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60qtkl | How can we be sure that planets light years away will still be there when we get there? | [
{
"answer": "You cant. But the odds are pretty good for a planet to last a billion years or sk. We can tell what stage the star is at in its lifecycle. But yeah...especially if it's taking you thousands of years to get there the planet may have been destroyed or chucked out of its orbit (especially in a binary star system)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "What do you suppose would have happened to it in the meantime? There has to be some mechanism for its destruction, planets don't just blip out of existence every so often. Our own planet wouldn't be quite so livable if that were a risk.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The most distant planets we have detected are generally only thousands of light-years away. The closer things are, the easier they are to see, so many of the best observed planets are only tens of light years away. This means we are seeing them as they were tens to thousands of years in the past. On the scale of a planet's lifetime, this is nothing. Even if we observe a planet on the far side of the galaxy, a hundred thousand light years away, that's still not very long on an astronomical time-scale.\n\nIf we're actually comparing with travel times, it depends on the speed of whatever hypothetical space travel we're talking about. If we assume some future spacecraft can go at 1% of the speed of light, then you just multiply all those numbers by 100. So it'd take 10 million years to reach something 100,000 light years away. How does that compare with the lifetime of a planet?\n\nWithout advanced technology, basically all that can destroy a planet is its host star ending its life. Asteroid impacts don't do much after the initial stages of a solar system formation - they might kill all life on the planet, but that's because life lives within a very thin layer and is very sensitive to its properties. The planet itself will remain.\n\nSo what we're really looking at is the lifetimes of the stars that the planets orbit. For a star like our Sun, this lifetime is billions of years. That's plenty of time. We recently discovered a number of good candidates for earth-life planets around a nearby red dwarf star. Red dwarf stars burn really slowly, and could last for trillions to hundreds of trillions of years, depending on the size. That is, no red dwarf star has died of \"old age\" in the entire history of the universe. So that's more than enough time too. But there are also blue giant stars that burn extremely quickly, and only last for millions of years. These stars are short-lived enough that their lifetimes are comparable to the time it would take to reach them with some future spacecraft that goes at 1% of the speed of light - so in that case, any planets detected around them might have been destroyed. However, these are unlikely places to find nice Earthlike planets. These stars are also more rare (although easy to see because they're so bright) - the majority of stars in the Milky Way are red dwarfs.\n\nIn short, planets just live too long for this to really matter. But if you happened to have a planet around a particularly short-lived star (which is not common), and you detected it at the far edge of the galaxy (which we can't do yet), then yes, it might just be destroyed before some future probe got there.",
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"answer": "To tack on we can also observe blackholes and stars dying out nearby and plan accordingly. Our star is supposedly about 4.5 billion years old. And supposedly it's expected it won't die out for another 5 billion years.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Simple answer, no matter how far we get with technology the chance that a planet/star will \"die\" will be magnitudes smaller than the chance of humans or the ship they are traveling in to die.\n\nAlso, if you didn't travel to that planet and stayed on earth instead, what are the chances earth would still be there in the same time period? Assuming speed of light travel and lets say 20 year trip then 20 years of delayed information is the same as 20 years of what could happen in the future.",
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"answer": "There's some inevitable speculation in the answer to this question as we still haven't developed interstellar travel, and there are no technologies to do this in the foreseeable future. I'm going to assume we would design an interstellar ship using the same methods we currently use for exploring the Solar System.\n\nWhat we currently know about exoplanets is very little - mass, radius and orbital period in the *best* cases, only two of those variables in *most* cases.\n\nWhen a spacecraft is conceived, mission analysis is one of the first steps. The mission phases are defined based on the different environments that the system will have to operate in, starting from launch and continuing through Earth orbit, interplanetary cruise, descent and landing, up to the final environment of actual operations. In other words, *we would never send a spacecraft if we don't have a precise knowledge of the target environment*. It would be an almost certain failure and consequently a waste of money, time and effort. If your question implies human travel then you must also consider the potential loss of lives.\n\nSo at this point I'm forced to speculate that by the time we try to get to an exoplanet, we will already have enough astronomical observations to be sure its orbit is stable. Then we can be pretty sure it will still be there. We should also have some knowledge about its atmosphere (necessary to plan entry and landing!), surface conditions (land? water? mountains? plains?), surface temperature, atmospheric composition (does it have harmful acid clouds like Venus?), etc. There will be no travelling without this knowledge, and observations to find all of this information out do not appear to be feasible using near-future technology.\n\nMost likely one of the first steps will be observations from orbit using probes.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14843",
"title": "Interstellar travel",
"section": "Section::::Feasibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "Astrophysicist Sten Odenwald stated that the basic problem is that through intensive studies of thousands of detected exoplanets, most of the closest destinations within 50 light years do not yield Earth-like planets in the star's habitable zones. Given the multitrillion-dollar expense of some of the proposed technologies, travelers will have to spend up to 200 years traveling at 20% the speed of light to reach the best known destinations. Moreover, once the travelers arrive at their destination (by any means), they will not be able to travel down to the surface of the target world and set up a colony unless the atmosphere is non-lethal. The prospect of making such a journey, only to spend the rest of the colony's life inside a sealed habitat and venturing outside in a spacesuit, may eliminate many prospective targets from the list.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2333491",
"title": "Nibiru cataclysm",
"section": "Section::::Scientific rejection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "In a 2009 interview with the Discovery Channel, Mike Brown noted that, while it is not impossible that the Sun has a distant planetary companion, such an object would have to be lying very far from the observed regions of the Solar System to have no detectable gravitational effect on the other planets. A Mars-sized object could lie undetected at 300 AU (10 times the distance of Neptune); a Jupiter-sized object at 30,000 AU. To travel 1000 AU in two years, an object would need to be moving at 2400 km/s – faster than the galactic escape velocity. At that speed, any object would be shot out of the Solar System, and then out of the Milky Way galaxy into intergalactic space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26962",
"title": "Special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Dynamics.:How far can one travel from the Earth?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 157,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 157,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "Since one can not travel faster than light, one might conclude that a human can never travel farther from Earth than 40 light years if the traveler is active between the ages of 20 and 60. One would easily think that a traveler would never be able to reach more than the very few solar systems which exist within the limit of 20–40 light years from the earth. But that would be a mistaken conclusion. Because of time dilation, a hypothetical spaceship can travel thousands of light years during the pilot's 40 active years. If a spaceship could be built that accelerates at a constant 1\"g\", it will, after a little less than a year, be travelling at almost the speed of light as seen from Earth. This is described by:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208691",
"title": "CoRoT",
"section": "Section::::Discoveries.:Exoplanets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "So, for Corot, due to the maximum duration of 6 months of observation for each star field, only planets closer to their stars than 0.3 Astronomical Units (less than the distance between the Sun and Mercury) can be detected, therefore generally not in the so-called habitable zone. The Kepler mission (NASA) has continuously observed the same field for many years and thus had the ability to detect Earth sized planets located farther from their stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11439",
"title": "Faster-than-light",
"section": "Section::::Superluminal travel of non-information.:Possible distance away from Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1631,
"text": "Since one might not travel faster than light, one might conclude that a human can never travel further from the Earth than 40 light-years if the traveler is active between the age of 20 and 60. A traveler would then never be able to reach more than the very few star systems which exist within the limit of 20–40 light-years from the Earth. This is a mistaken conclusion: because of time dilation, the traveler can travel thousands of light-years during their 40 active years. If the spaceship accelerates at a constant 1 g (in its own changing frame of reference), it will, after 354 days, reach speeds a little under the speed of light (for an observer on Earth), and time dilation will increase their lifespan to thousands of Earth years, seen from the reference system of the Solar System, but the traveler's subjective lifespan will not thereby change. If the traveler returns to the Earth, they will land thousands of years into the Earth's future. Their speed will not be seen as higher than the speed of light by observers on Earth, and the traveler will not measure their speed as being higher than the speed of light, but will see a length contraction of the universe in their direction of travel. And as the traveler turns around to return, the Earth will seem to experience much more time than the traveler does. So, while their (ordinary) coordinate speed cannot exceed \"c\", their proper speed (distance as seen by Earth divided by their proper time) can be much greater than \"c\". This is seen in statistical studies of muons traveling much further than \"c\" times their half-life (at rest), if traveling close to \"c\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41381076",
"title": "StarForge",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:Lore.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Finally, one planet was found and deemed habitable. It was named Atlas. At that time, scientists discovered how to make objects travel at almost the speed of light. However, even with the relativistic effects of near light-speed travel and medical advances in longevity, the planet was still too far away for any human to reach in one lifetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1072857",
"title": "Biosignature",
"section": "Section::::Outside of our solar system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "At 4.2 light-years (1.3 parsecs, 40 trillion km, or 25 trillion miles) away from Earth, the closest potentially habitable exoplanet is Proxima Centauri b, which was discovered in 2016. This means it would take more than 18,100 years to get there if a vessel could consistently travel as fast as the Juno spacecraft (250,000 kilometers per hour or 150,000 miles per hour). In other words, it is currently not feasible to send humans or even probes to search for biosignatures outside of our solar system. Given this fact, the only way to search for biosignatures outside of our solar system is by observing exoplanets with telescopes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3gswu7 | what/ who are gypsies? | [
{
"answer": "The Romani (also spelled Romany; /ˈroʊməni/, /ˈrɒ-/), or Roma, are a traditionally itinerant ethnic group living mostly in Europe and the Americas, who originate from the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent.[28][29] The Romani are widely known among English-speaking people by the exonym \"Gypsies\" (or \"Gipsies\"). However, according to many Romani people and academics who study them, the word has been tainted by its use as a racial slur and a pejorative connoting illegality and irregularity.[30][31][32][33][34][35][36] Other exonyms are Ashkali and Sinti.\n\nRomani are dispersed, with their concentrated populations in Europe — especially Central, Eastern and Southern Europe including Turkey, Spain and Southern France. They originated in Northern India and arrived in Mid-West Asia, then Europe, around 1,000 years ago,[37] either separating from the Dom people or, at least, having a similar history;[38] the ancestors of both the Romani and the Dom left North India sometime between the sixth and eleventh century.[37]\n\nSince the nineteenth century, some Romani have also migrated to the Americas. There are an estimated one million Roma in the United States;[4] and 800,000 in Brazil, most of whose ancestors emigrated in the nineteenth century from eastern Europe. Brazil also includes some Romani descended from people deported by the government of Portugal during the Inquisition in the colonial era.[39] In migrations since the late nineteenth century, Romani have also moved to other countries in South America and to Canada.[40]\n\nMore info at : _URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "They are a tightly knit ethnic group that lives nomadically. Many people complain that they will come to their region behaving anti-socially until their supplies run low, at which point they thieve from the surrounding community for supplies to live on at the next site.\n\nThey are characterized as a sort of pack of semi-wild humans. \n\nThere aren't many gypsies on the Internet, so please keep in mind that they don't have an opportunity to defend themselves.\n\nIt seems completely acceptable to discriminate against the gypsies, especially in parts of Europe. So, if you are American and a smug European ever discusses our cultural issues, you might bring up the Romani. There is a decent chance that smug European will try to claim that the discrimination is warranted in their case.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4536912",
"title": "History of the Romani people",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "One theory suggests that the name ultimately derives from a form \"ḍōmba-\" 'man of low caste living by singing and music', attested in Classical Sanskrit. Many also believe that Gypsies are descendants of Dalit because of the word zingaro (ατσίγγανος) (\"untouchable\") that was used to designate gypsies in Greece . An alternative view is that the ancestors of the Romani were part of the military in Northern India. When there were invasions by Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi and these soldiers were defeated, they were moved west with their families into the Byzantine Empire between AD 1000 and 1030.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4423828",
"title": "Robert Ritter",
"section": "Section::::Ritter's racial hypotheses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "BULLET::::- Pure Gypsies meant the itinerant people of a non-European race. While originally from India and with a language related to Sanskrit, and thus possessing true Aryan origins, Ritter rejected this argument for all but approximately ten percent of the Roma and Sinti population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37223",
"title": "His Dark Materials",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Gyptians:\" A boat-dwelling, transient social group in Lyra's world. They live according to their own customs and traditions, outside mainstream society. They are reminiscent of \"Gypsies\" (Roma). Our word \"Gypsy\" is derived from the \"(mistaken)\" belief that Gypsies were Egyptian in origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "676011",
"title": "Dom people",
"section": "Section::::Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The worldwide used name for Gypsies to identify themselves is the term \"Htom\", which in the Romani language means a man. The words Rom, Dom and Lom are used to describe Romani peoples who diverged in the 6th century. Several tribes moved as far as Western Europe and are called Rom, while the ones who remained in Persia and Turkey are called Dom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27721878",
"title": "Sun News Network",
"section": "Section::::Controversy and criticism.:CBSC rulings.:\"Gypsy\" comments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "On September 5, 2012, Sun News Network host Ezra Levant broadcast a commentary \"The Jew vs. the Gypsies\" on \"The Source\", in which he accused the Romani people as a group of being criminals and said: \"These are gypsies, a culture synonymous with swindlers. The phrase gypsy and cheater have been so interchangeable historically that the word has entered the English language as a verb: he gypped me. Gypsies are not a race. They're a shiftless group of hobos. They rob people blind. Their chief economy is theft and begging. For centuries these roving highway gangs have mocked the law and robbed their way across Europe.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4423828",
"title": "Robert Ritter",
"section": "Section::::Ritter's racial hypotheses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "BULLET::::- Part-Gypsies were classified by Ritter as persons who had one or two Gypsies among their grandparents. Further, a person was classed as part-Gypsy if two or more of his grandparents are part-Gypsy. Often it meant mixed-race individuals of Gypsy plus Jenische lineage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "952976",
"title": "Ezra Levant",
"section": "Section::::Canadian Broadcast Standards Council rulings.:\"Gypsy\" comments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "On September 5, 2012, Levant broadcast a commentary that he titled \"The Jew vs. the Gypsies\" on \"The Source\", in which he accused the Romani people as a group of being criminals. Levant said, \"These are gypsies, a culture synonymous with swindlers. The phrase gypsy and cheater have been so interchangeable historically that the word has entered the English language as a verb: he gypped me. Gypsies are not a race. They’re a shiftless group of hobos. They rob people blind. Their chief economy is theft and begging. For centuries these roving highway gangs have mocked the law and robbed their way across Europe.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
7cakmt | death by hanging | [
{
"answer": "It depends if they do it properly. Hanging is supposed to snap your neck, severing your spinal cord,and killing you fairly quickly.\n\nOften (especially when done by amateurs), if it isn't done right (drop isn't big enough, knot isn't done right, whatever), and the neck isn't snapped, they'll suffocate slowly.",
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"answer": "It depends.\n\nWhen done properly, the drop causes the rope to tighten and uses the weight of the body to snap the neck in an instant. Death is (virtually) painless and extremely quick.\n\nWhen done improperly the drop isn't long enough and the body's weight doesn't break the neck. Then you get to the \"dance on air\" for a bit as you slowly strangle. Death comes from oxygen deprivation and (so I assume) sucks.\n\nWhen you REALLY fuck it up, the drop is too far and the weight is enough to pop the head off the body like a cork. Death is (one assumes) instant, but it is very messy and bloody.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Hanging is supposed to work by breaking the neck, causing immediate paralysis and, ideally, death without pain.\n\nThis is actually pretty complicated and requires careful placement of the noose and calculations for the persons height and weight. Most suicides are done by simple strangulation, where the noose pinches off bloodflow to the brain, causing death after ten to twenty minutes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9277877",
"title": "Gallows Thief",
"section": "Section::::Major themes.:Capital punishment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Hanging, as it was practised in 1817, was particularly cruel and inefficient. The story predates the adoption of the \"long drop,\" calculated to end the condemned person's life quickly by breaking the neck. During this time, all deaths by hanging are caused by slow choking. In the novel, James Botting, the executioner at Newgate Prison, accepts bribes from the prisoners to tug on their legs and quicken their demise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "155019",
"title": "Hanging",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 668,
"text": "Hanging is the suspension of a person by a noose or ligature around the neck. The \"Oxford English Dictionary\" states that hanging in this sense is \"specifically to put to death by suspension by the neck\", though it formerly also referred to crucifixion and death by impalement in which the body would remain \"hanging\". Hanging has been a common method of capital punishment since medieval times, and is the primary execution method in numerous countries and regions. The first known account of execution by hanging was in Homer's \"Odyssey\" (Book XXII). In this specialised meaning of the common word \"hang\", the past and past participle is \"hanged\" instead of \"hung\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27988331",
"title": "Suicide by hanging",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 729,
"text": "Hanging is divided into suspension hanging and the much rarer drop hanging — this last can kill in various ways. Suicide attempters who survive either because the cord or ligature point breaks or because they are discovered and cut down, can face a range of serious injuries, including cerebral anoxia (which can lead to permanent brain damage), laryngeal fracture, cervical spine fracture, tracheal fracture, pharyngeal laceration, and carotid artery injury. Ron M. Brown writes that hanging has a \"fairly imperspicuous and complicated symbolic history\". There are commentaries on hanging in antiquity, and it has various cultural interpretations. Throughout history, numerous famous people have committed suicide by hanging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27988331",
"title": "Suicide by hanging",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "In general, there are two ways of performing suicide by hanging: suspension hanging (the suspension of the body at the neck) and drop hanging (a calculated drop designed to break the neck). Manual strangulation and suffocation may also be considered together with hanging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27988331",
"title": "Suicide by hanging",
"section": "Section::::Related elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "The vast majority of deaths by hanging in the UK and US are suicides, although there are some cases involving erotic asphyxiation. Homicides may be disguised as a hanging suicide. Features that suggest that the death is a homicide include the ligature marks being under the larynx, scratch marks on the ligature, and the presence of significant injury on the skin of the neck.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27988331",
"title": "Suicide by hanging",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Suicide by hanging is the act of intentionally killing oneself via suspension from an anchor-point or ligature point (e.g. an overhead beam or hooked up ) by a ligature or by jumping from a height with a noose around the head \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1494050",
"title": "Capital punishment in India",
"section": "Section::::Execution of death sentence.:Hanging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "The Code of Criminal Procedure (1898) called for the method of execution to be hanging. The same method was adopted in the Code of Criminal Procedure (1973). Section 354(5) of the above procedure reads as \"When any person is sentenced to death, the sentence shall direct that the person be hanged by the neck till the person is dead.\" The hanging method is long drop, the method devised by William Marwood in Britain. The person has their neck snapped as they fall through the trapdoor and is left hanging until they are dead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
qp1t6 | What is the driving force of the solar cycle? Does it significantly affect total solar output? | [
{
"answer": "The Sun is a giant rotating ball of plasma. Plasma is very electrically conductive so the currents in the Sun naturally give rise to strong magnetic fields. This \"solar dynamo\" is a complex phenomenon because the Sun's poles and equator rotate at different speeds, causing the magnetic field to evolve in an unusual fashion.\n\nTypically, for our Sun the Solar magnetic field will evolve over a 22 year cycle (give or take), alternating between periods of relative quiescence while being established at one pole then evolving into a chaotic jumble with a peak of sunspot activity then flipping poles and reprising the same track again. Often this is just called an 11 year cycle since mostly we don't care about whether the Solar magnetic field is \"upside down\" or not.\n\nDuring the periods where the magnetic fields are chaotic on the Sun this causes the formation of sunspots, Solar flares, etc. and changes the overall output of the Sun since sunspots are a slightly different temperature than the rest of the Sun. Additionally, it's known that the Sun can enter a period of time when it stops alternating the magnetic field and stops producing sunspots (a so called \"maunder minimum\" period).\n\nThese changes affect the total energy output of the Sun to a small degree (within about 1% or less), but they also change the Solar wind environment, which impacts cosmic ray flux at Earth and cloud formation, which has a complex impact on Earth's climate. There is a lot of suspicion that the maunder minimum was the cause for a general global cooling at around that time but overall the evidence is sketchy and such conclusions are more speculation than fact.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47490358",
"title": "Solar phenomena",
"section": "Section::::Solar cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "The solar cycle also modulates the flux of short-wavelength solar radiation, from ultraviolet to X-ray and influences the frequency of solar flares, coronal mass ejections and other solar eruptive phenomena.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14415787",
"title": "Health threat from cosmic rays",
"section": "Section::::The deep-space radiation environment in ACE.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "The solar cycle is an approximately 11-year period of varying solar activity including solar maximum where the solar wind is strongest and solar minimum where the solar wind is weakest. Galactic cosmic rays create a continuous radiation dose throughout the Solar System that increases during solar minimum and decreases during solar maximum (solar activity). The inner and outer radiation belts are two regions of trapped particles from the solar wind that are later accelerated by dynamic interaction with the Earth's magnetic field. While always high, the radiation dose in these belts can increase dramatically during geomagnetic storms and substorms. Solar proton events (SPEs) are bursts of energetic protons accelerated by the Sun. They occur relatively rarely and can produce extremely high radiation levels. Without thick shielding, SPEs are sufficiently strong to cause acute radiation poisoning and death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27743",
"title": "Solar energy",
"section": "Section::::Potential.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
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"text": "Geography affects solar energy potential because areas that are closer to the equator have a greater amount of solar radiation. However, the use of photovoltaics that can follow the position of the Sun can significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are farther from the equator. Time variation effects the potential of solar energy because during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the Earth for solar panels to absorb. This limits the amount of energy that solar panels can absorb in one day. Cloud cover can affect the potential of solar panels because clouds block incoming light from the Sun and reduce the light available for solar cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59553421",
"title": "Homeric Minimum",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms of climate effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Variations in the solar output have effects on climate, less through the usually quite small effects on insolation and more through the relatively large changes of UV radiation and potentially also indirectly through modulation of cosmic ray radiation. The 11-year solar cycle measurably alters the behaviour of weather and atmosphere, but decadal and centennial climate cycles are also attributed to solar variation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5565588",
"title": "Climate system",
"section": "Section::::External climate forcing.:Incoming sunlight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "The Sun is the predominant source of energy input to the Earth. Both long- and short-term variations in solar intensity are known to affect global climate. Solar output varies on shorter time scales, including the 11-year solar cycle and longer-term modulations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47490358",
"title": "Solar phenomena",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Sunspots.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "The net effect during periods of enhanced solar magnetic activity is increased radiant solar output because faculae are larger and persist longer than sunspots. Conversely, periods of lower solar magnetic activity and fewer sunspots (such as the Maunder Minimum) may correlate with times of lower irradiance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206555",
"title": "Solar cycle",
"section": "Section::::Solar magnetic field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "The Sun's magnetic field structures its atmosphere and outer layers all the way through the corona and into the solar wind. Its spatiotemporal variations lead to various measurable solar phenomena. Other solar phenomena are closely related to the cycle, which serves as the energy source and dynamical engine for the former.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
4dykuz | how do some websites keep you from navagating back? | [
{
"answer": "Usually, this is done by sending people to a page, which immediately redirects to another page. So, if you click back on the second page, it just sends you back to the first page which immediately redirects you again.\n\nUsually, if you click back fast enough, you can get past it and eventually make it back to where you were.",
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},
{
"answer": "When you click the link to whatever page is causing this, it's redirecting you to another page, often several times. This means that when you navigate back, you land on a page which will instantly redirect you again.\n\nYou can work around this by navigating back faster than your browser navigates you forward. I know Chrome will also help you navigate back to the desired page if you right click on the back arrow.\n\nThis is usually a symptom of shady websites, so I would personally recommend to avoid websites where this happens.",
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},
{
"answer": "One trend I've noticed is that some websites don't send you to a new page when you click a link, they just change the content of the page you're on by hiding what you were looking at and unhiding the next portion. \n\nIt was a lot more popular back when Flash websites were a thing, since all parts of a Flash site all took place inside the Flash animation, the back button had no meaning since you never left the page. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Adding to what everyone else is saying*(the page you load redirects you to another page, pressing back just brings you back to the redirecting page)*, if you want to prevent that in Firefox, you can go to\n\n**Tools - > Options - > Advanced - > General - > Warn me when websites try to redirect or reload the page.**\n\nThat'll prevent the redirect/reload, instead showing a bar at the top, prompting you if you would like to accept the redirect or not. It can be annoying, but it's a matter of choosing which annoys you more, the redirects fucking up your back button, or the prompt making redirects need another click.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Websites can use JavaScript to disable the Back button (and/or its functionality) -- maybe that's what the OP meant. In these cases, you can't physically keep clicking Back rapidly to go back. The best solution is to always open links in new tabs or windows, so that the original page is still there when you need to view it again. :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53663408",
"title": "Search engine scraping",
"section": "Section::::Detection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "The first layer of defense is a captcha page where the user is prompted to verify he is a real person and not a bot or tool. Solving the captcha will create a cookie that permits access to the search engine again for a while. After about one day the captcha page is removed again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59470572",
"title": "Microsoft Kaizala",
"section": "Section::::New features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Delete messages: A user can delete a message in a one-on-one chat or a group chat. But this can be done within an hour of sending the message. Group admins have access to delete any message at any point in time. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "230834",
"title": "CAPTCHA",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "This user identification procedure has received many criticisms, especially from people with disabilities, but also from other people who feel that their everyday work is slowed down by distorted words that are difficult to read. It takes the average person approximately 10 seconds to solve a typical CAPTCHA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "230834",
"title": "CAPTCHA",
"section": "Section::::Circumvention.:Cheap or unwitting human labor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Another technique used consists of using a script to re-post the target site's CAPTCHA as a CAPTCHA to a site owned by the attacker, which unsuspecting humans visit and correctly solve within a short while for the script to use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29384738",
"title": "Web browsing history",
"section": "Section::::Privacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Users may wish to remove browsing history data or stop it being collected (at least temporarily). They may want or need to do this to try to prevent other people who have full access to the computer they are using (such as their parents, spouse, manager, or law enforcement officials) from seeing confidential information about websites they have visited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1251889",
"title": "Safe-cracking",
"section": "Section::::Keypad-based attacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Many of these techniques require the attacker to tamper with the keypad, wait for the unsuspecting user to enter the combination, and return at a later time to retrieve the information. These techniques are sometimes used by members of intelligence or law enforcement agencies, as they are often effective and surreptitious. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26565483",
"title": "Powers of the police in England and Wales",
"section": "Section::::Stop and account.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 1199,
"text": "Stop and account\" is a little-known standard operating procedure, rather than a power, of the police, under Recommendation 61 (Rec.61); it is not a statutory procedure like stop and search. It applies to people on foot in a public place. There is no power to force a person to stop, or to detain them. The decision to \"request\" a person to \"stop and account\" is left to the discretion of the individual officer; there is no guidance on this. Unlike stop and search, there is no requirement for \"reasonable suspicion\". There is no actual requirement on a police officer, beyond identifying themself as such; no need to tell the persons stopped why they are being asked to account for themselves, or to say that they are free to leave without answering questions. However, police forces have procedures governing stops. The Metropolitan Police use the acronym \"WISER\": show Warrant card; state Identify and police Station; explain person's Entitlement to a copy of the stop record; give Reason for the stop. While a record must be made of every stop, there is no requirement for police forces to keep statistics on number of stops or ethnicity of people stopped, according to the College of Policing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
]
| null |
ac9cib | I've heard a lot that pre-modern soldiers generally did not aim to kill, or would purposefully miss their target so-as to not kill. Was this also a problem when melee weapons and archery was the dominant means of warfare? | [
{
"answer": "To clarify, are you asking about similar phenomena in historical periods (such as men refusing to charge/engage the enemy, routing, etc.) Or are you asking specifically about intentionally missing an attack in combat?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You may be interested in a [previous answer](_URL_0_) I wrote to a similar question.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1673711",
"title": "History of the British Army",
"section": "Section::::Official rifle of the Army 1722–present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "As happens, the Army's men often had the weapons to fight the \"last\" war by the time of the following conflict. Most of the 19th century weapons were technologically obsolete at their introduction or within five years, and despite the apparently exhaustive testing many inadequate weapons were issued.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6096310",
"title": "Service pistol",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Traditionally, soldiers (infantry and cavalry alike) and officers had carried swords for both personal protection and use in combat. The development of firearms in the mid-14th century changed the way battles were fought, and by the late-15th century it was no longer especially practical to close to hand-to-hand combat range to engage one's opponents, owing to the prevalence of pikes and musket-fire (pike and shot) on the battlefield.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2007",
"title": "Archery",
"section": "Section::::History.:Decline of archery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1372,
"text": "The development of firearms rendered bows obsolete in warfare, although efforts were sometimes made to preserve archery practice. In England and Wales, for example, the government tried to enforce practice with the longbow until the end of the 16th century. This was because it was recognized that the bow had been instrumental to military success during the Hundred Years' War. Despite the high social status, ongoing utility, and widespread pleasure of archery in Armenia, China, Egypt, England and Wales, America, India, Japan, Korea, Turkey and elsewhere, almost every culture that gained access to even early firearms used them widely, to the neglect of archery. Early firearms were inferior in rate-of-fire, and were very sensitive to wet weather. However, they had longer effective range and were tactically superior in the common situation of soldiers shooting at each other from behind obstructions. They also required significantly less training to use properly, in particular penetrating steel armor without any need to develop special musculature. Armies equipped with guns could thus provide superior firepower, and highly trained archers became obsolete on the battlefield. However, the bow and arrow is still an effective weapon, and archers have seen action in the 21st century. Traditional archery remains in use for sport, and for hunting in many areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7911588",
"title": "Hunting weapon",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Since human beings are lacking in the natural weapons possessed by other predators, humans have a long history of making tools to overcome this shortcoming. The evolution of hunting weapons shows an ever-increasing ability to extend the hunter's reach, while maintaining the ability to produce disabling or lethal wounds, allowing the hunter to capture the game. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37600472",
"title": "Montoneras",
"section": "Section::::Argentina.:Evolution of weaponry and tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The rural men used weapons at hand, often nothing more than lances, before they gained guns. When they gained firearms, they adapted their combat tactics. As the 19th century advanced, the increased number of fighters had to rely on less expensive weapons; they used spears combined with sabers, and failing that, the most primitive weapons, including indigenous \"bolas.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7603085",
"title": "History of archery",
"section": "Section::::Decline of archery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "The advent of firearms eventually rendered bows obsolete in warfare. Despite the high social status, ongoing utility, and widespread pleasure of archery, almost every culture that gained access to even early firearms used them widely, to the relative neglect of archery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14593178",
"title": "R. J. McMordie",
"section": "Section::::Quote.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "\"In times of difficulty men had to carry their guns while they followed the plough… the nation or the people that had lost the fighting instinct was sure to be swamped by others who possessed that instinct.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
70wkcu | Why was Gustav III of Sweden so determined to aid Louis XVI during the French Revolution? | [
{
"answer": "Multiple reasons. First Gustav III was a king who believed in the idea of 'Enlightened Absolutism'. He'd instituted absolute monarchy (one of two quite short periods of that in Swedish history) in a coup d'etat, inspired strongly by Louis's absolutism, and Gustav in his coup strongly curtailed the power of the Swedish parliament. Gustav wanted to be hip to his age ('enlightened') but firmly believed in his - and other kings' - divine right to rule. (and indeed a huge stickler for rules and traditional formality in general, to the extent that other rulers like his cousin Catherine the Great found him annoying to deal with) His 'enlightened' ideas were - for instance - things like abolishing torture, but not popular rule.\n\nSecond, Gustav (as many others in Europe at that time) was a huge Francophile and admirer of France and the French monarchy, Versailles and all that. His court used French a lot more the Swedish language. (and the late 18th century is the one period in Swedish language history when loanwords from French dominated)\n\nThird, per the above he didn't have so much to gain from aiding Louis as he stood to lose by _not_ doing so. Louis's downfall started earlier but Gustav III still ended up with the dubious honor of being murdered first.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39766",
"title": "History of Sweden",
"section": "Section::::Early Modern.:Enlightenment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "When Gustav made war on Russia and did poorly he was assassinated by a conspiracy of nobles angry that he tried to restrict their privileges for the benefit of the peasants. Under King Charles XIII, Sweden joined various coalitions against Napoleon, but was badly defeated and lost much of its territory, especially Finland and Pomerania. The king was overthrown by the army, which in 1810 decided to bring in one of Napoleon's marshals, Bernadotte, as the heir apparent. He had a Jacobin background and was well-grounded in revolutionary principles, but put Sweden in the coalition that opposed Napoleon. He served as a quite conservative king Charles XIV John of Sweden (1818–44).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42631401",
"title": "Influence of the French Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Impact on Europe.:Denmark and Sweden.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1202,
"text": "In Sweden, King Gustav III (reigned 1771–92) was an enlightened despot, who weakened the nobility and promoted numerous major social reforms. He felt the Swedish monarchy could survive and flourish by achieving a coalition with the newly emerged middle classes against the nobility. He was close to King Louis XVI so he was disgusted with French radicalism. Nevertheless, he decided to promote additional antifeudal reforms to strengthen his hand among the middle classes. When the king was assassinated in 1792 his brother Charles became regent, but real power was with Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm, who bitterly opposed the French Revolution and all its supporters. Under King Gustav IV Adolf, Sweden joined various coalitions against Napoleon, but was badly defeated and lost much of its territory, especially Finland and Pomerania. The king was overthrown by the army, which in 1810 decided to bring in one of Napoleon's marshals, Bernadotte, as the heir apparent and army commander. He had a Jacobin background and was well-grounded in revolutionary principles, but put Sweden in the coalition that opposed Napoleon. Bernadotte served as a quite conservative king Charles XIV John of Sweden (1818–44).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23686385",
"title": "Gustav III of Sweden",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "Following the uprising against the French monarchy in 1789, Gustav pursued an alliance of princes aimed at crushing the insurrection and re-instating his French counterpart, King Louis XVI, offering Swedish military assistance as well as his leadership. In 1792 he was mortally wounded by a gunshot in the lower back during a masquerade ball as part of an aristocratic-parliamentary coup attempt, but managed to assume command and quell the uprising before succumbing to sepsis 13 days later, a period during which he received apologies from many of his political enemies. Gustav's immense powers were placed in the hands of a regency under his brother Prince Carl and Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm until his son and successor Gustav IV Adolf reached adulthood in 1796. The Gustavian autocracy thus survived until 1809, when his son was ousted in another coup d'état, which definitively established parliament as the dominant political power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23686385",
"title": "Gustav III of Sweden",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "Gustav was a vocal opponent of what he saw as the abuse of political privileges seized by the nobility since the death of King Charles XII. Seizing power from the government in a coup d'état, called the Swedish Revolution, in 1772 that ended the Age of Liberty, he initiated a campaign to restore a measure of Royal autocracy, which was completed by the Union and Security Act of 1789, which swept away most of the powers exercised by the Swedish Riksdag (parliament) during the Age of Liberty, but at the same time it opened up the government for all citizens, thereby breaking the privileges of the nobility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "268927",
"title": "Jacob Johan Anckarström",
"section": "Section::::Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The Swedish nobles were about this time violently opposed to the king, who, by the aid of the other orders of the state, had wrested their power from them and was now ruling despotically. This dislike was increased by the \"coup d'état\" of 1789 and by the king's known desire to interfere in favor of Louis XVIII in France. Anckarström, a man of strong passions and violent temper, resolved upon the assassination of Gustav and communicated his intention to other disaffected nobles, including Counts Horn and Ribbing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148300",
"title": "Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes",
"section": "Section::::Diplomatic service.:Sweden.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "After Choiseul's dismissal in 1770, Vergennes was sent to Sweden with instructions to help the pro-French party of The Hats with advice and money. The coup by which King Gustav III secured power (19 August 1772) was a major diplomatic triumph for France and brought to an end the Swedish Age of Liberty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23686385",
"title": "Gustav III of Sweden",
"section": "Section::::Russo–Swedish War (1788–1790).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Gustav next aimed at forming a league of princes against the revolutionary government in France, and subordinated every other consideration to this goal. His profound knowledge of popular assemblies enabled him, alone among contemporary sovereigns, to gauge the scope of the French Revolution accurately from the first. He was hampered, however, by financial restrictions and lack of support from the other European Powers. Then, after the brief Diet of Gävle on 22 January – 24 February 1792, he fell victim to a widespread political conspiracy among his aristocratic enemies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
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| null |
3qhex6 | Is the term "Cultural Marxism" actually historically related to a fascist reaction against Critical Theory? | [
{
"answer": "Yes, that would be the idea that the term \"Cultural Marxism\" comes from the 1920s German concept of Cultural Bolshevism (Kulturbolschewismus - _URL_6_) - which along with \"Jewish Bolshevism\" (originating in pre-war Poland as \"Żydokomuna\" _URL_2_) was claimed to be the secretive and hidden attempt of Bolshevists to bring down Europe's \"beloved\" Nazi culture via the slow introduction of an insidious \"degenerate culture\" (a term you may have heard of already).\n\nThis is of great irony as the currently much accused Herbert Marcuse of The Frankfurt School was actually employed for a short time near the end of the war by the OSS (Office of Strategic Services - _URL_3_). Where some say he was involved in attempting to Americanize Bolshevist culture (_URL_5_). But I'd take that last part with a grain of salt.\n\nHowever according to Richard R. Weiner the English rendering of the term dates back to Trent Schroyer's 1973 The Critique of Domination - in which Schroyer is arguing that Critical Theory and Cultural Marxism must adopt MORE of Marx's historical materialism if it is to have an impact on society (although I doubt given Schroyer's tone that he came up with the term).\n\nSchroyer was as radical if not more radical than Fredric Jameson who straight up wanted Cultural Studies to be renamed \"Cultural Marxism\" (creating further confusion around the term).\n\nOf course, then cold-war era politicos like William S. Lind (_URL_1_) emerged during the 1990s Culture Wars (_URL_4_) and once again made the claim that these Cultural Theorists and Sociologists were actually trying to destroy his particular version of American Western Christianity by introducing a degenerate cultures. In 2002 he reportedly spoke on this topic at a holocaust denial conference - _URL_0_.\n\nSo the term has changed hands so often that it's fairly null in void today (with most understanding that criticism of all persuasions should remain part of a free society)... and it goes without saying that The Frankfurt School's (now 50 year old) model of hegemonic culture hasn't been nearly as influential as movements like The Chicago School of Sociology (fond of using statistical and demographic proofs) and The Birmingham School of Cultural Studies (who promoted the idea that all readings of culture come from specific cultural contexts), both of which have had more impact on Today's academic and intellectual landscape.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "229236",
"title": "Frankfurt School",
"section": "Section::::Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory.:Functions of the conspiracy.:Cultural pessimism and Holocaust denial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "In \"Fascism: Fascism and Culture\" (2003), Matthew Feldman traced the etymology of the term \"Cultural Marxism\" as derived from the anti-Semitic term \"Kulturbolshewismus\" (Cultural Bolshevism), which Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party used in charging that Jewish cultural influence was the source of German social degeneration under the liberal régime of the Weimar Republic (1918–1939), and also the cause of social degeneration in the West.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229236",
"title": "Frankfurt School",
"section": "Section::::Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory.:Definition and Culture War usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "In the U.S., the term \"cultural Marxism\" is employed in the culture wars by fundamentalist Christians and paleoconservatives, such as William S. Lind, Pat Buchanan, and Paul Weyrich, the alt-right, white nationalists, and the Dark Enlightenment neo-reactionary political movement. Moreover, conservatives such as David Brooks and Jordan Peterson have used the term.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229236",
"title": "Frankfurt School",
"section": "Section::::Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory.:Definition and Culture War usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "In contemporary usage, the term Cultural Marxism is a right-wing, antisemitic conspiracy theory according to which the Frankfurt School is part of a continual academic and intellectual culture war to systematically undermine and destroy Western culture and social traditions. As articulated in the 1990s, the conspiracy means to replace traditionalist conservatism and Christianity with the counterculture of the 1960s to promote social changes such as racial multiculturalism, multi-party progressive politics, acceptance of LGBT rights, and political correctness in language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5454193",
"title": "Definitions of fascism",
"section": "Section::::By scholars.:A. James Gregor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Fascism was a variant of classical Marxism, a belief system that pressed some themes argued by both Marx and Engels until they found expression in the form of ‘national syndicalism’ that was to animate the first Fascism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "31994535",
"title": "Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism",
"section": "Section::::In political discourse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Marxist theories of fascism have seen fascism as a form of reaction to socialism and a feature of capitalism. Several modern historians have tried to pay more attention to the economic, political and ideological differences between these two regimes than to their similarities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11054",
"title": "Fascism",
"section": "Section::::Tenets.:Palingenesis and modernism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "Fascism emphasizes both palingenesis (national rebirth or re-creation) and modernism. In particular, fascism's nationalism has been identified as having a palingenetic character. Fascism promotes the regeneration of the nation and purging it of decadence. Fascism accepts forms of modernism that it deems promotes national regeneration while rejecting forms of modernism that are regarded as antithetical to national regeneration. Fascism aestheticized modern technology and its association with speed, power and violence. Fascism admired advances in the economy in the early 20th century, particularly Fordism and scientific management. Fascist modernism has been recognized as inspired or developed by various figures—such as Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Ernst Jünger, Gottfried Benn, Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Knut Hamsun, Ezra Pound and Wyndham Lewis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11054",
"title": "Fascism",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Following the Cold War and shifts in fascist organizing techniques, a number of scholars have moved toward the minimalist \"new consensus\" refined by Roger Griffin: \"the mythic core\" of fascism is \"a populist form of palingenetic ultranationalism.\" That means that fascism is an ideology that draws on old, ancient, and even arcane myths of racial, cultural, ethnic, and national origins to develop a plan for the \"new man.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
96qt31 | High heels were primarily worn by men for the first 700 years after they were invented, changing to being primarily worn by women in the 17th century. What triggered this change? Was there a time when both genders commonly wore them? | [
{
"answer": "I've actually got a past answer that deals with this question: [How did heels became a purely feminine thing, after it was first used on shoes in the 16th century by noble or rich men?](_URL_0_) (For more on the Great Masculine Renunciation I mention in it, try [here](_URL_1_).) It's on the short side, though, so there is certainly room for someone else to write a fresh response.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22509614",
"title": "English medieval clothing",
"section": "Section::::Female dress.:Tenth and eleventh centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The girdles and buckled belts that were popular in the fifth and sixth century, with tools and personal items suspended from the belt, have gone out of fashion by the tenth century. Women wear simple ankle shoes and slippers in the tenth and eleventh century. Archaeological evidence suggests that a variety of shoe styles were available to women during this period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47831094",
"title": "History of swimwear",
"section": "Section::::19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "In the 19th century, the woman's double suit was common, comprising a gown from shoulder to knees plus a set of trousers with leggings going down to the ankles. In the first half of the 19th century the top became knee-length while an ankle-length drawer was added as a bottom. By the second half of the 19th century, in France, the sleeves started to vanish, the bottom became shorter to reach only the knees and the top became hip-length and both became more form fitting. In the 1900s women wore wool dresses on the beach that were made of up to of fabric.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2070436",
"title": "High-heeled shoe",
"section": "Section::::Feminist attitudes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "It has not been popular for men to wear high heels since the late 18th century. Some men see the cultural norm, which often mandates that women must wear heels to look professional, as completely unproblematic. However, women report that they are often painful to walk in, and commonly result in negative side effects to joints and veins after prolonged use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2070436",
"title": "High-heeled shoe",
"section": "Section::::History.:1700s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1310,
"text": "Modern high heels were brought to Europe by emissaries of Shāh Abbās I of Persia in the early 17th century. Men wore them to imply their upper-class status; only someone who did not have to work could afford, both financially and practically, to wear such extravagant shoes. Royalty such as King Louis XIV wore heels to impart status. As the shoes caught on, and other members of society began donning high heels, elite members ordered their heels to be made even higher to distinguish themselves from lower classes. Authorities even began regulating the length of a high heel's point according to social rank. Klaus Carl includes these lengths in his book \"Shoes\": \"½ inch for commoners, 1 inch for the bourgeois, 1 and ½ inches for knights, 2 inches for nobles, and 2 and ½ inches for princes.\"” As women took to appropriating this style, the heels’ width changed in another fundamental way. Men wore thick heels, while women wore skinny ones. Then, when Enlightenment ideals such as science, nature, and logic took hold of many European societies, men gradually stopped wearing heels. After the French Revolution in the late 1780s, heels, femininity, and superficiality all became intertwined. In this way, heels became much more associated with a woman's supposed sense of impracticality and extravagance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38210",
"title": "Footwear",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "During the 16th century, royalty such as Catherine de Medici and Mary I of England began wearing high-heeled shoes to make them look taller or larger than life. By 1580, men also wore them, and a person with authority or wealth might be described as, \"well-heeled\". In modern society, high-heeled shoes are a part of women's fashion and are widespread in certain countries around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50528637",
"title": "High heel policy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Historically, high heels were used by aristocratic women for cosmetic reasons, to raise their height or to keep their feet and long dresses clean. The style was then subject to sumptuary laws. In more modern times, stiletto heels have been restricted when they might damage the floor surface or cause accidents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47878489",
"title": "Barefoot",
"section": "Section::::Historical and religious aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "During the Middle Ages, both men and women wore pattens in Europe, commonly seen as the predecessor of the modern high-heeled shoe, while menial classes usually wore hand-made footwear made from whatever materials were available. Going barefoot was seen as a mark of poverty and the lowest social class, as well as being the mark of a prisoner. In the 15th century, chopines were created in Turkey and were usually 7–8 inches (17.7–20.3 cm) high. These shoes became popular in Venice and throughout Europe as a status symbol revealing wealth and social standing. During the 16th century royalty, such as Catherine de Medici and Mary I of England, started wearing high-heeled shoes to make them look taller or larger than life. By 1580, even men wore them, and a person with authority or wealth was often referred to as \"well-heeled\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2y4fpw | What was the draw weight of a historical Yumi (Japanese bow)? | [
{
"answer": "You would do far better to search on military forums, as there are no historical records of an actual number to it. There is no direct data that is reliable enough to draw a conclusion, unlike Chinese, Turkish and Middle Eastern, and European bows that still survive or were measured with quantitative draw weights. Not to mention that there are so many variables such as arrowtip, armour, range, penetration of various materials, the ability to wound v. kill, and so on. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "722362",
"title": "Kampilan",
"section": "Section::::Physical description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Among Filipino swords, the most distinguishing characteristic of the Kampilan is its huge size. At about 36 to 40 inches (90 to 100 cm) long, it is much larger than other Filipino swords, and is thought to be the longest, though smaller versions (sometimes called the \"kampilan bolo\") exist. A notable exception would be the \"panabas\", another Philippine longsword, of which an unusually large example could measure up to four feet in length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1080870",
"title": "Wodao",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "The wodao () is a Chinese sword from the Ming Dynasty. It is typically long and slender, but heavy, with a curved back and sharp blade. It bears a strong resemblance to the Tang sword, zhanmadao, Tachi or Odachi in form. Extant examples show a handle approximately 25.5 cm long, with a gently curved blade 80 cm long. The Japanese samurai warriors were also adept with the wodao.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31725254",
"title": "Mozu Tombs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "The , the largest kofun in Japan, are believed to have been constructed over a period of 20 years in the mid 5th century during the Kofun Period. While it cannot be accurately confirmed, it is commonly accepted that the tomb was built for the late Emperor Nintoku. The Imperial Household Agency of Japan treats it as such.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31337",
"title": "Tachi",
"section": "Section::::History and description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "An authentic tachi that was manufactured in the correct time period averaged 70–80 centimeters (27 9/16 - 31 1/2 inches) in cutting edge length (\"nagasa\") and compared to a katana was generally lighter in weight in proportion to its length, had a greater taper from hilt to point, was more curved with a smaller point area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28288",
"title": "Samurai",
"section": "Section::::Weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "BULLET::::- The yumi (longbow), reflected in the art of \"kyūjutsu\" (lit. the skill of the bow) was a major weapon of the Japanese military. Its usage declined with the introduction of the tanegashima (Japanese matchlock) during the Sengoku period, but the skill was still practiced at least for sport. The yumi, an asymmetric composite bow made from bamboo, wood, rattan and leather, had an effective range of if accuracy was not an issue. On foot, it was usually used behind a (), a large, mobile wooden shield, but the yumi could also be used from horseback because of its asymmetric shape. The practice of shooting from horseback became a Shinto ceremony known as \"yabusame\" ().\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61047069",
"title": "Erin-ji",
"section": "Section::::Cultural properties.:Important cultural properties.:\"Tantō\" Japanese sword.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The a Nanboku-chō period Japanese sword (\"Tantō\"), with a length of 27.4 cm. It was made in 1367 and donated to the temple by Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu on the occasion of the 133th memorial services for Takeda Shigen. It was designated a Important Cultural Property of Japan on March 26, 1915.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "860222",
"title": "Ōdachi",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "An (large/great sword) or nodachi (野太刀, field sword) was a type of traditionally made Japanese sword (日本刀, nihontō) used by the samurai class of feudal Japan. The Chinese equivalent and 'cousin' for this type of sword in terms of weight and length is the miao dao, and the Western battlefield equivalent (though less similar) is the longsword or claymore.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1aozn1 | How much land does it take to support one human being? | [
{
"answer": "This is a fairly old study from 1994, but it gives a ballpark figure of 1.2 acres per capita to sustain a typical American diet.\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\nNaturally you can expect a great deal of variance based on the fertility of the land you grow on, the amount you consume, the actual rainfall you get. By cutting meat out of your diet you should reduce the amount of land necessary, but you still need staggered crops, or stockpile-able crops in order to maintain a year-round supply of food.\n\nNot going to do all the work for you, but if we conjecture Potatos as a ideal high calorie food item to supply all your needs: \nYield: ~400 (cwt) potatos/acre/year\n\n[\n_URL_1_](_URL_1_)\n\nIf we combine that with the ballpark figure of 1.2 acres, that's 480 (cwt) potatos per year. So, 24 tons of potatos per year under average agricultural conditions. That sounds pretty sufficient to feed a person for a year. According to [_URL_2_](_URL_2_) there are 258 calories per 300 grams of potato. We can extrapolate that out to: 390 calories/pound, thus requiring about 5 pounds of potatos per day per person.\n\nBy that standard your 24 ton annual yield will be depleted in 9600 days, or about 25 years. So you should be able to get away with a farm smaller than 1.2 acres, or maybe even go with more than one crop.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > The minimum amount of agricultural land necessary for sustainable food security, with a diversified diet similar to those of North America and Western Europe (hence including meat), is 0.5 of a hectare per person. This does not allow for any land degradation such as soil erosion, and it assumes adequate water supplies. Very few populous countries have more than an average of 0.25 of a hectare. It is realistic to suppose that the absolute minimum of arable land to support one person is a mere 0.07 of a hectare–and this assumes a largely vegetarian diet, no land degradation or water shortages, virtually no post-harvest waste, and farmers who know precisely when and how to plant, fertilize, irrigate, etc. [FAO, 1993]\n\nFrom the FAO (the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations\n\nNote: .07 hectare = .17 acres",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Would we be able to increase yield by building structures that are shaped as inverted, tip-down cones? Water need aside, this would perhaps allow us to maximize daily sun area vs land usage.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You may be interested to know that in Saxon England there was a unit of land, called a hide, that was meant to represent the amount of land required to support a household. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "According to *Mini Farming, Self sufficiency on a 1/4 acre*, they extrapolate some numbers from the USDA food pyramid guide and come up with these requirements per year for 1 person:\n\n* veggies: 456 lbs\n* fruit: 365 lbs\n* wheat, corn, oats, rice: 250 lbs\n* lean mean and eggs: 159 lbs\n\nnow, not getting in the various yields for the variety of fruits, veggies, nuts, and grains, yet alone the space for cover crops and other soil replenishment needs, nor chickens, goats, compost, greenhouses, equipment storage, housing, water harvesting and storage, living, personal space, etc, etc...\n\nEstimates are for 1950 square feet of harvestable land, plus room for 7-20 trees (~3000 sq ft), so 4950 total, which works out to about 0.11 acres, which I think is too small.\n\nJohn Jeavons and his Grow BioIntensive methods (_URL_0_) and Ecology Action garden center says with very careful management a vegan diet can be grown on 4000 sq ft.\n\nNormally it takes about 40,000 sq ft of grazing land for 1 cow/steer (for milk/meat) or 2 goats (for milk/meat/wool), or 2 sheep (for milk/meat/wool). and I think 1 acre is small for 1 cow given that you need to have 7-8 different rotations to give the land time to regrow plants for them to eat.\n\nOther research I've done shows 4 sq feet in a coop + 25+ sq ft of land per chicken (at a minimum) for eggs. Meat birds, depends on how you raise them, but I tend to look past 'industrial' models of meat production. This also doesn't provide land for feed for the chickens.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're in the UK, if you can get ahold of 2 allotments (I think each is about 2800 sq ft), you can do a pretty good job. Extend the season with some greenhouses and movable hoop houses and you can produce quite a bit.\n\nYou should look at the [Winter Harvest Handbook](_URL_0_) for details on extending your growing season.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "using aquaponics, we can achieve 90% of the nutrients an adult needs in 50 sq/ft.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Surprised that none mentioned the concept of [Ecological Footprint](_URL_0_) yet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29400312",
"title": "Biocapacity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "For example, there were 12 billion hectares of biologically productive land and water on this planet in 2008. Dividing by the number of people alive in that year, 6.7 billion, gives a biocapacity of 1.8 global hectares per person . This assumes that no land is set aside for other species that consume the same biological material as humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5812463",
"title": "Uthiramerur",
"section": "Section::::History.:Village administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "BULLET::::- Ownership of tax-paying land sized at least one-fourth of a \"veli\" (about an acre and a half). The land-owning requirement was reduced to one-eighth \"veli\" for people who had learned at least one Veda and one Bhashya.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35481037",
"title": "Landesa",
"section": "Section::::How Landesa Works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Since its founding, Landesa has had one specific goal: securing land rights for the world's poorest people. This is because more than two billion people lives in extreme poverty, surviving on $2 a day or less. Of those, more than 75 percent live in rural areas and rely on agriculture for their sustenance. Most do not have secure rights to land and therefore, limited opportunity to build a better future for themselves and their family. True ownership of land in the developing world determines access to shelter, income, education, healthcare, and improves economic and nutritional security.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301500",
