:Digital content as promotion for traditional products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 151,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 151,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Many artists are using the Internet to give away music to create awareness and liking to a new upcoming album. The artists release a new song on the internet for free download, which consumers can download. The hope is to have the listeners buy the new album because of the free download. A common practice used today is releasing a song or two on the internet for consumers to indulge. In 2007, Radiohead released an album named \"In Rainbows\", in which fans could pay any amount they want, or download it for free.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12kchz
|
if i put a candle on fire and a bug and put them under a glass cup..when the fire depleates all the oxygen inside will the bug eventualy die suficating?
|
[
{
"answer": "I flame needs approx 13% oxygen to sustain the flame, I have no idea what an insect needs to sustain life.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24544",
"title": "Photosynthesis",
"section": "Section::::Discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Joseph Priestley, a chemist and minister, discovered that, when he isolated a volume of air under an inverted jar, and burned a candle in it (which gave off CO), the candle would burn out very quickly, much before it ran out of wax. He further discovered that a mouse could similarly \"injure\" air. He then showed that the air that had been \"injured\" by the candle and the mouse could be restored by a plant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44017",
"title": "Candle",
"section": "Section::::Hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Glass candle-holders are sometimes cracked by thermal shock from the candle flame, particularly when the candle burns down to the end. When burning candles in glass holders or jars, users should avoid lighting candles with chipped or cracked containers, and stop use once 1/2 inch or less of wax remains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3967032",
"title": "Photosynthetic reaction centre",
"section": "Section::::In Cyanobacteria and plants.:Oxygenic photosynthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "In 1772, the chemist Joseph Priestley carried out a series of experiments relating to the gases involved in respiration and combustion. In his first experiment, he lit a candle and placed it under an upturned jar. After a short period of time, the candle burned out. He carried out a similar experiment with a mouse in the confined space of the burning candle. He found that the mouse died a short time after the candle had been extinguished. However, he could revivify the foul air by placing green plants in the area and exposing them to light. Priestley's observations were some of the first experiments that demonstrated the activity of a photosynthetic reaction center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44017",
"title": "Candle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "For a candle to burn, a heat source (commonly a naked flame) is used to light the candle's wick, which melts and vaporizes a small amount of fuel (the wax). Once vaporized, the fuel combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to ignite and form a constant flame. This flame provides sufficient heat to keep the candle burning via a self-sustaining chain of events: the heat of the flame melts the top of the mass of solid fuel; the liquefied fuel then moves upward through the wick via capillary action; the liquefied fuel finally vaporizes to burn within the candle's flame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3247273",
"title": "Candle wick",
"section": "Section::::Wick types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "In tealights the wick is tethered to a piece of metal to stop it from floating to the top of the molten wax and burning before the wax does. Candles designed to float in water require not only a tether for the wick, but also a seal on the bottom of the candle to prevent the wick from wicking water and extinguishing the flame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3247273",
"title": "Candle wick",
"section": "Section::::Wick types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Candle wicks are normally made out of braided cotton. Wicks are sometimes braided flat, so that as they burn they also curl back into the flame, thus making them self-consuming. Prior to the introduction of these wicks special scissors were used to trim the excess wick without extinguishing the flame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44017",
"title": "Candle",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Wick.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "A candle wick is a piece of string or cord that holds the flame of a candle. Commercial wicks are made from braided cotton. The wick's capillarity determines the rate at which the melted hydrocarbon is conveyed to the flame. If the capillarity is too great, the molten wax streams down the side of the candle. Wicks are often infused with a variety of chemicals to modify their burning characteristics. For example, it is usually desirable that the wick not glow after the flame is extinguished. Typical agents are ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
53avoo
|
how do bees track a missing queen?
|
[
{
"answer": "Pheromones! The worker bees can smell their queen. They use chemical signals, especially wheb distressed. That queen is probably very scared and all the workers are trying to protect her because they can smell her fear.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7249697",
"title": "Ormond Aebi",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "For those who don't know, the queen excluder is a series of parallel wires placed closely together in a bee hive. It sits between the lower brood boxes and the upper supers, the boxes where the honey is stored. It functions to keep the queen from laying eggs in the boxes that contain the honey in them. She's too big to fit between the wires, but the worker bees can still come and go unimpeded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1399125",
"title": "Queen excluder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "In beekeeping, the queen excluder is a selective barrier inside the beehive that allows worker bees but not the larger queens and drones to traverse the barrier. Queen excluders are also used with some queen breeding methods. Some beekeepers believe that excluders lead to less efficient hives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1351583",
"title": "Langstroth hive",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Specialty parts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "The queen excluder is a mesh grid, usually made of wire or plastic, sized such that worker bees can pass through, but queens (generally) cannot. When used, it is generally placed between the hive body and the honey supers. The purpose of the queen excluder is to keep the queen from laying eggs in the honey supers, which can lead to darker honey and can also complicate extraction. Many beekeepers reject the use of queen excluders, however, claiming that they create a barrier for workers and result in lower levels of honey collection and storage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4777101",
"title": "Demaree method",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1145,
"text": "In the modern Demaree method, the queen is placed in the bottom box, along with one or two frames of brood (but containing no open brood), as well as one or two frames of food stores, and empty combs or foundation. A queen excluder is placed above the bottom box, thereby restricting the queen to the bottom box but allowing bees to move freely between the bottom box and the rest of the hive. The original hive, along with all open brood, is placed above the queen excluder. The method works best if the nurse bees are remove far away from the queen. The distance between the queen and nurse bees can be increased by placing the brood nest at the very top of the hive, with the honey supers between the brood nest and the queen excluder. If any swarm cells are present, these must be destroyed by the beekeeper. The relative absence of queen pheromone in the top box usually prompts the nurse bees to create emergency cells. After 7–10 days, the beekeeper destroys the emergency cells, and then either removes the queen excluder (thereby ending the \"demaree\") or repeats the process a second or a third time until the swarming impulse is over.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9006392",
"title": "List of Deltora Quest characters",
"section": "Section::::Minor characters.:Queen Bee.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "The Queen Bee is an elderly, roundish woman. She owns an orchard on the edge of the Hira plain and uses the apples to make Queen Bee Cider, which has energizing properties. She also raises bees to make Queen Bee Honey, which has certain healing properties. She is also the mother of Steven and Nevets. She supplies them with Queen Bee Honey to give to the Resistance. After Lief, Barda and Jasmine escaped the City of the Rats, they stole nine apples from her orchard. Queen Bee was enraged and nearly ordered her bees to sting them to death: but she was abated by Jasmine's money. However, once she realized that they had destroyed the City of the Rats (and by extension, were working against the Shadow Lord), she allowed them to leave and promised to pretend that she had never seen Barda, Lief and Jasmine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "379029",
"title": "Queen bee",
"section": "Section::::Identification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "The queen bee's abdomen is longer than the worker bees surrounding her and also longer than a male bee's. Even so, in a hive of 60,000 to 80,000 honey bees, it is often difficult for beekeepers to find the queen with any speed; for this reason, many queens in non-feral colonies are marked with a light daub of paint on their thorax. The paint used does no harm to the queen and makes her much easier to find when necessary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "322091",
"title": "Beekeeping",
"section": "Section::::Bee colonies.:Castes.:Drones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Drones are the largest bees in the hive (except for the queen), at almost twice the size of a worker bee. Note in the picture that they have much larger eyes than the workers have, presumably to better locate the queen during the mating flight. They do not work, do not forage for pollen or nectar, are unable to sting, and have no other known function than to mate with new queens and fertilize them on their mating flights. A bee colony generally starts to raise drones a few weeks before building queen cells so they can supersede a failing queen or prepare for swarming. When queen-raising for the season is over, bees in colder climates drive drones out of the hive to die, biting and tearing their legs and wings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5halfc
|
why cans/tins of foods such as soup and fruit, as well as jars of food, are mainly cylindrical rather than other forms, such as cuboidal.