"title": "Ecological footprint",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "In 2007, the average biologically productive area per person worldwide was approximately 1.8 global hectares (gha) per capita. The U.S. footprint per capita was 9.0 gha, and that of Switzerland was 5.6 gha, while China's was 1.8 gha. The WWF claims that the human footprint has exceeded the biocapacity (the available supply of natural resources) of the planet by 20%. Wackernagel and Rees originally estimated that the available biological capacity for the 6 billion people on Earth at that time was about 1.3 hectares per person, which is smaller than the 1.8 global hectares published for 2006, because the initial studies neither used global hectares nor included bioproductive marine areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2128217",
"title": "Tubod, Surigao del Norte",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Eventually, as per Municipal Resolution on 1989 asserts Mr. Agustin “Usting” Mendez Tuboranon Local or Municipal Hero of our time. Apparently, series of donation from portion of track land in order to entice people and capture to live.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "128608",
"title": "Population density",
"section": "Section::::Biological population densities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "In comparison, based on a world population of seven billion, the world's inhabitants, as a loose crowd taking up ten square feet (one square metre) per person (Jacobs Method), would occupy a space a little larger than Delaware's land area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30795",
"title": "Thomas Paine",
"section": "Section::::Ideas.:\"Agrarian Justice\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "In advocating the case of the persons thus dispossessed, it is a right, and not a charity ... [Government must] create a national fund, out of which there shall be paid to every person, when arrived at the age of twenty-one years, the sum of fifteen pounds sterling, as a compensation in part, for the loss of his or her natural inheritance, by the introduction of the system of landed property. And also, the sum of ten pounds per annum, during life, to every person now living, of the age of fifty years, and to all others as they shall arrive at that age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
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| null |
463az4 | Louis XIV and absolute monarchy | [
{
"answer": "The standard Europe 101 argument (and I just gave a lecture on it last week) is:\n\n- by building a state bureaucracy of non-noble, paid staff (instead of offices that would be handed to aristocrats) \n\n- by having loyal administrators, *Intendants*, travel to distant areas and keep an eye on things;\n\n- and by building Versailles... a huge symbol of status and power... and then inviting the most powerful nobles in the realm to come live there. (and distribute \"favors,\" such as the opportunity to dress him in the morning, which translated into access.) \n\nBut a cooler, much more sophisticated argument--too complex for my 101 class, unfortunately-- is in William Beik's book on Absolutism, which basically shows how it's just as much a *bottom up* process... namely, all the aforementioned things (bureaucratic state-building, Versailles) were going on, of course, \n\n... but the key factor became when the great nobles (Anjou, Berry, etc) started to perceive this growing \"state\" of Louis XIV's monarchy as an *opportunity*--as an avenue to advance their own interests. \n\nSo, imagine the Duc de Berry in competition with the Duc d'Anjou; instead of a futile (and often deadlocked) direct struggle of rallying their own supporters, resources, etc., the could now turn to the growing state--and use it to press their own claims to their own advantage. \n\nShort version: once the great nobles saw that they could *use* Louis XIV for their own interests, they increasingly made Louis the de-facto \"center\" of power... and thereafter could be increasingly coopted *by* him... \n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13854",
"title": "History of France",
"section": "Section::::Early Modern France (1453–1789).:Louis XIV (1643–1715).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 163,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 163,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "Louis XIV, known as the \"Sun King\", reigned over France from 1643 until 1715 although his strongest period of personal rule did not begin until 1661 after the death of his Italian chief minister Cardinal Mazarin. Louis believed in the divine right of kings, which asserts that a monarch is above everyone except God, and is therefore not answerable to the will of his people, the aristocracy, or the Church. Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralized state governed from Paris, sought to eliminate remnants of feudalism in France, and subjugated and weakened the aristocracy. By these means he consolidated a system of absolute monarchical rule in France that endured until the French Revolution. However, Louis XIV's long reign saw France involved in many wars that drained its treasury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67366",
"title": "Absolute monarchy",
"section": "Section::::History and examples of absolute monarchies.:Europe.:France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Though some historians doubt it, Louis XIV of France (1638–1715) is often said to have proclaimed \"L'état, c'est moi\" (\"I am the State!\"). Although often criticized for his extravagances, such as the Palace of Versailles, he reigned over France for a long period, and some historians consider him a successful absolute monarch. More recently, revisionist historians have questioned whether Louis' reign should be considered 'absolute', given the reality of the balance of power between the monarch and the nobility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1291656",
"title": "Early modern period",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Discovery and trade.:European states and politics.:French power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 934,
"text": "For much of the reign of Louis XIV, who was known as the \"Sun King\" (French: \"le Roi Soleil\"), France stood as the leading power in Europe, engaging in three major wars—the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg, and the War of the Spanish Succession—and two minor conflicts—the War of Devolution, and the War of the Reunions. Louis believed in the Divine Right of Kings, the theory that the King was crowned by God and accountable to him alone. Consequently, he has long been considered the archetypal absolute monarch. Louis XIV continued the work of his predecessor to create a centralized state, governed from the capital to sweep away the remnants of feudalism that persisted in parts of France. He succeeded in breaking the power of the provincial nobility, much of which had risen in revolt during his minority called the Fronde, and forced many leading nobles to live with him in his lavish Palace of Versailles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1069393",
"title": "Early modern France",
"section": "Section::::Political history.:France in the 17th and 18th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "While often considered a tyrant and a warmonger (especially in England), Louis XIV was not in any way a despot in the 20th-century sense. The traditional customs and institutions of France limited his power and in any case, communications were poor and no national police force existed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18553",
"title": "Louis XIV of France",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Louis XIV (Louis Dieudonné; 5 September 16381 September 1715), known as Louis the Great (') or the Sun King ('), was King of France from 14 May 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest recorded of any monarch of a sovereign country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIV's France was a leader in the growing centralisation of power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2801996",
"title": "Absolute monarchy in France",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Absolute monarchy in France slowly emerged in the 16th century and became firmly established during the 17th century. Absolute monarchy is a variation of the governmental form of monarchy in which the monarch holds supreme authority and where that authority is not restricted by any written laws, legislature, or customs. In France, Louis XIV was the most famous exemplar of absolute monarchy, with his court central to French political and cultural life during his reign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5843419",
"title": "France",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early modern period (15th century–1789).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "The monarchy reached its peak during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV. By turning powerful feudal lords into courtiers at the Palace of Versailles, Louis XIV's personal power became unchallenged. Remembered for his numerous wars, he made France the leading European power. France became the most populous country in Europe and had tremendous influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became the most-used language in diplomacy, science, literature and international affairs, and remained so until the 20th century. France obtained many overseas possessions in the Americas, Africa and Asia. Louis XIV also revoked the Edict of Nantes, forcing thousands of Huguenots into exile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1stizb | Can stars spit out elements we've yet to discover? | [
{
"answer": "Currently, for transuranium elements the heavier atomic weight is, the less is half-life. So, by simple extrapolation, heavier nuclei shouldn't really exist. Now, it has been theorized that there is an [\"island of stability\"](_URL_0_), where extremely heavy nuclei suddenly become stable. We are currently unable to test this hypothesis with our accelerators, so it's highly controversial. Also, it's worth noting that unless the half-life of an element is millions of years, it's challenging to find it in nature, since it has already mostly decayed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9588",
"title": "Extraterrestrial life",
"section": "Section::::Scientific search.:Indirect search.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "The presence of heavy elements in a star's light-spectrum is another potential biosignature; such elements would (in theory) be found if the star was being used as an incinerator/repository for nuclear waste products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24084197",
"title": "Timeline of quantum mechanics",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:1950–1959.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1957 – William Alfred Fowler, Margaret Burbidge, Geoffrey Burbidge, and Fred Hoyle, in their 1957 paper \"Synthesis of the Elements in Stars\", show that the abundances of essentially all but the lightest chemical elements can be explained by the process of nucleosynthesis in stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "726552",
"title": "Geoffrey Burbidge",
"section": "Section::::Career and research.:BFH.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "In collaboration with American physicist William Fowler and British astronomer Fred Hoyle, he and his wife were co-authors of \"Synthesis of the Elements in Stars\", a fundamental paper on stellar nucleosynthesis published in 1957. It is commonly referred to as the BFH paper after the initials of the surnames of the four authors. This paper describes the process of stars burning lighter elements into successively heavier atoms which then are expelled to form other structures in the universe, including other stars and planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "583463",
"title": "James Ferguson (American astronomer)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "In 1850, he \"lost\" a star that he had been observing, which Lt. Matthew Maury, the superintendent of the Observatory, claimed was evidence for a 9th planet (Pluto had not yet been discovered). In 1878, however, CHF Peters, director of the Hamilton College Observatory in New York, showed that the star had not in fact vanished, and that the previous results had been due to human error.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6231333",
"title": "Brian Schmidt",
"section": "Section::::Research and career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Schmidt is currently leading the SkyMapper telescope Project and the associated Southern Sky Survey, which will encompass billions of individual objects, enabling the team to pick out the most unusual objects. In 2014 they announced the discovery of the first star which did not contain any iron, indicating that it is a very primitive star, probably formed during the first rush of star formation following the Big Bang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "513975",
"title": "Margaret Burbidge",
"section": "Section::::Scientific achievements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "In 1957, the BFH group showed the famous result that all of the elements except the very lightest, are produced by nuclear processes inside stars. For this they received the Warner Prize in 1959. In her later research she was one of the first to measure the masses, compositions, and rotation curves of galaxies and was one of the pioneers in the spectroscopic study of quasars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57014144",
"title": "MACS J1149 Lensed Star 1",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The light observed from the star was emitted when the universe was about 30% of its current age of 13.8 billion years. Kelly suggested that similar microlensing discoveries could help them identify the earliest stars in the universe. The star no longer exists as a blue supergiant, given the known lifetime of such stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3d228a | how does photos taken on iphone geotag without service? | [
{
"answer": "It simply uses the phone's built in GPS (which only requires a view of the sky) and puts the phone's current location into the metadata of the picture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Geotagging works based on GPS, which is a system of satellites independent from cellphone service. \n\nAs long as your phone can connect to the GPS satellites, it can tag the pictures with your current GPS coordinates; no cell service necessary.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "GPS does not rely on mobile service, which requires you to be within range of a cell tower to work.\n\nThe GPS signal is transmitted by satellite, and there are enough GPS satellites to cover the entire planet, so you should always have a GPS signal unless it's being jammed or otherwise interfered with. \n\nThe satellites are constantly broadcasting a very accurate time signal. The GPS reciever picks up four of those signals, and uses them to triangulate the phones position. The positions of the satellites are known, the time signal provides a measure of the distance from the satellite. Since the clock on your phone isn't nearly accurate for GPS to work, four satellites are required in order to triangulate your position in both space and time. For this reason, GPS recievers are sometimes used solely to provide an accurate time signal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The phone's GPS feature doesn't require the cellular network in order to work. In other words, the GPS is separate from the stuff that lets you make phone calls and check the Internet. Your phone always knows where you are, even if you are in BFE and nowhere near any cell service. (It just can't tell anyone else where you are, until you return to an area with service.)\n\nThis is why map apps on your phone will continue to show your location even if you drive out of an area where you have cell service. The map part (the roads and geographical features, etc.) has to be downloaded, but your phone will cache a certain amount of it in advance. So if you drive into an area with no cellular data, the map will continue to work for a while, and then it will show you as a moving point on a map on a blank background.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1436748",
"title": "Geotagged photograph",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Many smartphones automatically geotag their photos by default. Photographers who prefer not to reveal their location can turn this feature off. Additionally smartphones can use their GPS to geotag photos taken with an external camera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54631441",
"title": "OpenStreetCam",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Contributors gather imagery with their smartphones using an Android or iOS app. It is also possible to upload images captured with other cameras. The OpenStreetCam app supports using an OBD-II dongle plugged into the vehicle; in concert with the mobile device's GPS, OSC can derive more accurate image locations. The app also recognizes and processes street signs in real time while capturing imagery. Once the imagery is recorded, it is uploaded, processed, and published to the website.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1436748",
"title": "Geotagged photograph",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Geotagged photos may be visually stamped with their GPS location information using software tools. A stamped photo affords universal and cross-platform viewing of the photo's location, and offers the security of retaining that location information in the event of metadata corruption, or if file metadata is stripped from a photo, e.g. when uploading to various online photo sharing communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1478728",
"title": "Image sharing",
"section": "Section::::Technologies.:Geotagging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "Geotagging a photo is the process in which a photo is marked with the geographical identification of the place it was taken. Most technology with photo taking capabilities are equipped with GPS system sensors that routinely geotag photos and videos. Crowdsourced data available from photo-sharing services have the potentiality of tracking places. Geotagging can reveal the footprints and behaviors of travelers by utilizing spatial proximity of geo-tagged photos that are shared online, making it possible to extract travel information relating to a particular location. Instagram, Flickr, and Panoramio are a few services that provide the option of geotagging images. Flickr has over 40 million geotagged photos uploaded by 400 thousand users, and still growing at a rapid pace. Some sites including Panoramio and Wikimedia Commons show their geocoded photographs on a map, helping the user find pictures of the same or nearby objects from different directions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16129302",
"title": "MapWith.Us",
"section": "Section::::Auto-Geotagging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "MapWith.Us implemented automatic geotagging (auto-geotagging) via cell phones in late 2007. The free mobile application allows users at remote locations to create real-time Web-based maps by uploading and geotagging photos with cell phones. The application works by utilizing several different capabilities within a modern cell phone. When an image is captured by the cell phone camera, the built-in GPS tags the image with the present location. The images are afterwards uploaded via the cell phone's Internet data connection to the MapWith.Us website, where they are compiled into photo album \"map articles\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2174122",
"title": "Cyber-shot",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Geotagging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Cyber-Shot models such as the DSC-HX20V, DSC-HX90V and the DSC-HX200V have a built-in GPS so the user can have their photos automatically geotagged as they are being taken. The feature can also serve as a compass as it shows the user's position on the camera screen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1436748",
"title": "Geotagged photograph",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "A geotagged photograph is a photograph which is associated with a geographical location by geotagging. Usually this is done by assigning at least a latitude and longitude to the image, and optionally altitude, compass bearing and other fields may also be included.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
59lezl | why is a flat tax regressive? | [
{
"answer": "For things such as sales taxes, there are minimum requirements that all people in developed countries must buy (food, electricity, etc.). As such, a greater proportion of the poor's income in spent (on things) than the wealthy's (for whom much more money is saved) causing a greater percentage of the poor's income going to sales taxes.\n\nFor income tax, the link is less direct, but usually people argue that if a flat income tax were implemented, it would have to be relatively high (lower for the wealthy, but much higher for the poor) in order to keep revenues constant for the government. As a result, the poor are charged more than the status quo. Moreover, progressives often point out that a small decrease in taxation rate for the wealthy often must be offset by a major increase in the tax rate for the poor (which many see as extreme and unjust).",
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},
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"answer": "Let's look at two people:\n\n* A makes $50,000 and spends $25,000.\n\n* B makes $100,000 and spends $40,000.\n\nIf you have a flat consumption tax of 50%, A pays $12,500 and B pays $20,000. The effective tax rate (the amount paid in tax relative to income) for A is 25% and B is 20%. Since A pays more as percentage of his income despite making less, it is a regressive tax.\n\nIt works this way because as people make more money, they spend less of it as a percentage of their income. The more income you have, the less you have to spend to stay alive and the more you can save.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A poor person has to spend _all_ their money. A middle class person only has to spend _most_ of their money. A rich person barely spends any money at all.\n\nSo it's regressive because the more money you get and have, the more dollars sit around untaxed untill \"later\".\n\nAnd indeed, regions where luxuary goods are available get more income because more money is spent there.\n\nSo poor people in poor regions are stuck paying more taxes and still living in crappy conditions, while rich people will spend money in good places, giving those places more money per shopper/spender even as the fraction of money spent doesn't matter.\n\nAnd if you are rich enough you can spend your money \"elsewhere\", shipping your money away from everybody but saving on the taxes.\n\nAnd if you are rich enough you can afford to do the things that are \"not income\" so you can pass your money around without it counting for tax purposes.\n\nAsk yourself what part of each hour's gain will be paid as tax. A guy spending all his earnings every week is paying the \"flat tax rate\", but the guy who only has to spend half his money every week is paying _half_ of the \"flat rate\" and may well move away before he touches the other half. So he earned it here, but the tax went _there_ five years later.\n\n\"Regressive\" is econmists talk for \"unfair\". This particular unfairness is that substance level people have zero choice, and then the more money you make the more choices you have, until you get to people making so much that their lack-of-choice fraction approaches zero.\n\nSo you will pay the \"flat\" rate of 20% of your income, but William Gates will pay only fractions of a single percent of his because it's _impossible_ for someone to spend $100-billion dollars.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Regressive taxes are hard to explain in ELI5 manner. The easiest explanation is that a flat tax usually takes up a bigger percentage of poor people's income, but a lower percentage of richer people's income. But that's not really a complete explanation and it isn't always true. A flat tax usually refers to sales tax or income tax, but it could also be property tax. With income tax, a flat tax is a proportional tax (neither progressive or regressive). If the flat tax is 30% and I make $10,000 in one year, I pay $3,000 in taxes. If I make $20,000 in a year I pay $6,000. The ratio is always the same. The problem with this system is that up to a certain income level, basically all income is going to basic necessities, like housing, food, clothing, medical care, etc... As income rises, your money then can buy non necessities and luxuries, and you may even save some of it for later. Is it fair to tax someone $3,000 of money that would otherwise be spent on necessities the same rate as someone who is spending their extra money on luxuries or just not spending it at all? Most people think it is not. With sales tax, flat taxes tend to be regressive, but they do not have to be. This tax is based on what percent of your income you spend. Low income people tend to spend most or all of their income, while higher income people may be able to save. That is not always the case though. Someone who makes $10,000 might only spend $5,000 of it. At 30% sales tax, they would pay $1500 in tax. That is an effective tax rate of 15% Someone who makes $100,000 might spend all of their money and have to pay $30,000 in taxes. That is a 30% effective tax rate. Obviously it is easier to save money if you make more money, so usually this ratio is reversed. Also, taxing necessities like groceries the same as luxury goods, like jewelry, does not seem fair to most people. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46334",
"title": "Flat tax",
"section": "Section::::Major categories.:Marginal flat tax.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Where deductions are allowed, a 'flat tax' is a progressive tax with the special characteristic that, above the maximum deduction, the marginal rate on all further income is constant. Such a tax is said to be marginally flat above that point. The difference between a true flat tax and a marginally flat tax can be reconciled by recognizing that the latter simply excludes certain types of income from being defined as taxable income; hence, both kinds of tax are flat on taxable income.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "294508",
"title": "Regressive tax",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "A regressive tax is a tax imposed in such a manner that the average tax rate (tax paid ÷ personal income) decreases as the amount subject to taxation increases. \"Regressive\" describes a distribution effect on income or expenditure, referring to the way the rate progresses from high to low, so that the average tax rate exceeds the marginal tax rate. In terms of individual income and wealth, a regressive tax imposes a greater burden (relative to resources) on the poor than on the rich: there is an inverse relationship between the tax rate and the taxpayer's ability to pay, as measured by assets, consumption, or income. These taxes tend to reduce the tax burden of the people with a higher ability to pay, as they shift the relative burden increasingly to those with a lower ability to pay.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46334",
"title": "Flat tax",
"section": "Section::::Tax effects.:Overall structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1011,
"text": "Taxes other than the income tax (for example, taxes on sales and payrolls) tend to be regressive. Hence, making the income tax flat could result in a regressive overall tax structure. Under such a structure, those with lower incomes tend to pay a \"higher\" proportion of their income in total taxes than the affluent do. The fraction of household income that is a return to capital (dividends, interest, royalties, profits of unincorporated businesses) is positively correlated with total household income. Hence a flat tax limited to wages would seem to leave the wealthy better off. Modifying the tax base can change the effects. A flat tax could be targeted at income (rather than wages), which could place the tax burden equally on all earners, including those who earn income primarily from returns on investment. Tax systems could utilize a flat sales tax to target all consumption, which can be modified with rebates or exemptions to remove regressive effects (such as the proposed Fair Tax in the U.S.).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19288572",
"title": "Negative income tax",
"section": "Section::::Specific models.:Flat tax with negative income tax.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Flat tax implementations \"without\" the provision of a negative income tax actually need an \"additional\" effort in order to \"avoid\" negative taxation. For such a tax, the exemption only can be paid after knowing the earned income. Flat tax implementations \"with\" negative income tax allow the payment or crediting of the income tax at any interval, independent of the amount of the actual income.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46334",
"title": "Flat tax",
"section": "Section::::Major categories.:Flat tax with limited deductions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Modified flat taxes have been proposed which would allow deductions for a very few items, while still eliminating the vast majority of existing deductions. Charitable deductions and home mortgage interest are the most discussed examples of deductions that would be retained, as these deductions are popular with voters and are often used. Another common theme is a single, large, fixed deduction. This large fixed deduction would compensate for the elimination of various existing deductions and would simplify taxes, having the side-effect that many (mostly low income) households will not have to file tax returns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46334",
"title": "Flat tax",
"section": "Section::::Tax effects.:Diminishing marginal utility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Flat tax benefits higher income brackets progressively due to decline in marginal value. For example, if a flat tax system has a large per-citizen deductible (such as the \"Armey\" scheme below), then it is a progressive tax. As a result, the term Flat Tax is actually a shorthand for the more proper marginally flat tax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8083250",
"title": "Tax deferral",
"section": "Section::::Income tax deferral.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "In jurisdictions where tax rates are progressive - meaning that income taxes as a percentage of income are higher for higher incomes or tax brackets, resulting in a higher marginal tax rate - this often results in lower taxes paid, regardless of the time value of money.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
ydyxj | Regarding the media treatment of President Kennedy's affairs in the 60's. Is this really accurate? | [
{
"answer": "A lot of it was that the press really, really liked Kennedy. You don't smear people you like. No president since has been anywhere near as popular with the press, not even Obama, though he has come closest. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the old days, the media could not be scooped by some blogger or kid with an iphone. The rules were different.\n\nThe media hid Roosevelt's disability (and affairs) it was not just Kennedy, it was a different mind set. Reporters pretty much followed the administration's story lines.\n\nI don't think this changed until Watergate & Pentagon Papers in the 70's",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "694597",
"title": "Thích Quảng Đức",
"section": "Section::::Self-immolation.:Political and media impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "President John F. Kennedy, whose government was the main sponsor of Diệm's regime, learned of Đức's death when handed the morning newspapers while he was talking to his brother, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, on the phone. Kennedy reportedly interrupted their conversation about segregation in Alabama by exclaiming \"Jesus Christ!\" He later remarked that \"no news picture in history has generated so much emotion around the world as that one.\" U.S. Senator Frank Church (D-ID), a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, claimed that \"such grisly scenes have not been witnessed since the Christian martyrs marched hand in hand into the Roman arenas.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18598573",
"title": "Dr. Finlay's Casebook",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Following the assassination of President Kennedy on 22 November 1963, the BBC screened \"Dr Finlay's Casebook\" as part of its regular programming. There were reportedly over 2,000 phone calls and 500 letters and telegrams complaining about the decision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5359480",
"title": "Ron Cochran",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Cochran was the main anchor of ABC's break in coverage of the Assassination of President Kennedy on November 22, 1963. Cochran announced the death of President Kennedy as \"confirmed\" and ABC News ran a graphic showing Kennedy's picture and the dates 1917-1963 after a wire service report came to him that \"government sources in Washington\" had stated the President was dead, something both CBS' Walter Cronkite and NBC's Bill Ryan chose not to do. This wire report came to Cochran several minutes before assistant press secretary Malcolm Kilduff officially announced the President's death. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2512959",
"title": "Hilary Minster",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Minster provided the narration for the controversial Central television documentary \"The Men Who Killed Kennedy\", which outlined various theories concerning the assassination of the American president John F. Kennedy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31604321",
"title": "Alfred R. Kelman",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "Immediately following the announcement of the assassination of President Kennedy, Kelman spearheaded the national remote coverage of all events emanating from the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts.\n",
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"title": "Jackie (2016 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"text": "A week following the assassination of John F. Kennedy, a journalist visits Jacqueline Kennedy for an interview at her home in Hyannis Port regarding her husband's legacy. After Jackie reflects upon her 1961 televised tour of The White House, the journalist turns to inquiries about John F. Kennedy’s assassination and its aftermath for Jackie and her family. She talks about events shortly prior to the assassination, before describing her shock and horror in reaction. Members of the White House close to the newly sworn-in President Lyndon Johnson and his wife Lady Bird are seen comforting Jackie in the aftermath onboard Air Force One. Robert F. Kennedy soon appears and shares her grief, escorting her back to Washington. Jackie expresses her deep concern for the well-being of her children in adjusting to the loss of their father. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "58505348",
"title": "Bobby Kennedy for President",
"section": "",
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"text": "The series, run by director and executive producer Dawn Porter, looks at Kennedy's political lore, including his 1968 presidential campaign, which ended with his assassination on June 5, 1968. The show uses archival footage during Kennedy's time as Attorney General and Senator, as well as conversations he had with his brothers, President John F. Kennedy and Senator Ted Kennedy.\n",
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| null |
5mpi1g | To what extent was the spread of Islam bloodless? | [
{
"answer": "You're absolutely right that the expansion of territory under the control of Muslims happened very quickly and through military conquest! However, scholars differentiate between *Arabization* and *Islamicization* (or Islamization) of conquered territories. It generally happens that conquest preceded the gradual acculturation of Arab culture which preceded the bulk of local conversions to Islam.\n\nHere are three earlier answers of mine that address the complexity of Arabization, Islamicization, the status of \"peoples of the Book\", and the possibilities of forced conversion:\n\n* [What does it mean that the Middle East was 'Arabized' over the course of history?](_URL_0_)\n* [How much of a financial burden was the jizya on non-Muslims?] (_URL_1_)\n* [Can we blame the West for radical Islam/its ideology? Has Islam always been violent?] (_URL_2_)\n\nHopefully this will get you started!",
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"answer": "(1/2) Great question! The expansion of Islam came in several different stages, so I'm going to address those each in turn. The short answer is that when Islam came to newly conquered lands, they often left the population to their original beliefs, not requiring conversion (notably for the People of the Book - Christians, Jews, at times Zoroastrians, etc). However, the population normally found it within their interests to convert on their own, leading to a gradual \"Islamization\" of the Middle East.\n\n**From Revelation to Medina**\n\nThe phrasing of your question implies that you're asking about the spread of Islam out of the Arabian Peninsula, but we may as well start at the beginning to gain a comprehensive picture. \n\nIn 610AD, when Muhammad was 40, the Revelation of the Qurʾan began. This revelation would continue until his death in 632 with two distinct phases: the Meccan Phase and the Medinan. The Meccan verses were revealed between 610 and 622, when Muhammad was just beginning to preach in his home city of Mecca. At this time, Muhammad was in a socially weak position. Despite belonging to the Quraysh, the ruling tribe of the city, Muhammad’s ideals threatened the livelihood of the city. Mecca, and the Kaʿba in particular, was a pilgrimage hotspot for the Arabian polytheists, yielding quite substantial tribute as well as making Mecca a trading-hub in Arabia. At this time, Muhammad was largely protected by his Uncle, Abu Taleb, and first wife, a rich merchant named Khadija. \n\nConversion to Islam at this point in time was entirely voluntary. This is reflected in the parts of the Qurʾan revealed when Muhammad was in Mecca, which emphasize the Will of God, moral values, and takes a generally non-combative tone. The surahs are typically shorter, then to not contain rules or calls to struggle (*jihad*), and are rather overarching calls to faith.\n\nMuhammad was increasingly persecuted by the inhabitants of Mecca and began to look outward for another city in which to live and preach. In 622 AD, after several failed attempts (such as being laughed out of the oasis town of Taʾif) and having to flee an assassination attempt at his home in Mecca, Muhammad was invited to settle in a town called Yathrib, which would later be known as Medina.\n\nThe inhabitants of Medina at this time were a mix of polytheists, Jews, and some Muslims (during the annual pilgrimage to Mecca, Muhammad converted a group from the Banu Khazraj in Yathrib, and they continued to spread Islam within their own town). It was a group of these Muslims who invited Muhammad to their town to act as a judge and arbitrator between the tribes. The tribes of Yathrib had been warring on an off for over a century, with a large battle having taken place just 2 years before in 620 AD.\n\nShortly after arriving in Medina, Muhammad drafted what is known as the Constitution of Medina. This treaty united the differing tribes of Medina into a single community, an ʾUmmah. It gave freedom of religion to the residents (including the 8 Jewish tribes), established rules for peace such as blood money payments, and established Muhammad as an arbitrator for tribal disputes. For the first time, Muhammad was in a position of relative power and importance, and an Islamic state began to form.\n\nSo in conclusion, this period could be seen as almost entirely bloodless. Indeed, Muhammad acted as an important figure in preventing tribal disputes and establishing a relatively stable, multi-religious society in Medina (but which was not to last).\n\n**From Medina to the Arabian Peninsula**\n\nOnce in Medina, the tone of Islam began to change. Revealed surahs tended to be longer and entailed more obligations and punishments than mere calls to faith. This is also when other faiths began to be overtly mentioned, in particularly the People of the Book. However, Muhammad was feeling increasingly threatened by the Jewish tribes and desired to assert himself and Islam as an independent religion. Wael Hallaq posits that this was because the Jews were regarded as the guardians of monotheism. In any case, stricter rules were layed down, the direction of prayer changed for Jerusalem to Mecca, and slowly tensions grew between the Jews and the Muslims.\n\nAround 624 Muhammad began to lead armed excursions against the Meccans. These were not wars of conversion, but rather raids against caravans. The Muslims who followed Muhammad to Medina had to leave behind many of their possessions and so the overall community was rather poor. The Battle of Badr ended up being a turning point for Islam. Despite being outnumbered 3 to 1, the Muslims handily won the battle against the Meccans, giving impetus to Muhammad’s claims that he was a prophet of God. Shortly after this battle, Muhammad expelled one of the Jewish tribes of Medina, the Banu Qaynuqa, allegedly on charges of dealing with the Meccans. Thus the first “purge” happened. It was however still rather bloodless. The battles against the Meccans were par for Arabia and the Banu Qaynuqa were not killed off. Another Jewish tribe, the Banu Nadir, was expelled later that year, after the Muslim defeat at the Battle of Uhud. \n\n627 was the next turning point for Islam, with the Battle of the trench. The Meccans, along with the Banu Nadir, laid siege to Medina. However, they too failed. The failure of the coalition led to the slaughter of the last great Jewish tribe of Medina, the Banu Qarayza. In the first truly bloody act of Islam (although again, influenced also by economics and politics), the men of the Banu Qurayza who did not convert were beheaded and the women and children sold into slavery. This act is often brought up as “proof” that Islam has been inherently violent since its conception, but there was much more at play than religion. The Banu Qurayza were economically powerful within the city, and Muhammad had a political excuse to get rid of them following the Battle of the Trench.\n\nIn 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyya was made between the Muslims of Medina and the polytheists of Mecca. This treaty lasted for 2 years until a tribe allied with the Meccans attacked a tribe allied with the Medina. Following the broken truce, Muhammad conquered Mecca in 630. He did destroy the shrines at the Kaʿba, however all but 10 men and women were spared and many converted. Those who were killed did so because they had openly mocked Muhammad in the past. Muhammad proceeded to rule from Mecca until his death in 632, spreading his power throughout the Arabian Peninsula.\n\nThis is the second stage of Islamic spread. It was more bloody than the first, involving several wars and the massacre of the Banu Qurazya. However, it wasn’t *excessively* bloody. \n\n**To the Levant and Beyond**\n\nFollowing Muhammad’s death in 632, he was succeeded as Caliph by Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr’s rule is characterized by the *Wars of Ridda*, or Wars of Apostasy. These wars were fought against Arabian tribes who claimed that their allegiance to Islam and to Mecca was given to Muhammad alone, and thus after his death they should be free of Islam and the tribute they had to pay. Abu Bakr, in launching these wars, set the precedent that de-version away from Islam was not to be tolerated. Thus the Islamic state began to act cohesively to not only spread Islam but ensure that it remained the dominant faith within its borders.\n\nAfter these wars, Islam began to spread Northward. I believe this is what primarily interests you (I got a bit carried away writing the background. Sorry about that).\n\nThe conquering Arabs initially intended for Islam to be the religion of the military conquers, but for the conquered to retain their original religions. For this reason, people were not forced to convert even when militarily conquered. Instead, they had to pay that *jizya*, or poll tax and lived as *dhimmīs*, or a protected class. I’m going to quote below something I wrote up on the jizya before.\n\n > One key aspect about the early expansion of Islam is that it did not attempt to force its way of life upon other people. Under the Caliph 'Umar, it was envisioned that Islam would be for the Arabs, who would exist as a sort of military caste above the conquered people. This meant that the conquered populations were disturbed as little as possible, and conversions were only on a voluntary basis. This precedent was set with Muhammed allowing the Jews and Christians of Arabia to keep their religion if they paid the Jizya (poll tax). This payment would make a member of the religions of the book - Jews, Christians, and later Zoroastrians - members of the protected class, or dhimmi. These people would be reserved from having to pay the aforementioned Zakat tax and from military service within the empire. This isn't to say that taxes wouldn't get absurdly high though, as Ira Lapidus notes that taxes on peasants could reach upwards of 50% of the value of the goods. It does, however, mean that the Muslim invaders were not hated. In fact, some Christian tribes had allied themselves with the Muslims against the Sassanians or Byzantines. \n\n > Oddly enough, the Religions of the Book flourished in the early days of conquest with Islams coming. Many previously repressed sects were able to abound, and apocalyptic messages were numerous. This changed though as time went on. 'Umar II (r.717-720) forbade Christians to hold powerful government positions. Other successive rulers forbade minority religions to ride horses, bear weapons, or show outward religious symbols in public. Repression came in waves, as one Caliph would crack down (Such as Yazid II destroying churches and animal sculptures) and then others relent. Keep in mind through all of this that from the 7th to the 11th century, upwards of half the world's Christians lived under Islamic rule, yet they were not forced to exile or forced to convert by force (at least in large-scale).\n\n**Hitting the character limit. Finished up in a second comment**\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "149840",
"title": "Religious music",
"section": "Section::::Islamic music.:Spread of Islamic prayer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Besides the spread of Islam through Arabia by prophets it spread through trade routes like the Silk Road and through conflicts of war. Through the Silk road traders and members of the early Muslim faith were able to go to countries such as China and create mosques around 627 C. E. As men from the Middle East came to China they would get married to these Asian women, which led to a spreading of the faith and traditions of Islam in multiplicities. The Crusades in the 9th and 10th centuries encouraged the spread of Islam through the invasions of Latin Christian soldiers and Muslim soldiers into each other's lands. The whole conflict began on the premises of a Holy Land and which group of people owned these lands that led to these foes invading their respective lands. As the religion itself spread so did its implications of ritual, such as prayer.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "30864041",
"title": "Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:During Muhammad's era 610–632.:Battles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
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"text": "In 614, the Muslims were on their way to the hills of Mecca to offer prayer with Muhammad, when a group of polytheists observed them. They began to abuse and fight them. Sa`ad beat a polytheist and shed his blood, reportedly becoming the first Muslim to shed blood in the name of Islam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "10186",
"title": "Eastern Orthodox Church",
"section": "Section::::Interfaith relations.:Relations with Islam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 271,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 271,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Historically, the Orthodox Church and the non-Chalcedonians were among the first peoples to have contact with Islam, which conquered Roman/Byzantine Syria-Palestine and Egypt in the 7th century, and fought many battles against Islamic conquests. The Qur'an itself records its concurrent observations regarding the Roman world in Surah al-Rum. The main contact with Islam however, came after the conquest of the Seljuk Turks of Roman/Byzantine Anatolia in the 13th century.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "9687304",
"title": "Spread of Islam in Indonesia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The spread of Islam was initially driven by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago. Traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were usually the first to convert to Islam. Dominant kingdoms included Mataram in Central Java, and the sultanates of Ternate and Tidore in the Maluku Islands to the east. By the end of the 13th century, Islam had been established in North Sumatra; by the 14th in northeast Malaya, Brunei, the southern Philippines and among some courtiers of East Java; and the 15th in Malacca and other areas of the Malay Peninsula. Although it is known that the spread of Islam began in the west of the archipelago, the fragmentary evidence does not suggest a rolling wave of conversion through adjacent areas; rather, it suggests the process was complicated and slow.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "4533719",
"title": "Palestinian Jews",
"section": "Section::::Historical overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Prior to dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire, the population of the area comprising modern Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza Strip was not exclusively Muslim. Under the Empire's rule in the mid-16th century, there were no more than 10,000 Jews in Palestine, making up around 5% of the population. By the mid-19th century, Turkish sources recorded that 80% of the population of 600,000 was identified as Muslim, 10% as Christian Arab and 5–7% as Jewish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "7809444",
"title": "Growth of religion",
"section": "Section::::Growth of religious groups.:Islam.:Historical growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "There exist different views among scholars about the spread of Islam. Islam began in Arabia and from 633 AD until the late 10th century it was spread through conquests, far-reaching trade and missionary activity.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "9687304",
"title": "Spread of Islam in Indonesia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "Initially, the spread of Islam was slow and gradual. Though historical documents are incomplete, the limited evidence suggests that the spread of Islam accelerated in the 15th century, as the military power of Melaka Sultanate in Malay Peninsular today Malaysia and other Islamic Sultanates dominated the region aided by episodes of Muslim coup such as in 1446, wars and superior control of maritime trading and ultimate markets. During 1511, Tome Pires found animists and Muslims in the north coast of Java. Some rulers were Islamized Muslims, others followed the old Hindu and Buddhist traditions. By the reign of Sultan Agung of Mataram, most of the older Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Indonesia, had at least nominally converted to Islam. The last one to do so was Makassar in 1605. After the fall of Majapahit empire, Bali became the refuge for the Hindu upper class, Brahmins and their followers that fled from Java, thus transferring the Hindu culture of Java to Bali. Hinduism and Buddhism remained extant in some areas of East Java where it syncretized with animism. Their traditions also continued in East and Central Java where they earlier held a sway. Animism was also practiced in remote areas of other islands of Indonesia.\n",
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| null |
5erpls | can you get in trouble for streaming movies online for free? | [
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"answer": "Any authority is much, much more likely to go after the host of the stream rather than an individual user who watches it. Legal? No, it's not. Going to get you into trouble? Unlikely. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "16888056",
"title": "Sita Sings the Blues",
"section": "Section::::Distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
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"text": "The film can also be rented via DVD on Netflix as of March 17, 2010. When asked by a media provider on behalf of Netflix in April 2010 if she would also offer the film via the company's on-demand streaming service in exchange for a limited amount of money, Paley requested that the film be streamed either DRM-free or with an addendum telling viewers where the film was available for download. When the internet television service refused to meet these conditions due to a \"No Bumpers\" policy, Paley refused to accept their offer, citing her desire to uphold her principled opposition to DRM.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "50755582",
"title": "Lost sales",
"section": "Section::::Critique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "A 2009 court case, \"United States v. Dove,\" ruled that the content industry equation of lost sales with illegal downloads is not valid, with the judge noting \"Those who download movies and music for free would not necessarily purchase those movies and music at the full purchase price... although it is true that someone who copies a digital version of a sound recording has little incentive to purchase the recording through legitimate means, it does not necessarily follow that the downloader would have made a legitimate purchase if the recording had not been available for free.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "11774474",
"title": "Meo (telecommunication service)",
"section": "Section::::Service.:MEO VideoClube.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "It is possible to watch movies without an internet connection, using Download & Play, available on a PC through MEO Go. In 2014, the services was refreshed with an improved image, faster navigation and new features with additional content and information, and a more accessible user experience. MEO VideoClube offers multiple payment options including a monthly invoice and the prepaid MEO VideoClube card.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "34676620",
"title": "Sony Entertainment Network",
"section": "Section::::Services.:Video Unlimited.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "Video Unlimited allowed users to purchase or rent videos. Purchases and rentals could be made online through the Sony Entertainment Network store, through the PlayStation Store on PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, and PlayStation Vita, through the Video Unlimited store on many Sony Blu-ray disc players and Bravia TVs or via an Xperia smartphone and tablet app. The services provided customers with an easy and accessible way to watch and discover new movies and TV. Through the wide range of options that Video Unlimited has, a user could choose from new movies, classic movies or to keep up with a TV series. The use of logging in enabled the customer to easily choose and watch videos from anywhere, on devices that are compatible with Video Unlimited. Video Unlimited was later replaced by PlayStation Video.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "37362434",
"title": "Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc. v. Redd Horne, Inc.",
"section": "Section::::Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
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"end_character": 873,
"text": "At present, this case has received considerable attention within the motion picture industry and DVD streaming websites. It has been cited as justification to close certain movie streaming websites. During October 2011, Zediva took down their DVD streaming service and agreed to pay $1.8 million to the Motion Picture Association. Zediva argued that it serves a similar function as rental stores like Blockbuster who don't need a licensing agreement to rent movies. Zediva only rented DVD's to one customer at a time and did not make DVD copies. The Motion Picture Association contended that this type of streaming was illegal and in violation of copyright law. In August 2011, the U.S. District court Judge John Walter ordered a preliminary injunction against Zediva, shutting down their service. The Columbia Pictures v. Redd Horne ruling played a key role in this case.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "4036644",
"title": "Brick and mortar",
"section": "Section::::Decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
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"end_character": 656,
"text": "Netflix, an online movie streaming website founded in 1997, is an example of how an online business has affected a B&M businesses such as video rental stores. After Netflix and similar companies became popular, traditional DVD rental stores such as Blockbuster LLC went out of business. Customers preferred to be able to instantly watch movies and TV shows using \"streaming\", without having to go to a physical rental store to rent a DVD, and then return to the store to give the DVD back. \"The rapid rise of online film streaming offered by the likes of Lovefilm and Netflix made Blockbuster's video and DVD [rental] business model practically obsolete.'\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "292805",
"title": "Blockbuster LLC",
"section": "Section::::History.:1998-2007: John Antioco era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1150,
"text": "A billion-dollar campaign called Total Access was introduced in 2007 as a strategy against Netflix. Through Blockbuster Online customers could rent a DVD online and receive a new movie for free when they returned it to a Blockbuster store. While it was a major success every free movie cost the company two dollars, but the hope was that it would attract enough new subscribers to cover the loss. Netflix felt threatened, and Hastings approached Antioco with a suggestion to buy Blockbuster's online business. In return, a new system would be introduced where customers could return their movies to a Blockbuster store. Before the deal could be realized, board member Carl Icahn intervened, refusing to let the company lose more money through Total Access. Antioco was pushed out in July and replaced with James Keyes, who rejected Hasting's proposal, raised the price of online DVD rentals and put an end to the free movie deal. As a consequence, Blockbuster Online's previously massive growth quickly stopped. Antioco's departure reportedly also involved continued controversy over his compensation. He left with a $24.7 million severance package.\n",
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2etgn5 | How does a radio not pick up old signals? | [
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"answer": "Old radio signals from space? Radio telescopes *do* pick up radio waves from long ago because it takes so long for the wave to travel through space.\n\nOld radio signals from Earth? They are absorbed and destroyed soon after they are created. For instance, a radio broadcast tower sends out waves. These waves travel through the air without being effected much. But soon after they reach the ground, people, antennas, and such, they are quickly absorbed. A little bit of the radio waves may be reflected around the local terrain for a fraction of a second, but with each reflection, the intensity of the wave greatly drops. It is possible to tell the difference between the primary wave and a significantly-delayed reflection of the primary wave from a microsecond ago because the primary wave is much stronger. The reflected signals act essentially as noise, degrading the primary signal. With the right set-up, the reflected signals can interfere quite a bit with the primary signal. But there are no radio broadcasts from 50 years ago still bouncing around along Earth's surface, if that's what you had in mind.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "296058",
"title": "Coherer",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
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"text": "Unlike modern AM radio stations that transmit a continuous radio frequency, whose amplitude (power) is modulated by an audio signal, the first radio transmitters transmitted information by wireless telegraphy (radiotelegraphy), the transmitter was turned on and off (on-off keying) to produce different length pulses of unmodulated carrier wave signal, \"dots\" and \"dashes\", that spelled out text messages in Morse code. As a result, early radio receiving apparatus merely had to detect the presence or absence of the radio signal, not convert it to audio. The device that did this was called a detector. The coherer was the most successful of many detector devices that were tried in the early days of radio.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "804074",
"title": "Two-way radio",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Conventional versus trunked.:Conventional.:Talk-back on scan.\n",
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"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Some conventional radios use, or have an option for, a talk-back-on-scan function. If the user transmits when the radio is in a scan mode, it may transmit on the last channel received instead of the selected channel. This may allow users of multi-channel radios to reply to the last message without looking at the radio to see which channel it was on. Without this feature, the user would have to use the channel selector to switch to the channel where the last message occurred. (This option can cause confusion and users must be trained to understand this feature.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "4294169",
"title": "Magnetic detector",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "The primitive spark gap radio transmitters used during the first three decades of radio (1886-1916) could not transmit audio (sound) and instead transmitted information by wireless telegraphy; the operator switched the transmitter on and off with a telegraph key, creating pulses of radio waves to spell out text messages in Morse code. So the radio receiving equipment of the time did not have to convert the radio waves into sound like modern receivers, but merely detect the presence or absence of the radio signal. The device that did this was called a detector. The first widely used detector was the coherer, invented in 1890. The coherer was a very poor detector, insensitive and prone to false triggering due to impulsive noise, which motivated much research to find better radio wave detectors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "17935031",
"title": "List of Marconi wireless stations",
"section": "Section::::Types of station.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "The first radio transmitters could not transmit audio (sound) like modern AM and FM transmitters, and instead transmitted information by radiotelegraphy; the transmitter was turned on and off rapidly using a switch called a telegraph key, creating different length pulses of radio waves (\"dots\" and \"dashes\") which spelled out text messages in Morse code. Marconi used several types of station:\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "7342571",
"title": "Selective calling",
"section": "Section::::Conventional analog individual calling.:DTMF.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 382,
"text": "Radios with DTMF decoders may monitor all system traffic or remain muted until called, depending on the system design. When the radio receives the correct digit string, it may momentarily buzz or sound a Sonalert. An indicator light may turn on and remain latched on. In most systems, the radio's receive audio would latch on after receiving a valid digit string if normally muted.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "19189466",
"title": "Archie Frederick Collins",
"section": "Section::::Wireless telephony.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "The \"spark\" radio transmitters during Collins time could not transmit sound (audio) as modern AM and FM radio transmitters do. This was because the discharge of a spark cannot produce continuous waves, but only damped waves. Instead they transmitted information by telegraphy, the operator turned the transmitter off and on by tapping on a switch called a telegraph key to produce different length pulses of damped radio waves, to spell out text messages in Morse code. By the last years of the century, many wireless researchers such as Reginald Fessenden, Ernst Ruhmer, William Dubilier, Quirino Majorana, and Valdemar Poulsen were working to develop continuous wave transmitters which could be modulated to carry sound, radiotelephony. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25144",
"title": "Packet radio",
"section": "Section::::Technical Details.:Physical layer: modem and radio channel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Due to historical reasons, all commonly used modulations are based on an idea of minimal modification of the radio itself, usually just connecting the external speaker or headphone output directly to the transmit microphone input and receiver audio output directly to the computer microphone input. Upon adding a \"turn the transmitter on\" output signal (\"PTT\") for transmitter control, one has made a \"radio modem\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
f60htm | what does „star collapses under its own gravity” really mean when star dies? | [
{
"answer": "The gravity of the star constantly pulls all of the mass toward the center. While the mass of the star is a plasma, a lot of that mass and energy pushes particles apart and forces the star to expand. The star expanding and the gravity pulling eventually reach a relative equilibrium that keeps the shape and size of the star. When the reactions stop, the star stops expanding and gravity overtakes the force of expansion as it weakens. This crushes the star.\n\nIt isn't a perfect overview; but, hopefully helpful.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "510340",
"title": "Stellar black hole",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "The gravitational collapse of a star is a natural process that can produce a black hole. It is inevitable at the end of the life of a star, when all stellar energy sources are exhausted. If the mass of the collapsing part of the star is below the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff (TOV) limit for neutron-degenerate matter, the end product is a compact star — either a white dwarf (for masses below the Chandrasekhar limit) or a neutron star or a (hypothetical) quark star. If the collapsing star has a mass exceeding the TOV limit, the crush will continue until zero volume is achieved and a black hole is formed around that point in space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "Section::::Formation and evolution.:Gravitational collapse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "The collapse may be stopped by the degeneracy pressure of the star's constituents, allowing the condensation of matter into an exotic denser state. The result is one of the various types of compact star. Which type forms depends on the mass of the remnant of the original star left after the outer layers have been blown away. Such explosions and pulsations lead to planetary nebula. This mass can be substantially less than the original star. Remnants exceeding are produced by stars that were over before the collapse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "548075",
"title": "Star lifting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Stars already lose a small flow of mass via solar wind, coronal mass ejections, and other natural processes. Over the course of a star's life on the main sequence this loss is usually negligible compared to the star's total mass; only at the end of a star's life when it becomes a red giant or a supernova is a large proportion of material ejected. The star lifting techniques that have been proposed would operate by increasing this natural plasma flow and manipulating it with magnetic fields.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "207820",
"title": "Compact star",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Most stars will eventually come to a point in their evolution when the outward radiation pressure from the nuclear fusions in its interior can no longer resist the ever-present gravitational forces. When this happens, the star collapses under its own weight and undergoes the process of stellar death. For most stars, this will result in the formation of a very dense and compact stellar remnant, also known as a compact star.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "Section::::Formation and evolution.:Gravitational collapse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Gravitational collapse occurs when an object's internal pressure is insufficient to resist the object's own gravity. For stars this usually occurs either because a star has too little \"fuel\" left to maintain its temperature through stellar nucleosynthesis, or because a star that would have been stable receives extra matter in a way that does not raise its core temperature. In either case the star's temperature is no longer high enough to prevent it from collapsing under its own weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51218340",
"title": "A Star Fell from Heaven (1936 film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "A Star Fell from Heaven is a 1936 British comedy film directed by Paul Merzbach and starring Joseph Schmidt, Florine McKinney and Billy Milton. It was made at Elstree Studios. It was a remake of the 1934 Austrian film of the same name which had also starred Schmidt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "619926",
"title": "Gravitational collapse",
"section": "Section::::Stellar remnants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "At what is called the death of the star (when a star has burned out its fuel supply), it will undergo a contraction that can be halted only if it reaches a new state of equilibrium. Depending on the mass during its lifetime, these stellar remnants can take one of three forms:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
96oprs | How much radiation would you be exposed to holding weapons-grade plutonium in your hand? | [
{
"answer": "It depends on how much of it you’re holding, and whether or not criticality is reached. The “common” isotopes of plutonium are radioactive to alpha decay, but Pu always comes cladded in other metals, which the alpha particles can’t penetrate. Some fraction of the time, it will undergo spontaneous fission instead, which will also result in the emission of neutrons and gamma rays. These will in general penetrate through the cladding and give you a dose.\n\nAs long as there is no criticality reached, the dose rate won’t be *too* high. People can handle amounts on the order of a few kilograms of weapons-grade plutonium (I personally have done so) without receiving a dangerous dose.\n\nYou don’t just hold bare Pu in your bare hands though, the Pu is cladded with some other metal (like zirconium), and you generally wear gloves when handling it. The gloves are not very heavy-duty, as they’re not used to shield radiation. Instead they’re used to mitigate the spread of radioactive contamination. When you’re done handling the material, your hands will generally be tested for contamination, and once you’ve been given the all-clear, you remove the gloves and dispose of them.\n\nSo it’s really not as dangerous as you think. The real danger is in criticality accidents, but as long as you’re handling less than the critical mass with your given amount of moderation, then criticality can’t be reached, by definition. A fun fact about it though is that for kilogram amounts of Pu, the cladding actually feels warm to the touch due to the radiation (most of which doesn’t penetrate the cladding).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We can do the math on this, in fact...!\n\nLet's define your sphere as being 6 kg or so (about the Nagasaki bomb core), and say it is 93% Pu-239 (5.58 kg) and 7% Pu-240 (0.42 kg). From a purely half-life perspective, that's going to have an activity of 1.28e13 Bq for the Pu-239 and 3.53e12 Bq for the Pu-240, so about 1.6e13 Bq total. That's enough alpha activity to be physically hot — it would generate about 15 watts of heat (100º-110ºF). \n\nBut how dangerous would it be? Assuming it's not inside your body, the alphas aren't really a problem (your skin will stop them). But there will also be a host of gammas coming out as well, as the decays will unsettle the nuclei a bit. We can [use a converter like this to get some of them](_URL_0_) (it only does Pu-239, unfortunately, not Pu-240). Plugging our data for the Pu-239 activity into the calculator for, at, 1 cm of air distance, we get about ~0.6 Sv/hr — which is actually radioactive-enough to take some notice of! To put that into perspective, 1 Sv in a short amount of time will give you radiation poisoning, and 5 Sv can kill you. So this isn't \"so radioactive that you'll get sick from holding it or working with it carefully\" (an equivalent amount of pure radium, for example, would give you > 100 Sv a _second_), but it's \"radioactive enough that you don't want to be doing this regularly unless you've got shielding in place and know what you're doing.\"\n\nNow all of that activity is probably not going to be going right into you (unless you're curled around the core in the fetal position), and you'd need to spend a fair amount of time with it, in an unshielded manner, to pick up that much radiation (again, on the order of an hour at least). \n\nSo the answer appears to be: you can bare-hand a Pu sphere (hopefully one with some kind of coating, since it is chemically active, pyrophoric, and poses real contamination issues if uncoated) and not suffer _too_ much. Don't put one in your pillow, though. And really, you shouldn't bare-hand them. I haven't seen said movie yet (I think I know which one you're referring to), but if they weren't wearing gloves I'd expect them to complain about the temperature more than the radiation!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So I watched said movie — the contact they have with the plutonium is trivial. No radiation concerns from the brief touching that takes place. The main concern, in said movie, is that they stored three such cores within a few inches of each other. That's a _huge_ criticality risk, especially since those seemed to be rather large cores (I assume they were hollow, but still 5-8 kg of fissile material). A bare sphere critical mass of plutonium is around 10 kg; they had what looked like at least 15-20 kg, maybe more (depends on how thick you imagine the cores were, and how hollow). Very unsafe!\n\nThe real whoppers of the movie's plutonium are:\n\n* the aforementioned criticality issues from storage\n\n* the fact that even with all of their fancy tech the \"good guys\" could not distinguish the gammas from Pu-239 from a million medical sources (the kinds of scanners that modern day radiological contamination teams use can tell the difference between isotopes within seconds; there are really different \"signatures\" in the elements involved)\n\n* the purported yields of the weapons themselves were well above what was feasible from that amount of material alone (megaton range means fusion, and those weren't thermonuclear weapons)\n\n* I won't ding them too much on the non-standard design because at least they gave some nod to what a sophisticated implosion bomb would look like (close enough for plot purposes, a lot better than some other movie \"nukes\") — it doesn't at all jibe with the yield estimate given but it's close enough for an implosion bomb\n\nI also raised my eyebrow at the Norwegian nuclear weapons designer — given that Norway has no nuclear weapons program, that seems like a random and silly stretch (why not make him Russian, or British, or French, or whatever?), but maybe that's being too pedantic for such a film...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2468942",
"title": "List of military nuclear accidents",
"section": "Section::::1940s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "BULLET::::- While demonstrating his technique to visiting scientists at Los Alamos, Canadian physicist Louis Slotin manually assembled a critical mass of plutonium. A momentary slip of a screwdriver caused a prompt critical reaction. Slotin died on May 30 from massive radiation poisoning, with an estimated dose of 1,000 rads (rad), or 10 grays (Gy). Seven observers, who received doses as high as 166 rads, survived, yet three died within a few decades from conditions believed to be radiation-related.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "227519",
"title": "Operation Crossroads",
"section": "Section::::Test \"Baker\".:Unfissioned plutonium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "The of plutonium which did not undergo fission and the of fission products were scattered. Plutonium is not a biological hazard unless ingested or inhaled, and its alpha radiation cannot penetrate skin. Once inside the body it is significantly toxic both radiologically and chemically, having a heavy metal toxicity on a par with that of arsenic. Estimates based on the Manhattan Project's \"tolerance dose\" of one microgram of plutonium per worker put 10.6 pounds at the equivalent of about five billion tolerable doses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5234576",
"title": "Environmental radioactivity",
"section": "Section::::Man-made.:Plutonium and the other actinides.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "BULLET::::- Those tests in the air scattered some plutonium over the entire globe; this great dilution of the plutonium has resulted in the threat to each exposed person being very small as each person is only exposed to a very small amount.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42978497",
"title": "Robley D. Evans (physicist)",
"section": "Section::::Publications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "BULLET::::- Evans, Robley D. (December 1962), \"Remarks on the Maximum Permissible Deposition of Plutonium in Man, and the Safety Factors in the Pivot Point Radiation Protection Guide of 0.1 µc of Radium in Man\", \"Health Physics\" 8 (6): 751-752\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20418901",
"title": "Albert Stevens",
"section": "Section::::After surgery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 839,
"text": "In a 1975 study of the eighteen people who received plutonium injections in Manhattan Project experiments, CAL-1 (Albert Stevens) was shown to have received by far the highest dose to his bones and liver, calculated as 580 and 1460 rad, respectively. The dose of 580 rad was calculated based on the \"average skeletal dose\" contributed from the two radionuclides Pu-238 (575 rad) and Pu-239 (7.7 rad). This was then converted to the bone's surface dose, which was 7,420 rad. Stevens's absorbed dose was almost entirely based on the Pu-238 in his system. One of the findings of the 1975 study was that Stevens and five others injected with plutonium had endured \"doses high enough to be considered carcinogenic. However, no bone tumors have yet appeared.\" The word \"yet\" reflected the fact that four other subjects were still alive in 1975.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12034210",
"title": "Tokaimura nuclear accident",
"section": "Section::::In 1999.:Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 924,
"text": "By measuring the concentration of sodium-24, created by a neutron activation whereby sodium-23 nuclei were rendered radioactive by absorbing neutrons from the accident, it was possible to deduce the dose received by the technicians. According to the STA, Hisashi Ouchi was exposed to 17 sieverts (Sv) of radiation, Masato Shinohara received 10 Sv, and Yutaka Yokokawa 3 Sv. By comparison, a dose of .05 sieverts is the maximum allowable annual dose for Japanese nuclear workers. A dose of 8 Sv (800 rem) is normally fatal and more than 10 Sv almost invariably so. Normal background radiation amounts to an annual exposure of about 3 mSv (millisieverts). There were 56 plant workers whose exposures ranged up to 23 mSv and a further 21 workers received elevated doses when draining the precipitation tank. Seven workers immediately outside the plant received doses estimated at 6–15 mSv (combined neutron and gamma effects).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1372970",
"title": "British nuclear tests at Maralinga",
"section": "Section::::Minor tests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "The \"Vixen\" experimental tests used TNT to blow up simulated nuclear warheads containing plutonium-239. In total, \"Vixen B\" scattered 22.2 kg of plutonium around the Maralinga test site known as Taranaki, in particles of widely divergent size. Plutonium is not particularly dangerous externally - it emits alpha particles which are stopped by of air, or the dead layer of skin cells on the body, and is not a very intensive source of radiation, due to its long half-life of 24,000 years. It is most dangerous when it enters the body, in the worst case by breathing, and therefore tiny particles, often the result of such explosion testing, are the worst threat. The extreme biological persistence of plutonium's radioactive contamination and the cancer threat posed by alpha radiation occurring internally together establish plutonium's dangers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
h0jim | Breathing fumes of dry ice, bad for you? | [
{
"answer": "A little bit of it, not that bad. But I once made the mistake of accidentally inhaling some really concentrated fumes, while bent over double trying to get some of the last chunks of the stuff out of a usually closed container. **River** of blood out my nose in under a second. Do not try at home.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is some toxicity to carbon dioxide, but so long as the ventilation of your room isn't restricted it's unlikely to build up to a level that would cause a problem. Just inhaling a small amount coming off of dry ice isn't going to be a problem since it would only be one breath and not a constant amount, your body is quite capable of dealing with a small spike in carbon dioxide.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When I was younger my friends and I used to swallow small chunks of dry ice. The Co2 would build up in our stomaches until we keeled over and let out an enormous burp. That couldn't have been good for us. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The fumes/smoke from dry ice in water are CO2 and water vapor. It's fairly harmless unless you concentrate it or try to breathe it directly. The amount in a drink glass will be pretty negligible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you get too much CO2 in your body / bloodstream you will end up in acidosis. In acidosis, the buffering system in your blood (CO2 and Bicarbonate) gets out of balance and causes your blood to become a lower pH, which means more acidic. This is the basis for CO2 toxicity \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59156",
"title": "Dry ice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Dry ice sublimates at , at Earth atmospheric pressures. This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by freezing (frostbite). While generally not very toxic, the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia (abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood) due to buildup in confined locations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59156",
"title": "Dry ice",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Prolonged exposure to dry ice can cause severe skin damage through frostbite, and the fog produced may also hinder attempts to withdraw from contact in a safe manner. Because it sublimes into large quantities of carbon dioxide gas, which could pose a danger of hypercapnia, dry ice should only be exposed to open air in a well-ventilated environment. For this reason, dry ice is assigned the S-phrase in the context of laboratory safety. Industrial dry ice may contain contaminants that make it unsafe for direct contact with foodstuffs. Tiny dry ice pellets used in dry ice blast cleaning do not contain oily residues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3152275",
"title": "Yam (vegetable)",
"section": "Section::::Storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Storing yam at low temperature reduces the respiration rates. However, temperatures below cause damage through chilling, causing a breakdown of internal tissues, increasing water loss and yam's susceptibility to decay. The symptoms of chilling injury are not always obvious when the tubers are still in cold storage. The injury becomes noticeable as soon as the tubers are restored to ambient temperatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54083635",
"title": "Dry ice color show",
"section": "Section::::Precautions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Dry ice or solid carbon dioxide dramatically contains low temperature solid, which is –78.5 °C, and frostbite production. For safety, touching is restricted with bare skin. Handling dry ice with the appropriate gloves are crucial for protection. Waste contaminated dry ice should be rinsed and left in the fume hood or good ventilator area to allow it to sublime. The vaporization of dry ice can cause irritation to human if ingestion or inhalation occurred. Dry ice can cause headache and shortness of breath in case where a large amount of CO gets into the human respiratory tract resulting in the depletion of oxygen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59156",
"title": "Dry ice",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Commercial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Dry ice can be used to arrest and prevent insect activity in closed containers of grains and grain products, as it displaces oxygen, but does not alter the taste or quality of foods. For the same reason, it can prevent or retard food oils and fats from becoming rancid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25259971",
"title": "Dental pulp test",
"section": "Section::::Sensitivity testing.:\"1. Thermal Tests\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "A number of products are available for cold testing, each with varying melting points. Although household ice (0°C) is cheap and easy to obtain, it is not as accurate as colder products. Dry ice (-78°c) can be used, however there have been concerns regarding the damaging effects of using something so cold in the oral cavity despite evidence to suggest that dry ice has no negative impact on mucosal or tooth structure . Refrigerant sprays, such as ethyl chloride (-12.3°C), 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (-26.5°C) or a propane/butane/isobutane gas mixture are further commonly used cold tests. Cold testing is thought to stimulate Type Aδ fibres in the pulpal tissue, which elicit a short, sharp pain. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5615223",
"title": "Freezing drizzle",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Freezing drizzle is extremely dangerous to aircraft, as the supercooled water droplets will freeze onto the airframe, degrading aircraft performance considerably. The loss of American Eagle Flight 4184 on October 31, 1994, has been attributed to ice buildup due to freezing drizzle aloft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
68pcys | is the sugar in chocolate the same as the sugar in fruit? | [
{
"answer": "No, they are different sugars. \n\nThe (added) sugar in chocolate is typically sucrose, the sugar in fruit is fructose. \n\nHowever In practice, they both become glucose in the body, so a comparable amount of sucrose is 'the same' as that amount of fructose. \n\nRemember, you're not just eating a teaspoon of sugar in either case. Eating fruit also means eating fiber, which tends to mitigate blood glucose spikes in a way that chocolate (or soda) won't. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are several naturally occurring things that we call \"sugar\", because they taste sweet. It is hard to see the difference without doing chemical analysis. For example: honey tastes sweet and contains different compounds that we classify as sugar. If you chew on a piece of grass, it will also taste sweet, and the same goes for bread, fruit, etc. This means they all contain \"sugars\". At least, that is how we used to determine this.\n\nThe sugar we use to make chocolate is often derived from \"sugar cane\", which is a distant relative of grass. This sugar is chemically different from the sugars we get from honey. The result is that some things taste sweeter when using honey instead of refined cane sugar, but the quality varies more, because we can't control how bees make their honey.\n\nTo conclude: sugars in fruit and sugars that we get from cane, or honey taste differently and one can be sweeter than the other. This is because they are different compounds. They all taste sweet, so we call them sugars.\n\nPlease note that in chemistry \"sugar\" and \"salt\" are names for different groups of compounds. These are based on the chemical structure, not the taste.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a few different types of sugar so not necessarily. But \"sugar is sugar\" is still accurate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27712",
"title": "Sugar",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Monosaccharides.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "BULLET::::- Fructose, or fruit sugar, occurs naturally in fruits, some root vegetables, cane sugar and honey and is the sweetest of the sugars. It is one of the components of sucrose or table sugar. It is used as a high-fructose syrup, which is manufactured from hydrolyzed corn starch that has been processed to yield corn syrup, with enzymes then added to convert part of the glucose into fructose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3954",
"title": "Biochemistry",
"section": "Section::::Notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "a. Fructose is not the only sugar found in fruits. Glucose and sucrose are also found in varying quantities in various fruits, and sometimes exceed the fructose present. For example, 32% of the edible portion of a date is glucose, compared with 24% fructose and 8% sucrose. However, peaches contain more sucrose (6.66%) than they do fructose (0.93%) or glucose (1.47%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1288963",
"title": "List of candies",
"section": "Section::::Western candies.:Chocolate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Chocolate is made from the fermented, roasted and ground beans of the tropical cacao tree. In America, cocoa refers to ground cacao beans. Chocolate is the combination of cocoa, cocoa butter, sugar and other ingredients (milk, flavorings, and emulsifiers)and they are sweet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50337",
"title": "Fructose",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Fructose, or fruit sugar, is a simple ketonic monosaccharide found in many plants, where it is often bonded to glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose. It is one of the three dietary monosaccharides, along with glucose and galactose, that are absorbed directly into blood during digestion. Fructose was discovered by French chemist Augustin-Pierre Dubrunfaut in 1847. The name \"fructose\" was coined in 1857 by the English chemist William Allen Miller. Pure, dry fructose is a sweet, white, odorless, crystalline solid, and is the most water-soluble of all the sugars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1770825",
"title": "Raw chocolate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Raw chocolate is chocolate which is produced in a raw or minimally-processed form. It is made from unroasted (sun-dried) cacao beans and cold pressed cacao butter. A variety of crystalline and liquid sweeteners may be used, including: coconut sugar, coconut nectar, xylitol, agave nectar, maple syrup, and stevia. Cane sugar and other highly processed sugars are not used. Dairy products are not added to raw chocolate, therefore it is usually vegan. Soy is also usually avoided – soy lecithin is often used in processed chocolate. It is also naturally gluten-free.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7976",
"title": "Dessert",
"section": "Section::::Varieties.:Chocolates and candies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "Chocolate is a typically sweet, usually brown, food preparation of \"Theobroma cacao\" seeds, roasted, ground, and often flavored. Pure, unsweetened chocolate contains primarily cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate currently consumed is in the form of sweet chocolate, combining chocolate with sugar. Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate that additionally contains milk powder or condensed milk. White chocolate contains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk, but no cocoa solids. Dark chocolate is produced by adding fat and sugar to the cacao mixture, with no milk or much less than milk chocolate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1269972",
"title": "Champurrado",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Since sugar came to the Americas sometime after chocolate did, chocolate was said to have an acquired taste as it comes off as bitter without added sweetener. The Spaniards created a drink consisting of chocolate, vanilla, and other spices which was served chilled. This drink cannot be compared to modern-day hot chocolate as it was very spicy and bitter, contrasting with the modern notion of very sweet, warm chocolate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1nngc5 | how is it that the leaders in the house can hold back a vote (regarding the us budget)? | [
{
"answer": "For one, spending bills have to originate in the House. Also, the House Rules Committee recently amended the rules to only allow the majority leader, Eric Cantor, to put bills before the House. This rule is temporary, but it is the reason why moderate Republicans have not allied with Democrats to pass a clean continuing resolution.\n\nIf you are wondering how/why this is legal or allowed, the Constitution allows the House to set its own rules with a simple majority vote, and the House has operated this way (majority party screwing minority party) for a long, long time. It's not democratic, but it is both legal and with precedent.\n\nAnyone with better knowledge of parliamentary procedure please feel free to correct the above.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "237014",
"title": "Quorum",
"section": "Section::::By country.:Philippines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Both majority and minority blocs in Congress have used the lack of quorum in defeating bills that they don't want to be passed without putting it to a vote. After an election during the lame-duck session, quorums are notoriously difficult to muster, more so in the House of Representatives as winning incumbents may opt to go on vacation, and defeated incumbents may opt to not to show up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20907599",
"title": "Unseated members of the United States Congress",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "Both houses of the United States Congress have refused to seat new members based on Article I, Section 5 of the United States Constitution which states that, \"Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide.\" This had been interpreted that members of the House of Representatives and of the Senate could refuse to recognize the election or appointment of a new representative or senator for any reason, often political heterodoxy or criminal record. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23325492",
"title": "2008–12 California budget crisis",
"section": "Section::::2008.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "A two-thirds vote is required to pass a budget, and in both the original budget negotiations and in the attempt to revise the budget no political party by itself had enough votes to pass a budget. The majority Democrats fought to minimize cuts to programs, while most of the minority Republicans refused to accept any tax increase. The original budget was put together by Democrats and some Republicans using spending cuts, internal borrowing, and accounting maneuvers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24117",
"title": "Prime Minister of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Constitutional basis and appointment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "If a government cannot get its appropriation (budget) legislation passed by the House of Representatives, or the House passes a vote of \"no confidence\" in the government, the Prime Minister is bound by convention to immediately advise the Governor-General to dissolve the House of Representatives and hold a fresh election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42121866",
"title": "2015 United States federal budget",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "Congress can, and often does, work on its own proposals independently of the President. The congressional budget resolutions are under the jurisdiction of the United States House Committee on the Budget and the United States Senate Committee on the Budget. Traditionally, after both houses pass a budget resolution, selected representatives and senators negotiate a conference report to reconcile differences between the House and the Senate versions. The conference report, in order to become binding, must be approved by both the House and Senate. Because the budget resolution is a concurrent resolution, it is not signed by the President and \"does not have statutory effect; no money can be raised or spent pursuant to it\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19456121",
"title": "Filling the tree",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "The majority leader must assess the risk in deciding to fill the tree. Some senators will reject a bill if they feel they have not been given an adequate opportunity to offer amendments. For example, Senator Susan Collins voted against the 2010 Defense Authorization Bill although she largely supported the substance of the bill, citing the filling of the amendment tree by Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid. Reid used this tactic during the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 Senate floor debate, preventing amendments that would have removed the provisions that rolled back Section 716 (derivatives guarantees by the FDIC) of the Dodd-Frank legislation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9350",
"title": "Politics of Egypt",
"section": "Section::::Legislative Branch.:The House of Representatives (Magles en Nowwáb).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "The House of Representatives is the principal legislative body. It consists of a maximum 596 representatives with 448 are directly elected through FPTP and another 120 elected through proportional representation in 4 nationwide districts while the President can appoint up to 28 . The House sits for a five-year term but can be dissolved earlier by the President. The Constitution reserves fifty percent of the House may force the resignation of the executive cabinet by voting a motion of censure. For this reason, the Prime Minister and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly. In the case of a president and house from opposing parties, this leads to the situation known as cohabitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1owhsa | is saudi arabia's rejection of its security council seat anything other than symbolic? | [
{
"answer": "I am not sure what would qualify this to you as a big deal. It is in protest of the veto members blocking Saudi's attempts to sanction Bashar Al-Asad. The security council seats are highly coveted as it signifies prestige and international influence for a country.\n\nThat region of the world will still have representation on the security council as the council is divided into regions (asia-pacific 3, africa 3, east-europe 2, latin america 2, europe/other 5, permanent members included in the count). The members are elected to two year terms. The Saudis declined their election to this council, so someone else from the region will be elected. ALthough one must question why Saudi Arabia campaigned for the seat in the first place, only to turn it down.\n\nIf you are questioning the power of a rotating seat on the security council is, then thats a different question. The Security Council members discuss and vote on matters of international peace and security (e.g. peacekeeping missions, sanctions, etc.). The 5 permanent members have power of veto. Saudi Arabia turned down the opportunity to participate and vote on such matters.\n\nHere is a good article from the NYPost:\n_URL_0_",
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},
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"answer": " > Are the rotating memberships of the council relevant enough to make this a big deal?\n\nUsually not. Without looking it up, can you name any of the non permanent members of the UNSC right now? No? Neither can I, and I pay a lot of attention to politics. \n\nBut it gives those countries a seat at the big kid table - and if they have ideas for whatever the worlds problems of the day are that's the place for them. Of course some countries (India, Brazil, Germany, Saudi) are influential enough they will be listened to if they have an idea, UNSC seat or not. \n\n > Or is it an attention-getting tactic that ultimately doesn't mean much?\n\nMostly this. They are expressing their discontent over the USNC's failure to authorize the removal of Assad. 2 years of sitting in meetings at the big boy table wasn't going to change that. No one is actually being punished for using chemical weapons, and Assad gets to stay in power in Syria. At least the chemical weapons are going to be gone, but 1/3 is more of a 'good start' than an 'end goal'.\n\nThe Saudi's are also, as other people pointed out, trapped by their relationship with Israel. They cannot be seen to be publicly acknowledging the existence of Israel at all, even though they well, have dealings with the Israeli's. If there's any prospect of an Israeli-Palestinian agreement they cannot be publicly supporting the US unless the Palestinians get a state and the settlements get disbanded, so a UNSC seat would put them in an awkward position. \n\nAnd that's pretty much it. Their main big issue - Assad, the UNSC basically didn't do what they wanted, and they can't change that. Their secondary issue they just want to not be involved in publicly until it gets sorted. \n\nWell, and they get some free press for complaining and a mild political win with their regional allies. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": " > Or is it an attention-getting tactic that ultimately doesn't mean much?\n\nIt arguably means about as much as having a seat would have meant. Their primary goal, which would have been to persuade the UN to do more to end the conflict in Syria, was simply not going to happen. If there were signs it was, chances are they would have joined.\n\nThe 5 permanent members, in short, tend to be ineffective in stopping human rights violations among their allies. China and Russia in particular have pretty much destroyed any chances of significantly intervening in the Syrian conflict.\n\nCountries typically their seat to raise awareness of issues that affect them. Some receive increased aid, others push for sanctions or military support. Saudi Arabia would no doubt have benefited politically had they accepted the seat. But with the UK, France, and the USA leading the case for sanctions in Syria, and France in particular for intervention, together with Saudi Arabia itself being very wealthy (they give large amounts of aid rather than receive it, and currently buy more weapons than any other nation) as well as being relatively stable, it's ultimately debatable whether their rejection send more of a political message then accepting it would have allowed them.\n\nEither way, there's not a whole lot to be gained.\n\nThe UN Security Council is seen as biased and arbitrary in their actions, with double standards and inconsistent political ideals, by the Arab League as well as others. They authorised 'all necessary measures' to protect civilians in Libya, but have two permanent members shipping arms to Syria while they commit war crimes against their own civilian population. They took extensive steps to end the violence in Rwanda, but even basic efforts to address war-crimes in Myanmar got veto'd. They were formed in the political wake of WW2, and as such are ludicrously outdated in how they operate. Countries without close allies at the table are often seen as sidelined. The Saudi Arabia's rejection can be seen as representative of this, so I think to that end its more than a cheap gesture, and could be a step on the way to genuinely changing the way they operate - though that's just my opinion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30278734",
"title": "2013 United Nations Security Council election",
"section": "Section::::Results.:African and Asia-Pacific Groups.:Rejection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 984,
"text": "Following the vote, Saudi Arabia, despite winning, declined to take the seat citing the UNSC's \"double standards\" in being allegedly ineffective in regards to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, nuclear disarmament in the Middle East and putting an end to the Syrian civil war. This was the first time a state had rejected a Security Council seat. Saudi Arabia's refusal of the seat surprised both United Nations diplomats and some observers inside the country, where the announcement of the election had been received favorably. The Gulf Cooperation Council supported Saudi Arabia's bid. In addition, Saudi intelligence chief Prince Bandar bin Sultan suggested a distancing of Saudi Arabia–United States relations as a result of the same issue over the Syrian civil war, amongst other reasons. On 12 November, Saudi Arabia formally declined the seat, advising the Secretary-General that it \"would not be in a position to take the seat on the Security Council to which it was elected.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59774066",
"title": "February 2019 Warsaw Conference",
"section": "Section::::Reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Khalid bin Salman, Saudi Arabia’s ambassador to United States said the reason for his taking part in Warsaw summit was, “\"to take a firm stand against forces that threaten the future of peace and security,\" in particular Iranian.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "641408",
"title": "Saud bin Faisal bin Abdulaziz Al Saud",
"section": "Section::::Foreign Minister.:Timeline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Prince Saud said in 2004 that Saudi Arabia would like to reduce its dependence on U.S.-dominated security arrangements. In July 2004, he claimed the real source of problems in the Middle East were not Muslims but \"injustice and deprivation inflicted in the region\". In August 2007, he denied allegations that terrorists were travelling from Saudi Arabia to Iraq and claimed it was vice versa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45533402",
"title": "Council of Political and Security Affairs (Saudi Arabia)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "The Council of Political and Security Affairs of Saudi Arabia is one of two Subcabinets of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the other being the Council of Economic and Development Affairs. It is led by its Chairman Mohammad bin Salman. The Council is composed of the head of Intelligence and nine ministers. All members of the Council are appointed by royal decree. It was established by King Salman to replace the National Security Council in January 2015.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31667804",
"title": "Allegiance Council",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "According to an October 2009 diplomatic cable from the U.S. Embassy in Riyadh, the Al Saud family described the Council as a \"codification of the unwritten rules that have governed the selection of Saudi rulers since the passing of King Abdulaziz in 1953.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10964467",
"title": "IBSA Dialogue Forum",
"section": "Section::::Declarations and communiqué.:New Delhi agenda for cooperation.:United Nations reforms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The ministers were of the view that the current composition of the UN Security Council is not representative of the current world scenario. They highlighted the need for bringing about reforms which would make the Security council reflect the contemporary realities. Toward this end, they emphasised the need for expansion of Security council membership in the permanent as well as non-permanent categories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31686915",
"title": "National Security Council (Saudi Arabia)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "The National Security Council was formed on 16 October 2005 by the newly crowned King Abdullah in response to major geopolitical shifts in the Middle East region. The occupation of Iraq made the region \"a center for reconstruction, globalization and reorganization\" with the entry of the United States as a major player. In addition to its regional influence in the Arabian Peninsula, Saudi Arabia is one of the leading actors in the Islamic world and has a central role in global energy policy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
21xdig | how is maintaining a high credit card balance bad for your credit score, even though you constantly pay off 10x the monthly payment at a time? | [
{
"answer": "if you \"constantly pay off 10x the monthly payment at a time\" then you won't have a high balance for very long so this doesn't really make sense.\n\nHaving $1k isn't really an issue for most people, but if you have $10k limit on your card and you're constantly running up against that limit the you're seen as more of a risk, because you might need to take even more cards, which make it much more likely you'll miss payment on the first one.\n\nIt's all about risk. Spending $600 this month and paying it off over the next couple months is not going to hurt your credit score unless you fail to actually pay it off and it gets close to your credit limit all the time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Credit score is all about saying how responsible you are with credit. If you have a $10,000 credit limit, but you routinely carry a $9,000 balance, that tells other creditors that you run it pretty close to the edge and that you borrow a lot of money and take time to pay it back. They don't care *how much* you pay each month, that doesn't even show up on a credit report. They care that you pay on time, and that you pay off your debts.\n\nEDIT: Think about it this way. Would you rather lend money to a friend who is constantly borrowing that money right back from you and always owes you a ton of money, or would you rather lend money to a friend who will pay it all back within a short time and usually doesn't owe you very much?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "462448",
"title": "Credit score in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Easily gamed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Because a significant portion of the FICO score is determined by the ratio of credit used to credit available on credit card accounts, one way to increase the score is to increase the credit limits on one's credit card accounts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462448",
"title": "Credit score in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Credit scoring models.:FICO score.:Makeup.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Getting a higher credit limit can help a credit score. The higher the credit limit on the credit card, the lower the utilization ratio average for all of a borrower's credit card accounts. The utilization ratio is the amount owed divided by the amount extended by the creditor and the lower it is the better a FICO rating, in general. So if a person has one credit card with a used balance of $500 and a limit of $1,000 as well as another with a used balance of $700 and $2,000 limit, the average ratio is 40 percent ($1,200 total used divided by $3,000 total limits). If the first credit card company raises the limit to $2,000, the ratio lowers to 30 percent, which could boost the FICO rating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1476274",
"title": "Credit history",
"section": "Section::::Adverse credit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Credit scores assess the likelihood that a borrower will repay a loan or other credit obligation based on factors like their borrowing and repayment history, the types of credit they have taken out and the overall length of their credit history. The higher the score, the better the credit history and the higher the probability that the loan will be repaid on time. When creditors report an excessive number of late payments, or trouble with collecting payments, the score suffers. Similarly, when adverse judgments and collection agency activity are reported, the score decreases even more. Repeated delinquencies or public record entries can lower the score and trigger what is called a negative credit rating or adverse credit history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3046012",
"title": "Credit card interest",
"section": "Section::::Calculation of interest rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Most U.S. credit cards are quoted in terms of nominal annual percentage rate (APR) compounded daily, or sometimes (and especially formerly) monthly, which in either case is not the same as the effective annual rate (EAR). Despite the \"annual\" in APR, it is not necessarily a direct reference for the interest rate paid on a stable balance over one year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462448",
"title": "Credit score in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Not a good predictor of risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "According to the experts at MyFico.com, credit scores are enhanced by having multiple credit cards, the use of credit cards, and having installment loans. However, financially secure individuals who do not use multiple credit cards and/or self-finance installment type expenses may be inaccurately assessed a lower credit score.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10279219",
"title": "Credit scorecards",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "A typical mistaken belief about credit scoring is that the only trait that matters is whether you have actually made payments on time as well as satisfied your monetary obligations in a prompt way. While payment background is essential, however it still just composes just over one-third of the credit rating score. Furthermore, the repayment background is only shown in your credit history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Benefits and drawbacks.:Detriments to cardholders.:High interest and bankruptcy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 1010,
"text": "Low introductory credit card rates are limited to a fixed term, usually between 6 and 12 months, after which a higher rate is charged. As all credit cards charge fees and interest, some customers become so indebted to their credit card provider that they are driven to bankruptcy. Some credit cards often levy a rate of 20 to 30 percent after a payment is missed. In other cases, a fixed charge is levied without change to the interest rate. In some cases universal default may apply: the high default rate is applied to a card in good standing by missing a payment on an unrelated account from the same provider. This can lead to a snowball effect in which the consumer is drowned by unexpectedly high interest rates. Further, most card holder agreements enable the issuer to arbitrarily raise the interest rate for any reason they see fit. First Premier Bank at one point offered a credit card with a 79.9% interest rate; however, they discontinued this card in February 2011 because of persistent defaults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
a7ba86 | during the late 80s to mid 90s, every home computer came with their own operating system. now almost all home computers comes with just windows, why? | [
{
"answer": "When any sort of technology has multiple competing standards there is a tendency to converge on a single one. This is just the nature of the industry.\n\nImagine being a software developer in the late 80's. You would have to write your software 4 or 5 times to have a good coverage of the marketplace. Now most software is written once, targeting Windows. That has benefits for the developer and the consumer because they get a broader software library available to them.\n\nConsumers notice when the system they use doesn't have much adoption across the industry because they will see that software they want to run isn't available on their computer. So, when they make their next purchase they will tend to pick the system that has the most software available for it. In operating systems this was MS-DOS and Windows.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The short answer: because Microsoft, lead by Bill Gates, engaged in illegal anti-competitive actions to drive competitors out of business and establish a near-monopoly. They engaged in [wide-spread predatory business practices](_URL_0_) designed to drive out direct and indirect competitors in the OS market.\n\nTo give just a few examples:\n\n- Microsoft used their domination of the office suite market (Word and Excel) to sabotage their competitor DR DOS, by having their software detect when it was running under DR DOS and [falsely report that it wasn't compatible](_URL_4_).\n\n- Microsoft used their growing monopoly power in the PC market to \"negotiate\" deals with PC manufacturers (\"agree to our terms, or we'll stop supporting your PC\") for what became effectively compulsory royalties. Royalties were tied to the number of PCs sold, not the number of Windows OS supplied. Consequently, if you bought a PC from a major brand they paid for Windows regardless of whether or not they actually supplied Windows. Of course they passed that cost on to you, the consumer, and **you still paid for Windows** even if it wasn't supplied. This [\"Microsoft tax\"](_URL_2_) made it impossible for alternative OSes such as BeOS to compete even though they were much better and faster.\n\n- Microsoft partnered with IBM to develop OS/2 for servers, while secretly using the knowledge they gained to develop Windows NT as a direct competitor. Then, before OS/2 could be established in the server market, they dropped out of the partnership released NT, and used their domination of the PC market to likewise dominate the server market.^1\n\n(Funnily enough, the early versions of OS/2 written by Microsoft were full of technical flaws which similar early versions of NT did not suffer from. It was only when IBM more or less re-wrote OS/2 themselves was it a decent server-class OS, but of course it was too late by then.)\n\nIn the 1990s, the US Department of Justice [took action against Microsoft](_URL_3_) and found that they had [acted illegally](_URL_1_), but by the time Microsoft was found guilty, the US government under President Bush Jr lost its stomach for doing anything about it and merely gave them a slap on the wrist and made them promise to not do it again. But for a time, there was real talk about splitting Microsoft into two separate companies to break the monopoly.\n\nThe longer answer would have to acknowledge the effect of non-predatory economic factors such as network effects (if all your friends used Windows, there are advantages for you to use Windows as well), piracy (software piracy helped MS DOS spread in the first place, and especially helped Excel and Word succeed against more established incumbents such as Lotus and WordPerfect), high costs of entry etc. The Dept of Justice findings of facts does a good job at explaining those as well.\n\nNevertheless, the major reason that Microsoft dominates the OS market is that they illegally lied, cheated, sabotaged competitors and stifled innovation. We're still paying the price for that now, even though Microsoft appears to (mostly) no longer be acting in such ways, thanks to legal actions by both the US and EU threatening to break the company apart, plus the disruptive effects of the Internet.\n\n^1 Microsoft never dominated the server market to the same degree they did the desktop. Unix and Unix-based OSes, especially Linux, continue to hold a large share of the market. But among the *DOS compatible* server market, Windows dominated.",
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},
{
"answer": "Today is very hard to say what is a home computer. If you think about PC, standalone desktop machine, then it is Windows, but you still have a choice to buy a MAC. Or to run a computer with Linux.\n\nIn my opinion, the home computer can be a tablet or even your smartphone. Depends on your needs. But then we have an Android OS as a possibility. And Android has a quite good share in the market. \n\nWindows got that advantage with PnP standard. That was a crucial moment for Microsoft, in 1995. That made Windows flexible, practical, and turned out to be something that users really needed during the later developments of PnP interfaces. For more info Google \"Plug and Play\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Firs of all, the \"IBM compatible PC\", that is PCs which could run the same software from different manufactureres. That totally transformed the industry (to the better) and increased competition, suddenly the OS actually in practice could be made by whoever, instead of the hardware-maker (think of the non-compatible machines more like todays consoles). That paved they way for someone like MS. Who started off pretty well, and then used shitty practices to continue their domination. They are much more well behaved today, and get some of the same treatment in return from competitors in fields where they have become small.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "IBM started to use DOS in their \"personal computers\". Microsoft \"rented not sold\" DOS and the IBM model of personal computer was cloned and DOS went with it.\n\nThe other computer companies used a form of basic that DOS drove from the market and many of these companies started to make IBM clones.\n\nApple went its own way and had a brief \"cloning\" experiment but decided to keep all software and hardware in house at a later date. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "The OSs before windows were much simpler and easier to code. OS/2 is perhaps the one listed that actually had a chance if IBM had been willing to develop it rather than go with windows.\n\nBefore Windows, MS DOS was ubiquitous when you actually had to load the OS rather than have a simple system in ROM. It was considered complex because it had to actually handle floppy disk drives rather than cassette drive.\n\nWhen IBM came out with the PC and chose MS-DOS, the bit players were doomed. Compatibility and software availability was the key. Why recode for Atari, CPM or TRS-DOS when 95% of the market wants it for MS-DOS (and later windows).\n\n & #x200B;\n\nNote: I started programming in MS-Basic on a TRS-80. The OS in Rom was only BASIC with Cassette handling. When floppies came along they went to TRS-DOS but eventually Tandy went to MS-DOS as well. Businesses used Unix or CPM as they were the \"professional\" OSs apart from mainframes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Allow The Simpsons to explain:\n\n & #x200B;\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also, Microsoft has agreements with major brands to keep windows flowing on new units. They want to keep their market share so they volume license for a cheaper price.\n\nKeep in mind back in the early 80's, Bill Gates gave commodore an open license to use microsoft basic on every commodore labeled product. That was the first and last time Bill Gates did that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "amiga and atari died out?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "TLDR: Developing operating systems (_especially_ modern OSes that do a lot of things) costs a lot of money and time and expertise.\n\nKeep in mind that the 3 major desktop OSes -- Windows, MacOS, and Linux -- these OSes are the products of literal decades of development by hundreds and thousands of developers. The overhead here is not small.\n\nWhy would Acer develop their own OS when they can just license the work from someone else?\n\nThen there's the compatibility/cross-platform issue....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8873033",
"title": "List of home computers by video hardware",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "A home computer was the description of the second generation of desktop computers, entering the market in 1977 and becoming common during the 1980s. A decade later they were generally replaced by IBM PC compatible \"PCs\", although in actuality home computers are also members of the class known as personal computers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25122906",
"title": "Home computer",
"section": "Section::::Notable home computers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "The most popular home computers in the USA up to 1985 were: the TRS-80 (1977), various models of the Apple II family (first introduced in 1977), the Atari 400/800 (1979) along with its follow up models the 800XL and 130XE, and the Commodore VIC-20 (1980) and the Commodore 64 (1982). The VIC was the first computer of any type to sell over one million units, and the 64 is still the highest-selling single model of personal computer ever, with over 17 million produced before production stopped in 1994 – a 12-year run with only minor changes. At one point in 1983 Commodore was selling as many 64s as the rest of the industry's computers combined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25122906",
"title": "Home computer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "Home computers were a class of microcomputers that entered the market in 1977, that started with what Byte Magazine called the \"trinity of 1977\", (the Apple II, the TRS-80 Model I, and the Commodore PET) and which became common during the 1980s. They were marketed to consumers as affordable and accessible computers that, for the first time, were intended for the use of a single nontechnical user. These computers were a distinct market segment that typically cost much less than business, scientific or engineering-oriented computers of the time such as the IBM PC, and were generally less powerful in terms of memory and expandability. However, a home computer often had better graphics and sound than contemporary business computers. Their most common uses were playing video games, but they were also regularly used for word processing, doing homework, and programming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25122906",
"title": "Home computer",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "By 1982, an estimated 621,000 home computers were in American households, at an average sales price of US$530 (). After the success of the Radio Shack TRS-80, the Commodore PET and the Apple II in 1977, almost every manufacturer of consumer electronics rushed to introduce a home computer. Large numbers of new machines of all types began to appear during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Mattel, Coleco, Texas Instruments and Timex, none of which had any previous connection to the computer industry, all had short-lived home computer lines in the early 1980s. Some home computers were more successful – the BBC Micro, Sinclair ZX Spectrum, Atari 800XL and Commodore 64, sold many units over several years and attracted third-party software development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52742",
"title": "Desktop computer",
"section": "Section::::History.:Growth and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Apple II, TRS-80 and Commodore PET were first generation personal home computers launched in 1977, which were aimed at the consumer market – rather than businessmen or computer hobbyists. \"Byte\" magazine referred to these three as the \"1977 Trinity\" of personal computing. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, desktop computers became the predominant type, the most popular being the IBM PC and its clones, followed by the Apple Macintosh, with the third-placed Commodore Amiga having some success in the mid-1980s but declining by the early 1990s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2289648",
"title": "Windows Vista",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 170,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 170,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Computer manufacturers such as Dell, Lenovo, and Hewlett-Packard released their newest computers with Windows Vista pre-installed; however, after the negative reception of the operating system, they also began selling their computers with Windows XP CDs included because of a drop in sales.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13624133",
"title": "Microprocessor chronology",
"section": "Section::::1980s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The home computers of the 1980s predominantly used processors that were introduced in the 1970s. Versions of the MOS 6502, first released in 1975, and the Zilog Z80 (1976), were at the core of many of the home computers, such as the Commodore 64 and the ZX Spectrum. Even the first-generation IBM PC used a processor from the 1970s, the Intel 8088.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
evvb1b | how do construction workers put together a crane | [
{
"answer": "I assume you mean a tower crane. That is done piece by piece as with another mobile crane as helpt initially. You put it together with the horizontal beam relative close to the ground and then the crane can raise itself up and add another vertical segment.\n\nLook at [_URL_0_](_URL_0_) The self raising part start at 4 minutes.\n\nYou can see a real video at [_URL_1_](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20330584",
"title": "Crane Army Ammunition Activity",
"section": "Section::::Facilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Cast Load: Crane has the ability to produce cast loaded explosives utilizing various production lines with mixing, melting, and holding kettles. We have the capability to produce bombs, mines, shock test charges, demolition charges, shape charges, burster tubes, underwater sound signals, cluster bombs and projectiles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "416758",
"title": "Set construction",
"section": "Section::::Film production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The construction coordinator, or construction company, provides all tools and equipment apart from small hand tools specific to a craftsman's work, such as screw guns, paint brushes and plastering trowels. This makes logistics and efficiency the responsibility of the construction manager and leaves each crew member as fluid freelancers to be hired and off hired at extremely short notice throughout the production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21149056",
"title": "Bent (structural)",
"section": "Section::::Construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "Bents are generally pre-assembled, either at the timber framing company's shop or at the construction site. After the basic post and beam structure of the frame has been set in place, the bents are then lifted and simply dropped into place one by one by the crane. Next, the workers bring in additional members, purlins, which tie them together and give the frame a more rigid structure. This process is very safe and efficient, as it allows a crew to assemble a large portion of the frame without ever stepping off the ground. This, in turn, minimizes the amount of time that the crew must spend several stories in the air clambering along beams not much wider than their own feet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "876705",
"title": "Tilt up",
"section": "Section::::Construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Cranes are used to tilt the concrete elements from the casting slab to a vertical position. The slabs are then most often set onto a foundation and secured with braces until the structural steel and the roof diaphragm is in place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22318942",
"title": "Ironworker",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Structural ironworker.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "Before construction can begin, the structural ironworkers have to put together cranes in order to lift the steel columns, beams, and girders according to structural blueprints. To hoist the steel, structural ironworkers use cables connected to the crane to lift the beams onto the steel columns. A rope called a tagline is attached to the beams so an ironworker can control them when needed. The crane hoists steel into place, and the ironworkers position the beams with spud wrenches to align bolt holes. Then the beams can be bolted to the steel columns. This process is continued until there are no beams or columns left to construct the structure. Structural ironworkers also erect joist girders, bar joists, and trusses, and also install metal decking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3063778",
"title": "Segmental bridge",
"section": "Section::::Construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "BULLET::::- In pre-cast bridges, the concrete segment is constructed on the ground, and then transported and hoisted into place. As the new segment is suspended in place by the crane, workers install steel reinforcing that attaches the new segment to preceding segments. Each segment of the bridge is designed to accept connections from both preceding and succeeding segments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4809015",
"title": "Overhead crane",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "Overhead cranes are commonly used in the refinement of steel and other metals such as copper and aluminium. At every step of the manufacturing process, until it leaves a factory as a finished product, metal is handled by an overhead crane. Raw materials are poured into a furnace by crane, hot metal is then rolled to specific thickness and tempered or annealed, and then stored by an overhead crane for cooling, the finished coils are lifted and loaded onto trucks and trains by overhead crane, and the fabricator or stamper uses an overhead crane to handle the steel in his factory. The automobile industry uses overhead cranes to handle raw materials. Smaller workstation cranes, such as jib cranes or gantry cranes, handle lighter loads in a work area, such as CNC mill or saw.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
21pp9q | why is it so easy for a person to believe in a complex conspiracy such as the illuminati? | [
{
"answer": "It's easy for people to believe conspiracy theories because they are basically shortcuts to explain the world. Understanding the Federal Reserve is complicated, understanding how power is allocated and what motivates people in power is complicated. Accepting cancer rates are rising due to known carcinogens, but we rarely know exactly which ones isn't satisfying. Understanding cancer rates are rising because people are living longer isn't satisfying. \n\nBasically conspiracy theory fulfills two basic needs, feeling smarter than other people and replacing uninteresting work i.e. studying a dry subject with interesting work e.g. studying aliens. \n\nIf you don't like the explanation for something you can explain it however you want and be outraged at whoever you want. That's appealing to people. Chem trails cause it and Ronald Reagan started chem trails. It's arbitrary what \"it\" even is. The person gets to feel smart, explain a mystery and blame whoever they want without putting in any actual work into understanding the problem. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's human nature to seek connections between seemingly unconnected or random occurrences.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's more comforting to think that the world is in someone's control, even if that person is evil and seeks to do harm, than to think that the world is not in anyone's control.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8295950",
"title": "Illuminati",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:In conspiracy theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Many conspiracy theories propose that world events are being controlled and manipulated by a secret society calling itself the Illuminati. Conspiracy theorists have claimed that many notable people were or are members of the Illuminati. Presidents of the United States are a common target for such claims.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5530",
"title": "Conspiracy theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "On a psychological level, conspiracist ideation—belief in conspiracy theories—can be harmful or pathological, and is highly correlated with paranoia and Machiavellianism. Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in mass media, emerging as a cultural phenomenon of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "384236",
"title": "Crank (person)",
"section": "Section::::Crank magnetism.:Studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 874,
"text": "Another study titled \"Dead and Alive: Beliefs in Contradictory Conspiracy Theories\" managed to show that, not only will cranks be attracted to and believe in numerous conspiracy theories all at once, but will continue to do so even if the theories in question are completely and utterly incompatible with one another. For instance, the study showed that: \"... the more participants believed that Princess Diana faked her own death, the more they believed that she was murdered [and that] ... the more participants believed that Osama Bin Laden was already dead when U.S. special forces raided his compound in Pakistan, the more they believed he is still alive,\" and that \"Hierarchical regression models showed that mutually incompatible conspiracy theories are positively associated because both are associated with the view that the authorities are engaged in a cover-up\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5530",
"title": "Conspiracy theory",
"section": "Section::::Psychological interpretations.:The attractions of conspiracy theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "People formulate conspiracy theories to explain, for example, power relations in social groups and the perceived existence of evil forces. Proposed psychological origins of conspiracy theorising include projection; the personal need to explain \"a significant event [with] a significant cause;\" and the product of various kinds and stages of thought disorder, such as paranoid disposition, ranging in severity to diagnosable mental illnesses. Some people prefer socio-political explanations over the insecurity of encountering random, unpredictable, or otherwise inexplicable events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "602643",
"title": "New World Order (conspiracy theory)",
"section": "Section::::Postulated implementations.:Occultism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 1104,
"text": "Conspiracy theorists of the Christian right, starting with British revisionist historian Nesta Helen Webster, believe there is an ancient occult conspiracy—started by the first mystagogues of Gnosticism and perpetuated by their alleged esoteric successors, such as the Kabbalists, Cathars, Knights Templar, Hermeticists, Rosicrucians, Freemasons, and, ultimately, the Illuminati—which seeks to subvert the Judeo-Christian foundations of the Western world and implement the New World Order through a one-world religion that prepares the masses to embrace the imperial cult of the Antichrist. More broadly, they speculate that globalists who plot on behalf of a New World Order are directed by occult agencies of some sort: unknown superiors, spiritual hierarchies, demons, fallen angels or Lucifer. They believe that these conspirators use the power of occult sciences (numerology), symbols (Eye of Providence), rituals (Masonic degrees), monuments (National Mall landmarks), buildings (Manitoba Legislative Building) and facilities (Denver International Airport) to advance their plot to rule the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5530",
"title": "Conspiracy theory",
"section": "Section::::Psychological interpretations.:The attractions of conspiracy theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "The political scientist Michael Barkun, discussing the usage of \"conspiracy theory\" in contemporary American culture, holds that this term is used for a belief that explains an event as the result of a secret plot by exceptionally powerful and cunning conspirators to achieve a malevolent end. According to Barkun, the appeal of conspiracism is threefold:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "384236",
"title": "Crank (person)",
"section": "Section::::Crank magnetism.:Studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "Studies such as \"Belief in Conspiracy Theories\" state that conspiracy theories relating to the assassination of JFK, the moon landing and the September 11th attacks are united by a common thread: distrust of the government-endorsed story. This leads the believer to attach other conspiracies as well. Someone with a distrust of the government will likely reject any and all stories or reports directly issued by state agencies or other authorities that are seen as part of the establishment. Thus, any conspiracy will seem more plausible to the conspiracy theorist because this fits with their worldview.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3aw3i7 | what causes a drug addict's veins to deteriorate when i've been donating plasma for months with no deterioration? | [
{
"answer": "You're getting a needle from a phlebotomy nurse who knows what they're doing. You aren't randomly sticking yourself so that you can get high. Drug addicts have other concerns than giving themselves a safe injection.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Repeated use of the same vein, injection of drugs that irritate and damage tissues, improper technique, and [damage caused by reusing needles](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Junkies get high more often than you give plasma. They also probably don't take care of their health. Constant drug use can also effect your heart and circulatory system. Collapsing a vein can happen to anyone, junkies are just more risk prone.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Here's my arm after 2 years of shooting H 3-4 times a day](_URL_0_). Only been about every second day for the last 2 months though cause I'm on Suboxone. So it's not always too bad.\n\nIt's not because drug users 'don't know what they're doing' as mentioned here. 99% of the time I get it right on the first try, and I've hit someone who nurses have a hard time with. And safely injecting is a big concern for drug addicts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They also may get many infections from not being sterile. The body takes care of the infection but creates scar tissue too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nutritional deficits and dehydration probably play a part. Non-poor drug users are able to keep it up for years, partially because their wealth allows them to maintain physical health and a healthy weight despite the drug use. Poor fiends have little money, and don't eat enough or stay hydrated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21365918",
"title": "Cirrhosis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Alcoholic cirrhosis caused by alcohol abuse is treated by abstaining from alcohol. Treatment for hepatitis-related cirrhosis involves medications used to treat the different types of hepatitis, such as interferon for viral hepatitis and corticosteroids for autoimmune hepatitis. Cirrhosis caused by Wilson's disease, in which copper builds up in organs, is treated with chelation therapy (for example, penicillamine) to remove the copper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "463501",
"title": "Hepatotoxicity",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Drugs continue to be taken off the market due to late discovery of hepatotoxicity. Due to its unique metabolism and close relationship with the gastrointestinal tract, the liver is susceptible to injury from drugs and other substances. 75% of blood coming to the liver arrives directly from gastrointestinal organs and then spleen via portal veins that bring drugs and xenobiotics in near-undiluted form. Several mechanisms are responsible for either inducing hepatic injury or worsening the damage process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1368054",
"title": "Vasospasm",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "These drugs work by increasing nitric oxide levels in the blood and inducing coronary vasodilation which will allow for more coronary blood flow due to a decreased coronary resistance, allowing for increased oxygen supply to the vital organs (myocardium). The nitric oxide increase in the blood resulting from these drugs also causes dilation of systemic veins which in turn causes a reduction in venous return, ventricular work load and ventricular radius. All of these reductions contribute to the decrease in ventricular wall stress which is significant because this causes the demand of oxygen to decrease. In general organic nitrates decrease oxygen demand and increase oxygen supply. It is this favourable change to the body that can decrease the severity of ischemic symptoms, particularly angina.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38238",
"title": "Hepatitis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Metabolic.:Alcoholic hepatitis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Excessive alcohol consumption is a significant cause of hepatitis and is the most common cause of cirrhosis in the U.S. Alcoholic hepatitis is within the spectrum of alcoholic liver disease. This ranges in order of severity and reversibility from alcoholic steatosis (least severe, most reversible), alcoholic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer (most severe, least reversible). Hepatitis usually develops over years-long exposure to alcohol, occurring in 10 to 20% of alcoholics. The most important risk factors for the development of alcoholic hepatitis are quantity and duration of alcohol intake. Long-term alcohol intake in excess of 80 grams of alcohol a day in men and 40 grams a day in women is associated with development of alcoholic hepatitis (1 beer or 4 ounces of wine is equivalent to 12g of alcohol). Alcoholic hepatitis can vary from asymptomatic hepatomegaly (enlarged liver) to symptoms of acute or chronic hepatitis to liver failure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337566",
"title": "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption",
"section": "Section::::Nervous system.:Mental health effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "Addiction to alcohol, as with any drug of abuse tested so far, has been correlated with an enduring reduction in the expression of GLT1 (EAAT2) in the nucleus accumbens and is implicated in the drug-seeking behavior expressed nearly universally across all documented addiction syndromes. This long-term dysregulation of glutamate transmission is associated with an increase in vulnerability to both relapse-events after re-exposure to drug-use triggers as well as an overall increase in the likelihood of developing addiction to other reinforcing drugs. Drugs which help to re-stabilize the glutamate system such as N-acetylcysteine have been proposed for the treatment of addiction to cocaine, nicotine, and alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48548",
"title": "Dopamine",
"section": "Section::::Disease, disorders, and pharmacology.:Drug addiction and psychostimulants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "A variety of addictive drugs produce an increase in reward-related dopamine activity. Stimulants such as nicotine, cocaine and methamphetamine promote increased levels of dopamine which appear to be the primary factor in causing addiction. For other addictive drugs such as the opioid heroin, the increased levels of dopamine in the reward system may only play a minor role in addiction. When people addicted to stimulants go through withdrawal, they do not experience the physical suffering associated with alcohol withdrawal or withdrawal from opiates; instead they experience craving, an intense desire for the drug characterized by irritability, restlessness, and other arousal symptoms, brought about by psychological dependence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7484403",
"title": "Purdue Pharma",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "The controversy behind the company emerged as a result of the drugs that they made and how they carried high potential for addiction. The most commonly abused medications that the company produces are MS Contin and OxyContin. Both can be abused by crushing, chewing, snorting, or injecting the dissolved product. These ingestion methods create a significant risk to the abuser; they can result in overdose and death. Drug-seeking tactics that addicts undergo to obtain the medication include \"doctor shopping\", which is visiting a number of different physicians to obtain additional prescriptions and refusal to follow up with appropriate examinations. Along with the high potential for abuse among people without prescriptions, there is also a risk for physical dependency and reduced reaction or drug desensitization for patients that are prescribed them. Nevertheless, strong analgesic drugs remain indispensable to patients suffering from severe acute and cancer pain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2rq9el | what happens to the Carbon-14 that decays inside of us? | [
{