|
[
{
"answer": "Canning involves changing the pressure on the inside of the vessel, and using a shape that has edges makes those points weak spots which could collapse, crack, or break. By being round, all the pressure on them is distributed equally around, like an archway in a stone wall. It's also one of the most efficient storage shapes that has little wasted space but is still able to bear weight when stacking.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also the manufacturing process for making a can is a lot easier than for making a cube. The cost benefit there is worth the tiny loss of volume when shipped. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This video is about aluminum beverage cans, but several of the principals apply to soup cans. \n\n_URL_0_",
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},
{
"answer": "It's a combination of storage effieciency vs strenght efficiency and handling. If you want maximum strenght efficiency and get everything out a can would best be ball shaped and round. Ofc handling would be atrocious and they would take up way too much space and roll around all day. \nMaximum storage efficiency is achived by cube or cuboid shapes. As virtually all storage space gets occupied (a 95-97% storage efficiency is pretty realistic) the problem is cans have weak points at the edges and especially in the corners. They are pressure weak points. So you wouldn't be able to stack them as high. Also handling. You would always have leftover content in the corners and edges. \nThe solution is a cylinder shape. It has no corners and if you open it just one edge is in contact with the content so almost everything slides out. You can stack them pretty high and storage efficiency is somewhere in the 80s I believe, so you don't lose out on much. \nIt basically has the best of both worlds.\n\n\nSorry I can't provide any source on any of it but there's a great documentary on youtube about the tin can (a user posted it in this thread). There's also a great explanation for a soda can opening.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "507190",
"title": "Steel and tin cans",
"section": "Section::::Standard sizes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Cans come in a variety of shapes: two common ones are the \"soup tin\" and the \"tuna tin\". Walls are often stiffened with rib bulges, especially on larger cans, to help the can resist dents that can cause seams to split.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "507190",
"title": "Steel and tin cans",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Most cans are right circular cylinders with identical and parallel round tops and bottoms with vertical sides. However, cans for small volumes or particularly-shaped contents, the top and bottom may be rounded-corner rectangles or ovals. Other contents may suit a can that is somewhat conical in shape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1231580",
"title": "Bowl",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "A bowl is a round dish or container typically used to prepare and serve food. The interior of a bowl is characteristically shaped like a spherical cap, with the edges and the bottom forming a seamless curve. This makes bowls especially suited for holding liquids and loose food, as the contents of the bowl are naturally concentrated in its center by the force of gravity. The exterior of a bowl is most often round, but can be of any shape, including rectangular.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "507190",
"title": "Steel and tin cans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "A tin can, tin (especially in British English, Australian English and Canadian English), steel can, steel packaging or a can, is a container for the distribution or storage of goods, composed of thin metal. Many cans require opening by cutting the \"end\" open; others have removable covers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3246948",
"title": "Silo",
"section": "Section::::Types of silos.:Bins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "A bin is typically much shorter than a silo, and is typically used for holding dry matter such as cement or grain. Grain is often dried in a grain dryer before being stored in the bin. Bins may be round or square, but round bins tend to empty more easily due to a lack of corners for the stored material to become wedged and encrusted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12533",
"title": "Geocaching",
"section": "Section::::Geocaches.:Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Container sizes range from \"nanos\", particularly magnetic nanos, which can be smaller than the tip of a finger and have only enough room to store the log sheet, to 20-liter (5 gallon) buckets or even larger containers, such as entire trucks. The most common cache containers in rural areas are lunch-box-sized plastic storage containers or surplus military ammunition cans. Ammo cans are considered the gold standard of containers because they are very sturdy, waterproof, animal- and fire-resistant, relatively cheap, and have plenty of room for trade items. Smaller containers are more common in urban areas because they can be more easily hidden.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "204043",
"title": "C-ration",
"section": "Section::::Field ration, Type C (1938–1945).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "During the war, soldiers frequently requested that the cylindrical cans be replaced with flat, rectangular ones (similar to a sardine can), comparable to those used in the earliest versions of contemporary K rations, because of their compactness and packability; but this was deemed impractical because of the shortage of commercial machinery available to produce rectangular cans. After 1942 the K ration too, reverted to the use of small round cans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3cl5p8
|
the difference between philology and linguistics.
|
[
{
"answer": "There's definitely a (venn diagram style) overlap. Linguistics primarily questions the relation of signifier (sign/sound/the noise that comes out of your mouth when you say the word \"tree\"/the 4 letters T R E E next to each other on a page) and signified (the actual physical living tree that you can see and touch) and the way that meaning is created in this relationship between object and sign and how that meaning is conveyed to others. Also the way that signs/objects are arranged in relation to other signs/objects in a system called grammar. Linguistics could also be considered a branch of semiotics (which considers meaning with and without language {the way meaning is created by the arrangement of utensils beside a plate, for example}).\n\nPhilology incorporates linguistics but restricts itself to the study of written text, not oral communication. It also connotes the study both of older/classical texts and the history/development of language. Sort of as opposed to literary theory/criticism, which might consider the history of literature but not necessarily the history of language. Like I said, those are just connotations, not absolutes.\n\nSo linguistics is \"broader\" (more media {written, verbal}) than philology, but philology is \"deeper\" (history, translation). Again, there's a lot of overlap and I just made a whole lot of generalizations, so don't take that like it's written in stone. Although if it was written in stone, it would probably be a philologist, not a linguist, studying it.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "23193",
"title": "Philology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Philology is the study of language in oral and written historical sources; it is the intersection of textual criticism, literary criticism, history, and linguistics. Philology is more commonly defined as the study of literary texts as well as oral and written records, the establishment of their authenticity and their original form, and the determination of their meaning. A person who pursues this kind of study is known as a philologist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22760983",
"title": "Linguistics",
"section": "Section::::Nomenclature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Linguistics is a multi-disciplinary field of research that combines tools from natural sciences, social sciences, and the humanities. Many linguists, such as David Crystal, conceptualize the field as being primarily scientific. The term \"linguist\" applies to someone who studies language or is a researcher within the field, or to someone who uses the tools of the discipline to describe and analyse specific languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2243643",
"title": "Howard Crosby (minister)",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1220,
"text": "\"Linguistics or philology may be considered either as a science or as a philosophy. Under the first aspect we may gain some idea of its extent by thinking of the vast number of languages which are to be investigated, not only those now spoken, but also many of which we have but the fossils. It touches here psychology and history, and enables us to know the unseen. A linguistic criticism is the source of all true commentary. By philology we can reconstruct prehistoric man, and read the history of times before the Olympiads and Nabonassar. Languages are never lost. By this science, the original unity of the human race is already nearly proved….Again philology as a philosophy speculates on the value of language to man, and its relations to his mind. These speculations are not to be confounded with the facts of the science….Every profound thinker has found himself fettered by language. Hence disputes and misunderstandings have arisen. Also in poetry, in devotion, in music, language is shown to be imperfect; it can never be made sufficient for the whole realm of thought. Man in his development, must have a nobler and fuller language than he has to-day. This may be in a new creation with spiritual bodies.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5178",
"title": "Classics",
"section": "Section::::Sub-disciplines.:Philology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Philology is the study of language preserved in written sources; classical philology is thus concerned with understanding any texts from the classical period written in the classical languages of Latin and Greek.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28952241",
"title": "Faculty of Linguistics, Philology & Phonetics, University of Oxford",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "The Faculty of Linguistics, Philology & Phonetics is a department of the University of Oxford, headed by Aditi Lahiri. It was created in 2008, uniting the discipline which had previously been studied across a variety of other departments. It is part of Oxford's Humanities Division.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23193",
"title": "Philology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Philology, with its focus on historical development (diachronic analysis), is contrasted with linguistics due to Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis. The contrast continued with the emergence of structuralism and Chomskyan linguistics alongside its emphasis on syntax, although research in the field of historical linguistics is often characterized by reliance on philological materials and findings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22760983",
"title": "Linguistics",
"section": "Section::::Nomenclature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Before the 20th century, the term \"philology\", first attested in 1716, was commonly used to refer to the study of language, which was then predominantly historical in focus. Since Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis, however, this focus has shifted and the term \"philology\" is now generally used for the \"study of a language's grammar, history, and literary tradition\", especially in the United States (where philology has never been very popularly considered as the \"science of language\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5mjzu2
|
what exactly happened to make julian assange and wikileaks go from loved to hated?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well he was never really entirely loved. Half the population generally thought he was a traitor (generally the more right wing folks) and others thought him a hero for exposing too much government intrusion into citizen's private lives (in direct violation of the constitution).\n\nThe problem is he betrayed the left by leaking information damaging to Hillary Clinton... the left always thought he was on their side, even taken in by socialist states like Ecuador for safe haven.... but in this case he was just appearing to be helping Trump's cause (whether that was the case or not) and no one can figure out why exactly, since he has always seemed to support more progressive causes in the past.",
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"answer": "No, but the information he published went from exposing the misdeeds of the US government, to influencing the presidential elections (by exposing the misdeeds of the US government, its associated candidate, and the DNC). Basically, when the information WikiLeaks were publishing began to hurt the agenda of a portion of his proponents, said proponents retracted their opinion of them. It's *almost* as if people care not about truth but about who comes out on top.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "He didn't go from loved to hated. He was and remains incredibly divisive. People tend to have very polarised views and either love or hate him. \n\nWhat he did, and continues to do, is release private (often classified) information from governments, corporations and organisations. He is variously viewed as a vigilante, a traitor, a whistleblower or a hero. Really, it depends on whom you ask.\n",
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"answer": "Pretty simple really - conservatives hated him as long as he revealed stuff they felt was damaging to their cause (in the beginning there was a lot of stuff connected with the Iraq war). And now he is revealing stuff that supports their cause, they love him. Clearly it was never a principled objection to leaking per say - it was all based on what he was leaking. \n\nAnd in all honesty, the longer that Assange has been holed up in isolation at the Embassy, the longer he is becoming more paranoid and unhinged - understandably so. So we have more reasons to be dubious of his motives now than we did in the beginning.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "The truth always comes out eventually. Everything he posts damages the US or Europe. The targets of his leaks are the US and NATO. Eventually people figured out this was not just a coincidence. There is a love for the underdog who speaks truth to power in democracies. This is how democracies evolve and get stronger, more inclusive. State backed shrills who seek to weaken freedom are seen for the threat they are.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "They don't fucking proof read(this goes for all of the big boys), that makes them cunts.\n\n\nSeriously, leak the good shit... but the internet doesnt need details of active operational plans, full names and addresses of everyone in Afghanistan who collaborated in any way or any of that other shit.\n\nHow the fuck would you feel if you helped US forces find a water source or some dumb shit like that and then suddenly the Taliban are on Wikileaks reading a list with your name on it?\n\nYou can't just leak EVERYTHING without going through it first. The whole lot of them are attention seeking sociopaths who are pushing their own personal agendas and trying to act all noble while they do it.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Please note this is an opinion. I do not have facts on hand to back this up. In the beginning Wikileaks leaked info damaging to powerful people, the info was sometimes facts (like video of helicopter pilots killing civilians in Iraq, including children), to diplomatic cables showing opinions about certain heads of state. The leaks were verified, curated and then dumped to the public. It was a factory, uncaring and unbiased. Information came in, it was processed and then released regardless of who it implicated. During the last election though, Wikileaks seemed to start pushing an agenda. It started hyping up leaks, releasing often very boring hillary emails as slam dunks (for the record, I do not support Hillary. The were hints of shady shit going on with her and Bill receiving money from people for the CGI and other things but no real smoking gun. like at all.). This loss of impartiality is what has irked a lot of previous supporters. \"If Wikileaks cannot be trusted to be impartial, then they are no better than propaganda\" is the feeling among many former supporters.(not really, because shady shit is shady shit but shining a spotlight on some but hiding others in darkness doesnt help people make informed choices).",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Nothing happened to Julian Assange , he just started exposing the other side.Seems to me all Wikileaks does is expose the truth, forcing governments to be more than transparent. Whomever they expose will dislike them. It's not complicated. Doesn't matter who he exposes, if they are corrupt he is doing good work.\nWhen did it become OK for the government to lie to its citizens?",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Well, for one thing, in recent times they have been very selective in the information they distribute, all of which seems to further the political agenda of Putin, so they've lost the mantle of impartiality they had maybe 5 years ago. \n \nQuestions like why you would leak the DNC information and not the RNC info just screams political motivation, not seeking to enlighten your fellow man. So many liberals changed their view of the organization as in one stroke they both hurt their cause, and proved not to be impartial. \n \nIf you have a whole lot of information, true or not, the way it's disseminated affects how it is seen. And their dissemination tactics make them appear to currently be just another propaganda system for Russia. No WikiLeaks about Russia harmful to Putin in years, pretty much since they said they had info.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've heard Assange called a traitor. Wouldn't he have to be an American to be a traitor? He's Australian.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "He didn't quite go from loved to hated. In general and initially WikiLeaks purpose was transparency. Most anyone you ask will say they think their government needs to be more transparent. Ok, that's great. Now WikiLeaks comes along and dumps data and information in the name of transparency **without tact**. \n\n\nAllegorically, WikiLeaks is the parrot standing in Obama's shoulder the repeats everything. \"Squaak! Merkel you ugly. Squaak! Putin I went through your texts to see if you were cheating. Squaak! Merkel went through yours Obama\" and he hops from shoulder to shoulder. \n\nTlDR; while people like transparency. They don't like brutal transparency without regards for timing, tact, or even lives and jobs that hang in the balance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The ultimate truth is this ... When they leaked documents of the Iraq and Afghanistan war under the bush administration, the Liberal media loved it because they were undermining a republican president. Once Obama took office, and they leaked the same type of information, the liberal media hated it and vilified him. Wiki leaks has always been controversial. It's the media's portrayal of wiki leaks that's changed. #welivein1984",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "He's loved if the info he releases helps your political party, and he's hated if he's hurting your political party. \n\nThe info he released during the election hurt the democratic party, as well as America's established oligarchs. \n\nLiberals generally liked him before this, because he released a bunch of info from the Iraq War, damaging the Bush Admin. \n\nThe overall consensus now, is that he is simply hurting America regardless of Political Party. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The only people who hate him are the ones who refuse to acknowledge the world we live in. The situation of the U.S. is worse than what everybody knows. You have the media to blame for the confusion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The out corrupt leaders with evidence, who happen to be working with the MSM, who in turn spreads hate towards wikileaks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "He leaked information damaging to someone they liked. Pure and simple. \n\nWhen Wikilinks was putting out info damaging to the CIA, the military, and large corporations, he was helping bring down The Man. When he turned to the DNC, he exposed their hypocrisy, actually supported some of what Trump as claiming about Clinton, and hurt Clinton's campaign. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "The way I see it there are several things involved:\n\n1) a lot of people never liked WikiLeaks or Assange in the first place\n2) the nature of the information changed. During the US election campaign WL was making massive claims about how they were going to release new stuff which would destroy Clinton, and… it didn't. None of it was really at all interesting or even new.\n3) Assange personally, with his extended sojourn in the Ecuadorian Embassy in London in an effort to avoid extradition to Sweden to face accusations of sexual assault (or was it rape?) just looks like a paranoid conspiracy theorist with no respect for women. He claims if he went to Sweden they'd send him to the USA where he'd be vanished. If the USA had wanted him I doubt they would have had much trouble extracting him from one of their closest allies, the UK, where he'd been for some time already. To my mind this suggests he knows he's guilty and would go to prison in Sweden and there's no way a man who sexually assaults women gets to hold any kind of moral highground.\n\nNot that I have any evidence of that.\n\n4) they seem to be serving Trump's cause, when surely there's oodles of awful stuff about Trump and his dodgy commercial and charitable dealings to be found. Do they have this stuff tucked away somewhere? Has nobody bothered to give it to them because they seem to be increasingly also serving the interests of Russia? But Trump is also a women-molester, so maybe they've just found common cause.\n\nI used to think Assange was well-meaning if dubious in his actions, but they say actions are the measure of a man and his actions do not paint a picture I like.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "In my honest opinion, he was pointing out things about the administration that made Americans mad, so they supported him. \n\nBut when his proof and research pointed to Hillary Clinton's faults and provided room for Trump to get ahead, this angered a massive amount of Americans. \n\nThey feel betrayed because Assange switched \"sides\" but his only motive is to tell the truth. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because when you're honest about the truth no matter where the information comes from, you eventually are hated by everyone.