"answer": "It pretty much does what you think it might. It changes into nitrogen which changes its chemical properties. Since Carbon typically makes 4 bonds while Nitrogen prefers 3 if the bonds aren't destroyed by the nuclear reaction itself (Since these reactions can often give off a fairly large amount of energy) they'll likely react immediately to form a more stable structure since you'll have a nitrogen cation with 4 bonds. You'll also have an extra electron floating around if it doesn't exit your body which can also cause a few problems of its own. \n\nAs a result whatever had the carbon-14 in it would most likely not be the same compound it started as. However, since Carbon-14 is both in low abundance and has a fairly long half life (over 5,000 years if memory serves me right) the rate at which this occurs in your body is so rare that you will most likely replace the carbon through natural processes before it can actually do anything in your body. You might have a handful of these events occur in your entire lifetime. Over the course of a 100 years only about 1-2% of the C-14 that was present when you were born will have decayed and your body's Carbon is over 99.9% C-12 and C-13. \n\nAnd even in the event that it does decay, it's fairly likely the damage will be so small that your body will either remove the damaged area or may just end up ignoring it altogether. \n\nC-14 will never do enough damage fast enough, but on the other hand fast decaying isotopes in large enough quantities could do damage. The most common threat is Iodine-131 which has a half-life of about 8 days. Since your thyroid uses Iodine for its processes (and not much iodine is needed I might add) you can absorb enough to start killing thyroid cells. Between the radiation given off and the change of the chemical make up, it absolutely messes with your thyroid. Needless to say this is a very bad thing",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2527114",
"title": "Isotopes of nitrogen",
"section": "Section::::Natural isotopes.:Nitrogen-14.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Nitrogen-14 is the source of naturally-occurring, radioactive, carbon-14. Some kinds of cosmic radiation cause a nuclear reaction with nitrogen-14 in the upper atmosphere of the Earth, creating carbon-14, which decays back to nitrogen-14 with a half-life of 5,730 ± 40 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146250",
"title": "Carbon-14",
"section": "Section::::Radioactive decay and detection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "By emitting an electron and an electron antineutrino, one of the neutrons in the carbon-14 atom decays to a proton and the carbon-14 (half-life of 5,700 ± 40 years) decays into the stable (non-radioactive) isotope nitrogen-14.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "659068",
"title": "Mass number",
"section": "Section::::Mass number changes in radioactive decay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "On the other hand, carbon-14 naturally decays by radioactive beta decay, whereby one neutron is transmuted into a proton with the emission of an electron and an anti-neutrino. Thus the atomic number increases by 1 (\"Z\": 6→7) and the mass number remains the same (\"A\" = 14), while the number of neutrons decreases by 1 (\"N\": 8→7). The resulting atom is nitrogen-14, with seven protons and seven neutrons:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5299",
"title": "Carbon",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Isotopes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "Carbon-14 (C) is a naturally occurring radioisotope, created in the upper atmosphere (lower stratosphere and upper troposphere) by interaction of nitrogen with cosmic rays. It is found in trace amounts on Earth of 1 part per trillion (0.0000000001%) or more, mostly confined to the atmosphere and superficial deposits, particularly of peat and other organic materials. This isotope decays by 0.158 MeV β emission. Because of its relatively short half-life of 5730 years, C is virtually absent in ancient rocks. The amount of C in the atmosphere and in living organisms is almost constant, but decreases predictably in their bodies after death. This principle is used in radiocarbon dating, invented in 1949, which has been used extensively to determine the age of carbonaceous materials with ages up to about 40,000 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2527115",
"title": "Isotopes of carbon",
"section": "Section::::Carbon-11.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Carbon-11 or C is a radioactive isotope of carbon that decays to boron-11. This decay mainly occurs due to positron emission; however, around 0.19–0.23% of the time, it is a result of electron capture. It has a half-life of 20.334 minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52445083",
"title": "Diamond battery",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "BULLET::::- It will possess long life because it will run on radioactivity which takes an enormous amount of time to decay. The half life of C-14 is 5,730 years, so it will take that long to lose 50% of its power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8355163",
"title": "Radioactivity in the life sciences",
"section": "Section::::Examples of biologically useful radionuclei.:Carbon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Carbon-14 has a long half-life of 5,730±40 years. Its maximum specific activity is 0.0624 Ci/mmol (2.31 TBq/mol). It is used in applications such as radiometric dating or drug tests. C-14 labeling is common in drug development to do ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion) studies in animal models and in human toxicology and clinical trials. Since tritium exchange may occur in some radiolabeled compounds, this does not happen with C-14 and may thus be preferred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
45kzmy | why can't we simply restart the brain? | [
{
"answer": "Without energy to supply them, your brain cells begin to die. When they die, they collapse, leaking their goo out of them. This destroys the structure of the connections between them, meaning that the brain is then irreparably damaged.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your brain stops producing \"electricity\" and your body stops producing essential nutrients and basic body to keep it going for example , blood stops flowing. \n\nWhile all of this stops your brain no longer works and cells starts dying, as we know brain cells cannot be reproduced. \n\nYour brain is basically the core of all the factory called the body, once the hearts stops flowing blood and lungs giving oxygen, the core no longer has what it needs to work properly, I'm not a biologist so correct me if I'm wrong but from my understanding that's what happens. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " Brain-dead doesn't mean the software in your brain has crashed and requires a reboot. Brain death means the hardware of your brain has been chemically destroyed. It's not usable anymore. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The brain is run by electro - chemical impulses.\n\nThere's two parts to that, electricity and chemicals.\n\nWe could supply shocks to the brain, it's what electroshock therapy is.\n\nThe problem is that once the brain has died, it means it is damaged to the point that the chemicals can't be produced, transported and received properly.\n\nBrain death isn't a computer that needs a reboot. It's a computer where the motherboard has been destroyed.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37862937",
"title": "Rectifier (neural networks)",
"section": "Section::::Potential problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "BULLET::::- Dying ReLU problem: ReLU neurons can sometimes be pushed into states in which they become inactive for essentially all inputs. In this state, no gradients flow backward through the neuron, and so the neuron becomes stuck in a perpetually inactive state and \"dies\". This is a form of the vanishing gradient problem. In some cases, large numbers of neurons in a network can become stuck in dead states, effectively decreasing the model capacity. This problem typically arises when the learning rate is set too high. It may be mitigated by using leaky ReLUs instead, which assign a small positive slope to the left of \"x\" = 0.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25066364",
"title": "Flight from Rebirth",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Modern science has discovered a way to rejuvenate people. It is just like immortality, but the rejuvenation process causes the human brain to be \"restarted\"–effectively losing all its former memories so the recipient starts life anew, like a blank slate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40618504",
"title": "Memory erasure",
"section": "Section::::Current research.:Destruction of neurons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Due to the lack of understanding of the brain this technique of destroying neurons may have a much larger effect on the patient than just the removal of the intended memories. Due to this complex nature of the brain treatment that would stun the neurons instead of destroying them could be another approach that could be taken.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9841",
"title": "Expressive aphasia",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Mechanisms of recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 1004,
"text": "Mechanisms for recovery differ from patient to patient. Some mechanisms for recovery occur spontaneously after damage to the brain, whereas others are caused by the effects of language therapy. FMRI studies have shown that recovery can be partially attributed to the activation of tissue around the damaged area and the recruitment of new neurons in these areas to compensate for the lost function. Recovery may also be caused in very acute lesions by a return of blood flow and function to damaged tissue that has not died around an injured area. It has been stated by some researchers that the recruitment and recovery of neurons in the left hemisphere opposed to the recruitment of similar neurons in the right hemisphere is superior for long-term recovery and continued rehabilitation. It is thought that, because the right hemisphere is not intended for full language function, using the right hemisphere as a mechanism of recovery is effectively a \"dead-end\" and can lead only to partial recovery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "36053717",
"title": "Endogenous regeneration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Endogenous regeneration in the brain is the ability of cells to engage in the repair and regeneration process. While the brain has a limited capacity for regeneration, endogenous neural stem cells, as well as numerous pro-regenerative molecules, can participate in replacing and repairing damaged or diseased neurons and glial cells. Another benefit that can be achieved by using endogenous regeneration could be avoiding an immune response from the host.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44509314",
"title": "Sensory dysfunction disorder",
"section": "Section::::Systems.:Visual system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "- Researched information for article through internet and medical booksde\"/ They become unresponsive to any disciplinary actions that may typically be used. Their brain reaches a state of sensory overload and any new information, such as conversation to alter their current state of mind, becomes ineffective. They need to calm themselves and let their brains slow down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25259743",
"title": "Cortical cooling",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1465,
"text": "A common method of deactivation when studying brain function is ablation of neural tissue, but there are several drawbacks. The exact location and extent of ablation, whether caused by chemicals or lesions, can only be defined post mortem. If the ablation occurred in an undesired location or has deactivated more of the tissue than intended, the time and resources were already been spent while obtaining results unrelated to the designed investigation. Also, ablation permanently deactivates the section of interest due to damage or removal of the neural tissue. Since the tissue cannot be reactivated, control measures that can be directly compared to the deactivation-induced effects cannot be obtained. Comparisons must be made between animals, which will have inherent differences, so internal double dissociations are not possible. Another major drawback in using ablation to deactivate tissue is that because the brain is plastic, while animals are recovering from ablation surgery, the cerebral cortex is able to modify the neural networking by activating new connections or strengthening pre-existing ones. This could cause the resulting behavior in the investigation to appear normal even though part of the animal’s brain has been deactivated, and then investigators would not be able to tell the contribution of the deactivated section to normal function. To overcome many of these drawbacks, cortical cooling devices may be used instead of ablation. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
8bpfb3 | In 1095, the First Crusade is called to aid Byzantium, a Christian power, against their Muslim enemy. In 1204, the Fourth Crusade conquers the capital of Byzantium. How on earth did this happen? | [
{
"answer": "While it is true that the relationship between the Catholic and Orthodox churches did decline this isn't them main reason for the 4th Crusade conquering Constantinople. The 4th Crusade wasn't called against the Byzantine Empire, infact the pope excommunicated the participants of the 4th Crusade because they weren't fighting against the target the pope had intended.\n\nThe 4th Crusades' original target was Egypt, the Crusaders planned to capture Egypt, and then move on to the holy land, in order to prevent a counterattack from Egypt against the Holy Land when the Crusaders left, as happened after the 1st and 2nd Crusades.\n\nThe Crusaders decided to travel by boat because they were heading to Egypt, and because previous expeditions by the German and French contingents that travelled by land through Anatolia during the 2nd and 3rd Crusades had suffered high casualties.\n\nTherefore the Crusaders commissioned Venice to build a fleet for them, promising to pay them 85,000 marks when the crusade began, however when the Crusaders showed up they only had 35,000 marks, and since Venice had made a huge investment in building the fleet they weren't willing to reduce their price by that much.\n\nInstead Enrico Dandolo, who was the Doge of Venice said that they would transport the crusaders, if the crusaders would help the Venetians recapture the city of Zadar(also known as Zara), which had rebelled against Venetian rule in 1181. Doge Enrico also prevented food from being transported to the island the Crusaders were stationed on until the crusaders agreed to the deal. Therefore the crusades' leaders agreed, despite the fact that Zadar was a Catholic city, and under the protection of Emeric I, King of Hungary and Croatia. \n\nIn October 1202 the Crusade left Venice and they besieged and captured Zara in November 1202, in response to this King Emeric asked Pope Innocent III to excommunicate the Crusaders, which he did, although most members of the Crusade didn't hear about this fact.Since the siege had ended on November 24, by which time the weather wasn't suitable for sailing, the Crusade had to spend winter in Zara. \n\nMeanwhile Boniface I Marquess of Montferrat who was one of the leaders of the Crusade had left to visit his cousin Philip the Duke of Swabia, and King of Germany. Philip was married to Irene. Irene had a brother, Alexios IV (who wasn't emperor at this point I'm just including his regnal number to avoid confusion) who was living at their court. The father of Alexios IV was overthrown imprisoned and blinded in a coup carried out by his older brother Alexios III, in 1195. Ever since this Philip had supported Alexios IV claim on the Byzantine throne and they plotted to place Alexios IV on the Byzantine throne. When Boniface went to Swabia he met with Alexios IV, and they presumably reached an agreement, although we don't know exactly what happened at their meeting due to a lack of primary sources.\n\nIn January 1203 Boniface arrived at Zara alongside envoys from Alexios IV, Alexios IV offered to give the crusaders 200,000 marks, as well as pay off all of their debts to the Venetians, give 10,000 men to the crusade and permanently maintain 500 knights in the holy land, have the Byzantine navy transport the crusaders, and mend the great schism of 1054 by placing the Byzantine Church(Eastern Orthodox) under the authority of the Pope. This offer was strongly supported by Boniface, Doge Enrico, and Louis I Count of Blois. The other leaders of the crusade eventually agreed to the offer as well. This prompted a few of the crusaders to leave the Crusade, however the vast majority of the crusaders remained with the crusade.\n\nWhen the weather improved and the crusade gathered supplies, in April 1203 the crusade left Zara alongside the Venetians, at this point a majority of the Crusading force was Venetian. With there being 14,000 Venetians and 10,000 \"regular\" non-venetian crusaders. The Venetians relationship with the Byzantines was much worse than that of other Catholic countries. Since Venice made a large amount of its wealth by trade, and the Byzantines were rivals to the Venetians, and through their competition and their favourable treatment to Byzantine merchants were harming Venetian profits. Also in 1182 after Alexios II was overthrown by Andronikos I, the supporters of Andronikos I performed a massacre of Catholics who lived in Constantinople, which resulted in over 10,000 Catholics dying (there is a wide number of estimates for the death toll ranging from 10,000-80,000). Before 1182 there were a large number of Venetians living in Constantinople, and many soldiers in the Venetian navy had lost relatives in the massacre, causing the Venetians to hate the Byzantines a lot more than average Catholics hated them.\n\nIn June 1203 the crusade arrived in Constantinople . The Crusaders had hoped having Alexios IV with them would convince the garrison to defect, but that didn't happen. During the siege in July Alexios III, after a failed sally attempt fled the city prompting the people of Constantinople to release Isaac II from his imprisonment and proclaim him as Emperor, the Crusaders then demanded that Alexios IV should be proclaimed as Emperor as well, at which point they stopped besieging the city.\n\nAt this point the Crusaders didn't control Constantinople, instead it was in the hands of their ally Alexios IV. In August 1203 another smaller massacre of Catholics happened in Constantinople, due to the Crusader army being away fighting against Alexios III in Thrace. Meanwhile Alexios IV was trying to fulfil the promises he had made to the Crusaders. Placing the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Pope was very slow, however even this little effort annoyed a great many Byzantines. The main promise Alexios IV tried to fulfil was the financial one, however even after melting down statues to make money he could only raise 100,000 of the 300,000 marks he needed to make the payment.\n\nHis attempts to fulfil his promise to the Crusaders made Alexios IV very unpopular with the people of Constantinople, who overthrew and killed him and his father on February 1204, and named Alexios V as Emperor instead. The crusaders still demanded that the promise of Alexios IV should be fulfilled, however when they realised that Alexios V wasn't going to abide by the deal the Crusaders besieged Constantinople, sacking it in April 1204.\n\nIn summary political upheaval in the Byzantine Empire resulting in the massacre of Catholics soured the relationship between the Byzantines and Catholics, leading to the Venetians hijacking an indebted Crusading force and taking it to capture Constantinople. The pope had called the 4th Crusade against Egypt, not the Byzantines.\n",
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"answer": "u/wowbuggertheinfinite has a great discussion of the Fourth Crusade and how it all went so off the rails, but I want to highlight another important part of this whole incident: relations between the Latin West \\(and Crusaders in particular\\) and Byzantium were on rocky footing well before the Fourth Crusade.\n\nRelations between Byzantium and the West deteriorated significantly in the Central Middle ages. One major contributing factor was the Norman 'conquest' of southern Italy. I say 'conquest', because it was more like a slow edging out of the previous political elites and replacing them with newly arrived Normans \\(initially hired as mercenaries\\) than an out and out brutal conquest, and in that way very different from the more famous Norman Conquest in 1066 \\(which is not to say it was entirely peaceful either, it was still pretty violent\\). Byzantium ostensibly ruled over southern Italy and the previous rulers had sworn allegiance to the Empire. The new Norman nobility were less interested in paying their respects to a distant power and Byzantium lacked the strength to force them to, especially after the disastrous defeat at Manzikert in 1071.\n\nThings took a significant turn for the worse in the 1080s when the Normans, led by Robert Guiscard a prominent leader in the conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily, invaded the Balkans \\- lands definitely under Byzantine rule. This conflict lasted from 1080 until Guiscards death in 1085 \\- which roughly coincided with a major Byzantine\\-Venetian victory against the Norman forces. Somewhat ironically, many of the Norman participants in this invasion would go on to join the First Crusade, most notably the future Prince of Antioch \\(and Robert Guiscard's son\\) Bohemond of Taranto.\n\nThe First Crusade had a rocky start to Byzantine\\-Crusader relations \\(the presence of his Norman former enemies was not exactly something Alexios I loved\\), but mostly everyone got along reasonably well until the siege of Antioch. This is one of the major events of the First Crusade, and literal books have been written about it, so I'm going to limit myself to the big picture and skip over many very important and complex details. The short version is that the Crusader forces pushed ahead of Alexios' armies and besieged the stronghold of Antioch, at the same time the Atabeg of Mosul, Kerbogha, was summoning a massive Muslim army to crush the Crusade. The siege of Antioch dragged on for months, things were looking dire for the Crusaders. Bohemond managed to get a local resident to betray the city and let in a small force one night, and the Crusaders took the city just in time for Kerbogha to surround it and put them under siege. Alexios was supposed to come relieve them, he didn't \\(much ink has been spilled over this decision\\), it looked like the Crusaders were all about to die, but in a rather miraculous turn of events they road out of the city to fight Kerbogha and won. The First Crusade was triumphant, and feeling like they were betrayed by Alexios and the Byzantines. Bohemond was given control of Antioch, and declared that he didn't have to turn it over to the Byzantines despite previously have agreed to do so because they had abandoned the Crusade in its time of need. Alexios didn't really see things that way.\n\nThe relationship between Byzantium and Antioch would continue to be fraught for the next two centuries. Bohemond actually assembled another army while touring Europe promoting his success on the crusade and used it to invade Byzantium **again**, this time with disastrous consequences. He was roundly defeated, captured by Alexios, and forced to pledge his loyalty to the Byzantine Empire. He died without returning to Antioch, and his son \\(now Prince of Antioch\\), decided that his father's oath to Alexios didn't apply to him. Relations continued to be problematic after that.\n\nRelations between Byzantium and the Latin West continued to be problematic through the Second Crusade, although they again mostly cooperated but there were a lot of hard feelings after the Crusades failure and a strong desire in parts of the West to blame that failure upon the 'treachery of the Greeks'. Relations took an even worse turn in 1185 when the Angelos dynasty deposed the last Komnenoi emperor and then pretty much refused to help with the Third Crusade at all. The Angelos dynasty was marked in particular by strong anti\\-Latin sentiments, and were eventually deposed as part of the Fourth Crusade.\n\nThis has been a super broad survey of a very complicated topic, but I think it is important to keep in mind that throughout this period relations between Byzantium and the Crusaders were not all rosy, and while the Fourth Crusade is arguably an extreme result, it is not entirely without precedent.\n\nPeter Frankopan's *A Call from the East* is a good history of the First Crusade from the Byzantine perspective and covers the fraught relations beforehand pretty well.\n\nThomas Asbridge's *The Crusades* is a great survey of the whole period.\n\nAndrew Buck's *The Principality of Antioch and its Frontiers in the Twelfth Century* is a serious scholarly work, and not one I'd recommend a beginner jump in to, but has some great detail on the complicated relationship between Antioch and Byzantium in the century before the Fourth Crusade.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "12641486",
"title": "Islam in Palestine",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early Crusades.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
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"text": "In 1099, the Christian Crusaders, with the support of the Roman Catholic Church, launched the First Crusade campaign with the aims of regaining control of Jerusalem from the Fatimid Caliphate, and helping the Byzantine Empire fight the Seljuk Turks. During the campaign, the Crusaders launched an assault on the city of Jerusalem, captured it in July 1099, massacring many of the city's Muslim and Jewish inhabitants, and established the first Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Crusaders transformed the Dome of the Rock into the \"Shrine of the Lord\" (Templum Domini) and the Al-Aqsa mosque into the \"Hall of Solomon\" (Templum Solomonis). The local Muslim reaction was to try to find an accommodation with the Crusaders. During this era, the larger Muslim world looked upon the setbacks in Jerusalem with indifference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "16822",
"title": "Kingdom of Jerusalem",
"section": "Section::::History.:First Crusade and the foundation of the kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1007,
"text": "The First Crusade was preached at the Council of Clermont in 1095 by Pope Urban II, with the goal of assisting the Byzantine Empire against the invasions of the Seljuk Turks. However, the main objective quickly became the control of the Holy Land. The Byzantines were frequently at war with the Seljuks and other Turkish dynasties for control of Anatolia and Syria. The Sunni Seljuks had formerly ruled the Great Seljuk Empire, but this empire had collapsed into several smaller states after the death of Malik-Shah I in 1092. Malik-Shah was succeeded in the Anatolian Sultanate of Rûm by Kilij Arslan I, and in Syria by his brother Tutush I, who died in 1095. Tutush's sons Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan and Duqaq inherited Aleppo and Damascus respectively, further dividing Syria amongst emirs antagonistic towards each other, as well as Kerbogha, the atabeg of Mosul. This disunity among the Anatolian and Syrian emirs allowed the crusaders to overcome any military opposition they faced on the way to Jerusalem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4305070",
"title": "History of Western civilization",
"section": "Section::::The Middle Ages.:High Middle Ages: 1000–1300.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1232,
"text": "In 1095, Pope Urban II called for a Crusade to re-conquer the Holy Land from Muslim rule, when the Seljuk Turks prevented Christians from visiting the holy sites there. For centuries prior to the emergence of Islam, Asia Minor and much of the Mid East had been a part of the Roman and later Byzantine Empires. The Crusades were originally launched in response to a call from the Byzantine Emperor for help to fight the expansion of the Turks into Anatolia. The First Crusade succeeded in its task, but at a serious cost on the home front, and the crusaders established rule over the Holy Land. However, Muslim forces reconquered the land by the 13th century, and subsequent crusades were not very successful. The specific crusades to restore Christian control of the Holy Land were fought over a period of nearly 200 years, between 1095 and 1291. Other campaigns in Spain and Portugal (the Reconquista), and Northern Crusades continued into the 15th century. The Crusades had major far-reaching political, economic, and social impacts on Europe. They further served to alienate Eastern and Western Christendom from each other and ultimately failed to prevent the march of the Turks into Europe through the Balkans and the Caucasus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8721744",
"title": "Byzantine–Seljuq wars",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "During the course of the war, the Seljuq Turks and their allies attacked the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt, capturing Jerusalem and catalyzing the call for the First Crusade. Crusader assistance to the Byzantine Empire was mixed with treachery and looting, although substantial gains were made in the First Crusade. Within a hundred years of Manzikert, the Byzantines had successfully driven back the Turks from the coasts of Asia Minor and extended their influence right down to Palestine and even Egypt. Later, the Byzantines were unable to extract any more assistance, and the Fourth Crusade even led to the sack of Constantinople. Before the conflict petered out, the Seljuqs managed to take more territory from the weakened Empire of Nicaea until the Sultanate itself was taken over by the Mongols, leading to the rise of the ghazis and the conclusive Byzantine–Ottoman wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8721744",
"title": "Byzantine–Seljuq wars",
"section": "Section::::Turkic Conquests: 1071–1096.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "In 1094, Alexius Comnenus sent a message to Pope Urban II asking for weapons, supplies and skilled troops. At the Council of Clermont in 1095, the Pope preached a Crusade to be undertaken in order to capture Jerusalem and, in the process, assist the Byzantine Empire which could no longer guard Christendom in the East from Islamic aggression. Though the Crusades would assist the Byzantine Empire in reconquering many vital Anatolian towns, it also led to the dissolution of the Empire in 1204 during which time the Byzantines struggled to hold on to their territories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18836",
"title": "Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::High Middle Ages.:Crusades.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 989,
"text": "The crusades were intended to seize Jerusalem from Muslim control. The First Crusade was proclaimed by Pope Urban II (pope 1088–99) at the Council of Clermont in 1095 in response to a request from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) for aid against further Muslim advances. Urban promised indulgence to anyone who took part. Tens of thousands of people from all levels of society mobilised across Europe and captured Jerusalem in 1099. One feature of the crusades was the pogroms against local Jews that often took place as the crusaders left their countries for the East. These were especially brutal during the First Crusade, when the Jewish communities in Cologne, Mainz, and Worms were destroyed, as well as other communities in cities between the rivers Seine and the Rhine. Another outgrowth of the crusades was the foundation of a new type of monastic order, the military orders of the Templars and Hospitallers, which fused monastic life with military service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "348444",
"title": "Persecution of Muslims",
"section": "Section::::Medieval.:Crusades.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II, with the stated goal of regaining control of the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslims, who had captured them from the Byzantines in 638. The Fatimid Caliph, Al Hakim of Cairo, known as the \"mad Caliph\" destroyed the ancient and magnificent Constantinian-Era Church of the Holy Sepulcher in 1009, as well as most other Christian churches and shrines in the Holy Land.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
b4k22r | what is that yellow foil around space probes and what is its function? | [
{
"answer": "The gold and silver colored sheets you see are often a single layer of aluminized polyimide with the silver aluminum side facing in. The yellowish-gold color of the polyimide on the outside gives the satellite the appearance of being wrapped in gold.\n\nMulti-layer insulation is used on satellites primarily for thermal control and protects the delicate on-board instruments from the extreme temperatures of space. Depending on its orbit, a satellite can experience temperatures from below -200°F to well above 300°F, sometimes at the same time! Not to mention the high temperatures the onboard instruments can produce.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1188337",
"title": "Foil (metal)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Foil is commonly used in household applications. It is also useful in survival situations, because the reflective surface reduces the degree of hypothermia caused by thermal radiation (see space blanket).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44717055",
"title": "Aluminum electrolytic capacitor",
"section": "Section::::Basic information.:Construction of non-solid aluminum electrolytic capacitors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "An aluminum electrolytic capacitor with a non-solid electrolyte always consists of two aluminum foils separated mechanically by a spacer, mostly paper, which is saturated with a liquid or gel-like electrolyte. One of the aluminum foils, the anode, is etched (roughened) to increase the surface and oxidized (formed). The second aluminum foil, called the \"cathode foil\", serves to make electrical contact with the electrolyte. A paper spacer mechanically separates the foils to avoid direct metallic contact. Both foils and the spacer are wound and the winding is impregnated with liquid electrolyte. The electrolyte, which serves as cathode of the capacitor, covers the etched rough structure of the oxide layer on the anode perfectly and makes the increased anode surface effectual. After impregnation the impregnated winding is mounted in an aluminum case and sealed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3546422",
"title": "Space blanket",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "For use in space, polyimide (e.g. kapton, UPILEX) substrate is usually employed due to its resistance to the hostile space environment, large temperature range (cryogenic to −260 °C and for short excursions up to over 480 °C), low outgassing (making it suitable for vacuum use) and resistance to ultraviolet radiation. Aluminized kapton, with foil thickness of 50 and 125 µm, was used e.g. on the Apollo Lunar Module. The polyimide gives the foils their distinctive amber-gold color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44717055",
"title": "Aluminum electrolytic capacitor",
"section": "Section::::Materials.:Cathode.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "The second aluminum foil in the electrolytic capacitor, called the \"cathode foil\", serves to make electrical contact with the electrolyte. This foil has a somewhat lower degree of purity, about 99.8%. It is always provided with a very thin oxide layer, which arises from the contact of the aluminum surface with the air in a natural way. In order to reduce the contact resistance to the electrolyte and to make it difficult for oxide formation during discharging, the cathode foil is alloyed with metals such as copper, silicon, or titanium. The cathode foil is also etched to enlarge the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45322397",
"title": "Foil (architecture)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "A foil is an architectural device based on a symmetrical rendering of leaf shapes, defined by overlapping circles of the same diameter that produce a series of cusps to make a lobe. Typically, the number of cusps can be three (\"trefoil\"), four (\"quatrefoil\"), five (\"cinquefoil\"), or a larger number (\"multifoil\"). Foil motifs may be used as part of the heads and tracery of window lights, complete windows themselves, the underside of arches, in heraldry, within panelling, and as part of any decorative or ornament device. Foil types are commonly found in Gothic and Islamic architecture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1342988",
"title": "Capacitor plague",
"section": "Section::::Non-solid aluminum electrolytic capacitors.:Basic construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "A second aluminum foil strip, called the \"cathode foil\", serves to make electrical contact with the electrolyte. The spacer separates the foil strips to avoid direct metallic contact which would produce a short circuit. Lead wires are attached to both foils which are then rolled with the spacer into a wound cylinder which will fit inside an aluminum case or \"can\". The winding is impregnated with liquid electrolyte. This provides a reservoir of electrolyte to extend the lifetime of the capacitor. The assembly is inserted into an aluminum can and sealed with a plug. Aluminum electrolytic capacitors with non-solid electrolyte have grooves in the top of the case, forming a vent, which is designed to split open in the event of excessive gas pressure caused by heat, short circuit, or failing electrolyte.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "423298",
"title": "Foil (fencing)",
"section": "Section::::Non-electric and electric foils.:Electric foils.:Tip.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "The tip of the electric foil terminates in a button assembly that generally consists of a barrel, plunger, spring, and retaining screws. The circuit is a \"normally closed\" one, meaning that at rest there is always a complete power circuit; depressing the tip breaks this circuit, and the scoring apparatus illuminates an appropriate light. Color-coding is used: white or yellow indicates hits not on the valid target area, and either red or green indicate hits on the valid target area (red for one fencer, green for the other).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2yd09n | If I filled up a water bottle underwater in the deep part of the ocean, and brought it back up again, would the bottle explode? | [
{
"answer": "**Short answer:** Probably not, but it depends on the quality of your plastic bottle.\n\n**Long answer:** Gasses and liquids behave a little differently when under pressure. The temperature or pressure of ideal gasses, for example, will have a dramatic response when compressed. \n\nWater is different- in fact, it's often taken to be an *incompressible fluid* meaning that it's density doesn't really change as the pressure on it increases. This means that you have to squeeze really really hard on water to change it's volume a small amount. If you filled your water bottle at the very bottom of the ocean and brought it up, the change in pressure will only have a minute effect on the volume of the fluid. Provided your bottle is some sort of crazy cool pressure vessel that can handle deep sea pressures without getting crushed, then it's certainly capable of handling the water once it's back at the surface. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2433545",
"title": "Nansen bottle",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "The bottle, more precisely a metal or plastic cylinder, is lowered on a cable into the ocean, and when it has reached the required depth, a brass weight called a \"messenger\" is dropped down the cable. When the weight reaches the bottle, the impact tips the bottle upside down and trips a spring-loaded valve at the end, trapping the water sample inside. The bottle and sample are then retrieved by hauling in the cable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2511505",
"title": "Message in a bottle",
"section": "Section::::Bottle design, and recovery rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "An early-20th-century \"bottom\" (or seabed) drift bottle design by George Parker Bidder III involved weighting a bottle with a long copper wire that causes it to sink until the wire trails upon the sea bottom, at which time the bottle tends to remain a few inches above the bottom to be moved by the bottom current. A mushroom-shaped seabed drifter design has also been used. Seabed drifters are designed to be scooped up by a trawler or wash up on shore. Water pressure pressing on the cork or other closure was thought to keep a bottle better sealed; some designs included a wooden stick to stop the cork from imploding. Vessels of less scientific designs have survived for extended periods, including a baby food bottle a ginger beer bottle, and a 7-Up bottle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7259047",
"title": "Ekman water bottle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "The Ekman water bottle is a sea water temperature sample device. The cylinder is dropped at the desired depth, the trap door below is opened to let the water enter and then closed tightly. This can be repeated at different depths as each sample goes to a different chamber of the insulated bottle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19608152",
"title": "Pneumatic trough",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The bottle is filled with water, inverted, and placed into the pneumatic trough already containing water. The outlet tube from the gas-generating apparatus is inserted into the opening of the bottle so that gas can bubble up through it, displacing the water within. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7347895",
"title": "Caisson lock",
"section": "Section::::Method of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "At the lower position the process was reversed. Here the water pressure was strong enough to press the box tightly into position against the exit opening. Another rack and pinion (again operated from above) lifted the outer gate, the levels were equalised again, the inner door on the box was swung open and the boat floated out. Apart from the inevitable small leakages, no significant amount of water had been used in the process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "227519",
"title": "Operation Crossroads",
"section": "Section::::Test \"Baker\".:Sequence of blast events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "When the gas bubble's diameter equaled the water depth, , it hit the sea floor and the sea surface simultaneously. At the bottom, it started digging a shallow crater, ultimately deep and wide. At the top, it pushed the water above it into a \"spray dome\", which burst through the surface like a geyser. Elapsed time since detonation was four milliseconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37108086",
"title": "All Is Lost",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "In the Indian Ocean, a man (Robert Redford) wakes to find water flooding his boat. He has collided with a wayward shipping container, ripping a hole in the hull. He uses a sea anchor to dislodge the container, then changes course to tilt the boat away from the hole. He patches the hole and uses the manual bilge pump to remove the water from the cabin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1zskfm | Can you tell the age of someone by their DNA? | [
{
"answer": "To some extent, yes. In the S-phase of the cell cycle, when the cell is preparing to undergo mitosis, the chromosomes containing our DNA are duplicated by the DNA-polymerase enzyme.\n\nThe telomeres are strands of nucleotide bases at the end of the chromosomes where no genes are located. These are used to provide the location for RNA primers, allowing DNA polymerase to synthesise the lagging strand of the DNA.\n\nAs the first part of this video _URL_1_ shows, there is a small nucleotide sequence lacking at each replication, but since the telomeres are not involved in the translation of DNA to protein, they are expendable. However they will continue to get shorter at each replication and are widely believed to be responsible for part of the ageing process in eukaryotes.\n\nBy combining the knowledge of DNA replication rates in various tissues and the telomere length, an estimate of age can be provided.\n\n\nSources:\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_2_\n\nCampbell Biology, Pearson Education",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "379047",
"title": "Forensic anthropology",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Determination of age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "The determination of an individual's age by anthropologists depends on whether or not the individual was an adult or a child. The determination of the age of children, under the age of 21, is usually performed by examining the teeth. When teeth are not available, children can be aged based on which growth plates are sealed. The tibia plate seals around age 16 or 17 in girls and around 18 or 19 in boys. The clavicle is the last bone to complete growth and the plate is sealed around age 25. In addition, if a complete skeleton is available anthropologists can count the number of bones. While adults have 206 bones, the bones of a child have not yet fused resulting in a much higher number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "891050",
"title": "Telephone numbers in China",
"section": "Section::::Mobile phones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "As new numbers were introduced over time, it is possible to recognize the age of a number: The oldest GSM numbers start with 1390…, the second oldest 1380… and 1300… Keeping the same number over time is somewhat associated with stability and reliability of the owner. As the fourth digit was introduced later, thus it is 0 for all old numbers. In further extensions, non-139,138,130 numbers were introduced. The fifth to seventh digit sometimes relates to age and location.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4635888",
"title": "United Kingdom census, 1841",
"section": "Section::::Administration of the census.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "The 1841 census recorded people's names, age, sex, occupation, and if they were born in the county of their residence, and if they were born anywhere other than in England and Wales. Children under 15 were to have their age recorded accurately, while those over 15 were to be rounded down to the nearest 5 years so, for example, someone aged 63 should be recorded as aged 60. However, not all enumerators followed this instruction and exact ages may have been recorded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40854066",
"title": "Epigenetic clock",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "The strong effects of age on DNA methylation levels have been known since the late 1960s. A vast literature describes sets of CpGs whose DNA methylation levels correlate with age, e.g. The first robust demonstration that DNA methylation levels in saliva could generate accurate age predictors was published by a UCLA team including Steve Horvath in 2011 (Bocklandt et al 2011). The labs of Trey Ideker and Kang Zhang at the University of California, San Diego published the Hannum epigenetic clock (Hannum 2013), which consisted of 71 markers that accurately estimate age based on blood methylation levels. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229060",
"title": "Old age",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Sub-group definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Therefore, rather than lumping together all people who have been defined as old, some gerontologists have recognized the diversity of old age by defining sub-groups. One study distinguishes the young old (60 to 69), the middle old (70 to 79), and the very old (80+). Another study's sub-grouping is young-old (65 to 74), middle-old (75–84), and oldest-old (85+). A third sub-grouping is \"young old\" (65–74), \"old\" (74–84), and \"old-old\" (85+). Describing sub-groups in the 65+ population enables a more accurate portrayal of significant life changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51435709",
"title": "Mbah Gotho",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "In May 2010, \"Solopos\" reported that census enumerators recorded Gotho's age as 142, which would have made him 20 years older than the verified oldest recorded person, Jeanne Calment. \"Liputan 6\" reported that his estimated age was 140, and that he could not remember his date of birth but claimed to remember the construction of a sugar factory in Sragen in 1880.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23395806",
"title": "Brooke Greenberg",
"section": "Section::::Comparable cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Blood tissue from five other female Syndrome X cases (whose average age was 6.3 years) turned out to be age appropriate according to a biomarker of aging known as epigenetic clock. The mean epigenetic age of the five pure Syndrome X subjects was 6.7 years (standard error=1.0) which is not significantly different from the mean chronological age of 6.3 years (standard error=1.8). Notably, the oldest pure Syndrome X case had an epigenetic age of 14.5 years which was 3.2 years older than her true chronological age. It is not yet known whether the epigenetic age of other tissues is also age appropriate in these cases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
82ced7 | In video games and popular media, the Sengoku Period of Japan are often characterized as a period of conflict between Japanese clans which were small but were of equal economic or military strength with each other. Was this accurate? | [
{
"answer": "Well...it really depends on the specific clan, battle, and war. When we are talking about local strongman vs local strongman, it's probably not too far off to assume each side only had a few hundred, or at most a couple of thousand. However, things could be quite large and lopsided. For instance, the overall engagement at Nagashino was, according to the Chronicles of Lord Nobunaga, 38,500 for the Oda and Tokugawa and 15,000 for the Takeda, with the decisive engagement at Shitaragahara 32,000 vs 12,000. And this is the *lower* end of pre-modern sources. And engagements after Yamazaki got stupidly large because of the wide range of resources and clans mobilized.\n\nOn the other hand... it's my experience that media often *exaggerate* the strength disparity to make for a better story, so I'm not sure which media you're referring to.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2295079",
"title": "Devil Kings",
"section": "Section::::Story.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "\"Sengoku BASARA\" takes place during the Sengoku period, or Warring States period, of feudal Japan during which Japan was split into many minor states battling over power and land. The game features two historical warlords as the main protagonists: Date Masamune and Sanada Yukimura.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166614",
"title": "Military history of Japan",
"section": "Section::::Feudal Japan.:Sengoku period (1467–1603).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "The Sengoku Period is marked by social upheaval, political intrigue and near-constant military conflict. Less than a century after the end of the Nanboku-chō Wars, peace under the relatively weak Ashikaga shogunate was disrupted by the outbreak of the Ōnin War (1467–1477). This was a civil war between the Ashikaga shogunate and numerous daimyō. The ancient capital of Kyoto was converted into a battlefield and a heavily fortified city that suffered severe destruction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1922311",
"title": "Japanese castle",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "The Genpei War (1180–1185) between the Minamoto and Taira clans, and the Nanboku-chō Wars (1336–1392) between the Northern and Southern Imperial Courts are the primary conflicts that define these developments during what is sometimes called Japan's medieval period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19614539",
"title": "Samurai Warriors 3",
"section": "Section::::Story.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Like other games in the series, the game reinvents the story based on the Sengoku period of Japan, a period where Japan was ruled by powerful \"daimyōs\" and where constant military conflict and much political intrigue happened that lasted from the middle of 16th century to the beginning of 17th century. However, the game has a slightly extended time frame compared to the previous game; while \"Samurai Warriors 2\" is mostly focused on the events leading to the great battle of Sekigahara, this game also covers the events beforehand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "774012",
"title": "Japanese poetry",
"section": "Section::::Sengoku period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "The Sengoku period literally derives its name from the Japanese for \"warring states\". It was a militarily and politically turbulent period, with nearly constant military conflict which lasted roughly from the middle of the 15th century to the beginning of the 17th century, and which during which there were also developments in \"renga\" and \"waka\" poetry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1262884",
"title": "Sōhei",
"section": "Section::::History.:Sengoku-jidai and the rise of the Ikkō-Ikki.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The Ōnin War, starting in 1467, was the prelude to over a century of civil war in Japan, and the stimulus for a reorganization of the warrior monks. Unlike the Jōkyū War and Mongol invasions of the 13th century, the Ōnin War was fought primarily in Kyoto, and thus the warrior monks could no longer remain non-violent and neutral.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1922311",
"title": "Japanese castle",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval period.:Sengoku.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "The Ōnin War, which broke out in 1467, marked the beginning of nearly 150 years of widespread warfare (called the Sengoku period) between \"daimyōs\" (feudal lords) across the entire archipelago. For the duration of the Ōnin War (1467–1477), and into the Sengoku period, the entire city of Kyoto became a battlefield, and suffered extensive damage. Noble family mansions across the city became increasingly fortified over this ten-year period, and attempts were made to isolate the city as a whole from the marauding armies of samurai that dominated the landscape for over a century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1of441 | if humans have a night and day circadian clock, why have i (and others) been a night owl since birth? | [
{
"answer": "I'm right there with you. Our knowledge of sleep is still very limited (as well as pretty much anything that has to do with our brain), but there are a large range of classified sleep disorders. Insomnia, night terrors, narcolepsy, things you've probably heard before. [Here's a good Wikipedia article on Delayed Sleep Phase Disorder](_URL_2_), which I'm guessing will sound pretty familiar to you.\n\nDSPD (and its opposite [Advanced Sleep Phase Syndrome](_URL_1_)) is an *uncontrollable* shift in your sleep cycle. People with DSPD commonly go to sleep well past midnight. They find it difficult to keep a \"normal\" schedule, especially with standardized work hours being 9-5. If left on their own they will resort to a regular (albeit shifted) sleep schedule. This is more common in adolescents (possibly as high as 7%), and less common in adults (around .15%). If the DSPD does not disappear after adolescence/early adulthood it will be a lifelong condition. \n\nThere are some treatments, including medication and non-medication. Light therapy, sleep phase chronotherapy, meltanonin, modafinil, are more common. A significant thing to note, with DSPD you may find that people will label you as lazy. While this may be true, it is entirely separate from the condition itself. DSPD is a shift in how a person is able to fall asleep and wake up, not their ability to get out of bed--though it is far easier to get out of bed when your body wakes up naturally after a full night's rest. \n\nYou may find that you have difficulty feeling tired after a late night on Reddit. If you're looking at a screen late at night, the blue light (which is the majority of the light coming out of the screen usually) disrupts your sleep cycle by suppressing melatonin, [proportional to the light intensity and length of exposure](_URL_0_). I would recommend installing a program like [f.lux](_URL_3_) to lower the amount of blue light coming out of your screen late at night. ",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4681509",
"title": "Night owl (person)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 447,
"text": "The opposite of a night owl is an early bird – a lark as opposed to an owl – which is someone who tends to begin sleeping at a time that is considered early and also wakes early. Researchers traditionally use the terms \"morningness\" and \"eveningness\" for the two chronotypes or diurnality and nocturnality in animal behavior. In several countries, especially in Scandinavia, early birds are called \"A-people\" and night owls are called \"B-people\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4681509",
"title": "Night owl (person)",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Usually, people who are night owls stay awake past midnight, and extreme night owls may stay awake until just before or even after dawn. Night owls tend to feel most energetic just before they go to sleep at night. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4681509",
"title": "Night owl (person)",
"section": "Section::::Factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "The genetic make-up of the circadian timing system underpins the difference between early and late chronotypes, or early birds and night owls. While it has been suggested that circadian rhythms may change over time, including dramatic changes that turn a morning lark to a night owl or vice versa, evidence for familial patterns of early or late waking would seem to contradict this, and individual changes are likely on a smaller scale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23670760",
"title": "Lark (person)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The opposite of the lark is the owl, often awake at night. A person called a night owl is someone who usually stays up late and may feel most awake in the evening and at night. Researchers have traditionally used the terms \"morningness\" and \"eveningness\" to describe these two phenotypes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4681509",
"title": "Night owl (person)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "A night owl, evening person or simply owl, is a person who tends to stay up until late at night, or the early hours of the morning. Night owls who are involuntarily unable to fall asleep for several hours after a normal time may have delayed sleep phase syndrome. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27834",
"title": "Sleep",
"section": "Section::::Timing.:Circadian clock.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Modern humans often find themselves desynchronized from their internal circadian clock, due to the requirements of work (especially night shifts), long-distance travel, and the influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "935303",
"title": "Night Watch (Lukyanenko novel)",
"section": "Section::::The Twilight (The Gloom).:Inhabitants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "\"Night Watch\" hinted that animals do not always follow the same rules as humans or Others when it comes to the Twilight. In the first book of \"Night Watch\" entitled \"Story One: Destiny\", Anton explains that \"For cats there is no [human] world or Twilight—they live in all the worlds at once.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
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| null |
4khyuz | How common were certain Roman names, and are there any reliable statistics on this? | [
{
"answer": "The traditional Roman male *tria nomina* were made up of three elements. The *tria nomina* was a symbol of Roman citizenship and quite often thought as the 'classic' form of Roman nomenclature, but in reality, it was actually used for a relatively short amount of time in Roman history and all sorts of other formulas and variations were popular at different times, but maybe there's no need to go into that just now. Benet Salway's 1994 [article](_URL_1_) offers a classic review of changes in Roman onomastic practise if someone's interested. \n\nWe can take Cicero's, that is, Marcus Tullius Cicero's name as an example. There is the *praenomen*, which was the first name that originally was used as the main diacritic within family (Marcus). Then, there's the *nomen gentilicium* or sometimes called just *nomen* (Tullius), which was basically the family name that showed which *gens* you belonged to. The Romans had laws for protecting these *nomina*, and using an Italian *gentilicium* even when you were not a citizen was a punishable offense. The *gentilicium* always passed from father to sons and daughters, and the *praenomen* almost always, so that the sons of the family often had the same first name. The last element, the *cognomen* (Cicero), then was originally used as an added personal touch that could differentiate males in the same family or family line. In reality, these were often hereditary as well, which can make it very difficult to differentiate between generations. *Cognomina* could for example differentiate between the sons in the family and mark the order of birth; Primus, Secundus, Tertius etc. were very popular. They could also have something to do with the characteristics or achievements of the individual - Plutarch says that Cicero (which means 'chickpea') had gotten his name from an ancestor who had a small nose that looked like a chickpea. \n\nSo, to go back to your questions, are you only interested about the *praenomina*, i.e. the first names? If yes, the Romans had a *very* [limited repertoire](_URL_0_) of *praenomina*, some three dozen. *Praenomina* practically always passed from father to sons, and freedmen usually took their old master's *praenomen*. So, \"what should I call my son?\" was very rarely a puzzle for Romans. The Wikipedia article says that about a half of those in the list were in popular use, but I could limit the names that were really popular to an even smaller number; the most common one's you'll see are Gaius, Gnaeus, Lucius, Marcus, Publius, Quintus, Sextus, Tiberius, Titus - perhaps Statius and Servius can make that list as well. *Praenomina* other than these are pretty rare. I'm pretty sure I've seen statistics for different Roman regions about how popular each *praenomen* was, but, sorry, I can't remember on my feet where I could find one just now :P There will be regional variations, and I don't think anyone has done a survey for the *whole* Roman world, since we have tens of thousands of inscriptions and therefore personal names from the Roman era!\n\nIf you're interested how common some *gentilicia* and *cognomina* are, that's a more difficult question because there are huge amounts of them. Study of Roman personal names, known as onomastics, is a big academic field of its own. People who work on this field, among other things, make lists of *gentilicia* and *cognomina* and track how popular certain names are in certain regions and eras. These can be used to make some guesses about where any individual came from the Roman world. ",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13526",
"title": "List of Roman place names in Britain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "The early sources for Roman names show numerous variants and misspellings of the Latin names. Moreover, one of the principal authorities, Ptolemy, wrote in Greek so names that he records need to be transliterated back into Latin to reveal the original form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3729425",
"title": "Bulgarian placename etymology",
"section": "Section::::Latin placenames.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "An amount of names from Roman times has also survived until today, many of them being Roman versions of former Greek or Thracian ones. Some Latin names had fallen into disuse long ago, but were revived in the 20th century. Examples: Montana, Lom (a Slavicized version of Latin \"Almus\"), Archar (a Slavicized version of Latin \"Raciaria\"), Drastar (nowadays Silistra), derived from \"Durostorum\", Nikopol and Nikyup, derived from \"Nicopolis\", Dzherman, derived from \"Germania\", etc. The old Bulgarian name for Sofia, \"Sredets\", was also derived from \"Sardica\" (\"Serdica\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48125",
"title": "Roman naming conventions",
"section": "Section::::\"Tria nomina\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "The three types of names that have come to be regarded as quintessentially Roman were the \"praenomen, nomen\", and \"cognomen\". Together, these were referred to as the \"tria nomina\". Although not all Romans possessed three names, the practice of using multiple names having different functions was a defining characteristic of Roman culture that distinguished citizens from foreigners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55085503",
"title": "Celtic language decline in England",
"section": "Section::::Debate: why are there so few etymologically Celtic place-names in England?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Likewise, some entirely Old English names explicitly point to Roman structures, usually using Latin loan-words, or to the presence of Brittonic-speakers. Names like \"Wickham\" clearly denoted the kind of Roman settlement known in Latin as a \"vicus\", and others end in elements denoting Roman features, such as \"-caster\", denoting \"castra\" ('forts'). There is a substantial body of names along the lines of \"Walton\"/\"Walcot\"/\"Walsall\"/\"Walsden\", many of which must include the Old English word \"wealh\" in the sense 'Celtic-speaker', and \"Comberton\", many of which must include Old English \"Cumbre\" 'Britons'. These are likely to have been names for enclaves of Brittonic-speakers─but again are not that numerous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56166770",
"title": "Pollia (gens)",
"section": "Section::::Praenomina.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "The Pollii used a variety of praenomina, especially \"Publius\", \"Gaius\", \"Marcus\", \"Gnaeus\", and \"Lucius\", all of which were very common throughout Roman history. Other names appear occasionally, including \"Quintus\" and \"Numerius\", of which the latter was widespread, but uncommon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59759705",
"title": "Curius and Apuleius",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "It is traditionally considered they sported Roman names, opening up several theories about their identities. However, it has been suggested ancient chroniclers might have misunderstood their names and turned them into Roman patronymics. Under this view, \"Apuleius\" might be a corruption of a Celtic name like the preexistent \"Apulus\" or \"Apanus\", while \"Curius\" would come from \"Coutius\" or \"Curundus\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48125",
"title": "Roman naming conventions",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "In the later empire, members of the Roman aristocracy used several different schemes of assuming and inheriting nomina and cognomina, both to signify their rank, and to indicate their family and social connections. Some Romans came to be known by alternative names, or \"signia\", and due to the lack of surviving epigraphic evidence, the full nomenclature of most Romans, even among the aristocracy, is seldom recorded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3lkavd | Should the Atlantropa project (the partial drying of the Mediterranean sea) be realised, wouldn't the newly freed land be too salty for agriculture ? | [
{
"answer": "It's not easy but the Dutch have been doing it for a long time now.\n\nYoutube clip, 19 minutes: \n\n_URL_0_\n\nLong read about the Dutch desalination and reclamation of land: \n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2182397",
"title": "Taparura",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "In 1985 a new development proposal was formulated that would see additional land taken from the Mediterranean, and integrate as an urban park, a beach of three kilometers, as well as residential, commercial and tertiary zones. The first works for its revitalization began in 2006 and consisted of work of depollutions and fillings, the coast of Sfax being affected by the discharges of the phosphate industry .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1958413",
"title": "Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance",
"section": "Section::::Concerns of the chairman of Egypt's Suez Canal Authority.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "In 2006, the proposal has also generated some concern by the chairman of Egypt's Suez Canal Authority, which believed that the canal will increase seismic activity in the region, provide Israel with water for cooling its nuclear reactor near Dimona, develop settlements in the Negev Desert, and increase well salinity. However, as proposed, most of the desalinated water is expected to be used by Jordan and the Palestinians. Under the current proposal, water sufficient only to prevent the Dead Sea from dehydrating will flow through the system, preventing salt water flow into wells. The World Bank study recommended re-routing the conduit to avoid the geological faults of the Araba Valley.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40949171",
"title": "Valley of Peace initiative",
"section": "Section::::Overview and current status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "A new desalination plant to be built near the Jordanian tourist resort of Aqaba would convert salt water from the Red Sea into fresh water for use in southern Israel and southern Jordan; each region would get eight billion to 13 billion gallons a year. This process would produces about as much brine as a waste product; the brine would be piped more than 100 miles to help replenish the Dead Sea, already known for its high salt content. This would reinforce the status of the Dead Sea as an important economic resource to both nations, in multiple areas including tourism, industry and business.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48768767",
"title": "Israeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts",
"section": "Section::::General areas of cooperation and common effort.:Valley of Peace Initiative.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "A new desalination plant to be built near the Jordanian tourist resort of Aqaba would convert salt water from the Red Sea into fresh water for use in southern Israel and southern Jordan; each region would get eight billion to 13 billion gallons a year. This process would produces about as much brine as a waste product; the brine would be piped more than 100 miles to help replenish the Dead Sea, already known for its high salt content. This would reinforce the status of the Dead Sea as an important economic resource to both nations, in multiple areas including tourism, industry and business,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40949171",
"title": "Valley of Peace initiative",
"section": "Section::::Original plan and features, 2008.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "One major part of the plan includes the private sector development of a $3 billion, 166 km-long (103-mile) canal system along the Arava, known as the Two Seas Canal. This engineering scheme would bring Red Sea water to the Dead Sea and could provide additional projects and benefits to the region and increase cooperation between Israelis, Jordanians, and Palestinians, through greater development and economic integration. Some environmentalists have criticized the plan, saying that rehabilitation of the Jordan River would be a better way to save the Dead Sea, and would bring less disruption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24071859",
"title": "Walter C. Lowdermilk",
"section": "Section::::Positions and style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "A water development project outlined by him became later known as the \"Lowdermilk plan\" The Plan was recommended by the United States in 1944 and is still of importance for the later National Water Carrier of Israel. Parts of it, as the use of the Litani River to irrigate the Negev desert have been controversial. As early as 1946 the Church of Scotland presbytery in Jerusalem submitted a memorandum against the plan, as they feared it would spoil the sanctity of the Sea of Galilee. The suggestion of refilling the Dead Sea through a Mediterranean–Dead Sea Canal was based on earlier approaches and is still of importance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17696543",
"title": "Tanger-Med",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Completion of the «Tangier-Mediterranean» project will have important economic effects in terms of jobs, creation of added value and foreign investment. Its particular position on the Straits of Gibraltar, at the crossing of two major maritime routes, and 15 km from the European Union will enable it to serve a market of hundreds of millions of consumers through the industrial and commercial free zones which will be run by well-known private operators. It will also win part of the strong growth market of container transshipment and become the leading hub for cereal transshipment, a facility which is non-existent in the north-west African region at present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
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| null |
3hxy1g | why streaming porn on my tablet loads 10 times faster than any other video streaming domains. | [
{
"answer": "There are a LOT of people using SFW video streaming domains like Netflix and YouTube. Compared to the relatively small amount of data not-video content takes up, it's an absolutely massive amount of traffic. Porn sites get a lot of traffic too, but I'd be willing to wager that at least within the US (because copyrighted material isn't as available in other countries), sites like Netflix, YouTube, and Hulu have a much higher demand. When you factor in the fact that most content watched on porn sites is lower resolution/bitrate, it's a lot easier to stream a 480p 5-minute video than a 1080p 55-minute episode of Orange is the New Black.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Porn is way more massively consumed and porn sites have more servers with replicated content geographicaly. This is called CDN (Content Distribution Network).\n\nIn English: surely porn site A has a server nearer you and way faster than video B from youtube. Or the video you are watching is not replicated in the server close to you cause it does not have that many visits in the area. That is why chinese internet sites load sooo slowly. Even if the Internet is somehow abstract and everywhere, there will always be geographic limitations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56459958",
"title": "Zettabyte Era",
"section": "Section::::Factors that led to the Zettabyte Era.:Increased video streaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The amount of data used by video streaming services depends on the quality of the video. Thus, Android Central breaks down how much data is used (on a smartphone) with regards to different video resolutions. According to their findings, per hour video between 240p and 320p resolution uses roughly 0.3GB. Standard video, which is clocked in at a resolution of 480p, uses approximately 0.7GB per hour. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28682",