\n\nBefore you whine at me, check my username....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends on who you ask. He is loved by libertarians no matter what he does because he is exposing government corruption. The people that loved him and now hate him are democrats. They loved him because his leaks In the past made democrats look good. Now they hate him because they blame him for Hillary losing the election. What most people don't get is he is going to attempt to expose government corruption no matter the political party. He's more concerned about the truth, and politicians hate that.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Hes neither loved nor hated. Wikileaks is, in this case, providing information beneficial to certain people - if for instance wikileaks publishes the tax returns of DJT then all of the 'love' thats out there for them/him now will quickly turn negative.\n\nThink of it like a cake cut a certain way. If a person cuts the cake a certain way where you get the tasty portion, youll probably like the person who is cutting the cake. But if you cut it a different way where you get the tastless portion, youre going to feel some negativity towards the person cutting the cake. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They started releasing *factual*, damaging info about the Establishment government in the US. That's what happened.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They started exposing DNC corruption when most of the their supporters were young democrats so now they are pissed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "He went from publishing things making Bush look bad, to publishing things making Obama/Clinton look bad. So...Republicans went from hating him to loving him. Democrats, who make up a majority on Reddit, went from loving him to hating him. It's all about partisanship. There are a handful of consistent people on both sides, but it's basically entirely partisan politics. Just look at how Comey got treated. He went from being a partisan hack/great unbiased paragon of justice (when he said nothing was there against Clinton) to a great unbiased paragon of justice/partisan hack (when he reopened the investigation). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Because people started to see the kind of person he was](_URL_1_)\n\n > In September 2012, Assange snuck into a restricted access control room and tampered with security equipment, Buzzfeed reported. \n > \n > An on-duty security guard said he told Assange to leave but he refused. Assange then punched the guard and grabbed his shirt. A filmmaker who witnessed the fight said Assange was \"out of control\" and wanted to provoke a reaction.\n\n[This is another account](_URL_0_), and I must admit it's strange seeing this kind of journalism from Buzzfeed of all places.\n\n > There are few limits to how far Assange will go to try to control those around him. Those working at WikiLeaks – a radical transparency organisation based on the idea that all power must be accountable – were asked to sign a sweeping nondisclosure agreement covering all conversations, conduct, and material, with Assange having sole power over disclosure. The penalty for noncompliance was £12 million. \n > I refused to sign the document, which was sprung on me on what was supposed to be a short trip to a country house used by WikiLeaks. The others present – all of whom had signed without reading – then alternately pressured, cajoled, persuaded, charmed, and pestered me to sign it, alone and in groups, until well past 4am. \n > Given how remote the house was, there was no prospect of leaving. I stayed the night, only to be woken very early by Assange, sitting on my bed, prodding me in the face with a stuffed giraffe, immediately once again pressuring me to sign. It was two hours later before I could get Assange off the bed so I could (finally) get some pants on, and many hours more until I managed to leave the house without signing the ridiculous contract. An apologetic staffer present for the farce later admitted they’d been under orders to “psychologically pressure” me until I signed.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "He promised big things about Hilary Clinton. In the end he had nothing. All this hype. It was a publicity stunt to get his name out there again. He's a troll. \nIt was al capones vault all over again with Geraldo Rivera. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Aside from what conservatives and liberals think of the 2016 US Election leaks, another issue was the dump of information about private individuals after the attempted coup in Turkey. Wikileaks marketed the leak as sensitive information including government emails coming from the AKP party and Erdogan's inner circle, but what the leaks actually contained were conversations from online discussion groups and the names, addresses, emails, and phone numbers of thousands of private Turkish citizens, including information about *every female voter* in 79 of 81 of Turkeys provinces. Basically, they doxxed 20 million people, and when this was pointed out, denied it and accused their detractors of being shills for Erdogan. \n\nSo while people originally saw Wikileaks as this fresh, democratic way of sharing information, it's become increasingly obvious over time that Wikileaks engages in very reckless form of activism. Unlike whistleblowers in earlier eras who would release their leaks to reporters who would take the time to verify sources and essentially put their careers and lives on the lines when they released such information; Wikileaks takes only cursory actions to verify their information, hypes the shit out of it, and then refuses to take responsibility when it's bullshit, dangerous, or it appears that they've been manipulated. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "No. What happened was that he started leaking bad things that were done by the outgoung left-wing administration This shift in perception about him (that suddenly he's evil and puts out false information) is an indicator of media bias. \n\nHe has and continues to simply air dirty laundry of hose in power. It's just that his latest targets have friends in the media.",
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"answer": "As an opinion, I feel that Assange and Wikileaks represent the extreme test of journalistic freedom. The leaks of DNC and Hillary staffer emails did great damage to their campaign, resulting not only in the election of Donald Trump, but also the failure of the Democrats to take the majority of the US Senate.\n\nThe report issued yesterday goes into a great deal of innuendo about an orchestrated effort by Russia. But relative to Wikileaks, one interesting gem shines out on page 13:\n\n\"Disclosures through WikiLeaks did not contain any evident forgeries.\"\n\nWhat this means is that the emails released by Wikileaks represent factual evidence of the collusion and egregious efforts made by the DNC, Clinton campaign, and corporate media to control the election.\n\nRussia may be guilt of contextualizing and manipulating the facts to achieve a given result, but relative to Wikileaks, they played a fair journalistic hand in releasing factual information given to them.\n\nWe have to recognize that corporate media is the principal beneficiary of PAC and political campaign money, and therefore have much to gain from the Clinton political machine, far more than from Trump, who had a lot less to spend on this campaign. Organizations like Wikileaks are currently hated and portrayed badly by the DNC and corporate media because they dare to tell the truth, which is what journalists do.\n\nOthers will say where is the fair-handedness in this, for example RNC emails, etc. No evidence is provided within the report or elsewhere that Wikileaks had such information and withheld it. If Russia was the source of the damning emails, it could be argued that Wikileaks was a tool of their efforts.\n\nAfter all it is often said that the closer to the truth, the better the lie, and the truth itself is the best lie of all",
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{
"answer": "We are currently in a war with Russia. A cyber war that Russia is winning. Not because we have worse cyber security but because Americans are so reliant on devices and the majority of Russians don't have the same device reliance. I am a casualty, a Russian hacker broke into the IRS database last year and now has my 2015 tax return. I have not yet had this info used maliciously (I hope and monitor) but I bought a home last year and since it was my first, I applied for a low interest rate through MFA, and was initially denied because MFA needed my return directly from the IRS and the IRS's response to the hack was not to alert me that I was hacked but simply 'lock' my account not only from further attacks but also potentially fraudulent attacks from what appeared to be US government inquiries. Assange is a public soldier in this war and Russia has been recruiting, while the US is expelling diplomats. We need to privatize this war as we have an incoming president that is benefitting from this war.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They leaked info on the \"popular kids\" (the Clintons, and the DNC). All that's happening now is that people who's politics aligned against Bush and the RNC are getting a taste of what it means to be on the side that's targeted by leaks. \n\nDemocrats and liberals are now saying the same crap about wikileaks that the Republicans and conservatives were during the Bush II administration, while the Repubs and conservatives are currently saying the same things that the libs and Democrats were.\n\nIf you go to conservative message boards you'll see that Assange is well liked right now.\n\nThe next time that they leak something (probably during the Trump administration) the tables will turn again and everyone in your news circle/circle of friends will be gushing about what a good job wikileaks does.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41820203",
"title": "Global surveillance and journalism",
"section": "Section::::Julien Assange and WikiLeaks.:U.S Crackdown on Assange.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "On April 11, 2019 Assange was arrested after being taken from the Ecuadorian embassy. The U.S in the Justice Department believes that with the position at Wikileaks during the 2016 elections he had a key role in the Russian attack on the 2016 elections. During the same election had had released DNC staff flies as well, many believe that he released them because the next day was democratic election. Soon after a DNC staffer named Seth Rich was murder and was to believed to be leaking the e-mails. Also the U.S Department of Defense believes that Assange had conspired with Chelsea Manning in cracking a password that was on a U.S Department of Defense computer. Which is stored on a U.S government network and she had downloaded 1,000 of classified documents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36732529",
"title": "Embassy of Ecuador, London",
"section": "Section::::History.:Julian Assange's refuge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "The co-founder of WikiLeaks, Julian Assange, was a resident of the embassy for seven years after entering it on 19 June 2012 to claim diplomatic asylum after being wanted by Swedish authorities for questioning over four alleged sexual offences. Assange's asylum request was eventually granted by the Ecuadorian government in August 2012. The Swedish prosecutors dropped their investigation in May 2017, claiming they could not expect the Ecuadorian Embassy to communicate reliably with Assange with respect to the case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23035",
"title": "Pamela Anderson",
"section": "Section::::Activism.:AIDS, Julian Assange, and other activism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "In December 2016, in a statement to \"People\" magazine, Anderson called WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange a \"hero\". She stated that he had done everyone \"a great service. Everyone in the world has benefited because of WikiLeaks\". Meanwhile, \"elaborate plots against him and made up sexual allegations could result in him being extradited to the US — where he would not be treated fairly — because of his exposure of truths.\" In April 2019, over several tweets, Anderson was angry at Assange's ejection from London's Ecuadorian embassy. In May 2019, Anderson visited Assange in HMP Belmarsh with Kristinn Hrafnsson and said she believed Assange to be innocent and \"a good man... an incredible person. I love him, I can't imagine what he has been going through.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8877168",
"title": "WikiLeaks",
"section": "Section::::History.:Staff, name and founding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "On 26 September 2018, it was announced that Julian Assange had appointed Kristinn Hrafnsson as editor-in-chief of WikiLeaks while the organisation's statement said Assange was remaining as its publisher. His access to the internet was cut off by Ecuador in March 2018 after he tweeted that Britain was about to conduct a propaganda war against Russia relating to the Poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal. Ecuador said he had broken a commitment \"not to issue messages that might interfere with other states\" and Assange said he was \"exercising his right to free speech\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26033941",
"title": "Julian Assange",
"section": "Section::::Asylum in the Ecuadorian Embassy.:Withdrawal of asylum and arrest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "On 10 April 2019, WikiLeaks said it had uncovered an extensive surveillance operation against Assange from within the Ecuadorian embassy, asserting that videotapes of Assange taken at the embassy constituted an invasion of privacy. WikiLeaks said that \"material including video, audio, copies of private legal documents and a medical report\" had surfaced in Spain and that unnamed individuals in Madrid had made an extortion attempt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52581013",
"title": "Corruption in Ecuador",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "When Julian Assange of WikiLeaks sought refuge in Ecuador, the \"Daily Mail\" noted with irony that some of the diplomatic cables he had published revealed corruption in the same nation he sought asylum from.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60479942",
"title": "Indictment and arrest of Julian Assange",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Julian Assange, was allegedly investigated by the Eastern District of Virginia grand jury for computer-related crimes committed in the U.S. in 2012. His request for asylum was granted and he remained a resident in the Ecuadorian Embassy in London since 2012. In 2019, an indictment from 2017 was made public following the termination of his asylum status and the subsequent arrest by the Metropolitan Police of UK in London. According to the indictment, Assange was accused of conspiracy to commit computer intrusion in order to help Chelsea Manning gain access to privileged information which he intended to publish on Wikileaks. This is a less serious charge in comparison to those leveled against Manning, and carries a maximum sentence of five years with a possibility of parole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cqkrcl
|
Is there any historical documents or autobiographies of what it was like being a king?
|
[
{
"answer": "I immediately thought of the \"political last wills\" or \"political testaments\" that have been written by various rulers throughout the ages. Depending on the individual text they fluctuate between self-justification, political autobiography, philosophical musings about the nature of monarchical rule and recommendations/suggestions for their respective successors. Most of the examples I am familiar with hit all four of those to varying degrees. I'm haven't read yet any scholarship that tries to take a general look at those testaments as a genre, however, so I can't really comment on anything they might have in common. I'll quote short excerpts out of three early modern examples, however, which I feel show well what these documents' intentions were and what you can find in them.\n\n*Meine Gedanken* (My Thoughts) by Duchess Anna Amalia of Saxony-Weimar and Eisenach, c. 1758. Anna Amalia was only eighteen years old when her husband's sudden death forced her to take the throne; she wrote the following shortly afterwards:\n\n > *When I look back at my childhood, that springtime of my life, what do I see? An ever-recurring round of sacrifice made for others. I was not loved by my parents, who on every occasion kept me in the background, my brothers and sistes being always considered first. I was treated, in fact, like an outcast, and yet Thou, O my Creator, hast endowed me with a sensitive, loving heart, which suffered misery from this want of tenderness and pined for affection. I was starving for love, and I reveived the hard crust of mere duty. \\[...\\] Never did I pray with such devotion as I did in this my hour of need. I believe I might have become a saint. The situation was indeed peculiar. So young to be regent, to command, to rule, I, who all my life had been humiliated, depressed. I am afraid that after a little time I began to look upon my position with a certain amount of vanity. But a secret voice whispered: \"Beware!\" I heard it, and my better reason came to help. Truth and self-love struggled for the mastery, and the truth prevailed \\[...\\] I longed for success - for praise. I also felt the absolute need I had of a friend, in whom I could place entire confidence. IThere were several who sought to be my confidants or my advisers. Some tried flattery, others commended themselves by a show of sincerity, but in none could I detect the ring of true affection which is above all temptations. If a prince and the individual he selects as an intimate or confidant are both noble-minded, the sincerest affection may exist between them; and this is the only way to answer the question, \"Can kings have true friends?\"*\n\nArchduchess Maria Theresia of Austria wrote her political testament at about the same time, but her situation was very different. She took office in 1740 after her father's death when she was 23 years old and almost immediately found herself embroiled in a series of devastating wars which directly threatend her realm's very existence. Eighteen years later she put some of her thoughts about that crisis to paper (translation is mine):\n\n > *Out of motherly care and for the benefit of my posterity written Points of Instruction, which I divided in various chapters depending on their importance.* \n > \n > *The first chapter is to describe the domestic and foreign political state of the monarchy, as I found it to be when I began my rule.* \n > \n > *The second describes the abuses which gradually built up in this Austrian monarchy under the rule of my ancestors.* \n > \n > *The third chapter deals with the nine year long and burdensome war and why I decided to eventually bring it to an end.* \n > \n > *The fourth tells about the changes I effected at court and in my realm after said peace.* \n > \n > *The fifth shows the great benefit and use of those changes, as those are the only way to strengthen the monarchy and keep it for my successors.* \n > \n > *The sixth chapter describes the necessity to keep those changes in order to avert your own downfall, and what my successors should pay attention to to that end.* \n > \n > *The unexpected and sorrowful death of my father was that much more painful for me not only because I venerated and loved him as a father, but also because I saw myself as his lowest vassal and him as my lord and ruler and therefore felt twofold loss and pain. Back then I lacked the experience and knowledge to rule this large and widely spread realm, since my father had never thought to involve me in the domestic or foreign policy of his or at least inform me of it, and so I suddenly and all at once found myself bereft of money, troops and good counsel.*\n\n\\[She goes on to tell in great detail of how dependent she was on the counsel of the ministers she had inherited from her father, and how lacking she found it in many aspects, and then proceeds to the next chapters\\]\n\n > *Sixth Chapter* \n > \n > *\\[...\\] I can give my successors no other advise than to not let themselves be led into confusion, as many advisors are in fact led by their own interests. I myself would have been led astray while implementing aforementioned changes due to so many interjections and news if I hadn't taken great efforts to learn about and truly understand the affairs myself; for this reason I find it necessary to ask my successors to not change anything about the changes I implemented and instead protect and conserve them for the best of the monarchy and for its continuing existence. To that end they should especially pay attention to find honest and qualified people as well as teach young people so that those can learn about the affairs of state themselves and will be able to faithfully serve the prince and the people, and to do so well.*\n\nAnd the last one is a short excerpt from the political testament of Maria Theresia's greatest enemy, King Frederick II of Prussia who was the first to invade her realm not even three months after she had taken the throne. Frederick wrote this testament in 1752 and again rewrote and extended it in 1768 (again my translation).\n\n > *Every citizen's foremost duty is to serve his fatherland. I tried to fulfill this duty througout my life. As the person with the highest authority in the state I had the opportunity and the possibility to make myself useful for my fellow citizens. My love to them instills in me the wish to continue serving them even after my death. But I am not so arrogant as to think that I myself should be the only ideal my successors should try to emulate. I know, that death destroys man all as his plans, and that everything in the world is subject to change. With this political testament I only try to tell my experiences to those who follow me, akin to a captain who knows the stormy areas in the sea of politics. I shall detail the cliffs which are to be avoided, and the harbours where my successors can find safety. \\[...\\]* \n > \n > *Amongst all provinces in Europe there are none which would be a better fit for our state than Saxony, Polish Prussia and Swedish Pomerania, as all three would fill the gaps in our borders. \\[...\\] \\[Polish Prussia\\] separates Prussia from Pomerania and prevents us from protecting the former due to the difficulties provided by the river Weichsel there, as well as the possibility of Russian attacks via the Danzig harbour \\[...\\] I don't think that war would be the best way to add this province to our kingdom, and I tend to tell you the same what King Victor Amadeus of Sicily told Charles Emanuel: \"My son, you have to eat Milan like an artichocke, leave by leave.\" Poland is an elective monarchy which always falls into disorder when its king dies. This is the time to benefit from that, and to win by virtue of our neutrality here a city, there a district, until it is swallowed in its entirety. Those lucky enough to bring that acquisition to its end will without doubt want to fortify Thorn, Elbing and Marienwerder as well as found smaller towns and places along the Weichsel, which shall thwart any attempts Russia makes against us. It is true that its regular troops needn't be feared, but its Kalmyks and Tartars are murderous and savage hordes which rampage through the lands and take entire peoples into captivity \\[...\\]*\n\nI hope that helps a bit! Political testaments are certainly a fascinating source, but like everything else they need to be read carefully and between the lines and they are always to be seen both as an attempt of a monarch to control his or her public image even after death as well as direct advice intended for their successors so that they might continue what the author had begun.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "145523",