"title": "Streaming media",
"section": "Section::::Bandwidth and storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "A broadband speed of 2 Mbit/s or more is recommended for streaming standard definition video without experiencing buffering or skips, especially live video, for example to a Roku, Apple TV, Google TV or a Sony TV Blu-ray Disc Player. 5 Mbit/s is recommended for High Definition content and 9 Mbit/s for Ultra-High Definition content. Streaming media storage size is calculated from the streaming bandwidth and length of the media using the following formula (for a single user and file) requires a storage size in megabytes which is equal to length (in seconds) × bit rate (in bit/s) / (8 × 1024 × 1024). For example, one hour of digital video encoded at 300 kbit/s (this was a typical broadband video in 2005 and it was usually encoded in a 320 × 240 pixels window size) will be:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37602602",
"title": "Video optimization",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "When streaming over-the-top (OTT) content and video on demand, systems do not typically recognize the specific size, type, and viewing rate of the video being streamed. Video sessions, regardless of the rate of views, are each granted the same amount of bandwidth. This bottlenecking of content results in longer buffering time and poor viewing quality. Some solutions, such as upLynk and Skyfire’s Rocket Optimizer, attempt to resolve this issue by using cloud-based solutions to adapt and optimize over-the-top content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37602602",
"title": "Video optimization",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "With the use of mobile devices increasing so rapidly, and almost half of the traffic on mobile internet networks being accounted for by video sessions, mobile service providers have begun to recognize the need to provide higher quality video access while using the lowest possible bandwidth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25970423",
"title": "IPad",
"section": "Section::::Restrictions.:Censorship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Due to the exclusion of pornography from the App Store, YouPorn and others changed their video format from Flash to H.264 and HTML5 specifically for the iPad. In an e-mail exchange with Ryan Tate from Valleywag, Steve Jobs claimed that the iPad offers \"freedom from porn\", leading to many upset replies including Adbustings in Berlin by artist Johannes P. Osterhoff and in San Francisco during WWDC10.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11728132",
"title": "Muvee Technologies",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "muvee announced CODEN in 2010 to enable fast trimming of HD videos in under-powered phones. Previously, it was deemed impossible to edit video in low-mid range feature phones. In higher end Smartphones, although there is more memory and processor power, video is captured in up to 4K, hence the pixels involved are growing exponentially faster than the CPU power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18938075",
"title": "Screenshot",
"section": "Section::::Common technical issues.:Screen recording.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "A common problem with video recordings is the action jumps, instead of flowing smoothly, due to low frame rate. Though getting faster all the time, ordinary PCs are not yet fast enough to play videos and simultaneously capture them at professional frame rates, \"i.e.\" 30 frame/s. For many cases, high frame rates are not required. This is not generally an issue if simply capturing desktop video, which requires far less processing power than video playback, and it is very possible to capture at 30 frame/s. This varies depending on desktop resolution, processing requirements needed for the application that is being captured, and many other factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2mnn6f | Russian roulette - what is the origin? Has it actually been played? Are there testimonials from survivors? | [
{
"answer": "One of the first mentions of Russian Roulette in literature was in a 1840 novel by Russian poet Lermontov \"Hero of Our Time\" (Full ebook available on [Gutenberg Project](_URL_1_), scene is in the last chapter of the book).\n\nSince Lermontow was a Russian officer who served in Caucasus and at least some facts\\stories in the novel (which is a work of fiction) were autobiographical, the Russian Roulette story might have some real background behind it.\n\nEDIT: I did some additional research and found some obscure references in a biography of Russian general Mihail Skobelev (russian only, Google Books link [here](_URL_0_), unsure if it was ever translated), who lived 1843—1882 and was famous due to his service in one of many Russian-Turkish wars in 1870-s. The books mentions that Skobelev was aware of the risky game his officers played, unofficially approved it as a display of valor and bravery, but was forced to punish it severely due to special order from Emperor Alexander II by demoting involved officers to common soldiers (officers were mostly nobility, soldiers were mostly peasants, so this demotion would be quite shameful). Book fails to reference any sources though, and I also was unable to find any traces of such law or order.\n\nBut if those facts are true, it all fits quite well. Early 1800s during Lermontov time the Roulette appeared among officers on Caucasus (note that Lermontov describes the game, but never actually calls it Russian Roulette), late in 1870s it is well known, has its official name \"the Roulette\" and is popular enough to requite special actions from Emperor and generals to stop its spread among officers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The concept may stem from a story in Collier's in 1937, per the Oxford English Dictionary, (G. Surdez in *Collier's* 30 Jan. 1937), which describes the practice as it's come to be known. A search of the New York Times turned up dozens of references prior to the 1960s (65 between 1942-1959 in fact), most of which are death notices involving young men to have been killed in the U.S. playing the \"game.\"\n\nThe earliest examples:\n\n* \"Gamble With One Cartridge in Revolver Costs Life of Fordham Sophomore, 20\"\n*New York Times* 02 May 1942: 15.\n\n* \"RUSSIAN ROULETTE' FATAL: Boy, 12, Is Killed by the One Cartridge in Revolver\"\n*New York Times* 27 Feb 1949: 36.\n\n* \"RUSSIAN ROULETTE FATAL: Youth, Exhibiting His Luck to His Brothers, Is Killed\"\n*New York Times* 28 Dec 1953: 28.\n\nInterestingly, the first of these explains the term by noting it was \"said to have been practiced in the army of the Czar\" while the second speculates that it \"originated in the movies.\" The third doesn't bother to define it at all, so one might assume that by 1953 the writer believed his audience to know what Russian roulette meant and did not require any additional explanation.\n\nIn all of these stories young men/boys (the youngest victim was 12) die playing the game with friends.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Of course \"Russian Roulette\" became popularized in the late 1970s after the release of Michael Cimino's Oscar Winning Film \"The Deer Hunter\".\n\nIn the film American prisoners of war are forced to play the game while their North Vietnamese captors bet on the outcomes.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nI believe Cimino made it clear in later interviews (I will try to find a source) that the scenes were to be taken metaphorically; indicative of the impossible state these prisoners found themselves in. And there were no true reports of prisoners of war being forced to play Russian Roulette.\n\nBut this did not stop many people (typically kids) from playing the game themselves. [This report from the Christian Science Monitor](_URL_1_) in 1981 reports that 15 people had died from playing the game, apparently inspired by TV showings of the Deer Hunter that year.\n\nIt's an excellent, long article. Well worth reading.\n\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Frank Andersson - A Swedish Olympic wrestler have played Russian roulette, I have translated what he said about it in an interview by Expressen, a Swedish newspaper: \n\n“I have played Russian Roulette. It was a late night in 1985. I was the only one who tried it and I won 50 000 SEK since there were nobody else that dared…It happened, of course, at a boozeroo [party with loads of alcohol. My not.], says Anderson and laughs. –You don’t think. You just pull the trigger. And everything went fine so there was nothing more to it. –Your chances are good if you think about the statistics. Says Andersson and continues. –I’m not sure if it was a challenge, but I have always sought thrills my whole life. But I would never redo it.\n\n[Link to the interview, in Swedish.](_URL_0_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Malcolm X claimed to have played a game of Russian Roulette in his lifetime in his [autobiography](_URL_1_), but the [reporter who helped him write it later claimed](_URL_0_) he had palmed the round, ensuring his safety.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since there was a question about testimonials from survivors: It's too recent to qualify as \"history\", but in June of 2014 the journal *Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery* published a case study of a 20-year-old Albanian man who had survived a through-and-through gunshot wound to the head from a .22 revolver during a game of Russian Roulette. The article indicates that the authors were able to find only one other published case study involving a survivor of a Russian Roulette-related gunshot wound to the head: an Italian man whose case was described in that same publication in 2009. A citation for that piece is provided at the end of the article. I mention this article and its conclusion in order to provide an explanation for the apparent lack of cases falling outside the 20-year window that defines eligibility for this subreddit.\n\nThe article can be read [here](_URL_0_). Please bear in mind, however, that it includes some extremely graphic images of pre-surgery facial injuries, and as such is NSFW (unless, of course, you work in reconstructive surgery or a similar field).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you're looking for references of it actually being used I can suggest the book Can't Stop, Won't Stop by Jeff Chang which describes the beginning of the Hip Hop culture in Bronx and other New York suburbs in the 60's and 70's. In the book he has gathered testimonials of gangs at the time with a lot of information about their perspective of what they experienced (mostly as a result of the building of the Cross-Bronx Expressway). Some of the testimonials include former gang members' recollecting their initiation rites; some which included, among other things, performing a russian roulette.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35494245",
"title": "Russian Roulette (The Alchemist album)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Russian Roulette is the third studio album by American hip hop producer and recording artist The Alchemist, the album was released on July 17, 2012. The project is constructed from samples of Soviet music (hence the title), making it a concept album. Featured artists on the project consists of acts such as Evidence, Fashawn, Roc Marciano, Action Bronson, Guilty Simpson, Danny Brown, Schoolboy Q, Big Twins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35866748",
"title": "Russian Roulette (Spica EP)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Russian Roulette is the debut mini album from South Korean girl group Spica. It was released on February 8, 2012 with the song of same name as the promotional song. The EP was re-released on March 29, 2012 with the name \"Painkiller\". The song of same name was used to promote the re-release.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55967738",
"title": "Russian Roulette (Red Velvet song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "\"Russian Roulette\" received generally favorable reviews from critics upon its release, both internationally and in the group's native country, South Korea. It also gained attention for its unique music video semi-inspired by \"The Simpsons'\" fictional animated television series, \"Itchy & Scratchy\" that masks violent and almost lethal pranks the members pull on each other in a bright, bubbly and seemingly fun-filled video. \"Dazed Digital\" placed it at number six on their 20 Best K-pop Tracks of the Year and it won Best Music Video at the 2016 Melon Music Awards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55967738",
"title": "Russian Roulette (Red Velvet song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "\"Russian Roulette\" () is a song by South Korean girl group Red Velvet and was released as a single for their third extended play of the same name. Written by Jo Yun Gyeong, it is primarily a synth-pop song which lyrically compares the process of winning someone's heart to a game of Russian roulette. It was released on September 7, 2016 by S.M. Entertainment along with an accompanying music video.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37072",
"title": "Russian roulette",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.:Arts and entertainment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "BULLET::::- In 2001, in their debut album \"Ompa til du dør\", Norwegian band Kaizers Orchestra included numerable references to Russian roulette, most notably in the songs \"Rulett\", \"Fra sjåfør til passasjer\", and \"Resistansen\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55967738",
"title": "Russian Roulette (Red Velvet song)",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "\"Russian Roulette\" was composed by Albi Albertsson, Belle Humble and Markus Lindell who previously worked with the group for their last single \"One Of These Nights\" while its lyrics were penned by Jo Yun Gyeong. The song was written before Red Velvet's debut, and was first heard by the members when they were still trainees, unaware that they will one day record and release it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23249425",
"title": "Russian Roulette (Ed Harcourt EP)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "Russian Roulette EP is an EP by Ed Harcourt, released on 5 May 2009 worldwide by Dovecote Records. The EP was made available as a digital download-only release, and as a limited edition 512-megabyte USB stick in the shape of a bullet. The USB stick features album artwork, photos, and seven unreleased music videos. Official promo-only CDs were also released for radio promotion. The song \"Caterpillar\" was written by Ed about his newborn daughter Roxy, and the time she spent in an incubator shortly after her birth. Harcourt said, \"It's the first song I've written about her. She was a little ill and we [Ed and his wife Gita] waited for her in the hospital for the chrysalis so we could take her home.\" The EP is also dedicated to her.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
kw0f3 | What is the best book to explain the evidence and the argument for climate change? | [
{
"answer": "There is a wealth of resources that deal with climate change.\n\nFor a brief summary, I think the [booklet published by the Australian Academy of Science](_URL_0_) does a fair job. There are probably many similar booklets out there.\n\nIf you want more details, the website [Skeptical Science](_URL_1_) is one extraordinary resource. Not only do they have concise explanations (with different technical levels) to many climate change phenomena and myths, they are also constantly addressing claims from the contrarian community.\n\nThe [IPCC 4th Assessment Report by Working Group I](_URL_2_) is actually a somewhat lengthy but good resource. If you don't want to read all of it, try the Technical Summary or FAQ chapters.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming by Michael Mann and Lee Kump. Both are preeminent climate scientists. They are not journalists or science writers, they do the science on which our understanding of climate is based. \n\nThis book is a distillation of the 2007 IPCC report. It is comparatively easy to read. \n\nAND it looks like it is on sale for cheap on Amazon. I second the Skeptical Science website as well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's a fantastic source, cannot recommend it enough:\n\n[The Discovery of Global Warming](_URL_0_) by Spencer Weart. It's all free on the website.\n\nFor cypherpunks, [here](_URL_1_) is the chapter spefically on biosphere interactions",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a wealth of resources that deal with climate change.\n\nFor a brief summary, I think the [booklet published by the Australian Academy of Science](_URL_0_) does a fair job. There are probably many similar booklets out there.\n\nIf you want more details, the website [Skeptical Science](_URL_1_) is one extraordinary resource. Not only do they have concise explanations (with different technical levels) to many climate change phenomena and myths, they are also constantly addressing claims from the contrarian community.\n\nThe [IPCC 4th Assessment Report by Working Group I](_URL_2_) is actually a somewhat lengthy but good resource. If you don't want to read all of it, try the Technical Summary or FAQ chapters.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming by Michael Mann and Lee Kump. Both are preeminent climate scientists. They are not journalists or science writers, they do the science on which our understanding of climate is based. \n\nThis book is a distillation of the 2007 IPCC report. It is comparatively easy to read. \n\nAND it looks like it is on sale for cheap on Amazon. I second the Skeptical Science website as well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's a fantastic source, cannot recommend it enough:\n\n[The Discovery of Global Warming](_URL_0_) by Spencer Weart. It's all free on the website.\n\nFor cypherpunks, [here](_URL_1_) is the chapter spefically on biosphere interactions",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48420139",
"title": "Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "The book presents an in-depth analysis and refutation of climate change denial, going over several arguments point-by-point and disproving them with peer-reviewed evidence from the scientific consensus for climate change. The authors assert that those denying climate change engage in tactics including cherry picking data purported to support their specific viewpoints, and attacking the integrity of climate scientists. They use social science theory to examine the phenomenon of climate change denial in the wider public, and call this phenomenon a form of pathology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32873991",
"title": "The Chilling Stars",
"section": "Section::::Reviews.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The online magazine londonbookreview.com remarked, \"For those who believe that the argument about the causes of climate change have been settled may find this a difficult book to read. But those who retain an open mind may find this an interesting read, even if it is only to confirm that the science is far from being settled.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9462962",
"title": "The Weather Makers",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "The book includes 36 short essays predicting the consequences of global warming and has been translated into over twenty languages. The book reviews evidence of historical climate change and attempts to compare this with the current era. The book argues that if atmospheric carbon dioxide levels continue to increase at current rates, the resulting climate change will cause mass species extinctions. The book also asserts that global temperatures have already risen enough to cause the annual monsoon rains in the Sahel region of Africa to diminish, causing droughts and desertification. This in turn, according to Flannery, has contributed to the conflict in the Darfur region through competition for disappearing resources. Further consequences, argued in the book, include increasing hurricane intensity, and decline in the health of coral reefs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17255165",
"title": "An Inconvenient Truth (book)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Michiko Kakutani argues in \"The New York Times\" that the book's \"roots as a slide show are very much in evidence. It does not pretend to grapple with climate change with the sort of minute detail and analysis\" given by other books on the topic \"and yet as a user-friendly introduction to global warming and a succinct summary of many of the central arguments laid out in those other volumes, \"An Inconvenient Truth\" is lucid, harrowing and bluntly effective.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28005891",
"title": "Thomas Massie",
"section": "Section::::Political positions.:Environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1009,
"text": "Massie has said that the evidence behind the scientific consensus on climate change is not compelling. On the topic of climate change, Massie said \"there's a conflict of interest for some of the people doing the research. I think some people are trying to integrate backwards, starting with the answer and working the other way. I think the jury is still out on the contribution of our activities to the change in the earth's climate\". In 2013, he implied that cold weather undercut the argument for climate change, tweeting \"Today's Science Committee Hearing on Global Warming canceled due to snow\". During a 2019 House Oversight Committee hearing on the impact of climate change, Massie suggested that concerns over rising carbon dioxide levels were exaggerated, asking a witness, former senator John Kerry, why carbon dioxide levels millions of years ago were higher despite the non-presence of humans. CNN and \"The Washington Post\" described Massie's exchange with the witness as \"surreal\" and \"bizarre\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22894949",
"title": "Heaven and Earth (book)",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "In the book, Plimer asserts that the current theory of human-induced global warming is not in accord with history, archaeology, geology or astronomy and must be rejected, that promotion of this theory as science is fraudulent, and that the current alarm over climate change is the result of bad science. He argues that climate models focus too strongly on the effects of carbon dioxide, rather than factoring in other issues such as solar variation, the effect of clouds, and unreliable temperature measurements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22894949",
"title": "Heaven and Earth (book)",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "The book is critical of political efforts to address climate change and argues that extreme environmental changes are inevitable and unavoidable. Meteorologists have a huge amount to gain from climate change research, the book claims, and they have narrowed the climate change debate to the atmosphere, whereas the truth is more complex. Money would be better directed to dealing with problems as they occur rather than making expensive and futile attempts to prevent climate change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
6tembu | do birds pee? | [
{
"answer": "Their pee and their poop is the same thing. The white of bird poop contains the uric acid crystals that are dissolved in liquid in human pee. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Water is a pretty heavy material, so if birds were to have a bladder it would significantly affect weight distribution. So instead of converting amino acids to urea which needs to dissolve in water to be removed, a lot of water. The convert it to uric acid which forms a paste when a small amount of water is added to it. Lizards do the same since they live in dry, water sparse regions ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Birds have a single opening for pee, poo and reproductive uses. A cloaca. As one of the other comments described, it has to do with water saving. By combining all waste, the weight of a bird is reduced making it a more efficient flyer. So, yes a bird pees, but not in the regular sense of the word. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Peeing gets rid of ammonia (toxic) in the body and animals do it 3 different ways.\n\n1. Fish: release it straight as ammonia since they are surrounded by water that quickly dilutes any nasties.\n2. Birds: convert ammonia to uric acid for short term storage and secrete it with their poo\n3. Warm blooded land mammals: convert it further to urea which is safe for longer term storage since there are predatory effects to where the animal urinates. Urea takes more energy to make than uric acid but it is a necessary cost for survival.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The white part of a birds 'poop' is actually their equivalent of pee, while the black bits are the true poop.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "170635",
"title": "Northern lapwing",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "This is a vocal bird in the breeding season, with constant calling as the crazed tumbling display flight is performed by the male. The typical contact call is a loud, shrill \"pee-wit\" from which they get their other name of peewit. Displaying males usually make a wheezy \"pee-wit, wit wit, eeze wit\" during their display flight, these birds also make squeaking or mewing sounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70649",
"title": "Hummingbird",
"section": "Section::::Diet and specializations for food gathering.:Feeders and artificial nectar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Other animals also visit hummingbird feeders. Bees, wasps, and ants are attracted to the sugar-water and may crawl into the feeder, where they may become trapped and drown. Orioles, woodpeckers, bananaquits, raccoons and other larger animals are known to drink from hummingbird feeders, sometimes tipping them and draining the liquid. In the southwestern United States, two species of nectar-drinking bats (\"Leptonycteris yerbabuenae\" and \"Choeronycteris mexicana\") visit hummingbird feeders to supplement their natural diet of nectar and pollen from saguaro cacti and agaves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "317350",
"title": "Common quail",
"section": "Section::::Habits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "This is a terrestrial species, feeding on seeds and insects on the ground. It is notoriously difficult to see, keeping hidden in crops, and reluctant to fly, preferring to creep away instead. Even when flushed, it keeps low and soon drops back into cover. Often the only indication of its presence is the distinctive \"wet-my-lips\" repetitive song of the male. The call is uttered mostly in the mornings, evenings and sometimes at night. It is a strongly migratory bird, unlike most game birds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7487531",
"title": "Gun-dog training",
"section": "Section::::Training.:Flushing spaniels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "BULLET::::- Steady When hunting upland birds, a flushing dog should be steady to wing and shot, meaning that he sits when a bird rises or a gun is fired. He does this in order to mark the fall and to avoid flushing other birds when pursuing a missed bird.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "375409",
"title": "English Springer Spaniel",
"section": "Section::::History.:Skills.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "BULLET::::- Steady When hunting upland birds, a flushing dog should be steady to wing and shot, meaning that he sits when a bird rises or a gun is fired. He does this in order to mark the fall and to avoid flushing other birds when pursuing a missed bird.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "611093",
"title": "English Cocker Spaniel",
"section": "Section::::Working Cockers.:Skills.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "BULLET::::- Steady When hunting upland birds, a flushing dog should be steady to wing and shot, meaning that he sits when a bird rises or a gun is fired. He does this in order to mark the fall and to avoid flushing other birds when pursuing a missed bird.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3225405",
"title": "Geophaps",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Pigeons and doves are placed in their taxonomic groups based predominantly on structural characteristics. Pigeons feed their young by regurgitation and suck water while their beak is immersed. Males and females divide incubation duties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
sug2n | Any book recommendations on the history of contemporary music? | [
{
"answer": "First off, because you mention the 60's as your starting point for learning about the history of music, I am going to assume your focus lies in the British reinvention of rock and roll and the countless genres spawned by this event. This happens to be an area with which I am familiar. However, our culture glorifies the 60s and \"classic\" rock. This doesn't mean that all of a sudden there was a huge burst in creativity untapped by mankind previously which resulted in rock and roll music. On the contrary, rock is a development in an ongoing series of musical developments (by no means linear).\n\nMy quasi historical approach to music would be to appreciate it as a series of movements. These movements originate because of artistic desire, which seeks originality. Nobody wants to sound stale. Important musical groups in history synthesize various musical influences into a \"fresh\" sound: for instance, Nirvana \"created\" grunge music.\n\nThere is an inherent problem in this model in that it gives far too much credit to individual artists. Usually, these artists operate within a musical scene. For Nirvana, they came from Seattle in the late 80s, which was frustrated with the glam-metal that reigned supreme at that time. These artists didn't care about apperance (shaggy hair, thrift store flannels and jeans, et cetera) and wrote music, well, I can't really define grunge (this isn't my area of expertise as far as music history goes). Anyway, this music became popular with Nirvana's breakthrough album \"Nevermind.\" Therefore, by reading biographies of Nirvana, you will gain information on the particular variables that lead to the creation of grunge music. This gives you an insight into the overall progression of musical development.\n\nBut what do I know? [ Here](_URL_0_) (scroll down a tad) is the famous chalkboard from the movie \"School of Rock\" in which Jack Black instructs his students about the history of rock music since the 50s. That chart is pretty helpful in showing the major movements as well as the most important innovative artists. \n\nAs for choosing particular biographies based on my approach... Good luck with that. I would suggest doing a search on amazon and then checking out the reviews.\n\nHopefully, one of our peers can provide a more effective method to understanding this music. If I ever happen across a worthwhile book on the subject, I'll shoot you a pm =D",
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"answer": "I haven't seen too many good scholarly works on the history of music since the 60s. There are lots of history of rock and roll books out there, and many are interesting but I can't pick out a specific one for you. \n\nBy far my favorite work about American music is about early Jazz. It's \"Cuttin' Up\" by Court Carney. A good entertaining read about the development of jazz music in America. ",
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"wikipedia_id": "45197575",
"title": "David G. Hebert",
"section": "Section::::Research interests.:Historical ethnomusicology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
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"text": "Hebert's interests in global music historiography developed as he explored such topics as how European music was adopted in Japan, and how the American genres of jazz and rock music ironically struggled to gain acceptance in American schools. In 2014 he produced a book with Jonathan McCollum (Washington College) entitled \"Theory and Method in Historical Ethnomusicology\". Through use of \"a broad spectrum of geocultural examples, the volume includes several engaging strategies for using and writing about history in order to understand the world's musics\". Ethnomusicologists Keith Howard, Daniel M. Neuman and Judah Cohen contributed chapters. Hebert now edits a book series in this field with Jonathan McCollum for Rowman and Littlefield press, \"The Lexington Series in Historical Ethnomusicology: Deep Soundings\". \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "46508225",
"title": "Man and Music Series",
"section": "Section::::Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The series editor was Stanley Sadie. The programmes examined the development of music in particular places and periods in the history of Western Civilisation between Antiquity and the end of the 20th Century. As well as Continental Europe, music in Spain, Scandinavia, Russia and the Americas is discussed. The series is not a history of music as such but discusses the context in which music flourished — social, cultural and intellectual. The books are aimed at the general reader, and the Preface in each volume states — 'We want to explain not \"what\" happened, but \" why\" it happened, and why it happened when and where it did'. The series was published in England by The Granada Group and The Macmillan Press Ltd. The American edition, with the title \"Music and Society\", was published by Prentice Hall.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "51342339",
"title": "The Oxford History of Western Music",
"section": "Section::::Previous histories of music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Oxford University Press had previously published narrative histories of music, although Taruskin's was the first sole author work spanning over five volumes and 4000 pages focused on an in depth period-based analysis of western music history.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "57105443",
"title": "The Story of Music",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The Story of Music is a work of nonfiction by English composer and broadcaster Howard Goodall, first published in 2013 by Chatto & Windus, which covers the history of largely Western classical music from pre-history to 2012. The book is associated with the 2013 BBC2 documentary series Howard Goodall's Story of Music. The book's reception was broadly positive, with the main criticism being of its treatment of Schoenberg and the atonal movement.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "30818637",
"title": "Notes (journal)",
"section": "Section::::Early history - getting started.:Today.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Today, article subjects include book reviews about modern musicians and groups like Johnny Cash or Nine Inch Nails, as well as classical composers such as Béla Bartók or Chopin. Book reviews have become so numerous that they have been divided into sections: Times, Places, Peoples; American Highways and Byways; Twentieth Century Musics; Late Romantics; and Composers.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "17883308",
"title": "Timeline of music in the United States (1850–79)",
"section": "Section::::1852.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Dwight's Journal of Music\", an influential periodical, is first published in Boston. One of its contributors is Alexander Wheelock Thayer, who will go on to become the first North American \"scholar to undertake studies of music history based on criticism of primary sources\".\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "51286229",
"title": "J. Peter Burkholder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In recent years Burkholder has been very involved with the publication of \"A History of Western Music\" and the corresponding \"Norton Anthology of Western Music\", both written by Donald Jay Grout and later revised by Claude V. Palisca. He wrote a Study and Listening Guide for the Fifth Edition in 1996 and took on the task of revising the book and anthologies with the Seventh Edition published in 2006. \"A History of Western Music\" is an English-language general survey of music history used at colleges and universities in the United States.\n",
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| null |
5ob6a6 | After WWII, what did the International Red Cross conclude, in it's investigations into the holocaust? | [
{
"answer": "Hi! As this question pertains to basic, underlying facts of the Holocaust, I hope you can appreciate that it can be a fraught subject to deal with. While we want people to get the answers they are looking for, we also remain very conscious that threads of this nature can attract the very wrong kind of response. As such, this message is not intended to provide you with all of the answers, but simply to address some of the basic facts, as well as Holocaust Denial, and provide a short list of introductory reading. There is always more than can be said, but we hope this is a good starting point for you.\n\n##What Was the Holocaust?\n\nThe Holocaust refers the genocidal deaths of 5-6 million European Jews carried out systematically by Nazi Germany as part of targeted policies of persecution and extermination during World War II. Some historians will also include the deaths of the Roma, Communists, Mentally Disabled, and other groups targeted by Nazi policies, which brings the total number of deaths to ~11 million. Debates about whether or not the Holocaust includes these deaths or not is a matter of definitions, but in no way a reflection on dispute that they occurred.\n\n##But This Guy Says Otherwise!\n\nUnfortunately, there is a small, but at times vocal, minority of persons who fall into the category of Holocaust Denial, attempting to minimize the deaths by orders of magnitude, impugn well proven facts, or even claim that the Holocaust is entirely a fabrication and never happened. Although they often self-style themselves as \"Revisionists\", they are not correctly described by the title. While revisionism is not inherently a dirty word, actual revision, to quote Michael Shermer, *\"entails refinement of detailed knowledge about events, rarely complete denial of the events themselves, and certainly not denial of the cumulation of events known as the Holocaust.\"*\n\nIt is absolutely true that were you to read a book written in 1950 or so, you would find information which any decent scholar today might reject, and that is the result of good revisionism. But these changes, which even can be quite large, such as the reassessment of deaths at Auschwitz from ~4 million to ~1 million, are done within the bounds of respected, academic study, and reflect decades of work that builds upon the work of previous scholars, and certainly does not willfully disregard documented evidence and recollections. There are still plenty of questions within Holocaust Studies that are debated by scholars, and there may still be more out there for us to discover, and revise, but when it comes to the basic facts, there is simply no valid argument against them.\n\n##So What Are the Basics?\n\nBeginning with their rise to power in the 1930s, the Nazi Party, headed by Adolf Hitler, implemented a series of anti-Jewish policies within Germany, marginalizing Jews within society more and more, stripping them of their wealth, livelihoods, and their dignity. With the invasion of Poland in 1939, the number of Jews under Nazi control reached into the millions, and this number would again increase with the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. Shortly after the invasion of Poland, the Germans started to confine the Jewish population into squalid ghettos. After several plans on how to rid Europe of the Jews that all proved unfeasible, by the time of the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, ideological (Antisemitism) and pragmatic (Resources) considerations lead to mass-killings becoming the only viable option in the minds of the Nazi leadership.\nFirst only practiced in the USSR, it was influential groups such as the SS and the administration of the General Government that pushed to expand the killing operations to all of Europe and sometime at the end of 1941 met with Hitler’s approval.\n\nThe early killings were carried out foremost by the *Einsatzgruppen*, paramilitary groups organized under the aegis of the SS and tasked with carrying out the mass killings of Jews, Communists, and other 'undesirable elements' in the wake of the German military's advance. In what is often termed the 'Holocaust by Bullet', the *Einsatzgruppen*, with the assistance of the Wehrmacht, the SD, the Security Police, as well as local collaborators, would kill roughly two million persons, over half of them Jews. Most killings were carried out with mass shootings, but other methods such as gas vans - intended to spare the killers the trauma of shooting so many persons day after day - were utilized too. \n\nBy early 1942, the \"Final Solution\" to the so-called \"Jewish Question\" was essentially finalized at the Wannsee Conference under the direction of Reinhard Heydrich, where the plan to eliminate the Jewish population of Europe using a series of extermination camps set up in occupied Poland was presented and met with approval.\n\nConstruction of extermination camps had already begun the previous fall, and mass extermination, mostly as part of 'Operation Reinhard', had began operation by spring of 1942. Roughly 2 million persons, nearly all Jewish men, women, and children, were immediately gassed upon arrival at Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka over the next two years, when these \"Reinhard\" camps were closed and razed. More victims would meet their fate in additional extermination camps such as Chełmno, but most infamously at Auschwitz-Birkenau, where slightly over 1 million persons, mostly Jews, died. Under the plan set forth at Wannsee, exterminations were hardly limited to the Jews of Poland, but rather Jews from all over Europe were rounded up and sent east by rail like cattle to the slaughter. Although the victims of the Reinhard Camps were originally buried, they would later be exhumed and cremated, and cremation of the victims was normal procedure at later camps such as Auschwitz.\n\n##The Camps\n\nThere were two main types of camps run by Nazi Germany, which is sometimes a source of confusion. Concentration Camps were well known means of extrajudicial control implemented by the Nazis shortly after taking power, beginning with the construction of Dachau in 1933. Political opponents of all type, not just Jews, could find themselves imprisoned in these camps during the pre-war years, and while conditions were often brutal and squalid, and numerous deaths did occur from mistreatment, they were not usually a death sentence and the population fluctuated greatly. Although Concentration Camps *were* later made part of the 'Final Solution', their purpose was not as immediate extermination centers. Some were 'way stations', and others were work camps, where Germany intended to eke out every last bit of productivity from them through what was known as \"extermination through labor\". Jews and other undesirable elements, if deemed healthy enough to work, could find themselves spared for a time and \"allowed\" to toil away like slaves until their usefulness was at an end.\n\nAlthough some Concentration Camps, such as Mauthausen, did include small gas chambers, mass gassing was not the primary purpose of the camp. Many camps, becoming extremely overcrowded, nevertheless resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of inhabitants due to the outbreak of diseases such as typhus, or starvation, all of which the camp administrations did little to prevent. Bergen-Belsen, which was not a work camp but rather served as something of a way station for prisoners of the camp systems being moved about, is perhaps one of the most infamous of camps on this count, saw some 50,000 deaths caused by the conditions. Often located in the Reich, camps liberated by the Western forces were exclusively Concentration Camps, and many survivor testimonies come from these camps.\n\nThe Concentration Camps are contrasted with the Extermination Camps, which were purpose built for mass killing, with large gas chambers and later on, crematoria, but little or no facilities for inmates. Often they were disguised with false facades to lull the new arrivals into a false sense of security, even though rumors were of course rife for the fate that awaited the deportees. Almost all arrivals were killed upon arrival at these camps, and in many cases the number of survivors numbered in the single digits, such as at Bełżec, where only seven Jews, forced to assist in operation of the camp, were alive after the war.\n\nSeveral camps, however, were 'Hybrids' of both types, the most famous being Auschwitz, which was a vast complex of subcamps. The infamous 'selection' of prisoners, conducted by SS doctors upon arrival, meant life or death, with those deemed unsuited for labor immediately gassed and the more healthy and robust given at least temporary reprieve. The death count at Auschwitz numbered around 1 million, but it is also the source of many survivor testimonies.\n\n##How Do We Know?\n\nRunning through the evidence piece by piece would take more space than we have here, but suffice to say, there is a lot of evidence, and not just the (mountains of) survivor testimony. We have testimonies and writings from many who participated, as well German documentation of the programs. [This site](_URL_5_) catalogs some of the evidence we have for mass extermination as it relates to Auschwitz. I'll close this out with a short list of excellent works that should help to introduce you to various aspects of Holocaust study.\n\n##Further Reading\n\n* \"[Third Reich Trilogy](_URL_4_)\" by Richard Evans\n* \"[Hitler, the Germans, and the Final Solution](_URL_1_)\" by Ian Kershaw\n* \"[Auschwitz: A New History](_URL_3_)\" by Laurence Rees\n* \"[Ordinary Men](_URL_0_)\" by Christopher Browning\n* \"[Denying History](_URL_2_)\" by Michael Shermer and Alex Grobman\n* [AskHistorians FAQ](/r/AskHistorians/wiki/wwii#wiki_nazi_germany)\n",
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"answer": "Also, since your question specifically focuses on the Red Cross, [this older thread](_URL_0_), specifically the answer by u/commiespaceinvader, may be of interest to you. ",
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"answer": "From an [older answer concerning this specific claim about the ICRC](_URL_2_). And for good measure one on the actual death toll [here](_URL_3_)\n\nWith regards to the documents by the International Committee of the Red Cross:\n\nThis myth of a Red Cross document originates with famous Holocaust Denier Richard Harwood in his propaganda book *Did Six Million really die*, which has not only been disproven several times – among the most famous incidents at the trial of Ernst Zündel – but also by the International Committee of the Red Cross itself.\n\nHarwood is in typical fashion for deniers twisting evidence and words in this case. He cites a document by the International Tracing Service of the Red Cross compiled in response to a query regarding the number of deaths in concentration camps they had so far recorded based on surviving documents from the various camp administrations. Given the practice, as the Nazis themselves described it, that the majority of Jewish prisoners send to camps like Auschwitz or the Reinhard Camps were not even registered in those camps but rather killed immediately upon arrival and that a lot of the documentation of the Nazis was destroyed by the same Nazis before the end of the war – see also my answer concerning the [Auschwitz Death books here](_URL_1_) – this document was never intended or claimed as numbering all the victims of the Nazi killing spree. Yet Harwood and other deniers ignore this and base their dubious and politically and morally abhorrent claims on the falsification of this document among other things.\n\nThe ICRC published [a refutation of said claims](_URL_0_) in a 1979 bulletin where they write:\n\n > A machination initiated years ago has gone so far that the ICRC is now entangled in its mesh. Its object is to whitewash the National Socialist system in wartime Germany of the accusation of genocide. (...) Consequently the ICRC considers it must make clear the fact that is has never published – or even compiled – statistics of this kind [meaning statistics of all victims of the Holocaust] which are being falsely attributed to it.\n\nAs to the ITS document numbering 271.000, they write:\n\n > The same propaganda scheme has recently been making use of other figures, namely the number of deaths recorded by the International Tracing Service on the basis of documents found when the camps were closed. Obviously this number bears no relation – though the authors of the propaganda pretend otherwise – to the total deaths in concentration camps; firstly because a considerable number of documentary material was destroyed before the departure of the Nazi administration, and secondly because many deaths were never recorded, such as those which occurred in the extermination camps where records were generally not kept. \n\nThey end with this very true statement:\n\n > There is, incidentally, something revolting about this arithmetical controversy as if such a tragedy could be reduced to mere figures.\n\n\nSources and further reading:\n\n* Denying History: Who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and Why Do They Say It? by Michael Shermer and Alex Grobman (2002).\n\n* Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory by Deborah Lipstadt (1994).\n\n* History on Trial: My Day in Court with David Irving. by Deborah Lipstadt (2005).\n\n* Lying About Hitler: History, Holocaust, and the David Irving Trial by Richard J. Evans (2002). ",
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"wikipedia_id": "4242304",
"title": "International response to the Holocaust",
"section": "Section::::International Committee of the Red Cross.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
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"text": "The International Committee of the Red Cross did relatively little to save Jews during the Holocaust and discounted reports of the organized Nazi genocide, such as of the murder of Polish Jewish prisoners that took place at Lublin. At the time, the Red Cross justified its inaction by suggesting that aiding Jewish prisoners would harm its ability to help other Allied POWs. In addition, the Red Cross claimed that if it would take a major stance to improve the situation of those European Jews, the neutrality of Switzerland, where the International Red Cross was based, would be jeopardized. Today, the Red Cross acknowledges its passivity during the Holocaust and has apologized for this.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "15487",
"title": "International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement",
"section": "Section::::History.:International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
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"text": "The Red Cross' response to the Holocaust has been the subject of significant controversy and criticism. As early as May 1944, the ICRC was criticized for its indifference to Jewish suffering and death—criticism that intensified after the end of the war, when the full extent of the Holocaust became undeniable. One defense to these allegations is that the Red Cross was trying to preserve its reputation as a neutral and impartial organization by not interfering with what was viewed as a German internal matter. The Red Cross also considered its primary focus to be prisoners of war whose countries had signed the Geneva Convention.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "5023832",
"title": "International Committee of the Red Cross",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Swiss historian Jean-Claude Favez, who conducted an 8-year review of the Red Cross records, says that even though the Red Cross knew by November 1942 about the Nazi's annihilation plans for the Jews – and even discussed it with U.S. officials – the group did nothing to inform the public, maintaining silence even in the face of pleas by Jewish groups.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "58989584",
"title": "Theresienstadt Ghetto and the Red Cross",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Red Cross.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "During the Holocaust, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) was based in neutral Switzerland. Its policy was to maintain strict neutrality and avoid interfering with Nazi racial persecution, which was viewed as a German internal matter. As early as 1933, the ICRC had received pleas to intervene in favor of concentration camp prisoners, but it was hesitant to accept German invitations to visit concentration camps. Carl Jacob Burckhardt, an ICRC official who made most of the key decisions regarding Nazi Germany, stated in a September 1935 meeting that it was \"dangerous to occupy oneself\" with the concentration camps; he was certain that such visits would be exploited by the Nazis for propaganda purposes. Burckhardt did eventually visit Dachau concentration camp; his main complaint was that political prisoners and criminals were not kept separate. The ICRC considered its primary focus to be prisoners of war whose countries had signed the 1929 Geneva Convention, which did not cover civilians. However, as Huber emphasized in a press conference with German reporters in 1940, the ICRC's bylaws did not restrict the organization's mission to detainees covered by the Geneva Conventions. The ICRC took small scale action to help civilians from the beginning of the war in 1939, although the ICRC's leverage against the German government was limited by these detainees' lack of protection under international law.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "24717965",
"title": "Food in occupied Germany",
"section": "Section::::German civilian population.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The German Red Cross, which during the war had become thoroughly Nazified with its head Ernst Grawitz a major figure in medical experiments on Jews and \"enemies of the state\", was dissolved, and the International Red Cross and the few other allowed international relief agencies were kept from helping Germans through strict controls on supplies and on travel.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "4242304",
"title": "International response to the Holocaust",
"section": "Section::::Allied nations' response during Nazi persecution.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Before, during and after World War II, \"The New York Times\" maintained a general policy to minimize reporting on the Holocaust. To this end, it placed such reportage deep inside its daily editions, while obscuring in those stories the special impact of the Nazis' crimes on Jews in particular. The New York Times did however publish the Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations of 17 December 1942 on its front page which was a joint declaration by eleven Allied nations publicly condemning the mass extermination of the Jews in Nazi-occupied Poland.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "311160",
"title": "World Jewish Congress",
"section": "Section::::History.:WJC efforts during the Holocaust and its aftermath.:Post-war efforts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
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"text": "At the end of the war, the WJC undertook efforts to rebuild Jewish communities in Europe, pushed for indemnification and reparation claims against Germany, provided assistance to displaced persons and survivors of the Holocaust, and advocated for the punishment of Nazi leaders for war crimes and crimes against humanity. The World Jewish Congress notably took part in the formulation of the principles governing the Nuremberg War Crimes Tribunal and furnished evidence against Nazi leaders to the US prosecutors.\n",
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| null |
anuzar | Are there the equivalent of speech impediments in sign language? | [
{
"answer": "I've worked with a lot of impaired students, and some of the students who sign have physical disabilities with their hands/arms, or cognitive disabilities that affect their motor skills. So yes, trying to understand their signing is a lot like trying to understand someone with a severe speech impediment ",
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"wikipedia_id": "297247",
"title": "Symbolic communication",
"section": "Section::::Symbolic communication in humans.:Modern symbolic communication.:Nonverbal languages.:Sign language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
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"text": "For people who have hearing difficulties, sign language is sometimes employed to communicate. Sign language makes use of a combination of hand gestures, facial expressions, and body postures. Similar to speech, it has its own grammar and linguistic structure and may vary from each deaf community around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "9841",
"title": "Expressive aphasia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Manual language and aphasia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1188,
"text": "In deaf patients who use manual language (such as American Sign Language), damage to the left hemisphere of the brain leads to disruptions in their signing ability. Paraphasic errors similar to spoken language have been observed; whereas in spoken language a phonemic substitution would occur (e.g. \"tagle\" instead of \"table\"), in ASL case studies errors in movement, hand position, and morphology have been noted. Agrammatism, or the lack of grammatical morphemes in sentence production, has also been observed in lifelong users of American Sign Language who have left hemisphere damage. The lack of syntactic accuracy shows that the errors in signing are not due to damage to the motor cortex, but rather are a manifestation of the damage to the language-producing area of the brain. Similar symptoms have been seen in a patient with left hemisphere damage whose first language was British Sign Language, further showing that damage to the left hemisphere primarily hinders linguistic ability, not motor ability. In contrast, patients who have damage to non-linguistic areas on the left hemisphere have been shown to be fluent in signing, but are unable to comprehend written language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "148951",
"title": "Speech disorder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Speech disorders or speech impediments are a type of communication disorder where 'normal' speech is disrupted. This can mean stuttering, lisps, etc. Someone who is unable to speak due to a speech disorder is considered mute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "27699",
"title": "Sign language",
"section": "Section::::Linguistics.:Relationships with spoken languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "There is a common misconception that sign languages are somehow dependent on spoken languages: that they are spoken language expressed in signs, or that they were invented by hearing people. Similarities in language processing in the brain between signed and spoken languages further perpetuated this misconception. Hearing teachers in deaf schools, such as Charles-Michel de l'Épée or Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, are often incorrectly referred to as \"inventors\" of sign language. Instead, sign languages, like all natural languages, are developed by the people who use them, in this case, deaf people, who may have little or no knowledge of any spoken language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "48673212",
"title": "Harriet Burbank Rogers",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Auditory/oral vs. sign language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
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"text": "On the other side, sign language is a fully developed and autonomous language which individuals can learn with relative ease. It can be used to express a whole range of things which are impossible for individuals who can utilize only a limited amount of words. The drawback, however, is that deaf individuals sometimes totally depend on signing, and can barely communicate with people who do not know sign language.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "197864",
"title": "Imperative mood",
"section": "Section::::Syntax and negation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Many languages, even not normally null-subject languages, omit the subject pronoun in imperative sentences, as usually occurs in English (see below). Details of the syntax of imperative sentences in certain other languages, and of differences between affirmative and negative imperatives, can be found in some of the other specific language sections below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25490263",
"title": "Speech repetition",
"section": "Section::::Sign language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Words in sign languages, unlike those in spoken ones, are made not of sequential units but of spatial configurations of subword unit arrangements, the spatial analogue of the sonic-chronological morphemes of spoken language. These words, like spoken ones, are learnt by imitation. Indeed, rare cases of compulsive sign-language echolalia exist in otherwise language-deficient deaf autistic individuals born into signing families. At least some cortical areas neurobiologically active during both sign and vocal speech, such as the auditory cortex, are associated with the act of imitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
20wwez | why do we have to move our eyes when remembering something? | [
{
"answer": "I actually just learned this. It's your brain trying to access the information. If it is something you saw, your eyes move up and point towards the pre frontal cortex which houses your rational thought and reasoning. When you look left or right, you are attempting to remember something you heard. Down left and down right have significant too. One is accessing your creative side and I can't remember the other. Hope this helps some!",
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"answer": "Funny, I moved my eyes just thinking about it",
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"answer": "Disclaimer: Not a cognitive scientist, just somebody who thinks cognitive science is cool. \n\nIt's a really good question and there are a lot of possible answers. The truth is that although our understanding of the brain has increased by leaps and bounds over the past few years, we don't have a perfect understanding of why/how the brain works. \n\nIt's helpful to remember that every mental process is also physical in nature. Memories have to be physically stored in the brain in some way. Current research suggests that memories exist in the brain in the form of interconnected pathways. For example, imagine a smell from your childhood. Maybe your mother's perfume, or cookies, or whatever. That memory exists because those particular pathways in your brain -- the pathways that lit up when you smelled those cookies, or that perfume -- have been activated at the same time as the pathways that were lit up by the visual input of your mother, or your house, or what have you. \n\nSo when you're trying to recall that memory, your brain needs to access those same pathways. The human brain is highly visual, so many memories are at least partially visual in nature. Frequently the easiest way to access a memory is to remember what that situation *looked like*. \n\nEvidence suggests that our brains reconstructs visual input the same way it encodes it, which is a process that typically involves the eyes scanning whatever's in front of us. Something about the connection between our eyes moving and the brain interpreting/reconstructing a visual image makes it so that it's easier to do both rather than one or the other.",
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"answer": "Used in psychology and can be used to determine how someone thinks i.e. visually through images or through feelings and emotions and can be used to determine if someone is telling the truth or lying.\nThough maybe 90% of the population are wired this way the other 10% being reversed.\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": "I'm not a neurologist or psychiatrist, but I can tell you how it kind of works for me. When I move my eyes to remember, it's more like I'm looking away from what I was focused on rather than visually focusing on something new. It's kind of like daydreaming when can be staring off into space without really seeing what you're looking at. Looking away just helps me look inward to figure something out (working out a problem, going through memories, etc).",
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"answer": "_URL_0_\n my answer via samuel l jackson",
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"answer": "Your thought processes are really just abstractions. There's no concrete, conscious action you take in order to remember things or make them up. However, by associating a concrete action or ritual with a psychological function, it makes it much easier to do so.\n\nRemember how when you were a young, young kid of about 5, your parents were never just \"Okay go to bed.\"? Usually, you had a nightly ritual. The regularity of physical action helped your brain recognize when it was time to sleep. Similarly, by connecting an action to recall, it's easier to focus on that task. Your eyes moving around or in certain directions are associated, in your mind, with searching for something.\n\nTL;DR, when your eyes move around while you think, it's because at the moment you are \"looking\" around through your mind for that memory.",
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"answer": "we dont, however through Associative learning, you have established a focus point within your brain. \n\nIn short it is a subconsciously learned Associative social behavior reflex. in short; as a young child, you saw someone do it, and then associated that action with deep thought, your brain then registered that as a focusing action , and now it is \"a trained\" action for your brain to recall things when performing that action, therefore making it into a focusing medium for you. \n\nits the same reason people bite their thumbs, or touch parts of their face when in thought, or pondering. its a learned action, and prior to learning it has no true bearing over thought process. you could train a child at a young age that touching the tip of their tounge with their toe was a good way to formulate a thought, or recall a memory, and they would have the same end result. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21312310",
"title": "Remember versus know judgements",
"section": "Section::::Testing methods and models.:Eye movement method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Primarily, experimenters recorded eye movements while participants studied a series of photos. Individuals were then involved in a recognition task in which their eye movements were recorded for the second time. From the previous tasks, it was discovered that eye fixations, maintaining a visual gaze on a single location, were more clustered for remembering rather than knowing tasks. This suggests that remembering is associated with encoding a specific salient component of an item whereas recognition is activated by an augmented memory for this part of the stimulus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21312298",
"title": "Autobiographical memory",
"section": "Section::::Memory perspectives.:Effects of gender.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "In situations where one's physical appearance and actions are important (for example, giving a speech in front of an audience), the memory of that situation will likely be remembered in the observer perspective. This is due to the general trend that when the focus of attention in a person's memory is on themselves, they will likely see themselves from someone else's point of view. This is because, in \"center-of-attention\" memories, the person is conscious about the way they are presenting themselves and instinctively try to envision how others were perceiving them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31133385",
"title": "Misattribution of memory",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Source confusion in later life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1025,
"text": "To usefully remember something, people must later recognize that they've seen it before and correctly remember the context in which it was seen. With age, the ability to discriminate between new and previous events starts to fail, and errors in recalling experiences become more common. Larry Jacoby of New York University completed a study in 1999 showing how common these errors can become and giving a better understanding why recognition errors are particularly common in Alzheimer's disease. In Jacoby's study, participants were given two lists of words: one to read and one that would be said out loud to them. All subjects were then given a \"test\" list which contained some words they had read, some they had heard, and some new words; the subjects had to determine which words were which. Jacoby found that university students and 75-year-olds were equally likely to correctly recognize whether or not the word had been presented, but 75-year-olds are much more likely to mistake whether the word was spoken or read.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2856189",
"title": "Caleb Gattegno",
"section": "Section::::Pedagogical approach.:Learning and effort.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "However, there is another way of functioning, which Gattegno called retention. An example of retention is the reception of sensory images. When we look at something – a street, a film, a person, a fine view – photons move from what we are contemplating and enter our eyes to strike the retina. When we listen to something, we create auditory images in a similar way, that is, through energy that enters our system, rather than energy we allocate from inside, to memorize an arbitrary item. To retain an auditory or visual image, we have to use perhaps only an insignificant amount of our own to retain it; the amount is so small we are not aware of any effort. Such images are easily acquired and generally remain for long periods. We all have experiences similar to the following examples Gattegno offered:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13140640",
"title": "Eye–hand coordination",
"section": "Section::::Behavior and kinematics.:Eye-guided hand movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "For sequential tasks, eye-gaze movement occurs during important kinematic events like changing the direction of a movement or when passing perceived landmarks. This is related to the task-search-oriented nature of the eyes and their relation to the movement planning of the hands and the errors between motor signal output and consequences perceived by the eyes and other senses that can be used for corrective movement. The eyes have a tendency to \"refixate\" on a target to refresh the memory of its shape, or to update for changes in its shape or geometry in drawing tasks that involve the relating of visual input and hand movement to produce a copy of what was perceived. In high accuracy tasks, when acting on greater amounts of visual stimuli, the time it takes to plan and execute movement increases linearly, per Fitts's law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1717129",
"title": "Explicit memory",
"section": "Section::::Neuropsychology.:Normal brain function.:Prefrontal cortex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Using PET studies and word stimuli, Endel Tulving found that remembering is an automatic process. It is also well documented that a hemispheric asymmetry occurs in the PFC: When encoding memories, the Left Dorsolateral PFC (LPFC) is activated, and when retrieving memories, activation is seen in the Right Dorsolateral PFC (RPFC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "21312310",
"title": "Remember versus know judgements",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "There is evidence suggesting that different processes are involved in remembering something versus knowing whether it is familiar. It appears that \"remembering\" and \"knowing\" represent relatively different characteristics of memory as well as reflect different ways of using memory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
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| null |
7vrtsd | How strong is the electric current in Earth's core that produces Earth's magnetic field? | [
{
"answer": "[Here](_URL_0_) is a discussion on this topic, the first comment used the formula for a current loop and came up with a value of around 10^8 amps. The comments note that this uses the field strength at the surface when it should be at the core, so more like 10^11 amps. \n\nI’m not really sure how valid of an estimation this is, as I understand it dynamo theory says the liquid iron motion itself is what causes the field, not the current through the liquid. So we’d be looking for equations that relate the motion of liquid to field strength as opposed to equations for current. Would think that also kinda throws out the concept of current flow. Could be way off on that though. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "9228",
"title": "Earth",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Magnetic field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "The main part of Earth's magnetic field is generated in the core, the site of a dynamo process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a dipole. The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is , with a magnetic dipole moment of at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century. The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes secular variation of the main field and field reversals at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146983",
"title": "Earth's magnetic field",
"section": "Section::::Physical origin.:Earth's core and the geodynamo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The Earth and most of the planets in the Solar System, as well as the Sun and other stars, all generate magnetic fields through the motion of electrically conducting fluids. The Earth's field originates in its core. This is a region of iron alloys extending to about 3400 km (the radius of the Earth is 6370 km). It is divided into a solid inner core, with a radius of 1220 km, and a liquid outer core. The motion of the liquid in the outer core is driven by heat flow from the inner core, which is about , to the core-mantle boundary, which is about . The heat is generated by potential energy released by heavier materials sinking toward the core (planetary differentiation, the iron catastrophe) as well as decay of radioactive elements in the interior. The pattern of flow is organized by the rotation of the Earth and the presence of the solid inner core.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1417149",
"title": "Structure of the Earth",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Core.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect, gives rise to Earth's magnetic field. The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field (see Curie temperature) but probably acts to stabilize the magnetic field generated by the liquid outer core. The average magnetic field strength in Earth's outer core is estimated to be 25 Gauss (2.5 mT), 50 times stronger than the magnetic field at the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146983",
"title": "Earth's magnetic field",
"section": "Section::::Physical origin.:Earth's core and the geodynamo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The Earth's magnetic field is believed to be generated by electric currents in the conductive iron alloys of its core, created by convection currents due to heat escaping from the core. However the process is complex, and computer models that reproduce some of its features have only been developed in the last few decades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "146983",
"title": "Earth's magnetic field",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Earth's magnetic field, also known as the geomagnetic field, is the magnetic field that extends from the Earth's interior out into space, where it interacts with the solar wind, a stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun. The magnetic field is generated by electric currents due to the motion of convection currents of molten iron in the Earth's outer core: these convection currents are caused by heat escaping from the core, a natural process called a geodynamo. The magnitude of the Earth's magnetic field at its surface ranges from 25 to 65 microteslas (0.25 to 0.65 gauss). As an approximation, it is represented by a field of a magnetic dipole currently tilted at an angle of about 11 degrees with respect to Earth's rotational axis, as if there were a bar magnet placed at that angle at the center of the Earth. The North geomagnetic pole, currently located near Greenland in the northern hemisphere, is actually the south pole of the Earth's magnetic field, and conversely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146983",
"title": "Earth's magnetic field",
"section": "Section::::Magnetosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Earth's magnetic field, predominantly dipolar at its surface, is distorted further out by the solar wind. This is a stream of charged particles leaving the Sun's corona and accelerating to a speed of 200 to 1000 kilometres per second. They carry with them a magnetic field, the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146983",
"title": "Earth's magnetic field",
"section": "Section::::Measurement and analysis.:Detection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "The Earth's magnetic field strength was measured by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1832 and has been repeatedly measured since then, showing a relative decay of about 10% over the last 150 years. The Magsat satellite and later satellites have used 3-axis vector magnetometers to probe the 3-D structure of the Earth's magnetic field. The later Ørsted satellite allowed a comparison indicating a dynamic geodynamo in action that appears to be giving rise to an alternate pole under the Atlantic Ocean west of South Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
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| null |
yv3a9 | A foolish question on my part, but it's bothering me (Relating to stellar evolution). | [
{
"answer": "All other things being equal, more mass would mean longer lifetime, but all other things are not equal. The luminosity of a star increases much faster than its mass; it typically goes something like (mass)^3.5 (the exponent varies somewhat depending on the mass of the star), and so the increased rate of fusion wins out over the presence of more mass to go through.\n\nWhy is this? The rate at which the star undergoes fusion is fixed by the star hitting an equilibrium between the gravitational forces pulling matter inward and the pressure pushing outwards resulting from the fusion at the core. A more massive star will require a greater outward pressure to achieve balance, and so it will compress to achieve a greater rate of fusion at the center than a lower mass start would have.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "27980",
"title": "Stellar evolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Stellar evolution is not studied by observing the life of a single star, as most stellar changes occur too slowly to be detected, even over many centuries. Instead, astrophysicists come to understand how stars evolve by observing numerous stars at various points in their lifetime, and by simulating stellar structure using computer models.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "801330",
"title": "Gaia (spacecraft)",
"section": "Section::::Objectives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "BULLET::::- To permit a better understanding of the more rapid stages of stellar evolution (such as the classification, frequency, correlations and directly observed attributes of rare fundamental changes and of cyclical changes). This has to be achieved by detailed examination and re-examination of a great number of objects over a long period of operation. Observing a large number of objects in the galaxy is also important to understand the dynamics of our galaxy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53878",
"title": "Betelgeuse",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Circumstellar dynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 1414,
"text": "In the late phase of stellar evolution, massive stars like Betelgeuse exhibit high rates of mass loss, possibly as much as 1 every 10,000 years, resulting in a complex circumstellar environment that is constantly in flux. In a 2009 paper, stellar mass loss was cited as the \"key to understanding the evolution of the universe from the earliest cosmological times to the current epoch, and of planet formation and the formation of life itself\". However, the physical mechanism is not well understood. When Schwarzschild first proposed his theory of huge convection cells, he argued it was the likely cause of mass loss in evolved supergiants like Betelgeuse. Recent work has corroborated this hypothesis, yet there are still uncertainties about the structure of their convection, the mechanism of their mass loss, the way dust forms in their extended atmosphere, and the conditions which precipitate their dramatic finale as a type II supernova. In 2001, Graham Harper estimated a stellar wind at 0.03 every 10,000 years, but research since 2009 has provided evidence of episodic mass loss making any total figure for Betelgeuse uncertain. Current observations suggest that a star like Betelgeuse may spend a portion of its lifetime as a red supergiant, but then cross back across the H-R diagram, pass once again through a brief yellow supergiant phase and then explode as a blue supergiant or Wolf-Rayet star. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "17244108",
"title": "Algol paradox",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In stellar astronomy, the Algol paradox is a paradoxical situation when elements of a binary star seem to evolve in discord with the established theories of stellar evolution. A fundamental feature of these theories is that the rate of evolution of stars depends on their mass: The greater the mass, the faster this evolution, and the more quickly it leaves the main-sequence, entering either a subgiant or giant phase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "621989",
"title": "Victor Ambartsumian",
"section": "Section::::Scientific activity.:The physics of the young stars and the stellar energy sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "In interpreting the cosmogonic role of stellar associations Ambartsumian's went on to argue the necessity of change to existing views on star formation; namely, for dissolution and against condensation. Clearly, his early work on the expansion of the planetary nebulae and the fact that those objects result from the ejection of the outer layers of stars-the dynamical dissolution of star clusters via evaporation and of associations-created a logical background for his radical conclusion that the basic evolutionary processes in the Universe are not contraction and condensation. On the contrary, they are always outgoing from some denser state of matter. Thus, he postulated the existence of proto-stars, i.e. superdense objects as progenitors of stars, nebulae, diffuse matter, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "584584",
"title": "Otto Struve",
"section": "Section::::Views on extraterrestrial life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Struve's belief in the widespread existence of life and intelligence in the Universe stemmed from his studies of slow-rotating stars. Many stars, including the Sun, spin at a much lower rate than was predicted by contemporary theories of early stellar evolution. The reason for this, claimed Struve, was that they were surrounded by planetary systems which had carried away much of the stars' original angular momentum. So numerous were the slow-spinning stars that Struve estimated, in 1960, there might be as many as 50 billion planets in our Galaxy alone. As to how many might harbor intelligent life, he wrote:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "507266",
"title": "Observational astronomy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "As a science, the study of astronomy is somewhat hindered in that direct experiments with the properties of the distant universe are not possible. However, this is partly compensated by the fact that astronomers have a vast number of visible examples of stellar phenomena that can be examined. This allows for observational data to be plotted on graphs, and general trends recorded. Nearby examples of specific phenomena, such as variable stars, can then be used to infer the behavior of more distant representatives. Those distant yardsticks can then be employed to measure other phenomena in that neighborhood, including the distance to a galaxy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
3mtw8x | what is it about video games that turns some lazy people into completionists? | [
{
"answer": "They are psychologically designed to do exactly that- to be as playable and fun as possible, for as long as possible, using sophisticated psychological techniques,",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I'm not sure who you mean by \"lazy people\" in the title, but let's assume you mean someone like me. I'm at work and I'm on reddit, despite having made multiple appointments on my calendar that simply say (no exaggeration), \"get to work.\"\n\nYet I'm an achievement whore of OCD caliber.\n\nThe reason is simple: Video games offer short, measurable, attainable goals, and they offer them repeatedly, and in some cases reward you for them with in-game benefits.\n\nThis was true even before achievement systems. A 70-hour RPG starts with basic characters at low levels, levels which are surpassed in minutes, not hours. So that's easy. Along with the numeric counter measuring your progress, when the character learns a new fire or ice spell, it's easy *and* you're rewarded. \n\nThis is why MMOs use non-linear progression. You become accustomed to rewards and progress when they're easy. When they're harder, all those dopamine hits from easier goals start paying off, and you feel like even very complex achievements are worth the trouble. Also, they are rarer, so whatever bragging rights you feel are amplified, and in-game rewards become more prestigious or valuable too.\n\nCompare this to life at work. There is no directly visible reward for anything I accomplish today, easy or difficult. Nothing pops on screen that says, \"You did it!\" Also, since my job is completely different from everyone else's, comparing difficult accomplishments is a wash.\n\n(Oh sure, I'm paid a salary for the labor, but that becomes very intangible after awhile. If you don't do the work, it vanishes, and you depend on it for living, so it feels more like a negative incentive than a positive one, even if in fact it's the most positive incentive there is.)\n\nFurthermore, for longer term goals, there is no path or route that's obvious to me. There is no list of checkboxes that will lead to a raise or promotion, it's all very amorphous and vague. (Some jobs it aren't; mine is.)\n\nIn addition, Achievement Systems are more than just things for players to 'accomplish.' They also serve as guides to the game. An achievement to complete a number of quests per zone clues you into how many quests there are. Even if you never complete the achievement, you know whether you were almost done, stopped halfway, or barely scratched the surface, which you wouldn't otherwise know.\n\nAn achievement list of all the dungeons and modes tells you right away how many are there, and how much progress you've made. An achievement to conquer all of Calradia is a clue that doing so is possible and others have done it, even if it seems insurmountable by the gameplay.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2538794",
"title": "List of video game genres",
"section": "Section::::Idle gaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "This genre involves games that orient the player with a trivial task, such as clicking a cookie; and as the game progresses, the player is gradually rewarded certain upgrades for completing said task. In all, these games require very little involvement from the player, and in most cases they play themselves; hence the use of the word \"idle\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "4064823",
"title": "Idle animations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Idle animations refer to animations within video games that occur when the player character does not do any action (hence being idle). These sorts of animations are largely popular with action games, where players may rarely be idle and thus serve as easter eggs. Some of the first games ever to introduce idle animations on a mainstream basis were \"Door Door\" and \"Maziacs\"; the sprite taps his feet, blinks, and sits down. This trend spread to many other action genre games, becoming more complex as allowed by the advancing hardware. For example, in \"\", Diddy Kong juggles a few balls if the player offers no controller input for a few seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "43080234",
"title": "Incremental game",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Incremental games (also known as idle games, clicker games, or clicking games) are video games whose gameplay consists of the player performing simple actions such as clicking on the screen repeatedly (\"grinding\") to earn currency. In some games, even the clicking becomes unnecessary after a time, as the game plays itself, including in the player's absence, hence the moniker \"idle game\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "40662065",
"title": "Cookie Clicker",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.:Impact on idle gaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
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"text": "However, due to their mockingly simple mechanics, idle games are also considered by many of being relatively simple or, as stated in an IGN article, \"super dumb\". Games such as \"Cookie Clicker\" have used this blend of simplicity and complexity to create a new genre that some may not even consider as actual games. Orteil himself described his works as \"non-games\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1676028",
"title": "Infidel (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Many players felt robbed by this unhappy ending, even for such a greedy and prideful character. However, it is possible to complete the game with a nearly perfect score, return to the entrance of the pyramid, and quit the game. Although there is no ending screen to congratulate the player on a job well done, some consider this player-fashioned ending a more rewarding one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "4064823",
"title": "Idle animations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "Idle animations in modern 3D games are used to keep them realistic. In general, games meant for younger audiences are far more likely to have complex or humorous idle animations, while games for older people tend to have more basic idle animations. For example, in \"Super Mario 64\", Mario will occasionally look around, and eventually fall asleep, while in other games, steady breathing suffices as an idle animation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2128758",
"title": "Lazy Jones",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "\"Lazy Jones\" is essentially a collection of fifteen smaller sub-games. The game takes place inside a hotel with three floors, connected by an elevator. The character is a lazy hotel employee who does not much care for his work, but prefers to sneak into the rooms to play video games instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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| null |
2d05a8 | how can some parts of the universe be so far that light hasn't reached them, since nothing can travel faster than light? | [
{
"answer": "Because space can expand faster than the speed of light, matter cannot however.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "251399",
"title": "Observable universe",
"section": "Section::::The universe versus the observable universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1892,
"text": "Some parts of the universe are too far away for the light emitted since the Big Bang to have had enough time to reach Earth or its scientific space-based instruments, and so lie outside the observable universe. In the future, light from distant galaxies will have had more time to travel, so additional regions will become observable. However, due to Hubble's law, regions sufficiently distant from the Earth are expanding away from it faster than the speed of light (special relativity prevents nearby objects in the same local region from moving faster than the speed of light with respect to each other, but there is no such constraint for distant objects when the space between them is expanding; see uses of the proper distance for a discussion) and furthermore the expansion rate appears to be accelerating due to dark energy. Assuming dark energy remains constant (an unchanging cosmological constant), so that the expansion rate of the universe continues to accelerate, there is a \"future visibility limit\" beyond which objects will \"never\" enter our observable universe at any time in the infinite future, because light emitted by objects outside that limit would never reach the Earth. (A subtlety is that, because the Hubble parameter is decreasing with time, there can be cases where a galaxy that is receding from the Earth just a bit faster than light does emit a signal that reaches the Earth eventually.) This future visibility limit is calculated at a comoving distance of 19 billion parsecs (62 billion light-years), assuming the universe will keep expanding forever, which implies the number of galaxies that we can ever theoretically observe in the infinite future (leaving aside the issue that some may be impossible to observe in practice due to redshift, as discussed in the following paragraph) is only larger than the number currently observable by a factor of 2.36.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "16786863",
"title": "Ant on a rubber rope",
"section": "Section::::Metric expansion of space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
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"text": "By thinking of photons of light as ants crawling along the rubber rope of space between the galaxy and us, we can see that just as the ant can eventually reach the end of the rope, so light from distant galaxies, even some that appear to be receding at a speed greater than the speed of light, can eventually reach Earth, given sufficient time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "23704170",
"title": "The Whole Shebang: A State-of-the-Universe(s) Report",
"section": "Section::::Synthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
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"text": "He goes on to explain that in Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity, the rule that nothing can go faster than the speed of light, does not apply to galaxies in an expanding universe. He further explains that while that rule may apply in a preexisting static space, it does \"not\" apply in an expanding universe. In an expanding cosmic universe galaxies can travel away from each other at speeds in excess of the speed of light. As a result of this there are galaxies so far away that the light from them have not reached earth yet and therefore we don't even know they exist. Ferris refers to this phenomenon as a boundless steadily increasing and changing universe with a changing density.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "16786863",
"title": "Ant on a rubber rope",
"section": "Section::::Metric expansion of space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
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"text": "This puzzle has a bearing on the question of whether light from distant galaxies can ever reach us given the metric expansion of space. The universe is expanding, which leads to increasing distances to other galaxies, and galaxies that are far enough away from us will have an apparent relative motion greater than the speed of light. It might seem that light leaving such a distant galaxy could never reach us.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "31880",
"title": "Universe",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Size and regions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The proper distance—the distance as would be measured at a specific time, including the present—between Earth and the edge of the observable universe is 46 billion light-years (14 billion parsecs), making the diameter of the observable universe about 93 billion light-years (28 billion parsecs). The distance the light from the edge of the observable universe has travelled is very close to the age of the Universe times the speed of light, , but this does not represent the distance at any given time because the edge of the observable universe and the Earth have since moved further apart. For comparison, the diameter of a typical galaxy is 30,000 light-years (9,198 parsecs), and the typical distance between two neighboring galaxies is 3 million light-years (919.8 kiloparsecs). As an example, the Milky Way is roughly 100,000–180,000 light-years in diameter, and the nearest sister galaxy to the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, is located roughly 2.5 million light-years away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1381391",
"title": "Intergalactic travel",
"section": "Section::::Difficulties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "According to the current understanding of physics, an object within space-time cannot exceed the speed of light, which means an attempt to travel to any other galaxy would be a journey of millions of earth years via conventional flight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "26957755",
"title": "Space travel using constant acceleration",
"section": "Section::::Interstellar travel.:A half-myth: It gets harder to push a ship faster as it gets closer to the speed of light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "From the ship's frame, the acceleration would continue at the same rate. However, due to Lorentz contraction, the galaxy around the ship would appear to become squashed in the direction of travel, and a destination many light years away would appear to become much closer. Traveling to this destination at subluminal speeds would become practical for the onboard travellers. Ultimately, from the ship's frame, it would be possible to reach anywhere in the observable universe, without the ship ever accelerating to light speed.\n",
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| null |
4ossb5 | The United States Second Amendment starts with "A well-regulated militia...". What was intended by the phrase "well-regulated" if the right extends to gun owners who are not part of an organised group? | [
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"answer": "Looks like I am a little late to the party, however, I just answered a very similar question a few days ago, so [I will copy and paste it here:](_URL_3_)\n\nSpecific question I answered: \"Why would Thomas Jefferson write in, and founding fathers put their signatures on, the 2nd amendment after Shays rebellion?\"\n\nThis is an incredible question and I'm very glad you asked. Before I answer it, I'd like to briefly describe what Shay's Rebellion actually was:\n\n**Context:** \n\nShays' Rebellion was an armed uprising led by former Massachusetts Militiamen and Veterans of the American Revolution which took place between 1786 - 1787. Daniel Shays led several thousand \"rebels\" to fight against the economic injustices that were facing farmers and agrarian peasants all across America. These farmers were experiencing extreme poverty following the end of the Revolutionary War. All across Massachusetts (and the rest of America) farmers saw their lands foreclosed on in unfair property seizers, and they wanted to fight back, which they did here. They were also trying to fight taxes which were beginning to be levied against them. They fought this in many ways, but among them was closing and obscuring roads so that government agents couldn't reach rural parts of the state. Shays' Rebellion would ultimately be put down, but it startled the gentry who feared further uprisings throughout the United States. \n\nI also like to point out that the naming of this event is really interesting. The people who did this, called themselves Regulators ( [modeling off of the North Carolina Regulators](_URL_2_) who also fought against economic injustices before the start of the American Revolution.). The idea of Civilian Regulation was a popular idea that sought to end government corruption and stamp out the overwhelming power of the gentry. They believed that if the government wasn't regulating itself on behalf of \"We the People\", then \"the People\" had the right to regulate, or take back the government -- to take it back and do what they believed was right. They didn't see themselves as a rebellion, but rather the gentry labeled them as such in order to de-legitimize their cause. The gentry didn't want to call these men \"militiamen\" or \"regulators\" for this reason (which they clearly were), but instead, branded them as \"rebels\" who needed to be stopped. \n\nVeterans like Benjamin Lincoln would raise militias on their own and mounted their own assaults against the \"rebels.\" They call themselves the \"the Massachusetts Militia\" even though it was the former militias who they were fighting! So as they begin to debate this on the national stage, especially in 1787 at the Constitutional convention, the gentry singled out Daniel Shay (even though there were actually many other leaders), and they said he was crazy and people were only following a demagogue. They hailed The Massachusetts Militia as the victors and saviors and asserted that militias are what will save America in the future against such madness.\n\n**Answer:**\n\nAlthough the Constitution was drawn up in 1787 and ratified in 1788, the Bill of Rights was not ratified until December of 1791 when the Bill of Rights was finally agreed upon. Whether or not to include the Bill of Rights (and what to include inside it) was a matter of extreme contestation between the Founders and everything within it was deeply fought over. \n\nWhen we look at the Second Amendment specifically, we should look at a few things before hand. First, by the 1790s, other small rebellions had popped up all over the country. Terry Bouton's article \"A Road Closed: Rural Insurgency in Post-Independence Pennsylvania\" (The Journal of American History, Vol. 87, No. 3 (Dec., 2000), pp. 855-887) masterfully explains the fighting and rebellion that took place in the rural countrysides of Pennsylvania that mirrored what had happened in Massachusetts with Shays' Rebellion. Simply put, the gentry were terrified that they were losing control of rural America, and as a result they would not be able to seize foreclosed land and collect taxes, which they deeply wanted. Empowering militias to be trained and carry firearms allowed the gentry to call up these men in times of need and suppress these rebellions that were taking place. \n\nNow there was already precedent in existence for protecting militias and their rights to bear arms in many states. Multiple other bills of rights from other states had already protected a militia's right to bear arms (such as [Section 13](_URL_1_) of Virginia's Declaration of Rights) and many of these states were fighting to have the federal government protect this as well. \n\nNow, look at the very wording of the [Second Amendment](_URL_0_).\n\n > A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.\n\n\"A well regulated Militia\" is the key phrase. They are referring to the militias led by people like Benjamin Lincoln and his Massachusetts Militia not Shays and his \"rebellion\". The initial goal was to protect a state's right to call up arms against rebels, not to arm the masses. The Founders feared that in some states (like Rhode Island) that were already being drastically controlled by the poor (rather than the gentry), that local governments would start being able to choose who could keep and bear arms, and that by creating the Second Amendment, the gentry would always have the ability to call up and arm militias in times of need. \n\n**Clarification:** I also need to stress that this question mentioned Jefferson by name, however he was not a signer of the Constitution, but did certify the adoption of the Bill of Rights in 1792.\n\nTl;Dr: The second ammendement wasn't passed *in spite of* Shays' Rebellion, rather it was passed *because* of Shays' Rebellion.\n\n**EDIT: 1**\n\nWow, what a response from everyone! I started posting responses to people below, but alas it is Father's day and I am heading out with my family to do some fun stuff for the day. I will do my best to answer questions I wasn't able to answer when I return tonight and will also answer any news ones that I can. I would like to say thank you to /u/DBHT14 , /u/Georgy_K_Zhukov , and /u/FatherAzerun who have helped me answer many of these follow ups (and given some pretty fantastic answers themselves)\n\n**EDIT: 2**\nThank you to everyone for your patience. Sorry for the delay. Father's day and then NBA Finals and then Game of Thrones -- busy day! \n\nHere are some great secondary sources that many of you have requested from me. I will post some more by tomorrow evening. Please let me know if you have any follow up questions. \n\n Shalhope, Robert.\"The Ideological Origins of the Second Amendment\" *The Journal of American History*, Vol. 69, No. 3 (Dec., 1982), pp. 599-614. \n\nBouton, Terry. \"A Road Closed: Rural Insurgency in Post-Independence Pennsylvania\" *The Journal of American History,* Vol. 87, No. 3 (Dec., 2000), pp. 855-887\nI always recommend starting with this one. It's an excellently written article that is extremely well-respected in the field. It helps set up a much broader perspective for what was going on in the rural countryside with agrarian peasants who were rebelling during this time period. \n\nParker, Rachel. \"Shays' Rebellion: An Episode in American State-Making\" *Sociological Perspectives*, Vol. 34, No. 1 (Spring, 1991), pp. 95-113\n\nKonig. David. \"The Second Amendment: A Missing Transatlantic Context for the Historical Meaning of 'The Right of the People to Keep and Bear Arms'\". *Law and History Review,* Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring, 2004), pp. 119-159\n\n**Edit 3**\n\nOnce again, thank you to everyone for your patience. I am still getting PM requests for books, so I am adding two plus a few more articles. If would you like the articles emailed to you, please PM and I will send them to you. **Please be aware** that I am posting books that are on **both** sides of the gun control debate because **both** sides pretty much universally agree that regardless of what the founders' original intent was, a major (if not the major reason) for including the Second Amendment for the Bill of Rights were the incidents of rebellions, insurgencies, and regulators. \n\nIf anyone has more questions on this, I am perfectly willing to discuss them. Just ask the question in /r/AskHistorians and feel free to tag me. \n\n\nCress, Lawerence. *Citizens in Arms: The Army and the Militia in American Society to the War of 1812* The University of North Carolina Press; First Edition edition. 1982\n\nMalcolm, Joyce. \"To Keep and Bear Arms: The Origins of an Anglo-American Right* Harvard University Press. 1996\n\nCress, Lawerence, *An Armed Community: The Origins and Meaning of the Right to Bear Arms\" *The Journal of American History*, Vol. 71, No. 1 (Jun., 1984), pp. 22-42\n\nHigginbotham, Don. \"The Federalized Militia Debate: A Neglected Aspect of Second Amendment Scholarship\" *The William and Mary Quarterly,* Vol. 55, No. 1 (Jan., 1998), pp. 39-58\n\nShalhope, Robert. \"The Second Amendment and the Right to Bear Arms: An Exchange\" *The Journal of American History*, Vol. 71, No. 3 (Dec., 1984), pp. 587-593\n\n",
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"answer": "This is both an important question, and, as many other respondents have noted, also a thorny one. While I appreciate the citation of Heller as a strong indication of modern interpretations of the history of the phrase “well-regulated militia” as seen through legal eyes, both the controlling and dissenting opinions have found dissent. Since much of the origin of that dissent falls outside of the historical realm (and long discussion of it would violate our 20 year rule), I’d rather leave that for now and look to some historian’s interpretations, and see if that helps illuminate your question. \n\n(Apparently I was had typed this up this morning that comment may have been removed for that reason, so sorry if I am responding to a phantom post now)\n\nJust as a caveat, though: Clearly this is a question that has sharp divides, and the context of the way the question is framed today might itself be seen as ahistorical.\n\nAs noted above, there is a well-established concern that a militia stood in contrast to a Standing Army, which was seen as the “tool of a tyrant.” But one of the ways to answer this question about the militia specifically is to examine the historical context of what constituted a militia (and here I am focusing on the period before the Revolution) versus what did not at the time, since colonials did react to armed citizens taking up “defense” differently in different contexts.\n\nIn general, for a militia to be “well-regulated” it would have to have been mustered out by colonial authority, specifically the colonial Governor. Other groups that owned individual weapons and “mustered out” on their own – even if was regional and massively popular – were seen not as proper militias but as illegal actors or vigilantes. On the eve of the American Revolution in South Carolina, there was a set of vigilante groups in the western backcountry that eschewed the courts and decided to muster themselves out and attack outlaw gangs. This “Regulator Conflict” of 1767 was not seen as a proper use of militia but instead as a criminal activity, although people in the Western backcountry saw it as simply a necessity due to lack of governmental protection afforded to people by the governments along the coast. (I should note that western backcountry uprisings and “taking law into their own hands” is a subject worthy of an entirely other thread, one can go back to Bacon’s Rebellion as an example.) The eerie parallel is that the regulator conflicts presaged some of the complaints American Revolutionaries would have after the implementation of smuggling offenses being tried in the military Vice-Admiralty Courts – there were too few courts, too far away, although in some ways the complaints were polar opposites – the backcountry decried the lack of convictions of criminals, whereas the Vice Admiralty Courts were seen as tools of oppression, placing colonials who (in the colonials minds) were doing minor civilian infractions being sent to military Tribunals.\n\nSo not every group of citizens arming themselves and engaging in “defense” was seen as well-organized. Also, some historians have argued there is evidence in the early Republic that the second amendment was not seen as an individual right. I am specifically thinking of an essay in the collection edited by Saul Cornell, Whose Right to Bear Arms Did the Second Amendment Protect? – and I apologize as I do not have the book on hand and a quick google search didn’t help me find the list of essays, but I’ll come back later and append if there is interest – but one of the early essays in the book cited the example of George Washington’s experience with the Whiskey Rebellion – not only, as mentioned in a previous response, drummed out the militia to deal with the uprising, but he also ordered disarmament of the Rebels. Therefore, the author concluded, the second amendment was not was not intended to reach beyond the militia mustered by the government. However, the point of that text was also to show other historians who had differing interpretations as well. It’s a good resource to examine some of the historiography of the debate. One of the co-editors, Cornell, is famous for making an argument that the two legal methods of viewing the second amendment (individual or collective) are both not quite right, and there is a third view entirely. Since I have not read his book on the matter – only an abstract and reviews – I cannot comment on its veracity, but as he is a rather esteemed scholar on this debate you may find it of interest as to how the framing of the debate today may be in and of itself flawed when we ask these questions.\n\nHowever, one needs caution. I want to point out that some historical books need to be avoided. I myself was influenced at one time by a book that was highly lauded but ended up being upended. One of our great modern scandals involving the Bancroft Prize happened when in Emory professor Michael Bellesiles published Arming America, which tried to argue that the American value of gun ownership was more a locus of Pre-Civil War America and not a phenomena rooted in colonial, Revolutionary, or Early National America. As a new Assistant Professor, I personally tailored some of my lectures around what was seen then as groundbreaking new scholarship. As you might guess, it ended up that the book was an embarrassment – indeed, a lot of the evidence was simply fabricated – and it led to the Bancroft Prize being rescinded. (I think this is the only time that has happened.)\n\nOne other area worthy of investigation is to recognize that the idea of what constitutes a militia evolves as well over time in America. Since this goes beyond my period of expertise, and I am not specifically a military historian, I will let my colleagues tackle this if they wish, but I would point to the fact that Congress has defined the militia differently over time, and as pointed out in another response, the rise of the National Guard codified the militia in a way that was clearly different from colonial understandings. You might wish to look at the The Efficiency in Militia Act of 1903 passed by congress to get one such example.\n\nOne last note: Because of the politicization of the gun issue, the diminishing role of the militia in United States defense and the rise of the Professional (standing) Army has often been treated in a bubble. But I would argue that you can see parallels in other American institutions as well, where previously services that were volunteer or privatized and sometimes scattershot begin to be seen as disorganized, unresponsive, or ill-equipped to handle the challenges of an expanding population and urbanization over time (and particularly by the late 19th and early 20th centuries) and that expanded roles for government organization and professionalization are called for: The evolution of city watch and Sheriffs to the Robert Peel model of policing that is the foundation for much of our structure of modern police forces; there is a similar evolution from volunteer firefighters into modern professional Firefighters. Since Police, Military, and Fire response all entail safety and all have had somewhat similar evolutions into professionalization and government institutionalization, looking at the way who is tasked to do these behaviors – and who is prohibited – may provide insight into how control over these institutions have evolved without stepping on the second amendment political landmine.\n",
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"answer": "The Bill of Rights did not just happen over night. There was an exhaustive debate that took place in the public forum over many months in newspapers, journals, letters, and essays. The purpose for the 2nd Amendment was laid out for us in writings by the very men who wrote and ratified our nation's founding document. One such argument was laid out by James Madison on January 29, 1788.\n\nYou might remember Madison as the 4th President of the United States. What you may not remember is that Madison also penned the Bill of Rights. One of his arguments for ratification of the 2nd Amendment was published in the form of Federalist Paper #46 (an excerpt of which is provided below). Madison argued that the standing army of our newly formed nation should not exceed 1/100th of it's overall population, or 1/25th the size of the armed civilian population. In no uncertain terms, he states the reason for this as: \n\n\"It may well be doubted, whether a militia thus circumstanced could ever be conquered by such a proportion of regular troops.\"\n\nMadison was not concerned with hunting nor the self defense of ones home. He was concerned with the people not having the ability to form militias in a manner capable of fending off a standing army following the orders of a future tyrant. It is interesting how James Madison's math has held up over time:\n\n1788 Figures\nUSA Military Personnel: 25,000 (1/100 of 2.5M)\nArmed Militia Potential: 625,000 (25x Military)\n\n2016 Figures\nUSA Military Personnel: 2.1 Million (1/150 of 315M)\nArmed Militia Potential: 100 Million (50x Military)\n\nMany who are opposed to guns describe as \"ultra-right fringe\" those who believe the 2nd Amendment is intended to ensure the public can defend itself against a future tyrannical government. Laid before you is evidence to the contrary. \n\nPeople on both sides of the debate are entitled to their opinions. However, during the course of the debate we must ensure that we do not engage in intellectual dishonesty. If you believe the 2nd Amendment is an outdated right, then make the case that it should be repealed. However, please do not attempt to rewrite history in order to circumvent original intent in an effort to impose laws that violate our Constitution in its current form.\n\n***** Excerpt from Federalist Paper #46 *****\n\n\"Let a regular army, fully equal to the resources of the country, be formed; and let it be entirely at the devotion of the federal government; still it would not be going too far to say, that the State governments, with the people on their side, would be able to repel the danger. The highest number to which, according to the best computation, a standing army can be carried in any country, does not exceed one hundredth part of the whole number of souls; or one twenty-fifth part of the number able to bear arms. \n\nThis proportion would not yield, in the United States, an army of more than twenty-five or thirty thousand men. To these would be opposed a militia amounting to near half a million of citizens with arms in their hands, officered by men chosen from among themselves, fighting for their common liberties, and united and conducted by governments possessing their affections and confidence. It may well be doubted, whether a militia thus circumstanced could ever be conquered by such a proportion of regular troops. Those who are best acquainted with the last successful resistance of this country against the British arms, will be most inclined to deny the possibility of it. \n\nBesides the advantage of being armed, which the Americans possess over the people of almost every other nation, the existence of subordinate governments, to which the people are attached, and by which the militia officers are appointed, forms a barrier against the enterprises of ambition, more insurmountable than any which a simple government of any form can admit of. Notwithstanding the military establishments in the several kingdoms of Europe, which are carried as far as the public resources will bear, the governments are afraid to trust the people with arms.\"\n\n***** End of Excerpt *****",
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"wikipedia_id": "10043078",
"title": "David Deming",
"section": "Section::::Views on issues.:Views on gun control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
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"text": "In a 1994 article co-authored with University of Oklahoma law professor Robert B. Smith, Deming and Smith concluded \"the Second Amendment safeguards an individual right; the militia consists of people who have a right to keep and bear arms.\" In 1997, Deming argued that gun ownership was \"net benefit to our society,\" and described the Second Amendment as protecting \"an inalienable natural right...that exists whether it is in the Bill of Rights or not.\" In a 2013 article in the Wall Street Journal he wrote an article entitled \"What the Oil Business Could Learn From the NRA\" \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "31644",
"title": "Constitution of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Ratified amendments.:Safeguards of liberty (Amendments 1, 2, and 3).\n",
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"text": "The Second Amendment (1791) protects the right of individuals to keep and bear arms. Although the Supreme Court has ruled that this right applies to individuals, not merely to collective militias, it has also held that the government may regulate or place some limits on the manufacture, ownership and sale of firearms or other weapons. Requested by several states during the Constitutional ratification debates, the amendment reflected the lingering resentment over the widespread efforts of the British to confiscate the colonists' firearms at the outbreak of the Revolutionary War. Patrick Henry had rhetorically asked, shall we be stronger, \"when we are totally disarmed, and when a British Guard shall be stationed in every house?\"\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "9663177",
"title": "Gun law in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
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"end_character": 292,
"text": "In 1791, the United States Bill of Rights were ratified which included the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution which stated that \"A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40589862",
"title": "Right to keep and bear arms in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Modern commentary.:Interpretive Models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The second two models focus on the preamble, or \"purpose\" clause, of the Amendment – the words \"\"A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State.\"\" The second model, the collective model, holds that the right to bear arms belongs to the people collectively rather than to individuals, under the belief that the right's only purpose is to enable states to maintain a militia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "450957",
"title": "Gun politics in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "The Second Amendment of the United States Constitution reads: \"A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166514",
"title": "Antonin Scalia",
"section": "Section::::Supreme Court of the United States (1986–2016).:Individual rights.:Second Amendment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "In 2008, the Court considered a challenge to the gun laws in the District of Columbia. Scalia wrote the majority opinion in \"District of Columbia v. Heller\", which found an individual right to own a firearm under the Second Amendment. Scalia traced the word \"militia\", found in the Second Amendment, as it would have been understood at the time of its ratification, stating that it then meant \"the body of all citizens\". The Court upheld Heller's claim to own a firearm in the District.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31655",
"title": "Second Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Scholarly commentary.:Late 20th century commentary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "The first, known as the \"states' rights\" or \"collective right\" model, held that the Second Amendment does not apply to individuals; rather, it recognizes the right of each state to arm its militia. Under this approach, citizens \"have no right to keep or bear arms, but the states have a collective right to have the National Guard\". Advocates of collective rights models argued that the Second Amendment was written to prevent the federal government from disarming state militias, rather than to secure an individual right to possess firearms. Prior to 2001, every circuit court decision that interpreted the Second Amendment endorsed the \"collective right\" model. However, beginning with the Fifth Circuit's opinion \"United States v. Emerson\" in 2001, some circuit courts recognized that the Second Amendment protects an individual right to bear arms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5l4bv8 | how do biologists and doctors know what chemical to use in order to make something happen in the body? | [
{
"answer": "The collective body of herbalists, doctors, chemists, and witch doctors from the past two to three thousand years have been documenting findings and studying effects of substances on the human body. \n\nLets work out an easy example. In our tribe of neanderthals, everyone knows if you eat the red berries from the bush by the river you're going to do nothing but shit for the next three days. We also know that if you eat leaves of the tree on that hill over there you won't shit for a week. \n\nThe town doctor recognizes this, and whenever someone has food poisoning due to bad water, they'll advise them to eat the tree leaves to stop the pooping. Can't poop and now your belly hurts? Red berries bro. That'll clean you right out. \n\nAs time goes on, he teaches his son where to find the best herbs & spices for various ailments, which allows his son as the new town doctor to look for even more, since he didn't have to spend his entire career finding the same medicines as his father. Eventually they start writing it down, and now all of the five nearest towns know how to treat more and more diseases. \n\nEventually, scientists become a thing, they start looking into the berries to see what about them makes you poop, and if there are other plants that have the same property. Eventually someone discovers how to extract just the pooping oils from the berry and bottles it so now a doctor can carry the equivalent of 100 berries in their pocket. \n\nSince they know one berry = 1 drop = 1 poop, they start administering that to stopped up patients. But eventually someone REALLY needs poop, and the drop didn't work, so they administer more drops. The guy poops! Hooray! He poops more! Yay! He poops blood! That's probably bad. He passes out! That's definitely bad. He dies covered in shit-blood! Whoops. Too many berries. Note for next time: 1 Poop-berry can cure a potentially lethal ailment. 10 poop-berries is potentially lethal. Administer no more than 9 Poop berries to adult males. \n\nFast forward thousands of iterations and documentation, and we now know that the chemical [Sennosides](_URL_0_) is what caused the poop reaction in the body, and that 15mg is a good 'standard dosage'. After even more research we discover a way to use Science and Chemistry to manufacture Sennosides directly, skipping the berry harvest altogether. \n\nTake this logic for literally every medicine we have, and you have the basis for every medicine we use today. Our scientists inventing drugs are standing on the shoulders of everyone that came before them. Some treatments have been discovered hundreds of years ago, but manufacturing and sourcing technologies needed breakthroughs to make what worked on paper possible. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1840591",
"title": "Decay correction",
"section": "Section::::Example of use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Researchers often want to measure, say, medical compounds in the bodies of animals. It's hard to measure them directly, so it can be chemically joined to a radionuclide - by measuring the radioactivity, you can get a good idea of how the original medical compound is being processed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5105731",
"title": "Mechanism of action",
"section": "Section::::How mechanism of action is determined.:Direct biochemical methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Direct biochemical methods include methods in which a protein or a small molecule, such as a drug candidate, is labeled and is traced throughout the body. This proves to be the most direct approach to find target protein that will bind to small targets of interest, such as a basic representation of a drug outline, in order to identify the pharmacophore of the drug. Due to the physical interactions between the labeled molecule and a protein, biochemical methods can be used to determine the toxicity, efficacy, and the mechanism of action of the drug.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25058762",
"title": "Biomonitoring",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Scientific advancements have made it possible to detect a greater number of chemical substances in smaller concentrations in the body, with some chemicals detectable at levels as low as parts per trillion. A single biomonitoring measurement is only one snapshot in time and may not accurately reflect the level of exposure over longer periods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25058762",
"title": "Biomonitoring",
"section": "Section::::Biomonitoring equivalents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "Scientists performing biomonitoring testing are able to detect and measure concentrations of natural and manmade chemicals in human blood and urine samples at parts-per-billion to parts-per-quadrillion levels. A 2006 U.S. National Research Council report found that while scientists were capable of detecting the chemicals at these levels, methods for interpreting and communicating what their presence meant regarding potential health risks to an individual or population were still lacking. The report recommended that scientific research be done to improve the interpretation and communication of biomonitoring results through the use of existing risk assessments of specific chemicals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "571274",
"title": "Drug discovery",
"section": "Section::::Nature as source.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Traditionally many drugs and other chemicals with biological activity have been discovered by studying allelopathy – chemicals that organisms create that affect the activity of other organisms in the fight for survival.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1686272",
"title": "Chemical biology",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Some forms of chemical biology attempt to answer biological questions by directly probing living systems at the chemical level. In contrast to research using biochemistry, genetics, or molecular biology, where mutagenesis can provide a new version of the organism, cell, or biomolecule of interest, chemical biology probes systems \"in vitro\" and \"in vivo\" with small molecules that have been designed for a specific purpose or identified on the basis of biochemical or cell-based screening (see chemical genetics).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "571274",
"title": "Drug discovery",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Historically, substances, whether crude extracts or purified chemicals, were screened for biological activity without knowledge of the biological target. Only after an active substance was identified was an effort made to identify the target. This approach is known as classical pharmacology, forward pharmacology, or phenotypic drug discovery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
23gk2q | Is it possible or even part of the theory of evolution that a population produces multiple beneficial mutations at once? | [
{
"answer": "I don't know about the mathematical possibilities of it -- I'm a biologist, most of us don't know from math -- but there's nothing stopping two beneficial mutations from arising at once. Why would there be? It hardly seems beneficial to a population to one-at-a-time evolutionary adaptations. \n\nAs for speeding things up, I don't know. Evolution occurs over vast, vast periods of time. Vast, vast periods of time divided by two are still a vast period of time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This happens, people tend to follow one mutation down generations only for simplicity of demonstration but of course each and every gene develop in parallel. Millions of genes all develop at the same time.\n\nMathematically, however, the most common mutations are minor, insignificant mutations that do not affect reproductive capacity. Thus any strong beneficial mutations will be diluted within a population. Also, there can also be detrimental mutations that may be passed on. Thus the timescales are still very long.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "555213",
"title": "Mutation (genetic algorithm)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The probability that amount of mutation will go to 0 with the next generation is increased by using non-uniform mutation operator. It keeps the population from stagnating in the early stages of the evolution. It tunes solution in later stages of evolution. This mutation operator can only be used for integer and float genes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "661661",
"title": "Evolution of sexual reproduction",
"section": "Section::::Deleterious mutation clearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Mutations can have many different effects upon an organism. It is generally believed that the majority of non-neutral mutations are deleterious, which means that they will cause a decrease in the organism's overall fitness. If a mutation has a deleterious effect, it will then usually be removed from the population by the process of natural selection. Sexual reproduction is believed to be more efficient than asexual reproduction in removing those mutations from the genome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "176052",
"title": "Molecular evolution",
"section": "Section::::Forces in molecular evolution.:Mutation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Mutations are stochastic and typically occur randomly across genes. Mutation rates for single nucleotide sites for most organisms are very low, roughly 10 to 10 per site per generation, though some viruses have higher mutation rates on the order of 10 per site per generation. Among these mutations, some will be neutral or beneficial and will remain in the genome unless lost via genetic drift, and others will be detrimental and will be eliminated from the genome by natural selection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3295330",
"title": "Molecular anthropology",
"section": "Section::::Causes of errors.:Problem of calibration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1939,
"text": "There are several problems not seen in the above. First, mutations occur as random events. Second, the chance that any site in the genome varies is different from the next site, a very good example is the codons for amino acids, the first two nt in a codon may mutate at 1 per billion years, but the third nt may mutate 1 per million years. Unless scientist study the sequence of a great many animals, particularly those close to the branch being examined, they generally do not know what the rate of mutation for a given site. Mutations do occur at 1st and 2nd positions of codons, but in most cases these mutations are under negative selection and so are removed from the population over small periods of time. In defining the rate of evolution in the anchor one has the problem that random mutation creates. For example, a rate of .005 or .010 can also explain 24 mutations according to the binomial probability distribution. Some of the mutations that did occur between the two have reverted, hiding an initially higher rate. Selection may play into this, a rare mutation may be selective at point X in time, but later climate may change or the species migrates and it is not longer selective, and pressure exerted on new mutations that revert the change, and sometimes the reversion of a nt can occur, the greater the distance between two species the more likely this is going to occur. In addition, from that ancestral species both species may randomly mutate a site to the same nucleotide. Many times this can be resolved by obtaining DNA samples from species in the branches, creating a parsimonious tree in which the order of mutation can be deduced, creating branch-length diagram. This diagram will then produce a more accurate estimate of mutations between two species. Statistically one can assign variance based on the problem of randomnicity, back mutations, and parallel mutations (homoplasies) in creating an error range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5422365",
"title": "John C. Sanford",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:\"Genetic Entropy & the Mystery of the Genome\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "His argument is as follows. The minimal rate of human mutation is estimated to be 100 new mutations per generation. According to Sanford, Kimura's curve shows that most mutations have a near-neutral effect, and are furthermore slightly deleterious. As such, they cause a genetic rust unstoppable by natural selection. Therefore, the main claim is that the rise of random genetic mutations is too unnoticeable to be affected by natural selection, yet harmful enough to cause the gradual extinction of any species through time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19812169",
"title": "Frances Arnold",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "One advantage of directed evolution is that the mutations do not have to be completely random; instead they can be random enough to discover unexplored potential, but not so random as to be inefficient. The number of possible mutation combinations is astronomical, but instead of just randomly trying to test as many as possible, Arnold integrates her knowledge of biochemistry to narrow down the options, focusing on introducing mutations in areas of the protein that are likely to have the most positive effect on activity and avoiding areas in which mutations would likely be, at best, neutral and at worst, detrimental (such as disrupting proper protein folding).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4796040",
"title": "Chemostat",
"section": "Section::::Experimental Design Considerations.:C) Mutation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "BULLET::::- These other mutations are expected only through successive sweeps of mutants with a fitness advantage. One can only expect multiple mutants to arise if each mutation is independently beneficial, and not in cases where the mutations are individually neutral but together advantageous. Successive takeovers are the only reliable way for evolution to proceed in a chemostat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2yj9zl | what is the difference between gaming fps, where it's normally around 60, and slow-motion fps in videos, where it says 1000 fps. | [
{
"answer": "Its all about the speed the film is played back. If you film something at 1000 fps but playing it back at say 30 fps, the same video clip takes 30 odd seconds to play back.\n\nWith fps in games the playback rate is fixed.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "The 1000 FPS in the video is referring to the number of frames per second the camera captures, not the number of FPS the video is playing back.\n\nWhen you're playing LoL and getting 60 FPS, the game is rendering 60 FPS, and displaying it at 60 FPS.\n\nThe 1000 FPS camera is capturing 1000 frames in a second, and then the video is displaying it at, say, 60 FPS. \n\nIf you have 1000 frames of footage, but are only showing 60 in second, an action that would normally take one second, is taking 1000/60 seconds--about 16.7 seconds of footage. This is why it appears to be in slow motion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The question has been answered but I need to point out your confusion when playing league.\n\n\nYour monitor is the limiting factor here. Most monitors are 60hz I.e they can only refresh 60 times a second. You can get more expensive monitors that are 120 or 144hz and they can refresh 120 and 144 times a second but this is the fastest they will refresh.\n\nSo even though your graphics card is outputting 200 fps you're only seeing 60fps. You're also probably seeing less than this as your graphics card is not synced to the monitor refresh rate. I highly recommend turning vsync on of you have an nvidia GPU. This will force 60fps but will sync it with your monitor as best it can to ensure its actually 60fps you're seeing (when rendering at over 60fps the graphics card can miss the monitor refreshes by essentially refreshing the image too many time so the time moved forward is inconsistent between frames, only by milliseconds but it can still have an effect plus you can get screen tearing).\n\nThis was written on a phone at 7am so just accept any grammar/spelling mistakes :P\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "When you say that a game or movie **plays at** 60FPS, you're saying that it will play at 60 frames per second. This also usually means that it was recorded or rendered at 60 frames per second or whatever the framerate is.\n\nWhen you say that a video was **recorded at** 1000FPS, that's how many frames per second were captured. 10 seconds at 1000FPS is 10 x 1000 = 10,000 frames total. If you played this video normally, you'd have 10 seconds of very smooth 1000FPS video.\n\nBut 1000FPS is a lot of frames. More than you can reliably see. So we can bring it into an editing program and slow it down. We could show 50FPS instead of 1000FPS, but we still have 10,000 frames to show. So 10,000 (frames) / 50FPS = 200 seconds. What was recorded at 1000FPS as a 10 second video has been slowed down to a 50FPS, 200 second video.\n\nBut the content of those frames doesn't change just because we've slowed it down. The result is a video that appears to be very slow. 10 seconds / 200 seconds = 1/20. That's the rate we're going at: 1/20th of real time. What you see is a video that was recorded at 1000FPS, but played at 50FPS.\n\nThis isn't something we could have done if we had used a regular camera and slowed it down. If we recorded a 10 second video at 60FPS, we'd have 600 frames of video. If we want so slow it down to 1/20th of real time, we'll need to slow it to 3FPS. The result is what looks like a 200 second long slideshow. A video that was recorded at 60FPS, but played at 3FPS.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Game = displaying 60 frames per sec of not sped up or slowed down timescale.\n\nRecord 1000 fps and play it back at 60 fps and it will look slow, or play it back at 1000 Hertz/Fps and it will look like normal speed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21689",
"title": "NTSC",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.:Frame rate conversion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Because both film speeds have been used in 25-fps regions, viewers can face confusion about the true speed of video and audio, and the pitch of voices, sound effects, and musical performances, in television films from those regions. For example, they may wonder whether the Jeremy Brett series of Sherlock Holmes television films, made in the 1980s and early 1990s, was shot at 24 fps and then transmitted at an artificially fast speed in 25-fps regions, or whether it was shot at 25 fps natively and then slowed to 24 fps for NTSC exhibition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5911724",
"title": "Enthusiast computing",
"section": "Section::::Hardware description.:Display.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "It is clear that a fast response time and high refresh rate is desired in order to display smooth motion. A framerate of 60 frames per second (FPS) is generally the minimum acceptable framerate in a video game for enthusiasts, with some enthusiasts preferring 144 FPS or even 165 FPS, to match the refresh rate of their monitor (144 Hz or 165 Hz, respectively). Some gaming monitors can be overclocked to achieve even higher refresh rates. Apart from the primary display, some enthusiasts choose to use a secondary display or more to their PC. Many players game using 3 monitors, which requires 3 times the graphics performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33160539",
"title": "Nikon 1 series",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "At the time of announcement, Nikon claimed that it features the world's fastest autofocus, with 10 fps—even during videos—based on hybrid autofocus (phase detection/contrast-detect AF with AF-assist illuminator), as well as the world's fastest continuous shooting speed (60 fps) among all cameras with interchangeable lenses. Slow-motion movies can be captured in up to 1200 fps with reduced resolution. Its inbuilt intervalometer enables time-lapse photography.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21689",
"title": "NTSC",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.:Frame rate conversion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1037,
"text": "For 30-fps standards, a process called \"3:2 pulldown\" is used. One film frame is transmitted for three video fields (lasting 1½ video frames), and the next frame is transmitted for two video fields (lasting 1 video frame). Two film frames are thus transmitted in five video fields, for an average of 2½ video fields per film frame. The average frame rate is thus 60 ÷ 2.5 = 24 frames per second, so the average film speed is nominally exactly what it should be. (In reality, over the course of an hour of real time, 215,827.2 video fields are displayed, representing 86,330.88 frames of film, while in an hour of true 24-fps film projection, exactly 86,400 frames are shown: thus, 29.97-fps NTSC transmission of 24-fps film runs at 99.92% of the film's normal speed.) Still-framing on playback can display a video frame with fields from two different film frames, so any difference between the frames will appear as a rapid back-and-forth flicker. There can also be noticeable jitter/\"stutter\" during slow camera pans (telecine judder).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21689",
"title": "NTSC",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.:Frame rate conversion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "BULLET::::- The film can be shot at 24 frames per second. In this case, when transmitted in its native region, the film may be accelerated to 25 fps according to the analog technique described above, or kept at 24 fps by the digital technique described above. When the same film is transmitted in regions that use a nominal 30-fps television standard, there is no noticeable change in speed, tempo, and pitch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41173",
"title": "Frame rate",
"section": "Section::::Film and video.:Modern video standards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Film, at its native 24 FPS rate could not be displayed without the necessary pulldown process, often leading to \"judder\": To convert 24 frames per second into 60 frames per second, every odd frame is repeated, playing twice; Every even frame is tripled. This creates uneven motion, appearing stroboscopic. Other conversions have similar uneven frame doubling. Newer video standards support 120, 240, or 300 frames per second, so frames can be evenly multiplied for common frame rates such as 24 FPS film and 30 FPS video, as well as 25 and 50 FPS video in the case of 300 FPS displays. These standards also support video that's natively in higher frame rates, and video with interpolated frames between its native frames. Some modern films are experimenting with frame rates higher than 24 FPS, such as 48 and 60 FPS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37428421",
"title": "Nikon 1 V2",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Featuring a new 14 megapixel image sensor and further increased autofocus (hybrid autofocus with phase detection/contrast-detect AF and AF-assist illuminator) speed to 15 frames per second (fps), the maximum continuous shooting speed stays at 60 fps for up to 40 frames.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5ic0o4 | Has David Irving contributed anything positive to Holocaust academia? Or have his contributions worked to purposefully obfuscate real Holocaust research? Additionally, are there any other examples of well-known "researchers" to watch out for? | [
{
"answer": "Personally i have a lack of knowledge on the work by David Irving. What i can talk about is other Holocaust research and academia. Due to battery life, this will have to be a tad limited, sorry for this.\n\nYou ask for \"well-known\" researchers, then i will give you three.\n\n* Raul Hilberg \n* Christopher R. Browning\n* Daniel J. Goldhagen\n\nStarting with Hilberg, the so called \"Grandfather of Holocaust studies\" creating what can be deemed to be the basis of all modern holocaust research. His magnum opus \"The Destruction of the European Jews\" is 1273 pages.\n\nVery noteworhy is Christopher R. Browning, famous in the field of Holocaust research, especially for his book \"Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland.\" What makes Browning so interesting is his work with the 101 police battalion, showing the people behind the killing. He conclude with the same fact that Hilberg does in his book, that in fact that it was 'ordinary Germans' that were the perpetrators of the Holocaust, not just SS-troops or the Einsatzgruppen. \"*They did not kill because they were coerced by the threat of dire punishment for refusing*\"^1. Browning argues that the 'ordinary Germans' became killers based on basic obedience to authority and peer preassure, not based on bloodlust or primal hatred. \n\nLast, as you mention people that have \"prevented\" Holocaust research, you have the obvious name of Daniel J. Goldhagen with his, New York Times Bestseller \"Hitlers Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans of the Holocaust\". This book is an indirect response to Brownings book on the Police Battalion, where Browning argues the fact that even if the perpetrators were Ordinary Germans, they did not kill the Jews out of their own will, Goldhagen argue that due to the German Phenomenon, mentioned a few lines down, the perpetrators were willing executioners. His book takes the stance that the Holocaust could only happen in Germany based on a German Phenomenon called \"Eliminationist Anti-Semitism\". Goldhagen argues that this was the sole motivation for the Holocaust and comes often with outlandish and overconfident statements. \"*With regards to the motivational cause of the Holocaust, for the vast majority of perpetrators, a monocausal explanation does suffice.*\"^2 and “*their[German people] approval[of the holocaust] derived in the main from their own conception of Jews is all but certain, for no other source of motivation can plausibly account for their actions.*”^3\n\nAfter Goldhagen became a massive commercial success, increasingly many scholars started writing reviews and essays explaining how Goldhagen was wrong. Hilberg goes as far as to outright dismiss the work of Goldhagen. Notable reviews and Essays regarding the book: Yehuda Bauer \"On Perpetrators of the Holocaust and the Public Discourse\", Hilberg \"The Goldhagen Phenomenon\" and Browning \"Daniel Goldhagen's Willing Executioners\".\n\nGoldhagen is an important example of someone using the same sources as others (Browning) yet reaching comepletely different conclusions, although his work was dismissed by most scholars, it is an important lesson to learn from, do not only pick information that help your case.\n\n1. Christopher R. Browning “Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland”, 1998, p.191\n2. Daniel J. Goldhagen \"Hitler's Willing Executioners\", 1996, p.416\n3. Goldhagen, 1996, p.416\n\nSources: \n\nBauer, Y. and Finkelstein, N. G. (1998), The Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. 89, No. 1/2 pp. 123-126 \n\nBauer, Y. (1997) On Perpetrators of the Holocaust and the Public Discourse. The Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. 87, No. 3/4, pp. 343-350\n\nHilberg, R. (1997) The Goldhagen Phenomenon. Critical Inquiry, Vol. 23, No. 4, pp 721-728\n\nBrowning, C. (1996). Daniel Goldhagen's Willing Executioners. History and Memory, 8(1), pp.88-108\n\nGoldhagen, D. (1996). Hitler's willing executioners. 1st ed. New York: Knopf\n\n\nEDIT: Goldhagens' book is a very interesting read where he bring up case studies like the death marches, I would definitely suggest reading up on the \"duel\" between Goldhagen and Browning",