"title": "List of kings of the Picts",
"section": "Section::::Kings of the Picts.:Early historical kings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "The first king who appears in multiple early sources is Bridei son of Maelchon, and kings from the later 6th century onwards may be considered historical as their deaths are generally reported in Irish sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10908376",
"title": "Baile Chuinn Chétchathaig",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 331,
"text": "Baile Chuind Chétchathaig (\"The Vision of Conn of the Hundred Battles\") is an Old Irish list of Kings of Tara or High Kings of Ireland which survives in two 16th-century manuscripts, 23 N 10 and Egerton 88. It is the earliest such king-list known, probably dating from around 700 AD. The later \"Baile In Scáil\" is closely related.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32415754",
"title": "Legendary kings of Scotland",
"section": "Section::::Legendary content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "The last legendary figure is more complex to discuss. The kings in the list from about the 6th century (in the \"Fifth Book\" of Buchanan) onwards may have some relationship to historical figures in the Kingdom of Dalriada, extending in present-day terms from western Scotland to part of Ireland. See list of Kings of Dál Riata. But the Kingdom of Scotland (i.e. Alba) was not a historical reality until Kenneth MacAlpin created it in the year 843; and what was said about his predecessors in the list by Buchanan may have little historical foundation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20499083",
"title": "Historia Regum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "The Historia Regum (\"History of the Kings\") is a historical compilation attributed to Symeon of Durham, which presents material going from the death of Bede until 1129. It survives only in one manuscript compiled in Yorkshire in the mid-to-late 12th century, though the material is earlier. It is an often-used source for medieval English and Northumbrian history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33886337",
"title": "Simbar-shipak",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Only four contemporary written documents from his reign are known. One comprises two late copies of a royal inscription, known as “Enlil’s throne” or the “Royal inscription of Simbar-Šipak”, another a legal deed drawn up in the king's twelfth year, a third an inscribed dagger in the Archaeological Museum of Tabriz, Iran, apparently found in a river in the eastern Azerbaijan province, and the fourth an arrowhead inscribed \"(Property) of Simbar-Šiḫu, son of Eriba-Sin,\" thus confirming the name of his father given in two late chronicles. The deed details the sale of land in compensation for ransom paid by an intermediary and redemption of the former landowner’s three sons, and the inscription on the bottom edge (pictured) reads:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2067514",
"title": "Scandinavian prehistory",
"section": "Section::::Iron Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Several sources, such as \"Beowulf\", \"Ynglingatal\", \"Ynglinga saga\", Saxo Grammaticus and \"Historia Norwegiae\", mention a number of Swedish kings who lived in the 6th century, such as Eadgils, Ohthere and Onela, as well as a number of Geatish kings. Some of these kings were in all likelihood historic kings, although the sources sometimes give contradictory information, such as the death of Ottar. See Mythological kings of Sweden and Semi-legendary kings of Sweden.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5058739",
"title": "Sweden",
"section": "Section::::Politics.:Political history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Earlier kings, for which no reliable historical sources exist, can be read about in mythical kings of Sweden and semi-legendary kings of Sweden. Many of these kings are only mentioned in various saga and blend with Norse mythology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
34isw4
|
the feeling of "touch" on a molecular level.
|
[
{
"answer": "When you touch something the cell walls of your nerves are stretched (think pushing on a balloon). Protein complexes in the cell walls of your nerves are stretched as well. This stretching opens a channel down the middle of the protein and let's ions from outside the cell in. The change in voltage of the cell results in the nerve firing a signal which travels to your brain where something something processing something something consciousness.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "569650",
"title": "Stimulus modality",
"section": "Section::::Pressure modality.:Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 1844,
"text": "The sense of touch, or tactile perception, is what allows organisms to feel the world around them. The environment acts as an external stimulus, and tactile perception is the act of passively exploring the world to simply sense it. To make sense of the stimuli, an organism will undergo active exploration, or haptic perception, by moving their hands or other areas with environment-skin contact. This will give a sense of what is being perceived, and give information about size, shape, weight, temperature, and material. Tactile stimulation can be direct in the form of bodily contact, or indirect through the use of a tool or probe. Direct and indirect send different types messages to the brain, but both provide information regarding roughness, hardness, stickiness, and warmth. The use of a probe elicits a response based on the vibrations in the instrument rather than direct environmental information. Tactual perception gives information regarding cutaneous stimuli (pressure, vibration, and temperature), kinaesthetic stimuli (limb movement), and proprioceptive stimuli (position of the body). There are varying degrees of tactual sensitivity and thresholds, both between individuals and between different time periods in an individual's life. It has been observed that individuals have differing levels of tactile sensitivity between each hand. This may be due to callouses forming on the skin of the most used hand, creating a buffer between the stimulus and the receptor. Alternately, the difference in sensitivity may be due to a difference in the cerebral functions or ability of the left and right hemisphere. Tests have also shown that deaf children have a greater degree of tactile sensitivity than that of children with normal hearing ability, and that girls generally have a greater degree of sensitivity than that of boys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "566664",
"title": "Nonverbal communication",
"section": "Section::::Movement and body position.:Haptics: touching in communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Touch is an extremely important sense for humans; as well as providing information about surfaces and textures it is a component of nonverbal communication in interpersonal relationships, and vital in conveying physical intimacy. It can be both sexual (such as kissing) and platonic (such as hugging or tickling).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "569399",
"title": "Stimulus (physiology)",
"section": "Section::::Types.:External.:Touch and pain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "The absolute threshold for touch is the minimum amount of sensation needed to elicit a response from touch receptors. This amount of sensation has a definable value and is often considered to be the force exerted by dropping the wing of a bee onto your cheek from a distance of one centimeter. This value will change based on the body part being touched.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25140",
"title": "Perception",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Social.:Social touch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1157,
"text": "The somatosensory cortex encodes incoming sensory information from receptors all over the body. Affective touch is a type of sensory information that elicits an emotional reaction and is usually social in nature, such as a physical human touch. This type of information is actually coded differently than other sensory information. Intensity of affective touch is still encoded in the primary somatosensory cortex, but the feeling of pleasantness associated with affective touch activates the anterior cingulate cortex more than the primary somatosensory cortex. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data shows that increased blood oxygen level contrast (BOLD) signal in the anterior cingulate cortex as well as the prefrontal cortex is highly correlated with pleasantness scores of an affective touch. Inhibitory transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the primary somatosensory cortex inhibits the perception of affective touch intensity, but not affective touch pleasantness. Therefore, the S1 is not directly involved in processing socially affective touch pleasantness, but still plays a role in discriminating touch location and intensity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2081243",
"title": "Multimodal interaction",
"section": "Section::::Multimodal input and output.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The sense of touch was first utilized as a medium for communication in the late 1950s. It is not only a promising but also a unique communication channel. In contrast to vision and hearing, the two traditional senses employed in HCI, the sense of touch is proximal: it senses objects that are in contact with the body, and it is bidirectional in that it supports both perception and acting on the environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "243325",
"title": "Trigeminal nerve",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Sensation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Touch in this context refers to the perception of detailed, localized tactile information, such as two-point discrimination (the difference between touching one point and two closely spaced points) or the difference between coarse, medium or fine sandpaper. People without touch-position perception can feel the surface of their bodies and perceive touch in a broad sense, but they lack perceptual detail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "956730",
"title": "Haptic communication",
"section": "Section::::Meanings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Touch research conducted by Jones and Yarbrough (1985) revealed 18 different meanings of touch, grouped in seven types: Positive affect (emotion), playfulness, control, ritual, hybrid (mixed), task-related, and accidental touch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9ls8xj
|
why does a small cloud form at the top of a newly-opened, cold soda bottle?