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"answer": "Irving's early works including *Goering* and *The War Between the Generals* were considered scholarly and well-researched. This was a period when a lot of the first generation of postwar history was being questioned, and certain myths brought into question.\n\nIt was in the 1980s that Irving became more and more associated with Nazi apologists, emerging from his willingness to criticise the Allies. His book *The Destruction of Dresden* is unquestionably the result of original research, but his methodology to arrive at a casualty figure of 135,000 is highly dubious.\n\nHis trial showed this. Close analysis of his writings didn't completely discredit him, it found a tendency, increasing over time, to interpret his findings in a subjective way.\n\nI consider AJP Taylor to be of a similar ilk, but because he's not a Nazi apologist its much less of an issue. Some of his statements, his sweeping dismissal of contentions, are astounding. This is especially so in relation to his treatment of First World War Allied commanders.",
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"wikipedia_id": "87585",
"title": "David Irving",
"section": "Section::::Holocaust denial.:Movement towards Holocaust denial.\n",
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"text": "Over the years, Irving's stance on the Holocaust changed significantly. From 1988, he started to espouse Holocaust denial openly: he had previously not denied the Holocaust outright and for this reason, many Holocaust deniers were ambivalent about him. They admired Irving for the pro-Nazi slant in his work and the fact that he possessed a degree of mainstream credibility that they lacked, but were annoyed that he did not openly deny the Holocaust. In 1980, Lucy Dawidowicz noted that although \"Hitler's War\" was strongly sympathetic to the Third Reich, because Irving argued that Hitler was unaware of the Holocaust as opposed to denying the Holocaust happened at all, his book was not part of the \"anti-Semitic canon\". In 1980, Irving received an invitation to speak at a Holocaust-denial conference, which he refused on the grounds that his appearance there would damage his reputation. In a letter, Irving stated his reasons for his refusal as: \"This is pure \"Realpolitik\" on my part. I am already dangerously exposed, and I cannot take the chance of being caught in flak meant for others!\" Though Irving refused at this time to appear at conferences sponsored by the Holocaust-denying Institute for Historical Review (IHR), he did grant the institute the right to distribute his books in the United States. Robert Jan van Pelt suggests that the major reason for Irving wishing to keep his distance from Holocaust deniers in the early 1980s was his desire to found his own political party called Focus.\n",
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"title": "David Irving",
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"text": "Irving's reputation as a historian was discredited when, in the course of an unsuccessful libel case he filed against the American historian Deborah Lipstadt and Penguin Books, he was shown to have deliberately misrepresented historical evidence to promote Holocaust denial. The English court found that Irving was an active Holocaust denier, antisemite and racist, who \"for his own ideological reasons persistently and deliberately misrepresented and manipulated historical evidence\". In addition, the court found that Irving's books had distorted the history of Hitler's role in the Holocaust to depict Hitler in a favourable light.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "87585",
"title": "David Irving",
"section": "Section::::Reception by historians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
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"text": "By 1988, however, Irving had begun to reject the status of the Holocaust as a systematic and deliberate genocide. He soon became the main proponent of Holocaust denial. This, along with his association with far-right circles, dented his standing as a historian. A marked change in Irving's reputation can be seen in the surveys of the historiography of the Third Reich produced by Ian Kershaw. In the first edition of Kershaw's book \"The Nazi Dictatorship\" in 1985, Irving was called a \"maverick\" historian working outside the mainstream of the historical profession. By the time of the fourth edition of \"The Nazi Dictatorship\" in 2000, Irving was described only as a historical writer who had in the 1970s engaged in \"provocations\" intended to provide an \"exculpation of Hitler's role in the Final Solution\". Other critical responses to his work tend to follow this pattern.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "29759365",
"title": "Critical responses to David Irving",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
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"text": "Irving was once held in regard for his expert knowledge of German military archives. Much of his scholarship was disputed by historians to the point that his standing as a historian was challenged from his earliest publications. Contentious in large part for advancing interpretations of the war considered favourable to the German side and for association with far-right groups that advanced these views, by 1988 he began advocating the view that the Holocaust did not take place as a systematic and deliberate genocide, and quickly grew to be one of the most prominent advocates of Holocaust denial, costing him what scholarly reputation he had outside those circles. A marked change in Irving's reputation can be seen in the surveys of the historiography of the Third Reich produced by Ian Kershaw. In the first edition of Kershaw's book \"The Nazi Dictatorship\" (1985), Irving was called a \"maverick\" historian working outside of the mainstream of the historical profession. By the time of the fourth edition of \"The Nazi Dictatorship\" in 2000, Irving was described only as a historical writer who had in the 1970s engaged in \"provocations\" intended to provide an \"exculpation of Hitler's role in the Final Solution\".\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "29759365",
"title": "Critical responses to David Irving",
"section": "Section::::Reaction to Irving's work.:1980s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
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"text": "In a \"feuilleton\" published in the \"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung\" on 18 October 1989 the German historian Rainer Zitelmann praised Irving for having \"struck a nerve\" with his provocative style and aggressive assertions. Zitelmann found much to be praised about Irving's claim that the lack of a written \"Führer\" order for the Holocaust suggests that Hitler was unaware of the Holocaust, and argued that if that was true, then historians should stop holding the Holocaust against Hitler. Zitelmann ended his article with the claim that \"Irving must not be ignored. He has weaknesses [but he is] one of the best knowers of sources…[and has] contributed much to research\". The British historian John Charmley commented that \"Irving's sources, unlike the conclusions which he draws from them, are usually sound\", and that Irving \"has been unjustly ignored\".\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "9939167",
"title": "Menachem Z. Rosensaft",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy of Holocaust Remembrance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
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"text": "Rosensaft's philosophy of Holocaust remembrance is greatly influenced by what he has described as Elie Wiesel's \"commitment to human rights, his readiness to apply the lessons of the Holocaust to contemporary issues while at all times emphasizing its Jewish particularity.\" Thus, his focus has consistently been on social and political action rather than psychological introspection. In his opening address at the first international conference of children of Holocaust survivors in New York in May 1984, he noted that human rights abuses alongside the persistence of anti-Semitism \"serve to remind us that Jews are never the only victims of the world's evil and venality.\" Pointing out that \"we are even confronted by the terrifying phenomenon of Jewish would-be terrorists on the West Bank who strive to implement the racist philosophy expounded by fanatics such as Meir Kahane,\" the American-born member of the Israeli parliament who promoted a virulently anti-Arab policies, he concluded that \"it is not enough for us only to commemorate the past. Rather we must be sensitive to all forms of human suffering, and we must take our place at the forefront of the struggle against racial hatred and oppression of any kind.\"\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "13517819",
"title": "Daniel R. Schwarz",
"section": "Section::::Contributions.:Holocaust and Jewish Studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
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"text": "In \"Imagining the Holocaust\" (1999), a major study of books and films about the Holocaust including books by Elie Wiesel, Anne Frank, and Art Spiegelman and films by Claude Lanzmann and Steven Spielberg, Schwarz focuses on the relationship among memory, imagination, and narrative. Schwarz's interest in Jewish studies began with his \"Disraeli's Fiction\" (1979) and continued with his discussion of Bloom in \"Reading Joyce's \"Ulysses\".\"\n",
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| null |
tmoe2 | Does the "will to live" among the very ill create biochemical changes in the body that helps keep them alive? | [
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"answer": "There are a number of articles and research papers indicating that a positive mental attitude towards an illness such as cancer can have a profound effect on the rate of recovery. The reasons for this are not particularly well known. It's potentially an extension or application of the placebo effect in that a person can effectively will themselves back to better health. \n\nIt's true not only of physical ailments but also of mental disorders such as chronic depression. Oddly in placebo testing, even being made aware of the fact that a placebo is being administered doesn't change the effect of such a treatment as much as would be expected. In fact in most testing the participants with the placebo have a significantly higher rate of improvement than those receiving nothing at all. \n\nWent a little off topic there but in a nutshell, the will to live does have a profound effect on recovery rates but as yet there is not a great deal know as to why this happens as far as I have read. Bearing in mind that I'm just graduating from a psychology bachelors I may be wrong/not as well read as some so I may have missed some more recent or appropriate literature that might give a little more insight but I hope I've helped a little. \n\nEdit: I posted some related articles lower down for some further reading so I thought I'd add them here.\n\nOk, so here's a little article about placebos acting even when they are known to be placebos. _URL_0_ - Well worth a read.\n\n_URL_4_ - Much more in depth journal article on placebo (specific to sudden loss of hearing) in which there seems a much smaller gap than you would imagine between placebo and medical treatment. (this is full of stats and jargon but if you can bear with it, it's very interesting).\n\n_URL_1_ - An article describing how the placebo effect can alter brain function.\n\n_URL_5_ - another article describing how the placebo effect works in certain cases. This one is well worth a read. It shows that in some cases placebos are not the magic bullet they are sometimes painted as in journal articles.\n\nWould do more but I have to get back to revision. I get the feeling I'll be back to have a look at this topic soon enough though.\n\nEdit: I've seen a few posts citing that I didn't back up the information regarding cancer sufferers specifically so I found a couple of articles that would hopefully shed some light on this. I can't cite the peer reviewed journals as the library account at my University doesn't allow direct links so I did my best to find some informed yet admittedly not peer reviewed articles on the subject. \n\nOk, so specifically to cancer sufferers, _URL_6_ - This article shows that people without the stresses of a distressed relationship show a much quicker state of recovery than those who do not. \n\n_URL_2_ - This is more a Q & A for those suffering from breast cancer but shows that good mental health can increase the level your body heals or responds to the negative sides of the treatment itself. \n\n_URL_3_ - A further article explaining the links between good psychological health and cancer survival rates explaining the positives of good mental health on the stresses of being diagnosed with cancer. \n\nSorry I didn't cite these earlier. Didn't have much time on my hands but I hope this goes some way to explaining and backing the claims I made regarding cancer in the original post. ",
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"answer": "I cannot help with any biomechanical changes but I do have some citations about possible psychological effects that impact the date of our death.\n\n[Here](_URL_1_) is a paper from 1990 examining the death rates among elderly chinese women around the harvest moon festival. They found that mortality dipped 35% before the festival and raised 35% after the festival. This is not a universally accepted study but it is some place to start. The same researcher also did a larger study regarding deaths around birthdays, though I am not sure how well accepted his research is.\n\nThe book [Quirkology](_URL_0_) has a small section on this effect.\n\n > There is certainly some anecdotal evidence to support the notion. Charles Schulz, the multi-millionaire cartoonist and creator of the “Peanuts” strip, died on the eve of the publication of his last comic strip. The final cartoon con-tained a farewell letter signed by Schulz. Also, no fewer than three American presidents, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Monroe, all died on July 4, thus raising the intriguing possibility that they held on long enough to ensure an auspicious date of death.\n\nHowever, this does come after a section of the book about people lying about dates of birth/death (priests are statistically more likely to be born on Christmas, politicians on July 4, etc). So these sort of effects may be explained if someone has a reason to lie about when their parent/sibling died.\n\nEdit: Here are a few more papers on the subject of date of death. I don't have time to link them so I am just copying them from the back of Quirkology.\n\nD. P. Phillips and D. G. Smith, “Postponement of Death Until Sym-bolically Meaningful Occasions,” Journal of the American Medical Association 263 (1990)\n\nD. P. Phillips, C. A. Van Voorhees, and T. E. Ruth, “The Birthday:Lifeline or Deadline?” Psychosomatic Medicine \n54 (1992): 532–542.\n\nJ. A. Skala and K. E.Freedland, “Death Takes a Raincheck,” Psychosomatic Medicine 66(2004): 382–386.\n\nS. A. Everson et al., “Hopelessness and Risk of Mortality and Inci-dence of Myocardial Infarction and Cancer,” Psychosomatic Medicine 58(1996): 113–121.\n\nW. Kopczuk and J. Slemrod, “Dying to Save Taxes: Evidence fromEstate-Tax Returns on the Death Elasticity,” Review of Economics and Statistics 85, no. 2 (2003): 256–265",
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"answer": "\"The will to live\", as you like to call it, leads to better dealing with the stress of the situation. Stress has been linked to earlier mortality rates than in people with the lack thereof.\n\nA very relevant study I sadly can't remember the name of details the effects of stress on HIV patients. Those who were more worried about dying soon had higher levels of cortisol, which is linked to stress, and those who had a positive outlook seemed to have less cortisol and also outlive the others.\n\nOf course, stress is just one aspect, but it does lend towards the idea that positive thinking helps you stay alive. \n\nSource: IB psychology guidebook in the health psychology section. I don't remember the name of the psychologists, however.\n\nEDIT: clarity",
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"answer": " > I hear often about people just \"giving up\" or not having a \"will to live\" anymore, and they shortly after they pass on.\n\nIsn't it likely that the body can sense that its situation looks bleak and they lose their will to live as a result, rather than it being the other way around?",
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"answer": "Well from what I have learned in psychology, stress can severely inhibit the immune system, so anything that would reduce stress, like a positive mental attitude, should increase the bodies natural abilities to defend and repair itself. ",
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"answer": "The practice of 'mindfulness', a psychological technique adapted form eastern traditions, has been shown to [alter brain and immune function](_URL_0_), as measured through EEGs and antibody production in response to immunization. The technique helps one focus on the moment and has been associated with improvements in positive affect.\n\nI'm sure that an actual psychologist/psychiatrist would have more to say about it, as my only encounters with this technique have been through discussions with a psych resident.",
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"answer": "To expand upon OP's question, could a person recover from an sickness easier if they were misinformed to believe that their sickness was much less severe than it actually was?",
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"answer": "My roomate's grandma is in hospice right now. She has no pulse in her right arm and her left leg which means those two limbs are essentially dead and are beginning to rot. She should have died 3 days ago, but she's still holding onto something. This has baffled the doctors and they have told the family that she is holding on to something, that there's a problem in the family and she will not go until it is resolved. The family knew what it was and so they called up some family members that they don't really talk to and they let those family members talk to the grandma. The grandma is not too responsive...she's just holding on and basically breathing, but as soon as she heard their voices, her pulse went up and her eyes started fluttering, indicating that this was what she was needing. Those family members are on their way and after they touch the grandma for one last time and talk to her, she will probably pass. \n\nThis is all accounted from my roommate, but it sounds like it's kind of the same thing. She will not pass until this family issue is resolved. She's got to be in a lot of pain from those two rotting limbs.\n\n**EDIT** The grandma died on 5/16/12 around 5:30pm. My roommate found out a few hours ago and she looked like she wasn't too sure how to handle her emotions. She didn't really show any and was trying to skirt around them. It is possible that the estranged family members showed up to see her, and so the grandma was able to finally pass. I'll know more from my roommate at a later date.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "18606535",
"title": "Will to live",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
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"text": "Many studies have been conducted on the theory of the will to live. Among these studies are subject to the difference in gender and the elderly and also in the terminally ill. One study focused on a simple question that asked about rating one’s will to live and presented the findings that elderly participants reporting a stronger will to live and strengthened or stable will to live survived longer in comparison to those with a weak will to live. This study found that women were able to cope with life-threatening situations, but suggested that the participants could not have been stable and requires future replication.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "18606535",
"title": "Will to live",
"section": "Section::::Concept.\n",
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"text": "In psychology, the will to live is the drive for self-preservation, usually coupled with expectations for future improvement in one's state in life. The will to live is an important concept when attempting to understand and comprehend why we do what we do in order to stay alive, and for as long as we can. This can be related to either one's push for survival on the brink of death, or someone who is just trying to find a meaning to continuing their life. Some researchers say that people who have a reason or purpose in life during such dreadful and horrific experiences will often appear to fare better than those that may find such experiences overwhelming. Everyday, people undergo countless types of negative experiences, some to which may be demoralizing, hurtful, or tragic. An ongoing question continues to be what keeps the will to live in these situations. Some people that claim to have experienced instances of the will to live, have many different explanations behind it.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "18606535",
"title": "Will to live",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
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"text": "The second study presented the idea of the will to live in the terminally ill specifically cancer patients termed as older. In this study researchers were able to suggest that patients who had tested as having a low sustained will to live died soonest, as opposed to having a moderate level of the will to live, lived the longest while high will to live could affect individuals in any direction. This study needs future replication that can show the effects of will to live in the terminally ill from different diseases and age categories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "18606535",
"title": "Will to live",
"section": "Section::::Correlations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
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"text": "“Existential, psychiatric, social, and, to a lesser degree, physical variables are highly correlated with the will to live”. Existential issues found to correlate significantly include hopelessness, the desire for death, sense of dignity, and burden to others. Psychiatric issues found to be strongly associated are such as depression, anxiety, and lack of concentration. Physical issues that showed the strongest associations were appetite and appearance which did not show the same consistent degree of correlation. The four main predictor variables of the will to live changing over time are anxiety, shortness of breath, depression, and sense of well-being which correlate with the other variable predictors as well. Social variables and quality of life measures are shown to correlate significantly with the will to live such as support and satisfaction with support from family, friends, and health care providers. Findings on the will to live have suggested that psychological variables are replaced by physical mediators of variation as death draws nearer. The will to live has also proven to be highly unstable.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "2279900",
"title": "Testamentary capacity",
"section": "Section::::Proof of testamentary capacity.:Testamentary capacity in England and Wales.\n",
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"text": "The increasing longevity of individuals means that there is a greater chance of any person losing the capacity to make a will in their old age as a result of dementia. Indeed, dementia is the commonest reason for a will to be challenged, although any mental disorder may cause loss of capacity. This presents a major issue for the will draftsman who is not only required to have a knowledge of the legal test of capacity, but also of what its implications are, in order to record his relevant observations of the testator and form an opinion of his client's capacity. This, coupled with much greater prominence of negligence claims against will draftsmen, means that a careful understanding of what the draftsman should be doing becomes vital.\n",
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"title": "Will to live",
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"text": "There are significant correlations between the will to live and existential, psychological, social, and physical sources of distress. The concept of the will to live can be seen as directly impacted by hope. Many, who overcome near-death experiences with no explanation, have described the will to live as a direct component of their survival. The difference between the wish to die versus the wish to live is also a unique risk factor for suicide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "18606535",
"title": "Will to live",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
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"text": "The will to live is considered to be a very basic drive in humans; but not necessarily the main driving force. In psychotherapy, Sigmund Freud termed the pleasure principle, which is the seeking of pleasure and avoiding of pain. Viktor Frankl, after spending time in a German concentration camp, developed psychotherapy called logotherapy, or the \"will to meaning\". Maslow's hierarchy of needs highlights the innate appetite that people possess for love and belonging but before all this there is the very basic and powerful will to live.\n",
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| null |
xvb6j | If you traveled back in time wouldn't you being there mean that more mass has entered the universe than was originally there? | [
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"answer": "So you're asking \"if you violate the laws of physics, wouldn't that mean you've violated the laws of physics?\"\n\nYes.",
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"answer": "If you treat time as another reference point similar to other positional coordinates say x,y,z,t the then all you need is a sufficient amount of energy and the right process to transfer that mass/energy to a different location in the coordinate system. \n\nJust as moving any objection in 3d isn't the creation of new mass but simply a transfer. \n ",
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"wikipedia_id": "12511",
"title": "Gerald Schroeder",
"section": "Section::::Religious views and scientific theories.\n",
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"text": "Namely, that from the perspective of the point of origin of the Big Bang, according to Einstein's equations of the 'stretching factor', time dilates by a factor of roughly 1,000,000,000,000, meaning one trillion days on earth would appear to pass as one day from that point, due to the stretching of space. When applied to the estimated age of the universe at 13.8 billion years, from the perspective of the point of origin, the universe today would appear to have just begun its sixth day of existence, or if the universe is 15 billion years old from the perspective of earth, it would appear to have just completed its sixth day.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1161498",
"title": "Six by Seven",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
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"text": "\"There was a big debate as to whether the millions of other galaxies in the universe were accelerating away from each other or moving away at a constant rate, or whether they were actually coming back in on themselves. The scientists originally thought that everything would eventually come back in on itself and implode, but what's actually happening is that they are accelerating away at a rate of 6 x 7.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19167840",
"title": "Chronology of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Far future and ultimate fate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "If the expansion of the universe continues and it stays in its present form, eventually all but the nearest galaxies will be carried away from us by the expansion of space at such a velocity that our observable universe will be limited to our own gravitationally bound local galactic cluster. In the very long term (after many trillions – thousands of billions – of years, cosmic time), the Stelliferous Era will end, as stars cease to be born and even the longest-lived stars gradually die. Beyond this, all objects in the universe will cool and (with the possible exception of protons) gradually decompose back to their constituent particles and then into subatomic particles and very low level photons and other fundamental particles, by a variety of possible processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14843",
"title": "Interstellar travel",
"section": "Section::::Proposed methods.:Fast missions.:Time dilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "At higher speeds, the time on board will run even slower, so the astronaut could travel to the center of the Milky Way (30,000 light years from Earth) and back in 40 years ship-time. But the speed according to Earth clocks will always be less than 1 light year per Earth year, so, when back home, the astronaut will find that more than 60 thousand years will have passed on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1456593",
"title": "Involution (esoterism)",
"section": "Section::::Gurdjieff and modern science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "In this context, the role of time in the Second Law of Thermodynamics is curious alone because the irreversible increase of entropy in the universe, as a principle that can be verified through daily observations, as something equivalent of the irreversibility of time, is enough proof of the big bang theory. That is to say, since the increase of entropy in time is continuous and irreversible, one would arrive at the prime oneness if one could travel backward in time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8111079",
"title": "Gravitational wave",
"section": "Section::::Sources.:Inflation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Many models of the Universe suggest that there was an inflationary epoch in the early history of the Universe when space expanded by a large factor in a very short amount of time. If this expansion was not symmetric in all directions, it may have emitted gravitational radiation detectable today as a gravitational wave background. This background signal is too weak for any currently operational gravitational wave detector to observe, and it is thought it may be decades before such an observation can be made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25915",
"title": "Raëlism",
"section": "Section::::Beliefs.:Structure of the Universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Because of the difference of mass, the activity of life inside of a living thing's atoms would undergo many millennia before enough time passes for that living thing to take a single step. Raëlians believe the universe is infinite in time and space and lacks a center. Because of this, one could not imagine where an ethereal soul would go.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1fj4yj | - why don't we clean up satellite debris? | [
{
"answer": "High cost, low benefit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Launching rockets is expensive, and with the relatively tiny budget that space agencies have it's not worth it to focus on space debris instead of actually doing something useful.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cleaning up satellite debris is a touchy subject because each country would have to be responsible for it. The most recent satellite debri issue was when a Chinese missile blew up an old satellite of theirs as a \"test\". Either it was legitimately a test or a show of \"hey, we can knock your spy satellites out!\" is debatable. \n\nNo country would agree to allow anyone else to clean up their satellites regardless of who owned the cleanup process. \n\nFor example, if Russia had a private company that offered to clean up a downed DirecTV satellite, the US government would put a HUGE stop to that. Without going to great details, the US government piggybacks off commercial satellites for security reasons. \n\nIIRC, some satellites have a slingshot-out-of-orbit protocol to prevent it from falling into the wrong hands as opposed to a controlled Earth reentry like most other satellites. Older ones just perpetually orbit the Earth near indefinitely. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1045142",
"title": "Debris",
"section": "Section::::Space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1076,
"text": "\"Space debris\" usually refers to the remains of spacecraft that have either fallen to Earth or are still orbiting Earth. Space debris may also consist of natural components such as chunks of rock and ice. The problem of space debris has grown as various space programs have left legacies of launches, explosions, repairs, and discards in both low Earth orbit and more remote orbits. These orbiting fragments have reached a great enough proportion to constitute a hazard to future space launches of both satellite and manned vehicles. Various government agencies and international organizations are beginning to track space debris and also research possible solutions to the problem. While many of these items, ranging in size from nuts and bolts to entire satellites and spacecraft, may fall to Earth, other items located in more remote orbits may stay aloft for centuries. The velocity of some of these pieces of space junk have been clocked in excess of 17,000 miles per hour (27,000 km/h). A piece of space debris falling to Earth leaves a fiery trail, just like a meteor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4362108",
"title": "Supersynchronous orbit",
"section": "Section::::Geocentric supersynchronous orbits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "The geo graveyard belt orbital regime is valuable as a storage and disposal location for space debris after their useful economic life is completed as geosynchronous communication satellites. Artificial satellites are left in space because the economic cost of removing the debris would be high, and current public policy does not require nor incentivize rapid removal by the party that first inserted the debris in outer space and thus created a negative externality for others—a placing of the cost onto them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "266344",
"title": "Space debris",
"section": "Section::::Dealing with debris.:External removal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "A consensus of speakers at a meeting in Brussels on 30 October 2012 organized by the Secure World Foundation (a U.S. think tank) and the French International Relations Institute reported that removal of the largest debris would be required to prevent the risk to spacecraft becoming unacceptable in the foreseeable future (without any addition to the inventory of dead spacecraft in LEO). Removal costs and legal questions about ownership and the authority to remove defunct satellites have stymied national or international action. Current space law retains ownership of all satellites with their original operators, even debris or spacecraft which are defunct or threaten active missions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4362108",
"title": "Supersynchronous orbit",
"section": "Section::::Geocentric supersynchronous orbits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "One public policy proposal to deal with growing space debris is a \"one-up/one-down\" launch license policy for Earth orbits. Launch vehicle operators would have to pay the cost of debris mitigation. They would need to build the capability into their launch vehicle-robotic capture, navigation, mission duration extension, and substantial additional propellant – to be able to rendezvous with, capture and deorbit an existing derelict satellite from approximately the same orbital plane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43048815",
"title": "OneWeb satellite constellation",
"section": "Section::::Concerns.:End-of-life concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "An alternative that has been proposed for years is to introduce the capability to retrieve derelict objects for near-space clean up and then either deorbit the satellite or do some sort of in-space recycling of the satellite materials. Several technical approaches have been proposed, but there has been no legal framework to date that has required satellite operators to clean up the negative externality of their derelict satellites. New approaches offer the technical prospect of markedly reducing the cost of object capture and deorbit with the implementation of a one-up/one-down launch license regime to Earth orbits that would require satellite operators to remove one spacecraft for each one deployed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "266344",
"title": "Space debris",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Initially, the term space debris referred to the natural debris found in the solar system: asteroids, comets, and meteoroids. However, with the 1979 beginning of the NASA Orbital Debris Program, the term also refers to the debris (alt. space waste or space garbage) from the mass of defunct, artificially created objects in space, especially Earth orbit. These include old satellites and spent rocket stages, as well as the fragments from their disintegration and collisions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35087307",
"title": "Busek",
"section": "Section::::Research and development.:ORbital DEbris Remover (ORDER).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "In order to deal with human-caused space debris, Busek proposed in 2014 a remotely controlled vehicle to rendezvous with debris, capture it, and attach a smaller deorbit satellite to the debris, then drag the debris/smallsat-combination, by means of a tether, to the desired location. The larger sat would then tow the debris/smallsat combination to either deorbit or move it to a higher graveyard orbit by means of electric propulsion. The larger satellite is named the \"ORbital DEbris Remover\", or \"ORDER\" which will carry over 40 SUL (\"Satellite on an Umbilical Line\") deorbit sats plus sufficient propellant for the large number of orbital maneuvers required to effect a 40-satellite debris removal mission over many years. Busek is projecting the cost for such a space tug to be .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2jy0qr | why does food that should be warm seem to taste worse when cold? also why does it seem cold when left out for too long, when it should only be room temperature? | [
{
"answer": "When it's warm, it has more flavor. Some liquids evaporate and give off that aroma, some liquids better coat your tongue.\n\nFood left out *is* cold, compared to the temperature it's served at and the temperature of your body. Food is usually heated above 100 degrees F. You body is in the 90s. Room temperature is usually 15-25 degrees lower than your body. Go lick something with the same heat transfer rate as oil and it will seem just as cold. If you had two pieces of food and put one in the fridge and left the other out, it'd be pretty obvious the refrigerated one is much colder when you tasted it.\n\nEdit: fixed \"it\" to \"out\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21282070",
"title": "Taste",
"section": "Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Temperature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Temperature can be an essential element of the taste experience. Food and drink that—in a given culture—is traditionally served hot is often considered distasteful if cold, and vice versa. For example, alcoholic beverages, with a few exceptions, are usually thought best when served at room temperature or chilled to varying degrees, but soups—again, with exceptions—are usually only eaten hot. A cultural example are soft drinks. In North America it is almost always preferred cold, regardless of season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10646",
"title": "Food",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 185,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 185,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Foods that spoil easily, such as meats, dairy, and seafood, must be prepared a certain way to avoid contaminating the people for whom they are prepared. As such, the rule of thumb is that cold foods (such as dairy products) should be kept cold and hot foods (such as soup) should be kept hot until storage. Cold meats, such as chicken, that are to be cooked should not be placed at room temperature for thawing, at the risk of dangerous bacterial growth, such as \"Salmonella\" or \"E. coli\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53758770",
"title": "Retronasal smell",
"section": "Section::::At-home evidence of the role smell plays in flavor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "The experience of eating favored foods with a cold often disappoints. This is because congestion blocks nasal passageways through which air and flavor molecules enter and exit, thus temporarily reducing retronasal smell capacity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1186042",
"title": "Dondurma",
"section": "Section::::Consumption and culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Some Turks believe that cold foods, such as ice cream, will cause illnesses – such as sore throats and the common cold; it is held that consumption of warm liquid while consuming ice cream will counteract these effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36168126",
"title": "Iranian traditional medicine",
"section": "Section::::Temperaments, basis for Iranian traditional medicine.:Everything has a temperament.:Flavors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Tasteless food items, also called watery, are cold and wet. Every insipid food item such as lettuce, dairy products such as yoghurt, or doogh (a yogurt-based beverage) and citrus fruits which are not too much sour or sweet are cold and wet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "292032",
"title": "Food storage",
"section": "Section::::Domestic food storage.:Food storage safety.:Freezers and thawing food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Throw out foods that have been warmer than for more than 2 hours. If there is any doubt at all about the length of time the food has been defrosted at room temperature, it should be thrown out. Freezing does not destroy microbes present in food. Freezing at 0 °F does inactivate microbes (bacteria, yeasts and molds). However, once food has been thawed, these microbes can again become active. Microbes in thawed food can multiply to levels that can lead to foodborne illness. Thawed food should be handled according to the same guidelines as perishable fresh food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1641463",
"title": "Freezer burn",
"section": "Section::::Cause and effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Food with freezer burn, though dried and wrinkled, is safe to eat. However, food afflicted with freezer burn may have an unpleasant flavour. In most cases, it is sufficient to remove the parts affected by freezer burn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5smz92 | Info on English Lancegays seems to be impossible to find on, are there any sources that I can be pointed towards as to how these were used? Any treatise or manuals as to how they'd be used in combat? | [
{
"answer": " > [...] there is no identified archaeological evidence: nothing that can show us exactly how long or heavy a lancegay was, what the diameter of the shaft was, what shape of head it had, or whether it had heads at both ends, as is sometimes claimed. There is also no detailed description of a lancegay in any known written source; and there is no instance in any of the visual media that can indubitably be identified as a representation of the weapon. As is so often the case with weapons terms in the Middle Ages, writers of literature and other documentary sources assume that one knows what technical words denote, making it unnecessary for them to supply explanations or descriptions. As a result, everything we believe we know about the lancegay has to be *deduced* from what is said about it.\n\n-David Scott-Macnab, [Sir John Fastolf and the Diverse Affinities of the Medieval Lancegay](_URL_0_)\n\nThere are no surviving fectbuch or manual involving a section on the lancegay, although there are surviving treatises (or sections thereof) on spears and lances, such as [Fiori de'i Liberi](_URL_1_), and the techniques involved would presumably have been similar.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27863",
"title": "Sword",
"section": "Section::::History.:Late post-classical history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "A number of manuscripts covering longsword combat and techniques dating from the 13th–16th centuries exist in German, Italian, and English, providing extensive information on longsword combatives as used throughout this period. Many of these are now readily available online.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1190240",
"title": "Conquests of the Longbow: The Legend of Robin Hood",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "\"Conquests of the Longbow\" is based on tremendous historical and cultural research, for detail within the story's setting and puzzles. The game manual lists twenty-eight volumes in the bibliography, including \"Robin Hood\" by J.C. Holt, \"The Outlaws of Medieval Legend\" by Maurice Keen, and \"The White Goddess\" by Robert Graves. The manual includes essays by Marx outlining the history of the legend and the approximate dates at which different characters were incorporated into the \"Robin Hood\" legend, such as Friar Tuck and Marian in the 15th century. Guy of Gisbourne is mentioned but absent from the game. Other essays cover the tree lore, early British history, and video game piracy. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1422155",
"title": "Lances fournies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "The lance fournie (French: \"equipped lance\") was a medieval equivalent to the modern army squad that would have accompanied and supported a man-at-arms (a heavily armoured horseman popularly known as a \"knight\") in battle. These units formed companies under a captain either as mercenary bands or in the retinue of wealthy nobles and royalty. Each lance was supposed to include a mixture of troop types (the men-at-arms themselves, lighter cavalry, infantry, and even noncombatant pages) that would have guaranteed a desirable balance between the various components of the company at large; however, it is often difficult to determine the exact composition of the lance in any given company as the available sources are few and often centuries apart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "85846",
"title": "Longsword",
"section": "Section::::Fighting with the longsword.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "What is known of combat with the longsword comes from artistic depictions of battle from manuscripts and the Fechtbücher of Medieval and Renaissance Masters. Therein the basics of combat were described and, in some cases, depicted. The German school of swordsmanship includes the earliest known longsword Fechtbuch, a manual from approximately 1389, known as GNM 3227a. This manual, unfortunately for modern scholars, was written in obscure verse. It was through students of Liechtenauer, like Sigmund Ringeck, who transcribed the work into more understandable prose that the system became notably more codified and understandable. Others provided similar work, some with a wide array of images to accompany the text.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53495771",
"title": "William Caferro",
"section": "Section::::Published works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "BULLET::::- Caferro, William (2013). “Edward Despenser, The Green Knight and the Lance Formation: Englishmen in Florentine Military Service” in The Hundred Years War, part III, edited by L. J. Andrew Villalon and Donald Kagay (Leiden: Brill): 85-104.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38575826",
"title": "1356 (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Reviews.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1339,
"text": "Cornwell, a master of action-packed historical fiction, returns with the fourth book in his Grail Quest series (after Heretic), a vivid, exciting portrayal of medieval warfare as the English and French butcher each other at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 during the Hundred Years War. Nobody writes battle scenes like Cornwell, accurately conveying the utter savagery of close combat with sword, ax, and mace, and the gruesome aftermath. English archer Sir Thomas of Hookton, called the Bastard by his enemies, leads a band of ruthless mercenaries in France. When the French hear of the existence of the sword of Saint Peter, “another Excalibur,” they must possess it for its legendary mystical powers, but the English have other ideas. Thomas is ordered by his lord, earl of Northampton, to find the sword first and begins, with his men, a perilous journey of raiding and plundering across southern France, fighting brutal warlords, cunning churchmen, with betrayal everywhere, and French and Scottish knights who vow to kill Thomas for reasons that have nothing to do with the sword. With surprising results, Thomas and his men reach the decisive Battle of Poitiers, a vicious melee that killed thousands, unseated a king, and forced a devastating and short peace on a land ravaged by warfare. Agent: Toby Eady Associates, U.K.. (Jan.) \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53083483",
"title": "English Longsword School",
"section": "Section::::Comparison to German and Italian School.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "The most obvious comparison is the scarce extent of surviving manuscripts. While there are many Italian and comparatively numerous German manuscripts, there are only three English Longsword treatises. Additionally, the English sources are without illustration, so they are text only. This makes them more difficult to interpret. The last challenging factor is that they have largely not been scanned. Despite this, there are some dedicated HEMA Historical European Martial Arts practitioners, in the United Kingdom, and in Australia (largely associated with the Stoccata School of defence) dedicated to the study of the English longsword form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
849aqi | why blood turns brown after it dries? | [
{
"answer": "I believe it’s because it becomes oxidized. Blood has iron, and when it dries oxidation is complete, so it makes it look “rusty”. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When the liquid from the blood is seeped into the bandaid, the only thing left outside are the dead red blood cells. That is what you are seeing. \n\nAlso: the brown colour of poo is caused by the dead red blood cells filtered out by your liver. The contents of your guts before this is added is grey. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Red blood cells are basically bags of hemoglobin, the protein that carries oxygen in the blood. Hemoglobin is a big globular protein (globin) with a [heme group](_URL_0_) attached. The heme group is where the oxygen molecule actually attaches. Oxygen binds to the iron atom in the center of the ring.\n\nOne of the interesting things about heme is that it is a relatively large molecule with lots of alternating single and double bonds. That's called an extended conjugated system. And because of some weird stuff you learn about in organic chemistry, that means it can absorb and reflect light of particular wavelengths (colors). \n\nWhich specific colors are absorbed or reflected depends a lot on the exact chemical state of the heme and the central iron. \n\nNormally the iron atom in heme is in its ferrous state, shown as Fe^2+ or Fe(II). If it is carrying an oxygen molecule, as in arterial blood, the heme looks red. If it is deoxygenated, like the blood in the veins, it looks dark purplish blue. \n\nOnce in a while the heme iron gets oxidized, meaning it gives up an electron and goes from ferrous (Fe^(2+)) to ferric (Fe^(3+)) iron. In this case the heme looks brown and cannot carry oxygen. Inside the body there are mechanisms to try to fix this by reducing the iron back to ferrous form. These mechanisms obviously don't exist outside the body, so in the dried blood on the bandage, all the heme eventually oxidizes and turns brown.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24286297",
"title": "Blood residue",
"section": "Section::::Forensic procedure.:Finding and documenting blood residue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Freshly dried bloodstains are a glossy reddish-brown in color. Under the influence of sunlight, the weather or removal attempts, the color eventually disappears and the stain turns gray. The surface on which it is found may also influence the stain's color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67158",
"title": "Red blood cell",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Vertebrates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "The color of red blood cells is due to the heme group of hemoglobin. The blood plasma alone is straw-colored, but the red blood cells change color depending on the state of the hemoglobin: when combined with oxygen the resulting oxyhemoglobin is scarlet, and when oxygen has been released the resulting deoxyhemoglobin is of a dark red burgundy color. However, blood can appear bluish when seen through the vessel wall and skin. Pulse oximetry takes advantage of the hemoglobin color change to directly measure the arterial blood oxygen saturation using colorimetric techniques. Hemoglobin also has a very high affinity for carbon monoxide, forming carboxyhemoglobin which is a very bright red in color. Flushed, confused patients with a saturation reading of 100% on pulse oximetry are sometimes found to be suffering from carbon monoxide poisoning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55299930",
"title": "Blood red",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1632,
"text": "The color blood red is a dark shade of the color red meant to resemble the color of human blood (which is composed of oxygenated red erythrocytes, white leukocytes, and yellow blood plasma) by cinnabar, a quick silver thermometer analogue display. It is the iron in hemoglobin specifically that gives blood its red color. The actual color ranges from crimson to a dark brown-blood depending on how oxygenated the blood is, and may have a slightly orange hue. Deoxygenated blood, which circulates closer to the body's surface and which is therefore generally more likely to be seen than oxygenated blood, issues from bodily veins in a dark red state, but quickly oxygenates upon exposure to air, turning a brighter shade of red. This happens more quickly with smaller volumes of blood such as a pinprick and less quickly from cuts or punctures that cause greater blood flows such as a puncture in the basilic vein: all blood collected during a phlebotomy procedure is deoxygenated blood, and it does not usually have a chance to become oxygenated upon leaving the body. Arterial blood, which is already oxygenated, is also already a brighter shade of red— this is the blood see from a pulsating neck, arm, or leg wound, and it does not change color upon exposure to air. The color \"blood red\", therefore, covers both these states: the darker deoxygenated color and the brighter oxygenated one. Also, dried blood often has a darker, rust-colored quality: all dried blood has been oxygenated and then desiccated, causing the cells within it to die. This blood is often darker than either shade of red that can be seen in fresh blood. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "532546",
"title": "Venous blood",
"section": "Section::::Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The color of human blood ranges from bright red when oxygenated to a darker red when deoxygenated. It owes its color to hemoglobin, to which oxygen binds. Deoxygenated blood is darker due to the difference in shape of the red blood cell when hemoglobin binds to it (oxygenated) verses does not bind to it (deoxygenated). Human blood is never blue!\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "365196",
"title": "Beetroot",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The red colour compound betanin is not broken down in the body, and in higher concentrations may temporarily cause urine or stools to assume a reddish colour, in the case of urine a condition called beeturia. Although harmless, this effect may cause initial concern due to the visual similarity to what appears to be blood in the stool, hematochezia (blood passing through the anus, usually in or with stool) or hematuria (blood in the urine).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24157373",
"title": "Brown induration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Brown induration is fibrosis and hemosiderin pigmentation of the lungs due to long standing pulmonary congestion (chronic passive congestion).Occurs with mitral stenosis and left sided heart failure . Pathology .. The lung vessels are congested with blood and this leads to pulmonary edema when plasma escapes in alveolar spaces . Rupture of congested capillaries leads to release of hemosiderin from damaged Red Blood cells . When alveolar macrophages engulf hemosiderin they are called heart failure cells . Death of heart failure cells in their journey back to lung tissue with subsequent hemosiderin release leads to lung fibrosis .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67158",
"title": "Red blood cell",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Human.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "The blood's red color is due to the spectral properties of the hemic iron ions in hemoglobin. Each human red blood cell contains approximately 270 million of these hemoglobin molecules. Each hemoglobin molecule carries four heme groups; hemoglobin constitutes about a third of the total cell volume. Hemoglobin is responsible for the transport of more than 98% of the oxygen in the body (the remaining oxygen is carried dissolved in the blood plasma). The red blood cells of an average adult human male store collectively about 2.5 grams of iron, representing about 65% of the total iron contained in the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1mixh6 | What would Gettysburg battlefield have looked like in the 1950s? (story behind question inside) | [
{
"answer": "The Gettysburg National Military Park was established and gained it's initial protection status in 1863, about a hundred years before you father visited. The park received federal protection in 1893, was designated a National Park in 1895, and added to the National Register of Historic Preservation in 1966. Keeping in mind that the park had been established and protected in some fashion or another for at least 90 years before you father visited, it's extremely unlikely that he found a canon ball just resting on the surface somewhere and absconded with it.\n\nThere were a variety of different field guns deployed by both sides during the battle, and the size and composition of the ammunition used is likewise diverse. Shot and bolts used in the battle would have been composed of solid iron or bronze, and would have weathered pretty poorly in the open.\n\nI suppose it's possible he could have lifted a ball from a stacked display, but I'd count it as unlikely that a school aged boy could effectively remove and conceal a canon ball successively. They can be quite heavy.\n\nOn the off chance that your father did remove a canon ball from the field, or from a display, it would have been a punishable violation of the National Historic Preservation Act after 1966, the Historic Sites Act after 1935 and the Antiquities Act after 1906. More than likely it would have been a violation of any number of local laws as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30836500",
"title": "The Angle",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "A copy of the Gettysburg Cyclorama was displayed in an 1894 tent at The Angle, and during reunions in 1887, 1913 (50th battle anniversary), and 1938 (75th); battle veterans shook hands over the rock wall at The Angle. The nearby field along the Emmitsburg Road was also the site of Gettysburg Battlefield camps after the American Civil War such as Eisenhower's 1918 Camp Colt, the 1938 Army Camp with the Secretary of War's quarters, and a World War II POW stockade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422674",
"title": "Gettysburg Battlefield",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The Gettysburg Battlefield is the area of the July 1–3, 1863, military engagements of the Battle of Gettysburg within and around the borough of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. Locations of military engagements extend from the site of the first shot at Knoxlyn Ridge on the west of the borough, to East Cavalry Field on the east. A military engagement prior to the battle was conducted at the Gettysburg Railroad trestle over Rock Creek, which was burned on June 27.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18037145",
"title": "The Battle of Gettysburg (1913 film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "The Battle of Gettysburg is a 1913 American silent drama film directed by Charles Giblyn and Thomas H. Ince. \"The Battle of Gettysburg\" is based on the American Civil War battle of the same name. The film is now considered to be lost, although some battlefield footage was used by Mack Sennett in his comedy \"Cohen Saves the Flag\", which was shot on location alongside this production. However, there are claims that \"The Battle of Gettysburg\" was screened in France in 1973.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1236122",
"title": "Gettysburg (1993 film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Gettysburg is a 1993 American epic war film about the Battle of Gettysburg in the American Civil War. Written and directed by Ronald F. Maxwell, the film was adapted from the historical novel \"The Killer Angels\" by Michael Shaara. It features an ensemble cast, including Tom Berenger as James Longstreet, Jeff Daniels as Joshua Chamberlain, Martin Sheen as Robert E. Lee, Stephen Lang as George Pickett, and Sam Elliot as John Buford.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31916425",
"title": "Gettysburg (2011 film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Gettysburg is a 2011 American Civil War television documentary film directed by Adrian Moat that was first aired on May 30, 2011 (Memorial Day) on History. This two-hour documentary film, narrated by actor Sam Rockwell, commenced a week of programming by the History channel honoring and commemorating the 150th Anniversary of the American Civil War. \"Gettysburg\" showcases the horror of the pivotal 1863 Battle of Gettysburg by following the stories of eight men as they put their lives on the line to fight for what they believed in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34516076",
"title": "List of monuments of the Gettysburg Battlefield",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The monuments of the Gettysburg Battlefield commemorate the July 1 to 3, 1863 Battle of Gettysburg in the American Civil War. Most are located within Gettysburg National Military Park; others are on private land at battle sites in and around Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. Together, they represent \"one of the largest collections of outdoor sculpture in the world.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41322043",
"title": "Commemoration of the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Gettysburg Battlefield.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "The Gettysburg battlefield, dedicated by President Lincoln who presented his iconic Gettysburg Address there in November 1863, contains hundreds of memorials to the regiments that fought there. Army veterans created the Gettysburg Battlefield Memorial Association in 1864, making it one of the earliest historic preservation organizations in the U.S. The battlefield is under the control of the national park Service and is a major tourist destination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
jce0p | how does someone bet that a country's credit rating will fall and make money? | [
{
"answer": "It's like betting on any futures.\n\nThe better the credit rating, the better the value is of a piece of paper that says someone owes you money. If you expect the credit rating to go up, you would buy more, if you expect it to go down, you would sell what you have.\n\nThe complicated part happens when someone figured out they could sell more than they have. If they are really sure the value of a bond will drop, they can essentially make a deal to owe someone that bond in return for money, then when it does drop, they can buy it at the low value to pay to give to the other party, and come away with a profit. Of course, if the value goes up instead of down, they're in trouble.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The most direct way would be via credit default swaps (CDS) on the issuer of the bonds, in this case the US, but could also be other governments such as Italy, Germany, France, etc, as well as corporations, like IBM or Microsoft.\n\nWhat these are is basically insurance against default of the bond. Nearly all bonds mature at the price of 100, or 100% of the loan. What this means is the date of the last payment, the person who owns the bond receives their final interest payment as well as the principal back. the principal is the value of the bond. \n\nCDS are essentially insurance contracts against the issuer (US) not being able make payments on time for either the interest or the principal. if this happens, a \"credit event\", the value of the CDS becomes the difference between 100 and the price the defaulted bond is currently priced at, making the person who bought the CDS whole, ie they didn't lost money due to the default. if someone defaults, the bonds still traded, its just at a low price based upon the likely hood of the issuer eventually paying out again.\n\nfor this protection, the person who buys the CDS will pay the person who sold them the CDS a quarterly premium based upon a percentage of the amount they want to protect. if you want to protect $1M worth of bonds, you may have to pay 1% per year (usually divided into quarterly payments) of that to the person who sold you the CDS for however long you want to insure them. Again, in exchange for this you get the right to be paid if they bond issuer defaults.\n\nRemember that 1% payment i mentioned? well as the credit of the bond issuer gets worse, this payment increases. In this sense it trades like anything else. you don't need to own the bond to buy the CDS, so if you bought it when the quarterly payments were 1%, you can now sell it in the open markets now that the quarterly payment is 2% because of the downgrade. the value of the cds will increase as the likely hood of default increases. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's like betting on any futures.\n\nThe better the credit rating, the better the value is of a piece of paper that says someone owes you money. If you expect the credit rating to go up, you would buy more, if you expect it to go down, you would sell what you have.\n\nThe complicated part happens when someone figured out they could sell more than they have. If they are really sure the value of a bond will drop, they can essentially make a deal to owe someone that bond in return for money, then when it does drop, they can buy it at the low value to pay to give to the other party, and come away with a profit. Of course, if the value goes up instead of down, they're in trouble.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The most direct way would be via credit default swaps (CDS) on the issuer of the bonds, in this case the US, but could also be other governments such as Italy, Germany, France, etc, as well as corporations, like IBM or Microsoft.\n\nWhat these are is basically insurance against default of the bond. Nearly all bonds mature at the price of 100, or 100% of the loan. What this means is the date of the last payment, the person who owns the bond receives their final interest payment as well as the principal back. the principal is the value of the bond. \n\nCDS are essentially insurance contracts against the issuer (US) not being able make payments on time for either the interest or the principal. if this happens, a \"credit event\", the value of the CDS becomes the difference between 100 and the price the defaulted bond is currently priced at, making the person who bought the CDS whole, ie they didn't lost money due to the default. if someone defaults, the bonds still traded, its just at a low price based upon the likely hood of the issuer eventually paying out again.\n\nfor this protection, the person who buys the CDS will pay the person who sold them the CDS a quarterly premium based upon a percentage of the amount they want to protect. if you want to protect $1M worth of bonds, you may have to pay 1% per year (usually divided into quarterly payments) of that to the person who sold you the CDS for however long you want to insure them. Again, in exchange for this you get the right to be paid if they bond issuer defaults.\n\nRemember that 1% payment i mentioned? well as the credit of the bond issuer gets worse, this payment increases. In this sense it trades like anything else. you don't need to own the bond to buy the CDS, so if you bought it when the quarterly payments were 1%, you can now sell it in the open markets now that the quarterly payment is 2% because of the downgrade. the value of the cds will increase as the likely hood of default increases. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "193034",
"title": "Credit rating agency",
"section": "Section::::Role in capital markets.:Accuracy and responsiveness.:Explanations of flaws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Defenders of credit rating agencies complain of the market's lack of appreciation. Argues Robert Clow, \"When a company or sovereign nation pays its debt on time, the market barely takes momentary notice ... but let a country or corporation unexpectedly miss a payment or threaten default, and bondholders, lawyers and even regulators are quick to rush the field to protest the credit analyst's lapse.\" Others say that bonds assigned a low credit rating by rating agencies have been shown to default more frequently than bonds that receive a high credit rating, suggesting that ratings still serve as a useful indicator of credit risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32681648",
"title": "United States federal government credit-rating downgrades",
"section": "Section::::2011.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "A credit rating is issued by a credit rating agency (CRA). A credit rating assigned to U.S. sovereign debt is an expression of how likely the assigning CRA thinks it is that the U.S. will pay back its debts. A credit rating assigned to U.S. sovereign debt also influences the interest rates the U.S. will have to pay on its debt; if its debtholders know the debt will be paid back, they do not have to price the chance of default into the interest rate. However, it should be noted that these ratings sometimes measure different things; for instance Moody's considers the expected value of the debt in the event of a default in addition to the probability of default. Some lenders also have contractual requirements only to hold debt above a certain credit rating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1476274",
"title": "Credit history",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "The information in a credit report is sold by credit agencies to organizations that are considering whether to offer credit to individuals or companies. It is also available to other entities with a \"permissible purpose\", as defined by the Fair Credit Reporting Act. The consequence of a negative credit rating is typically a reduction in the likelihood that a lender will approve an application for credit under favorable terms, if at all. Interest rates on loans are significantly affected by credit history; the higher the credit rating, the lower the interest, while the lower the credit rating, the higher the interest. The increased interest is used to offset the higher rate of default within the low credit rating group of individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1194146",
"title": "Credit rating",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "A credit rating is an evaluation of the credit risk of a prospective debtor (an individual, a business, company or a government), predicting their ability to pay back the debt, and an implicit forecast of the likelihood of the debtor defaulting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32681648",
"title": "United States federal government credit-rating downgrades",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Several credit rating agencies around the world have downgraded their credit ratings of the U.S. federal government, including Standard & Poor's (S&P) which reduced the country's rating from AAA (outstanding) to AA+ (excellent) on August 5, 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35961791",