|
[
{
"answer": "The rapid depressurization lowers the vapor pressure of that little volume of air in the top of the bottle, and the humidity in that air rapidly condenses into that little cloud. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6254672",
"title": "Diet Coke and Mentos eruption",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The conversion of dissolved carbon dioxide to gaseous carbon dioxide forms rapidly expanding gas bubbles in the soda, which pushes the beverage contents out of the container. Gases, in general, are more soluble in liquids at elevated pressures. Carbonated sodas contain elevated levels of carbon dioxide under pressure. The solution becomes supersaturated with carbon dioxide when the bottle is opened, and the pressure is released. Under these conditions, carbon dioxide begins to precipitate from solution, forming gas bubbles. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "217116",
"title": "Dynamic equilibrium",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "In a new bottle of soda the concentration of carbon dioxide in the liquid phase has a particular value. If half of the liquid is poured out and the bottle is sealed, carbon dioxide will leave the liquid phase at an ever-decreasing rate and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the gas phase will increase until equilibrium is reached. At that point, due to thermal motion, a molecule of CO may leave the liquid phase, but within a very short time another molecule of CO will pass from the gas to the liquid, and vice versa. At equilibrium the rate of transfer of CO from the gas to the liquid phase is equal to the rate from liquid to gas. In this case, the equilibrium concentration of CO in the liquid is given by Henry's law, which states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas above the liquid. This relationship is written as\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18918232",
"title": "Atomizer nozzle",
"section": "Section::::Principle of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "The difference between the reduced pressure at the top of the tube and the higher atmospheric pressure inside the bottle pushes the liquid from the reservoir up the tube and into the moving stream of air where it is broken up into small droplets (not atoms as the name suggests) and carried away with the stream of air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22824843",
"title": "Fizz keeper",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "When a soft drink bottle is carbonated, it is pressurized with carbon dioxide to higher than the ambient atmospheric pressure. Eventually the dissolved CO and the CO in the headspace above the liquid reach a dynamic equilibrium, where the amount of CO dissolving in the liquid equals the amount of CO escaping the solution into the headspace, at a pressure of approximately 2 atmospheres. The bottle remains in this dynamic equilibrium until the first time that the cap is removed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "969247",
"title": "Bottle Caps (candy)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Bottle Caps are sweet tablet candies made to look like metal soda bottle caps in grape, cola, orange, root beer, and cherry flavors. They are sold by Nestlé under their Willy Wonka Candy Company brand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2433545",
"title": "Nansen bottle",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "The bottle, more precisely a metal or plastic cylinder, is lowered on a cable into the ocean, and when it has reached the required depth, a brass weight called a \"messenger\" is dropped down the cable. When the weight reaches the bottle, the impact tips the bottle upside down and trips a spring-loaded valve at the end, trapping the water sample inside. The bottle and sample are then retrieved by hauling in the cable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18516415",
"title": "Spicule (glass manufacture)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Spicules are formed in a cloud when the glass explodes from the contact of the cold jet. These are held to the glass blank during forming, and if the vial is not reheated or cleaned after manufacture, these spicules can drift off into the mixture subsequently placed in the vial. This is a serious problem in the manufacture of soft contact lenses or pharmaceutical products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a01ft7
|
how are gift cards validated and activated at checkout? are their serial numbers stored in a database and then marked as activated? how are they activated when their numbers haven’t been scratched off?
|
[
{
"answer": "Don't over think it. It's no different from your normal bank given credit/debit card. It just comes with a few more restrictions like the kind and location of transactions. It's all. Activation is similar. It just let's the backing financial institution(s) know that this card is now sold so the user can use it. It's often done with some identity check in some countries to ensure the buyer is legit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Point of sale system (POS) scans a barcode on the gift card. This barcode is specific to the gift card, and allows the card to be identified without the card number or pin.\n\nThe retailer accepts cash, the POS records a transaction on the retailers ledger. Then, the POS sends the transaction information to the gift card company, this activates the card.\n\n\nSource: worked in retail.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3708321",
"title": "3-D Secure",
"section": "Section::::General criticism.:Verifiability of site identity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "Some card issuers also use activation-during-shopping (ADS), in which cardholders who are not registered with the scheme are offered the opportunity of signing up (or forced into signing up) during the purchase process. This will typically take them to a form in which they are expected to confirm their identity by answering security questions which should be known to their card issuer. Again, this is done within the iframe where they cannot easily verify the site they are providing this information to—a cracked site or illegitimate merchant could in this way gather all the details they need to pose as the customer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "743068",
"title": "Gift card",
"section": "Section::::Function and types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "Cards may have a barcode or magnetic strip, which is read by an electronic credit card machine. Many cards have no value until they are sold, at which time the cashier enters the amount which the customer wishes to put on the card. This amount is rarely stored on the card but is instead noted in the store's database, which is cross linked to the card ID. Gift cards thus are generally not stored-value cards as used in many public transport systems or library photocopiers, where a simplified system with no network stores the value only on the card itself. To thwart counterfeiting, the data is encrypted. The magnetic strip is also often placed differently than on credit cards, so they cannot be read or written with standard equipment. Other gift cards may have a set value and need to be activated by calling a specific number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39852019",
"title": "Key Ring (software)",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Cards are stored by either scanning the barcode on the back of the card or manually typing in the UPC number. The app alerts users when one of the loyalty programs they are a member of has an offer or coupon available. Rewards points earned by the user are kept track of within the loyalty card feature as well. Users can share loyalty and membership cards with other users as long as they are registered in Key Ring. Weekly Sales Circulars are digitized, allowing users to view what they would normally find in a newspaper on their smartphone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15905419",
"title": "Credit card fraud",
"section": "Section::::Compromised accounts.:Checker.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "In the past, carders used computer programs called \"generators\" to produce a sequence of credit card numbers, and then test them to see which were valid accounts. Another variation would be to take false card numbers to a location that does not immediately process card numbers, such as a trade show or special event. However, this process is no longer viable due to widespread requirement by internet credit card processing systems for additional data such as the billing address, the 3 to 4 digit Card Security Code and/or the card's expiration date, as well as the more prevalent use of wireless card scanners that can process transactions right away. Nowadays, carding is more typically used to verify credit card data obtained directly from the victims by skimming or phishing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Electronic verification systems allow merchants to verify in a few seconds that the card is valid and the cardholder has sufficient credit to cover the purchase, allowing the verification to happen at time of purchase. The verification is performed using a credit card payment terminal or point-of-sale (POS) system with a communications link to the merchant's acquiring bank. Data from the card is obtained from a magnetic stripe or chip on the card; the latter system is called Chip and PIN in the United Kingdom and Ireland, and is implemented as an EMV card.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "For card not present transactions where the card is not shown (e.g., e-commerce, mail order, and telephone sales), merchants additionally verify that the customer is in physical possession of the card and is the authorized user by asking for additional information such as the security code printed on the back of the card, date of expiry, and billing address.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3333009",
"title": "Self-checkout",
"section": "Section::::Typical systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Machines in different retailers may accept card via EFTPOS, debit/credit cards, electronic food assistance cards, cash via coin slot and bank note scanner, and in-store gift cards where applicable. Most coupons also have barcodes and can be scanned the same way that items are scanned, although some require entry by a member of staff.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
84v8kg
|
how to calculate mechanical advantage of a pulley system
|
[
{
"answer": "ratio 500/10 = 50 , answer b \n\nIf they show a diagram the trick is to imagine the load raised by 1cm and follow how many cm of rope you could pull free as a result· \n\nSimplest machines: \n- inclined plane \n- pulley \n- lever (3 classes of lever) \n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I love pulleys!\n\nImagine having to lift that 500lb block by yourself using a single pulley on a rope. Pulley hangs from the garage, block tied, you on the other end. The rope is tight.\nIn this setup, the pulley doesn't do anything other than changing direction.\n\nIf you walk backwards 1 foot - the block rises one foot (forget about the angle the rope makes for now).\nBut...\nThat block is too heavy: you need another person to help you. Maybe even 4. Let's do 4, there will be 5 of you.\nThe five of you walk backwards one foot, the block rises 1 foot.\nTogether, you walked 5 feet. \n\nNow let's add some more pulleys.\nThe pulley at the block has 2 wheels, the pulley hanging from the garage beam also has two. The rope is tied to the block, goes through the high pulley, back through the block pulley, round again, and from the high pulley to you.\nThere are 5 strands \"coming out\" of the moving pulley (the one at the block).\n\nNow if you take the rope, pull it tight and move one foot backwards, the block moves too. Alone but with a mechanical advantage of 5 you lift the block! \nBut...\nThe block only went up 1/5th of a foot. You have to move 5 feet backwards to lift it 1 foot.\n\n5 feet... just as many as when you pulled with your 4 friends...\n\ninteresting...\n\nWith a pulley system, you swap out force required for distance.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2100884",
"title": "Linear actuator",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Mechanical actuators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Some mechanical linear actuators only pull, such as hoists, chain drive and belt drives. Others only push (such as a cam actuator). Pneumatic and hydraulic cylinders, or lead screws can be designed to generate force in both directions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2498045",
"title": "Line shaft",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Pulleys were constructed of wood, iron, steel or a combination thereof. Varying sizes of pulleys were used in conjunction to change the speed of rotation. For example a 40\" pulley at 100 rpm would turn a 20\" pulley at 200 rpm. Pulleys solidly attached (\"fast\") to the shaft could be combined with adjacent pulleys that turned freely (\"loose\") on the shaft (idlers). In this configuration the belt could be maneuvered onto the idler to stop power transmission or onto the solid pulley to convey the power. This arrangement was often used near machines to provide a means of shutting the machine off when not in use. Usually at the last belt feeding power to a machine, a pair of stepped pulleys could be used to give a variety of speed settings for the machine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38857",
"title": "Lever",
"section": "Section::::Force and levers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "This relationship shows that the mechanical advantage can be computed from ratio of the distances from the fulcrum to where the input and output forces are applied to the lever, assuming no losses due to friction, flexibility or wear. This remains true even though the \"horizontal\" distance (perpendicular to the pull of gravity) of both \"a\" and \"b\" change (diminish) as the lever changes to any position away from the horizontal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23889",
"title": "Pulley",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of direction of a taut cable or belt, or transfer of power between the shaft and cable or belt. In the case of a pulley supported by a frame or shell that does not transfer power to a shaft, but is used to guide the cable or exert a force, the supporting shell is called a block, and the pulley may be called a sheave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4504020",
"title": "Weight machine",
"section": "Section::::Plate-loaded machines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "For example, consider an incline press machine that is a single-lever machine that has the plates halfway up the lever from the handles to the fulcrum, and begins moving the plates at a 45-degree angle from vertical. The lever will provide a leverage advantage of 2:1, and the incline will have an advantage of 1:√2/2, for a net mechanical advantage of . Thus () of plates will apply to the user only an equaling weight of or a force of at the beginning of the motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19868716",
"title": "Differential pulley",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "This leads to a mechanical advantage: the force needed to lift a load is only a fraction of the load's weight. At the same time, the distance the load is lifted is smaller than the length of chain pulled by the same factor. This factor (the mechanical advantage \"MA\") depends on the relative difference of the radii \"r\" and \"R\" of the connected pulleys:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "149861",
"title": "Work (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Constraint forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "For a mechanical system, constraint forces eliminate movement in directions that characterize the constraint. Thus constraint forces do not perform work on the system, because the component of velocity along the constraint force at each point of application is zero. For example, in a pulley system like the Atwood machine, the internal forces on the rope and at the supporting pulley do no work on the system. Therefore work need only be computed for the gravity forces acting on the bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5jzaq2
|
why are companies who get fined by the government fined for so little?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because the fines are set, in part, by a combination of laws designed for older currency values, and also in part by lobbies in the industry pulling for smaller wrist-slaps.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The fines are set high enough to hurt, but low enough that companies won't go out of business or do something *really* shady to cover it up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "485929",
"title": "Australian Competition and Consumer Commission",
"section": "Section::::Penalties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Companies that do not comply with the restrictive trade practices provisions of CCA may be fined by the Federal Court. There are three ways the maximum fine can be calculated. The maximum possible fine is the larger of A$10,000,000; or three times the value of the illegal benefit; or (if the value of the benefit cannot be ascertained) 10% of turnover for the preceding 12 months. Individuals may be fined up to $500,000 and since 2009 certain offences under the Competition and Consumer Act (such as price fixing or participation in a cartel) have been criminalised with executives who engage in conduct which contravenes the relevant provisions liable for a custodial sentence of up to 10 years in prison (44ZZRF and 44ZZRG of the CCA).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19519245",
"title": "Corruption in China",
"section": "Section::::Countermeasures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "The Anti-Unfair Competition Law prohibits commercial bribery punishable by economic and administrative sanctions. It is prohibited to give or receive bribes in the course of selling or purchasing goods. In case of misconduct, companies are fined in between 10.000 RMB and 200.000 RMB The Criminal Law of China prohibits giving and receiving property to obtain an undue benefit, with penalties including fines, confiscation of property, imprisonment or death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13855134",
"title": "Corporate manslaughter",
"section": "Section::::Support and criticism of the concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Further, a corporation may simply be a \"veil\" for an individual's activities, easily liquidated and with no reputation to protect. Again it is argued, company fines ultimately punish shareholders, customers and employees in general, rather than culpable managers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58111406",
"title": "Anti-corruption",
"section": "Section::::Corporate anti-corruption approaches.:Compliance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "The field of compliance can generally be perceived as an internalization of external laws in order to avoid their fines. The adoption of laws like the FCPA and the UK Bribery Act of 2010 strengthened the importance of concepts like compliance, as fines for corrupt behavior became more likely and there was a financial increase on these fines. When a company is sued because its employers engaged in corruption, a well-established compliance system can serve as proof that the organization attempted to avoid those acts of corruption. Accordingly, fines can be reduced and this incentivizes the implementation of an efficient compliance system. In 2012, the US-authorities decided not to prosecute Morgan Stanley in a case of bribery in China under FCPA-provisions due to its compliance program. This case demonstrates the relevance of the compliance approach. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14633987",
"title": "Taxation of illegal income in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Expenses that are not deductible.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "Similarly, no business deduction is allowed \"for any payment made, directly or indirectly, to an official or employee of any government [ . . . ] if the payment constitutes an illegal bribe or kickback or, if the payment is to an official or employee of a foreign government, the payment is unlawful under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977.\" Similarly, tax deductions and credits are denied where for illegal bribes, illegal kickbacks, or other illegal payments under any Federal law, or under a State if such State law is generally enforced, if the law \"subjects the payor to a criminal penalty or the loss of license or privilege to engage in a trade or business.\" No deduction is allowed for kickbacks, rebates, or bribes made by those who furnish items or services for which payment may be made under the Social Security Act.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "260979",
"title": "Bribery",
"section": "Section::::Business.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "In some cases where the system of law is not well-implemented, bribes may be a way for companies to continue their businesses. In the case, for example, custom officials may harass a certain firm or production plant, officially stating they are checking for irregularities, halting production or stalling other normal activities of a firm. The disruption may cause losses to the firm that exceed the amount of money to pay off the official. Bribing the officials is a common way to deal with this issue in countries where there exists no firm system of reporting these semi-illegal activities. A third party, known as a White Glove, may be involved to act as a clean middleman.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "612446",
"title": "International Traffic in Arms Regulations",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Registration fees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "The U.S. Department of State charges back fees to manufacturers who have failed to register previously. Smaller exporters who may not have been aware of the requirement to register can potentially be charged crippling back fees when they first register. Allegations have been put to the U.S. Department of State-industry advisory group, the Defense Trade Advisory Group, that charging back fees discourages some manufacturers from registration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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