"title": "Comparative rating index of sovereigns",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "Major credit rating agencies give out the sovereign credit rating of each nation as an absolute grade – see list of countries by credit rating. A particular nation's rating score is independent of the performance of other nation. But in the comparative rating index of sovereigns (CRIS) introduced by India, performance of one nation is compared with all other nations. Perhaps it was the first sovereign rating index by any country in the world. This solves the limitations of the existing credit rating system. An example of comparative rating is the percentile score—the way GATE results are at times given. If a student is described as belonging to the 99th percentile, it clearly says something about this student’s performance vis-à-vis other students.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "193034",
"title": "Credit rating agency",
"section": "Section::::Role in capital markets.:Ratings use in sovereign debt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "A 2010 International Monetary Fund study concluded that ratings were a reasonably good indicator of sovereign-default risk. However, credit rating agencies were criticized for failing to predict the 1997 Asian financial crisis and for downgrading countries in the midst of that turmoil. Similar criticisms emerged after recent credit downgrades to Greece, Ireland, Portugal, and Spain, although credit ratings agencies had begun to downgrade peripheral Eurozone countries well before the Eurozone crisis began.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2edxgk | why is no mouth cpr what everyone is told to do now? | [
{
"answer": "More important for an untrained person to focus on compressions rather than breaths. You can live longer without breathing, than you can with your heart not beating.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One big danger with mouth to mouth is the victim vomiting into your mouth. They do sell easily portable barriers to protect against that, but very few people I know except EMTs actually carry them on their person.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The breaths aren't worth doing. Keeping the heart pumping (doing the compressions) is far more important. This is because while people will lose consciousness from carbon dioxide build up in a couple of minutes, the average person actually has enough oxygen in their blood to stay alive for for a while (nearly 20 minutes) if the heart is pumping. There's really a caveat that after about ten minutes you need to start doing rescue breaths if they're not breathing. But the idea is that in most \"man on the street\" rescue efforts professionals show up and take over before the person would actually die of lack of oxygen. So for an amateur trying to operate in a high stress situation they probably aren't super practiced in, keep it as simple as possible to have the best effect. Add to that rescue breathes don't have much oxygen in them anyways, since your lungs filtered it out when you inhaled. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's more important to keep doing chest compressions then waste time tying to force more air into the lungs. Some air is already being moved in and out of the lungs with the chest compressions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The body retains more oxygen than we thought before. By giving rescue breaths, you need to pause chest compressions. Without compressions, no oxygen gets circulated. Keeping the oxygenated blood circulated is what is vital for life. \n\nSo, compressions-only cpr is being taught simply because it's more effective at saving lives and it prevents possible spread of disease from giving rescue breaths. Also, hopefully people will be more willing to do cpr if they need to since it's easier to do/less to remember.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dammit now i can't blame cold sores on saving lives. \n\nIn all reality is because breathing in that sense isn't that important. Air still moves from the compressions alone. Another reason is mouth to mouth contact prevents many people from offering aid. More often than not the patient vomits firing the process.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The first aid course I took few weeks ago taught:\n\n* If you see them collapse, and they don't have a pulse, they probably have enough O2 in their blood so you don't need the breaths.\n* If you didn't see them collapse, then do the breaths since you don't know how depleted their O2 levels are.\n* If you don't have a face shield, pocket mask, or something with a one way valve on it to stop the person from spitting up into your mouth, then protect yourself and don't do the breaths.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36392650",
"title": "Graz tube weaning model",
"section": "Section::::Contraindications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Tube weaning is contraindicated in children who do not have a safe swallowing response. It is not recommended if there is a high possibility of an upcoming surgery or intervention that will require further usage of a feeding tube.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146393",
"title": "Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 531,
"text": "Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, a form of artificial ventilation, is the act of assisting or stimulating respiration in which a rescuer presses his or her mouth against that of the victim and blows air into the person's lungs. Artificial respiration takes many forms, but generally entails providing air for a person who is not breathing or is not making sufficient respiratory effort on his/her own. It is used on a patient with a beating heart or as part of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) to achieve the internal respiration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36392650",
"title": "Graz tube weaning model",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Tube weaning program is specifically designed for premature infants and children who are fed via a nasogastric, nasojejunal, gastrostomy or jejunostomy tube. The treatment is performed either when the feeding tube is no longer needed or if children experience side effects and poor response to enteral feeding. The program is suitable both for primary weaning and children that had been unsuccessfully weaned in the past. It is especially recommended for children that are struggling with oral feeding or have developed tube dependency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6114659",
"title": "Augmentation pharyngoplasty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Augmentation pharyngoplasty is a kind of plastic surgery for the pharynx (soft tissue at the back of the mouth) when the tissue at the back of the mouth is not able to close properly. It is typically used to correct speech problems in children with cleft palate. It may also be used to correct problems from a tonsillectomy or because of degenerative diseases. After the surgery, patients have an easier time pronouncing certain sounds, such as 'p' and 't', and the voice may have a less nasal sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "968873",
"title": "Artificial ventilation",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Manual methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation is also part of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) making it an essential skill for first aid. In some situations, mouth to mouth is also performed separately, for instance in near-drowning and opiate overdoses. The performance of mouth to mouth in its own is now limited in most protocols to health professionals, whereas lay first aiders are advised to undertake full CPR in any case where the patient is not breathing sufficiently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146393",
"title": "Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation is a part of most protocols for performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) making it an essential skill for first aid. In some situations, mouth-to-mouth resuscitation is also performed separately, for instance in near-drowning and opiate overdoses. The performance of mouth-to-mouth resuscitation on its own is now limited in most protocols to health professionals, whereas lay first aiders are advised to undertake full CPR in any case where the patient is not breathing sufficiently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9543863",
"title": "History of cardiopulmonary resuscitation",
"section": "Section::::Modern resuscitation.:Mouth-to-mouth ventilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "For a long time before it was formalised, it had been known by doctors and midwives that mouth to mouth resuscitation could be useful in bringing a lifeless newborn around. In 1946, during the middle of a polio outbreak, an anesthesiologist, James Elam, applied this principle to an older child in an emergency situation. Elam described the event in his own words as \"I was browsing around to get acquainted with the ward when along the corridor came a gurney racing – a nurse pulling it and two orderlies pushing it, and the kid on it was blue. I went into total reflex behaviour. I stepped out in the middle of the corridor, stopped the gurney, grabbed the sheet, wiped the copious mucous off his mouth and face, … sealed my lips around his nose and inflated his lungs. In four breaths he was pink.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3aiub7 | why don't newly pressed vinyl records use the whole side? | [
{
"answer": "I can tell you that some recording lathes (the machine that cuts the master disc that the record stampers are made from) are adjustable...to make the tracks closer together. This is done to increase the amount of music on the side. However, some lathes are better than others, and some engineers (who run the lathes) tend to be conservative. The more bass-heavy (low notes) the music is, the more room it takes up (really!)\n\nI would like to say that in your case, they wanted to cut the best possible record, and so gave themselves lots of room when cutting the master. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Low end and high end. As someone else pointed out in this thread, the more bass that is used, the wider the grooves are, which reduces the amount of space for full songs on a side. Also, for a reason that escapades me right now, sibilance, or \"s's\" that sound like \"shhh\" can increase as the needle reaches the inner diameter of the record as well,so by using less of that, quality stays consistent throughout the album. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8975473",
"title": "LP record",
"section": "Section::::Fidelity and formats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "The composition of vinyl used to press records (a blend of polyvinyl chloride and polyvinyl acetate) has varied considerably over the years. Virgin vinyl is preferred, but during the 1970s energy crisis, it became commonplace to use recycled vinyl. Sound quality suffered, with increased ticks, pops, and other surface noises. Other experiments included reducing the thickness of LPs, leading to warping and increased susceptibility to damage. Using a biscuit of 130 grams of vinyl had been the standard. Compare these to the original Columbia 12-inch LPs (ML 4001) at around 220 grams each. Besides the standard black vinyl, specialty records are also pressed on different colors of PVC/A or picture discs with a card picture sandwiched between two clear sides. Records in different novelty shapes have also been produced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1258493",
"title": "Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "In the 1950s and 1960s, it was common for record labels to press relatively heavy records on new or \"virgin\" vinyl. During the economic downturn of the 1970s, the cost of record pressing increased, and many record labels cut costs by pressing lightweight recordings from recycled materials, which were impure. Recycled vinyl pressings have more pops, clicks, and surface noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31141798",
"title": "Wall decal",
"section": "Section::::Types and sizes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "Most vinyl decals are not reusable, although some reusable vinyl types are available. They use a different adhesive on the rear which means that they can be re-positioned a couple of times before the adhesive wears out. Vinyl stickers at a large size can be very difficult to apply as they can tear, stretch and stick back on themselves. Traditional decals are made from pvc plastic and cut from a single colour using a vinyl cutter or laser cutter. It is possible to print a full colour image onto vinyl and then contour cut around it. Block cut vinyls come in many different finishes from glitter, to metallic, to mirror effect. They can also be supplied as blackboard or whiteboard finish and cut to shape to create a wall decal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24471",
"title": "Phonograph",
"section": "Section::::Dominance of the disc record.:First all-transistor phonograph.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Records themselves became an art form because of the large surface onto which graphics and books could be printed, and records could be molded into unusual shapes, colors, or with images (picture discs). The turntable remained a common element of home audio systems well after the introduction of other media, such as audio tape and even the early years of the compact disc as a lower-priced music format. However, even though the cost of producing CDs fell below that of records, CDs remained a higher-priced music format than either cassettes or records. Thus, records were not uncommon in home audio systems into the early 1990s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156859",
"title": "Comparison of analog and digital recording",
"section": "Section::::Physical degradation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "With vinyl records, there will be some loss in fidelity on each playing of the disc. This is due to the wear of the stylus in contact with the record surface. Magnetic tapes, both analog and digital, wear from friction between the tape and the heads, guides, and other parts of the tape transport as the tape slides over them. The brown residue deposited on swabs during cleaning of a tape machine's tape path is actually particles of magnetic coating shed from tapes. Sticky-shed syndrome is a prevalent problem with older tapes. Tapes can also suffer creasing, stretching, and frilling of the edges of the plastic tape base, particularly from low-quality or out-of-alignment tape decks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172121",
"title": "Phonograph record",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Vinyl quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Since most vinyl records contain up to 30% recycled vinyl, impurities can accumulate in the record and cause even a brand-new record to have audio artifacts such as clicks and pops. Virgin vinyl means that the album is not from recycled plastic, and will theoretically be devoid of these impurities. In practice, this depends on the manufacturer's quality control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172121",
"title": "Phonograph record",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.:Vinyl.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "Vinyl records can be warped by heat, improper storage, exposure to sunlight, or manufacturing defects such as excessively tight plastic shrinkwrap on the album cover. A small degree of warp was common, and allowing for it was part of the art of turntable and tonearm design. \"Wow\" (once-per-revolution pitch variation) could result from warp, or from a spindle hole that was not precisely centered. Standard practice for LPs was to place the LP in a paper or plastic inner cover. This, if placed within the outer cardboard cover so that the opening was entirely within the outer cover, was said to reduce ingress of dust onto the record surface. Singles, with rare exceptions, had simple paper covers with no inner cover.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
tme6i | Does the US meet traditional definitions of an empire? | [
{
"answer": "I would say that most historians would characterize the US as an empire. Quite simply, I really can't see why the most powerful nation in the world who has military bases throughout the globe and routinely wages war on other countries could *not* be considered an empire.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Seems we have changed the language enough in discussing US actions/politics/influence/wars that the perception of empire is avoided. \n\nDoesn't make it any less true of course.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends on what qualities defines an Empire, really. This is quite a hard question to answer for sure.\n\nThe element that is most iffy is the central idea that an Empire not only has the original culture subjugate others, but then attempts to create a state that actively manages all of those cultures at once. In the case of the USA, it never began as a single-culture enterprise at the time in which it was integrating other cultures, it seems to me. Almost like the Imperial part was done in reverse order.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A couple of factors that I think define an empire:\n\n1) Unifying Ideology for Conquest - Why is the mother country conquering other states? Is there some overarching narrative or is it simply resource extraction? (See: White Man's Burden)\n\n2) Serious Resource Extraction - Has the mother country begun extracting large scale amounts of resources from the subjugated country?\n\n3) Creation of an Imperial Bureaucracy - Has the mother country created an extensive network of diplomats, soldiers, and tradespeople who facilitate the empire?\n\n4) Conflict with other Empires - Does the mother country's holdings bring it into tension with other large political bodies?\n\nI don't think its possible to say definitively that the US is or isn't an empire but I think there's compelling arguments for both sides. I'd personally be more fond of calling it a hegemony given that over the last 50-60 years it's made extensive use of both hard and soft power.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, the US does not meet the traditional definition of Empire. Traditionally when thinking about an Empire we have thought of a single government that rules over a large amount of territory that has no say in how it is governed. With the occupations in Afghanistan and Iraq coming to a slow and painful end, there really isn't any area in the world that the US so dominates. There are a few areas that don't enjoy full representation in the US, but are controlled by it. Namely: the Virgin Islands, American Guam, the Northern Marianas Islands, Puerto Rico and Washington, DC. However all of these territories enjoy some level of political representation in the US, and have local political control, also (as far as I know), none of those areas have serious pro-indepence movements suggesting they are comfortable being part of the US. \n\nGiven these circumstances I don't feel that you could realistically define the US as an empire in the traditional sense.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No. The US no longer wages aggressive war for the purpose of territorial expansion; doesn't create colonies out of and/or exploit the natural resources of places it has captured; doesn't treat foreign peoples in less developed countries as barbarians in need of civilizing (racism as policy); doesn't use its military superiority to give itself an unfair advantage on the international market.\n\nThe US gave up imperialism when they granted their only major colony, The Philippines, independence in 1946.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10158",
"title": "Empire",
"section": "Section::::History of imperialism.:Modern period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1776,
"text": "The term \"American Empire\" refers to the United States' cultural ideologies and foreign policy strategies. The term is most commonly used to describe the U.S.'s status since the 20th century, but it can also be applied to the United States' world standing before the rise of nationalism in the 20th century. The United States is not traditionally recognized as an empire, in part because the U.S. adopted a different political system from those that previous empires had used. Despite these systematic differences, the political objectives and strategies of the United States government have been quite similar to those of previous empires. Due to this similarity some scholars confess: \"When it walks like a duck, talks like a duck, it's a duck.\" Academic, Krishna Kumar, argues the distinct principles of nationalism and imperialism may result in common practice; that is, the pursuit of nationalism can often coincide with the pursuit of imperialism in terms of strategy and decision making. Throughout the 19th century, the United States government attempted to expand its territory by any means necessary. Regardless of the supposed motivation for this constant expansion, all of these land acquisitions were carried out by imperialistic means. This was done by financial means in some cases, and by military force in others. Most notably, the Louisiana Purchase (1803), the Texas Annexation (1845), and the Mexican Cession (1848) highlight the imperialistic goals of the United States during this “modern period” of imperialism. The U.S. government has stopped pursuing additional territories since the mid 20th century. However, some scholars still consider U.S. foreign policy strategies to be imperialistic. This idea is explored in the \"contemporary usage\" section.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25602913",
"title": "History of United States foreign policy",
"section": "Section::::Post-Cold War: 1992–present.:United States is an empire?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 152,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 152,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "Many – perhaps most-- scholars have decided that that the United States lacks the key essentials of an empire. For example while there are American military bases all over, the American soldiers do not rule over the local people, and the United States government does not send out governors or permanent settlers like all the historic empires did. Harvard historian Charles S. Maier has examined the America-as-Empire issue at length. He says the traditional understanding of the word \"empire\" does not apply because the United States does not exert formal control over other nations nor engage in systematic conquest. The best term is that the United States is a \"hegemon.\" Its enormous influence through high technology, economic power, and impact on popular culture gives it an international outreach that stands in sharp contrast to the inward direction of historic empires. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215140",
"title": "American imperialism",
"section": "Section::::Views of American imperialism.:Academic debates after 9/11 2001.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "Many – perhaps most-- scholars have decided that that the United States lacks the key essentials of an empire. For example while there are American military bases all over, the American soldiers do not rule over the local people, and the United States government does not send out governors or permanent settlers like all the historic empires did. Harvard historian Charles S. Maier has examined the America-as-Empire issue at length. He says the traditional understanding of the word \"empire\" does not apply because the United States does not exert formal control over other nations nor engage in systematic conquest. The best term is that the United States is a \"hegemon.\" Its enormous influence through high technology, economic power, and impact on popular culture gives it an international outreach that stands in sharp contrast to the inward direction of historic empires. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15079734",
"title": "Universal power",
"section": "Section::::Perseverance of the term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Analogously, the name \"empire\" is also used to refer to non-European entities, such as the Chinese Empire and the Japanese Empire, or give the title of emperor to those like the Negus of Ethiopia, the Shah of Persia, and the Sultan of Morocco. In most cases, this is a \"diplomatic courtesy.\" Since the Cold War, it has also been common to refer to the two rival superpowers as the American Empire and the Soviet Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15079734",
"title": "Universal power",
"section": "Section::::Perseverance of the term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "The name of \"empire\" has been applied to types of political entities that have not had a universal function (theocratic or Caesaropapist), but to those with a global, secularized one. This has been possible in geostrategic terms for the first time since the coming about of a global economy. Although the first empires to form (the Portuguese Empire and Spanish Empire in the 16th century) in their day did not refer to themselves as empires, (the Spanish self defined, in providentialist terms, as the Catholic Monarchy), the name typically has been applied by historiography (which applies \"empire\" to any political form of the past with multinational dimensions: Turk Empire, Mongol Empire, Inca Empire).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10158",
"title": "Empire",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Sometimes, an empire is a semantic construction, such as when a ruler assumes the title of \"emperor\". That ruler's nation logically becomes an \"empire\", despite having no additional territory or hegemony. Examples of this form of empire are the Central African Empire, or the Korean Empire proclaimed in 1897 when Korea, far from gaining new territory, was on the verge of being annexed by the Empire of Japan, the last to use the name officially. Among the last of the empires in the 20th century were the Central African Empire, Ethiopia, Vietnam, Manchukuo, Germany, and Korea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "257241",
"title": "Antonio Negri",
"section": "Section::::Political thought and writing.:\"Empire\" (2000).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "\"Empire\" elaborates a variety of ideas surrounding constitutions, global war, and class. Hence, the Empire is constituted by a monarchy (the United States and the G8, and international organizations such as NATO, the International Monetary Fund or the World Trade Organization), an oligarchy (the multinational corporations and other nation-states) and a democracy (the various non-government organizations and the United Nations). Part of the book's analysis deals with \"imagin[ing] resistance\", but \"the point of Empire is that it, too, is \"total\" and that resistance to it can only take the form of negation - \"the will to be against\". The Empire is total, but economic inequality persists, and as all identities are wiped out and replaced with a universal one, the identity of the poor persists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
6967yg | Why was there such a regression in technology from the time of the ancient Greeks and Romans to the Middle Ages? | [
{
"answer": "Hiya, not discouraging any new answers coming in, but I think you might find the [part of our FAQ about the so called \"Dark Ages\"](_URL_0_) helpful and interesting. Scroll down a tiny bit when you open the link:)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2293952",
"title": "Ancient technology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "During the growth of the ancient civilizations, ancient technology was the result from advances in engineering in ancient times. These advances in the history of technology stimulated societies to adopt new ways of living and governance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14901914",
"title": "Roman technology",
"section": "Section::::Roman military technology.:Other innovations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "In summary, Rome contributed numerous advances in technology to the Ancient World. However, it is also viewed that \"the ancient world under the domination of Rome [in fact] reached a kind of climax in the technological field [as] many technologies had advanced as far as possible with the equipment then available\". This concept of perfecting the unperfected was a theme that governed Roman technological supremacy throughout its 1,470 year reign. Ideas that had already been invented or designed: like the pontoon bridge, aqueduct, and military surgery, were constructed or utilized to perfection by Roman innovators. It's the innovation of technology that contributed to Rome's military success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7968910",
"title": "Technological history of the Roman military",
"section": "Section::::Origins and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "After the absorption of the ancient Greek city states into the Roman Republic in 146 BC, the highly advanced Greek technology began to spread across many areas of Roman influence and supplement the Empire. This included the military advances that the Greeks had made, as well as all the scientific, mathematical, political and artistic developments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43379",
"title": "Ballista",
"section": "Section::::Roman weaponry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "After the absorption of the Ancient Greek city-states into the Roman Republic in 146 BC, the highly advanced Greek technology began to spread across many areas of Roman influence. This included the great military machine advances the Greeks had made (most notably by Dionysus of Syracuse), as well as all the scientific, mathematical, political and artistic developments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51320",
"title": "Ancient history",
"section": "Section::::Developments.:Science and technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "In the history of technology and ancient science during the growth of the ancient civilizations, ancient technological advances were produced in engineering. These advances stimulated other societies to adopt new ways of living and governance. Sometimes, technological development was sponsored by the state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "521555",
"title": "Ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 187,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 187,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Ancient Rome boasted impressive technological feats, using many advancements that were lost in the Middle Ages and not rivaled again until the 19th and 20th centuries. An example of this is insulated glazing, which was not invented again until the 1930s. Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier Greek designs. Advancements were often divided and based on craft. Artisans guarded technologies as trade secrets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14901914",
"title": "Roman technology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "The Roman Empire was one of the most technologically advanced civilizations of antiquity, with some of the more advanced concepts and inventions forgotten during the turbulent eras of Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages. Gradually, some of the technological feats of the Romans were rediscovered and/or improved upon during the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Era; with some in areas such as civil engineering, construction materials, transport technology, and certain inventions such as the mechanical reaper, not improved upon until the 19th century. The Romans achieved high levels of technology in large part because they borrowed technologies from the Greeks, Etruscans, Celts, and others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5qu3b5 | what is it about apples that makes us have so much variety compared to other fruits? | [
{
"answer": "In many cases there are in fact many different kinds of a fruits or vegetable. We just either dont sell them or they got breeded out for what was considered better looking or tasting. For example there are multiple types of bananas, oranges, ( berries in general actually), etc. Theres also variety in vegetables with various kinds of greens, peas, corn, carrots, etc.\n\nCarrots are a prime example of breeding out different types. The orange one you see today was created mostly by cross breeding, not naturally\n\nAs for fruits that only have one type thats mostly because they only grow in a very select few places under fairly strict weather requirements leaving little room for mutations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "987492",
"title": "Food browning",
"section": "Section::::Implications in food industry and technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "Apples are fruits commonly studied by researchers due to their high phenolic content, which make them highly susceptible to enzymatic browning. In accordance with other findings regarding apples and browning activity, a correlation has been found between high phenolic amount and enzymatic activity of apples. This provides a hope for food industries in an effort to genetically modify foods to decrease polyphenol oxidase activity and thus decrease browning. An example of such accomplishments in food engineering is in the production of Arctic Apples. These apples, engineered by \"Okanagan Specialty Fruits Inc,\" are a result of gene splicing, a technique that has allowed for the reduction in polyphenol oxidase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14080493",
"title": "Grafting",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "BULLET::::- Genetic consistency: Apples are notorious for their genetic variability, even differing in multiple characteristics, such as, size, color, and flavor, of fruits located on the same tree. In the commercial farming industry, consistency is maintained by grafting a scion with desired fruit traits onto a hardy stock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22697654",
"title": "Economic botany",
"section": "Section::::Economically important food plants.:North American apples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Apples are not native to North America, but today the North American continent boasts the greatest diversity of apples in the world. Part of this is due to \"Johnny Appleseed,\" real name John Chapman. Chapman spent 48 years travelling all along the American northwest spreading apple seeds and planting trees. While apples come in literally thousands of varieties, the majority of the apple market is based on three: Red Delicious, Golden Delicious, and Granny Smith.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3556316",
"title": "Apples and oranges",
"section": "Section::::Published comparisons.:Scientific.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "At least two tongue-in-cheek scientific studies have been conducted on the subject, each of which concluded that apples can be compared with oranges fairly easily and on a low budget and the two fruits are quite similar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18978754",
"title": "Apple",
"section": "Section::::Cultivation.:Breeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "Many apples grow readily from seeds. However, more than with most perennial fruits, apples must be propagated asexually by grafting to obtain the sweetness and other desirable characteristics of the parent. This is because seedling apples are an example of \"extreme heterozygotes\", in that rather than inheriting genes from their parents to create a new apple with parental characteristics, they are instead significantly different from their parents, perhaps to compete with the many pests. Triploid cultivars have an additional reproductive barrier in that 3 sets of chromosomes cannot be divided evenly during meiosis, yielding unequal segregation of the chromosomes (aneuploids). Even in the case when a triploid plant can produce a seed (apples are an example), it occurs infrequently, and seedlings rarely survive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18978754",
"title": "Apple",
"section": "Section::::Human consumption.:Phytochemicals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Apples are a rich source of various phytochemicals including flavonoids (e.g., catechins, flavanols, and quercetin) and other phenolic compounds (e.g., epicatechin and procyanidins) found in the skin, core, and pulp of the apple; they have unknown health value in humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18978754",
"title": "Apple",
"section": "Section::::Cultivars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Commercially popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Other desirable qualities in modern commercial apple breeding are a colorful skin, absence of russeting, ease of shipping, lengthy storage ability, high yields, disease resistance, common apple shape, and developed flavor. Modern apples are generally sweeter than older cultivars, as popular tastes in apples have varied over time. Most North Americans and Europeans favor sweet, subacid apples, but tart apples have a strong minority following. Extremely sweet apples with barely any acid flavor are popular in Asia, especially the Indian Subcontinent .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
azogum | In medieval times, was it common for average citizens to go about their daily lives with weapons? | [
{
"answer": "The answer to this somewhat depends on your meaning of 'armed'. For example, early medieval English fashion called for the carrying of a *Seax*, a long, single-bladed knife that was worn horizontally hanging from a belt on the waist, roughly the size of large kitchen knife. The Saxons derive their demonym from this, but it was carried by Angles as well. Early medieval English culture is essentially one of ostentatious display; from horse tackle, to brooches, to jewellery, wealth and status are displayed in personal ornamentation and the Anglo-Saxons are famed for their metalwork featuring ornate patterns and inlaid gems. For those who could no afford gold and gems, burnished brass and glass could be used, much like costume jewellery today. Part and parcel of this culture of display, therefore, would have been the regular wearing of a *seax*, both as an indicator of wealth, but also as a practical tool for everyday life.\n\nWhile the *seax* was technically a weapon, it was predominantly a hunting or utility weapon; in warfare the main weapon of the Anglo-Saxons would have been the spear or javellin, and these are unlikely to have been carried socially. Swords are a slightly different beast again; although they are weapons of war, the time and skill necessary to make a sword means that they are largely constrained to the nobility, and as such once again become an object indicative of wealth and status. As such, we might not expect to see a *thegn* or *ealdorman* \"casually\" wearing a sword, but we might if he was performing a civil action - presiding over a trial, say - as a signifier of his status.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "20503",
"title": "Medieval warfare",
"section": "Section::::Supplies and logistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Through the medieval period, soldiers were responsible for supplying themselves, either through foraging, looting, or purchases. Even so, military commanders often provided their troops with food and supplies, but this would be provided in lieu of the soldiers' wages, or soldiers would be expected to pay for it from their wages, either at cost or even with a profit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2726726",
"title": "Military logistics",
"section": "Section::::History.:5th to 15th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Through the medieval period (the 5th to 15th century in Europe), soldiers were responsible for supplying themselves, either through foraging, looting, or purchases. Even so, military commanders often provided their troops with food and supplies, but this would be provided in lieu of the soldiers' wages, or soldiers would be expected to pay for it from their wages, either at cost or even with a profit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10945253",
"title": "Wales in the Early Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Society.:Kings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "For much of the early medieval period kings had few functions except military ones. Kings made war and gave judgements (in consultation with local elders) but they did not govern in any sense of that word. From the sixth to the eleventh centuries the king moved about with an armed, mounted warband, a personal military retinue called a \"teulu\" that is described as a \"small, swift-moving, and close-knit group\". This military elite formed the core of any larger army that might be assembled. The relationships among the king and the members of his warband were personal, and the practice of fosterage strengthened those personal bonds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "150237",
"title": "Military rank",
"section": "Section::::Ancient and medieval ranks.:Medieval ranks.:Origins of modern ranks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "As the Middle Ages came to an end, kings increasingly relied on professional soldiers to fill the bottom ranks of their armies instead of militiamen. Each of these professionals began their careers as a private. The private was a man who signed a private contract with the company commander, offering his services in return for pay. The money was raised through taxation; those yeomen (smallholding peasants) who did not fulfill their annual 40-day militia service paid a tax that funded professional soldiers recruited from the yeomanry. This money was handed to the company commanders from the royal treasury, the company commanders using the money to recruit the troops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "15355949",
"title": "Medieval household",
"section": "Section::::Aristocratic households.:Itineration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Particularly for kings, itineration was a vital part of governance, and in many cases kings would rely on the hospitality of their subjects for maintenance while on the road. This could be a costly affair for the localities visited; there was not only the large royal household to cater for, but also the entire royal administration. It was only towards the end of the medieval period, when means of communication improved, that households, both noble and royal, became more permanently attached to one residence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20503",
"title": "Medieval warfare",
"section": "Section::::Organization.:Recruiting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "As central governments grew in power, a return to the citizen and mercenary armies of the classical period also began, as central levies of the peasantry began to be the central recruiting tool. It was estimated that the best infantrymen came from the younger sons of free land-owning yeomen, such as the English archers and Swiss pikemen. England was one of the most centralized states in the Late Middle Ages, and the armies that fought the Hundred Years' War were mostly paid professionals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "364510",
"title": "Executioner",
"section": "Section::::Scope and job.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Many executioners were professional specialists who traveled a circuit or region performing their duty, because executions were rarely very numerous. Within this region, a resident executioner would also administer non-lethal physical punishments, or apply torture. In medieval Europe, to the end of the early modern period, executioners were often knackers, since pay from the rare executions was not enough to live off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
5sawal | how / when did scotus judges become so partisan to predict a decision on the basis of party appointment rather than on the merits of each case? | [
{
"answer": "They really aren't that partisan. The majority of cases are decided between 9-0 and 7-2. You hear about the 5-4 decisions because they are the most controversial, or it's an incredibly gray area of law, where the court has to set a precedent where none existed prior. All Federal Judges are lifetime appointments, not just the Supreme Court. Some States have elections for Judges. That's an issue for their State to decide.",
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"answer": "The job of a Supreme Court justice is to interpret the Constitution and decide whether a particular law is constitutional, based on that interpretation. There is more than one way to interpret the Constitution, otherwise we wouldn't need a Supreme Court in the first place. When people talk about a *conservative justice* or *liberal justice*, what they really mean is *a justice that interprets the Constitution in a way that conservatives agree with* or *a justice that interprets the Constitution in a way that liberals agree with*. As you can see, that's a bit of a mouthful, so we shorten it to \"conservative justice\" or \"liberal justice\".",
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"answer": "They're really not as partisan as people make it seem. However, they are human. The constitution and laws have a lot of ambiguity to them. People are going to interpret certain things differently-\n\n > If Supreme Court Judges are as partisan as everyone else they shouldn't be given lifetime appointments.\n\nThe founders thought the opposite. The idea is that if you have a lifetime appointment, you don't need to make partisan votes in order to get re-elected. You can tell your party to fuck off, if you disagree. If you have the ability to be replaced, you don't have that freedom.\n\nAnd what's to stop Congress from just replacing a conservative judge with a new conservative judge? Not much. That's basically how Congress gets elected now, and they are far more partisan.\n\n > When non-SCOTUS judges are elected, how possibly can they remain impartial?\n\nThe short answer is they aren't. Ideally, they do the best they can, and you try to make sure you vet them heavily before allowing them onto the court. There's no magic way to find someone who isn't political. The job is inherently political.\n\nThe check/balance on this is that if it gets bad enough, judges can be impeached. Also, both parties in congress has a lot of power in screening(or making new laws), so that tends to moderate judges quite a bit (and worst case scenario, if congress screws up, voters can vote them out). If voters don't vote them out, the founders figured that means it doesn't bother them that much.\n\nBut just to emphasize, for the most part, even though they tend to vote on \"party lines\" (and keep in mind, the big cases in the news tend to be ones where there is a split- there are many that are unanimous), generally speaking, they do have a coherent ideology , even if you don't agree with it.\n\nedit:\nIn addition, precedent matters a lot. If Scotus decides \"x is legal\", it's incredibly hard to over turn that-they almost never reverse themselves. They're very very away that if you say \"x is legal\" and it benefits one party today, it might be the other way in the future, and they've put themselves in a box. That is a huge check on their power.\n\nTo give a recent example, a big part of the recent ruling by Judge Robart putting a stay on the immigration ban- relied on the decision to prevent Obama's immigration changes a few years ago. It really can come back to bite you in the ass, and the Judges are not so partisan as to not be blatantly inconsistent (for the most part)",
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"answer": "A few things: \n\nthey aren't judges they are justices. Now you may think that doesn't matter but it does. They are mainly charged with interpreting the constitution or matters between states. \n\nMost of these cases are decided by 7-8-9 justices and not along ideological lines.\n\nMost judges aren't partisan, politicians just make it seem that way on decisions they disagree with to fire up their voters. At the Supreme Court level for instance the deciding vote for the ACA was a conservative minded justice who ruled that congress had the power to pass the law.\n\nAs for lifetime appointments, it is necessary to keep judges from becoming politicized. They don't need to worry about pleasing anyone, getting elected or finding his or hers next job. Any overtly political judges will be overruled at the next level. As for the Supreme Court, the vetting process of years of being a judge and then getting confirmed means most people are the leading legal minds in the country and have a vested interest in upholding the law and not a personal agenda. That is also why there are 9 of them.\n\nAs for elected state judges, it's a sovereign state decision to make judges accountable to voters but the next levels (appellate and supreme) courts for the state are appointed to prevent the implementation of the law from becoming overly politIcized.\n\n",
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"answer": "Usually people determine if someone is partisan or not by whether they agree with them. If you agree with them, then they are voting based on sound reasoning and rational interpretation. If you disagree with them, they are a partisan hack.\n\nAs someone else mentioned, the law is often very grey when it gets to the SCOTUS. The word \"abortion\" appears no where in the Constitution, and there are multiple ways to interpret it. The second amendment is incredibly poorly written, and there are multiple ways to interpret that as well for two obvious examples.",
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"answer": "All justices are people and people are fallible. There is no 'objective view' in many of these things, only different interpretations. What different interpretations potentially do is a) change the decision b) how to get to the decision. There are several ways to interpret the constitution. I'll cover the two broad ways currently in use. \n\nThere is the originalist, that interprets the law how the judge believes it was originally meant. This is related to textualism- this is basing it purely on what is written and excluding things like intent of the law and what it is supposed to fix. This is summed up as the Constitution is dead and fixed for all time view. \n\nThe 'opposite' view is the contextualist. This view considers not just the words and the text, but also the context in which is was written. Things like, what the intent was, what the issue it's trying to resolve is, what will the consequence of the ruling be.\n\nThe originalist/textualism interpretation roughly aligns with the current Republican/conservative view. They like strong congress and executive branches, and a narrow interpretation of the law. Conversely the contextualist view is associated with the left block of the SCOTUS (at this time). \n\nNote that it does not mean they will vote the way the political alignment suggests. The ACA was passed by a conservative justice because they interpreted the constitution to say congress has the power to make that law. In other words, one can come to a left wing or right wing decision regardless of interpretation. Right now, the left block and right block tend to use these contrasting ways of reaching their respective decisions, but it's not always the case. \n\nWhat the parties do when electing one toe the SCOTUS is two things. Look at their history to see how congruent it is with their parties beliefs. See how they reached those decisions. They want a way of reaching the decisions that the ruling party views as more likely to favour them. Judges tend to be very consistent with *how* they make their decisions, even though they may not be consistent with whether that decision is viewed as a win for the left or right. ",
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"answer": "The Justices are predictable not because of their politics, but because they have a long track record of written decisions of law literally called \"opinions\" in their wake. Some judges come around on certain theories or ways of thinking, and sometimes the world moves under them making them seem more or less left or right, but you know who a judge is at the end of the day. It's beyond politics, it's deeper. It's just how they view the world, read and interpret words, and logic through problems.",
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"answer": "the *perception* of partisanship increased with the 5-4 Bush v. Gore decision, wherein judges appointed by the father of one of the participants in the case was part of the process of appointing some of the judges...not to mention that Justice Roberts was, at the time, one of the lawyers for Bush's case. \n\nFrom then on, the appointment process went from being 90+ for most justices to closer 60-40ish senate votes, as the senate saw that SCOTUS justices were more than just a president's prerogative, but could perhaps decide the next presidential election. ",
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"answer": "They aren't partisan.\n\nSupreme Court judges rule by *constitutional* ideology, not *political* ideology. If you read any Supreme Court decision, this becomes very clear. \n\nOne of the reasons Antonin Scalia was so noteworthy was because he was pivotal in bringing \"originalism,\" or interpreting the Constitution as it was \"intended\" by the framers, back into popularity (where it was heavily criticized and rejected in the decades prior to his appointment). \n\nFor comparison, other interpretations of the Constitution include the \"living document\" reading, which interprets the Constitution as it should apply in the modern day, and the \"strict constructionist\" reading, which interprets it strictly by the exact wording. All of the schools of thought have their own merits, which is why they are all used or have been used by Supreme Court Justices now and in the past.\n\nAs others have pointed out, the vast majority of SCOTUS cases are decided unanimously or close to it. Only the controversial ones (often landmark cases) end up as 5-4 or 6-3 decisions, which are the ones you hear about. \n",
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"answer": "Justices are primarily influenced by their judicial philosophy rather than their political philosophy. Categorizing justices based on their party membership (if applicable) and attempting to use that as a basis to predict how they will vote on a case is wildly unreliable.\n\nFor example, Antonin Scalia was a notorious textualist because he believed that properly worded statutes (and other legal documents) left little room for misinterpretation; if the drafters of a certain legal provision intended that provision to be interpreted in a certain fashion, it should be written as such or amended through the democratic process. He was also a strong believer in the separation of powers and vigorously opposed judicial overreach or legislating from the bench.\n\nClarence Thomas is a textualist akin to Scalia and often voted alongside him even if their reasoning was different. However, Thomas is known for being willing to override previous decisions if he viewed them to be defective; in Scalia's own words \"Thomas doesn't believe in Stare Decisis, period\".\n\nRuth Bader Ginsburg on the other hand is much more willing to adopt and apply social expectations and modern concerns into her decisions even where they do not fit neatly within the text or spirit of the law.\n\nEvery justice is unique, and party membership doesn't really play a big part in what they bring to the nation.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "4162749",
"title": "Litmus test (politics)",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "The political litmus test is often used when appointing judges. However, this test to determine the political attitude of a nominee is not without error. Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren was appointed under the impression that he was conservative but his tenure was marked by liberal dissents. Today, the litmus test is used along with other methods such as past voting records when selecting political candidates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "377779",
"title": "Mani pulite",
"section": "Section::::Statutory term strategy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "After Berlusconi's victory in the 2001 election, public opinion had turned so far against judges, where it is not only openly acceptable to criticize them for having carried out \"Mani pulite\", but also increasingly difficult to broadcast opinions favorable to Milan's pool. Some blame Berlusconi's media influence as having played a role in this change, or the inability of the opposition to gain the consent of conservative electors. Even Umberto Bossi, whose Lega Nord has been an opposition party, became highly critical of judges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21221593",
"title": "1130 papal election",
"section": "Section::::The schism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1067,
"text": "Both elections were irregular, because they contradicted the rules established by the decree \"In Nomine Domini\" in 1059, but both sides defended the legality of the respective pontificates. The adherents of Anacletus argued that he was elected by the majority of the cardinals, lower clergy and the people of Rome. The partisans of Innocent II answered that Innocent II was elected by majority of the cardinal-bishops, who according to the decree In Nomine Domini had to play the preeminent role in the election. Their opponents answered with another version of the decree (false, but very popular at the time), which stated that the pope was elected by \"cardinals\" (meaning cardinal-priests and deacons), while cardinal-bishops could only express their approval or disapproval. Both parties used, by analogy, the Benedictine rule, which stated that in the case of a double election for abbot, the valid election was the one made by \"the sounder part\" (\"sanior pars\") of the electors – but there was no consensus which part of the College was \"sounder\" in this case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "500956",
"title": "Missouri Plan",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Political interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "Similarly, Professor Brian T. Fitzpatrick of Vanderbilt University has argued that politics are undoubtedly a part of judicial selection in Missouri Plan states, writing, \"In short, I am skeptical that merit selection \"removes\" politics from judicial selection. Rather, merit selection may simply \"move\" the politics of judicial selection into closer alignment with the ideological preferences of the bar.\" Fitzpatrick notes that \"…if we are willing to accept the notions that lawyers care about the outcomes of judicial decisions and that these outcomes are correlated with judges' ideological preferences, then we might expect merit commissions to select judges who share the ideological preferences of the bar rather than those of the public.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "105823",
"title": "Bush v. Gore",
"section": "Section::::Public Reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Polls showed a range of reactions, with 37%-65% of respondents believing that personal politics influenced the decision of the justices, depending on the poll. A Princeton Survey poll recorded 46% of respondents saying that the decision made them more likely to suspect the partisan bias of the judges in general. An NBC News/Wall Street Journal poll showed that 53% of respondents believed that the decision to stop the recount was based mostly on politics. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19065082",
"title": "Grant v Australian Knitting Mills",
"section": "Section::::Privy Council.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "At the time there was no provision for dissent or separate judgments in the Privy Council. Instead the advice to the King was determined by a majority of judges who heard the appeal and one judge would be chosen to write the judgment. Decisions of the Privy Council tended to be expressed on narrow grounds, a tendency attributed to the need to reflect the agreement of the majority of judges. Lord Wright delivered the judgment of the Privy Council and identified the aspects of the decision in \"Donoghue v Stevenson\" in which the majority, Lord Thankerton, Lord Macmillan and Lord Atkin had agreed, as being the statement by Lord Atkin that: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59595282",
"title": "Judicial independence in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Subsequent developments.:Appointment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 2221,
"text": "Former Chief Justice Harry Gibbs argued that politics should not play a positive or negative part in the selection of judges. Thirteen of the first thirty appointments to the High Court were serving or former politicians at the time of their appointment and appointments from either side of politics have been criticised as overtly political, such as the appointment of McTiernan, Evatt and Latham. Evatt was open about the policy considerations in his judgments. While Latham asserted the separation between law and politics, whether his decisions were consistent with that separation was open to question. Two prominent examples of the relevance of a judge having a centralist view are the appointment of Albert Piddington and the non-appointment of Sir Frederick Jordan. In 1913 Attorney-General Billy Hughes was looking to appoint judges to the High Court who took a broad view of federal powers and was accused of attempting to stack the High Court by increasing the number of judges from five to seven. Piddington was offered appointment after he had confirmed that he was \"In sympathy with supremacy of Commonwealth powers\", Piddington resigned from the High Court one month after his appointment following a strong media campaign against him. Jordan was considered a brilliant lawyer but was never appointed to the High Court, which Sir Owen Dixon described as a tragedy, hinting that it may have been due to his \"queer views about federalism\", a reference to Jordan's strenuous support for the power and rights of the States as against the Commonwealth. The appointment of a former politician is not always partisan, for example Robert McClelland a member of the Labor Party and former Attorney-General, was nominated for appointment to the Family Court by the Liberal–National government. Whilst he was Attorney-General, McClelland had implemented a process intended to achieve greater transparency that federal judges were appointed on merit, however these were never formalised through legislation and were abandoned by the new government in 2013. there were significant variations in Australia regarding the use of stated criteria, advertising, consultation and formal interviews in the appointment process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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]
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| null |
32w56j | why do dogs care about babies? | [
{
"answer": "Domestic dogs view themselves as part of a human pack, the family. Since babies are part of the pack too, and the pack's alpha members (us) like them they must be worth keeping (dog logic).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To a large degree it's also an instinctual reaction. Human babies give off a lot smells that trigger a \"nurturing\" response. It makes sense if you think about the history of dogs around humans. Any dogs that were aggressive towards human babies would have been killed or kicked out of the tribe, but those that were nurturing and protective would have been the favourites and the most like to be taken care of (and the last to be eaten if food ran short). Over time the \"nurturing\" dogs had a better chance of survival and breeding so this characteristic became more common.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Dogs see their owners as family members and babies as part of that family.\n\nIf you look at a pack of feral dogs and wolves, the whole pack pitches to feed, raise and protect the puppies regardless of who the parent is.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45383349",
"title": "Zuchon",
"section": "Section::::Temperament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "They make fairly good watch dogs. When necessary, this dog will bark to alert its family that someone is nearby. This breed is typically good with other pets, especially when socialized at an early age. This dog gets along well with children, but it may be a good idea to socialize this breed at an early age as well as to supervise play time with children to make sure that the dog does not get hurt as a result of its small size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34190096",
"title": "Karelo-Finnish Laika",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "They make great, affectionate family dogs, but do not trust strangers. Many can be very protective of their owners or property, so they sometimes bark when someone is coming. Owners should have patience with these Laikas because they can hold grudges for a long time. Also, they can be aggressive towards unknown dogs that come near their home, but should be friendly with dogs that they live with, or dogs away from their home. From a young age, they see small animals, such as squirrels, as potential game so they will more than likely go after them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25116337",
"title": "Socialization of animals",
"section": "Section::::Dogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "It is critical that human interaction takes place frequently and calmly from the time the puppies are born, from simple, gentle handling to the mere presence of humans in the vicinity of the puppies, performing everyday tasks and activities. As the puppies grow older, socialization occurs more readily the more frequently they are exposed to other dogs, other people, and other situations. Dogs who are well socialized from birth, with both dogs and other species (especially people), are much less likely to be aggressive or to suffer from fear-biting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45643639",
"title": "Dog's fashion",
"section": "Section::::Sociological perspective.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Humans typically have deep attachments to their dogs because dogs are adept at fulfilling emotionally supportive roles in people's lives which results in high levels of attachment. Dog owners who are single, childless, newly married, empty nesters, divorced, or in a second marriage tend to anthropomorphize their pets more often. Dogs can be emotional substitutes for family members such as children and spouses and they contribute to the moral maintenance of people who live alone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2025982",
"title": "Canaan Dog",
"section": "Section::::Temperament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Canaan dogs have a strong survival instinct. They are quick to react and wary of strangers, and will alert to any disturbances with prompt barking, thus making them excellent watchdogs. Though defensive, they are not aggressive and are very good with children within the family, but may be wary of other children or defensive when your child is playing with another child. They are intelligent and learn quickly, but may get bored with repetitive exercises or ignore commands if they find something of more interest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "7499898",
"title": "Foundation for Biomedical Research",
"section": "Section::::Animal research.:Dogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Dogs have been used in research for decades and have been invaluable for treating many human and canine illnesses. Dogs contract many of the diseases humans do, from heart disease to cancer and they are also exposed to the same environment as humans. Canine research has led to many significant breakthroughs such as hip replacements, development of cancer treatments, and research in stem cells, diabetes, and Alzheimer's disease. Treatments for heartworms, parasites, and vaccinations against parvovirus, rabies, and canine distemper have also come from canine models.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "31903693",
"title": "Human–canine bond",
"section": "Section::::Concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "A study conducted by J.S.J Odendaal in 2003 showed that when humans pet dogs, their bodies release oxytocin, a hormone associated with not only happiness, but bonding and affection as well. According to the social support theory, animals are a source of social support and companionship, which are necessary for well-being. Canines' social impact on humans is especially significant for those who tend to be more isolated, such as children with no siblings or elderly persons. In this view, the animal is part of our community and is an important determinant for psychological well-being.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
12th4n | Is dairy really that crucial to our diet? | [
{
"answer": "As long as your getting the necessary amount of vitamins, I don't think it matters what form they come in. There are civilizations all over the planet that don't consume diary and they're doing fine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As others have said, dairy is absolutely not necessary.\n\nI suspect the recommendation to drink milk is based on the fact that it's an easy and affordable way to get some decent nutrition: 1 L of milk has 1200 mg of calcium, 1500 mg of potassium, and 30 g of high-quality protein.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As others have said, many, many perfectly healthy people live entirely without dairy (myself included).\n\n > why dairy?\n\nGovernment food recommendations are based as much on economics as health, if not more so. Cheap high-yield staples are not the basis of the recommended diet for health reasons. Health issues are considered, of course, but certainly not exclusively.\n\n > Throughout my entire life, it's been pounded into my head to drink my milk.\n\nMost of the popular conception about milk being necessary for calcium and so on comes from advertising. Most of that advertising is paid for by the dairy industry, and exists for the same reason that all other advertising does: profit.\n\nedit: Sorry, not very AskSciencey. With nutrients, how absorbable they are is important, calcium merely being in a food doesn't mean it is useful to your body. Many vegetables are a good absorbable source of calcium[1], mostly leafy greens.\n\n[1] _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lactase is the enzyme that allows humans to digest lactose, and it's encoded by the LCT gene. The ability usually disappears in humans around 5 years of age, but different circumstances have caused the production of lactase to persist into adulthood in some populations (with histories of pastoralism, for example). From an evolutionary perspective, drinking a glass of milk with every meal is pretty strange and definitely not necessary. Like you said, we can get vitamin D and calcium from other food sources, and we can synthesize our own vitamin D.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30602617",
"title": "Saturated fat and cardiovascular disease",
"section": "Section::::Views.:Mainstream opinion.:Opinion contradictory to the mainstream.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "A 2009 scientific conference reported that despite the contribution of dairy products to the saturated fatty acid intake of the diet, there was no clear evidence that dairy food consumption is consistently associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208092",
"title": "Food pyramid (nutrition)",
"section": "Section::::USDA food pyramid.:History.:Dairy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Dairy products are produced from the milk of mammals, usually but not exclusively cattle. They include milk, yogurt and cheese. Milk and its derivative products are a rich source of dietary calcium and also provide protein, phosphorus, vitamin A, and vitamin D. However, many dairy products are high in saturated fat and cholesterol compared to vegetables, fruits and whole grains, which is why skimmed products are available as an alternative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8097",
"title": "Dairy product",
"section": "Section::::Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Excessive consumption of dairy products can contribute significant amounts of cholesterol and saturated fat to the diet, which can increase the risk of heart disease, and cause other serious health problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42678699",
"title": "Lists of foods",
"section": "Section::::Basic foods.:Dairy products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "BULLET::::- – dairy products are food produced from the milk of mammals. Dairy products are usually high energy-yielding food products. A production plant for the processing of milk is called a dairy or a dairy factory. Apart from breastfed infants, the human consumption of dairy products is sourced primarily from the milk of cows, yet goats, sheep, yaks, horses, camels, and other mammals are other sources of dairy products consumed by humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "85385",
"title": "Atherosclerosis",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Changes in diet may help prevent the development of atherosclerosis. Tentative evidence suggests that a diet containing dairy products has no effect on or decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34997147",
"title": "Omega-7 fatty acid",
"section": "Section::::Production.:In cows.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Dairy products are one of the primary sources of dietary omega-7 fatty acids. However, the production of omega-7 fatty acids in cows is heavily diet-dependent. Specifically, a reduction in the proportion of herbage consumed by a cow is correlated with a significant decrease in the omega-7 fatty acid content of the cow’s milk. Rumenic and vaccenic acid concentrations declined significantly within one week of removing herbage from the cow’s diet, suggesting that modern dairy farming methods may lead to decreases in beneficial fatty acid content of dairy products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2753115",
"title": "Milk substitute",
"section": "Section::::Fortification & substitution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Humans may consume dairy milk for a variety of reasons, including tradition, availability and nutritional value (especially minerals like calcium, vitamins such as B, and protein). Dairy milk substitutes may be expected to meet such standards, though there are no legal requirements for them to do so. This may result in additives being put into milk substitutes to compensate for the absence of certain vitamins, minerals and/or proteins. Infant formula, whether based on cow's milk, soy or rice, is usually fortified with iron and other dietary nutrients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
4zl735 | why does norway have some of the world's highest gas prices despite being the 15th largest oil producer (1.9m bbl/day) | [
{
"answer": "It's mainly because they tax it ALOT. This is to make an negative incentive to drive as much because of the negative effects of traffic, the impact it has on local environment (bad air) and the global environment. This is also a huge way for the government to earn a lot of taxes which go to building infrastructure or other goods.\n\nIt should also be noted that norwegians have an high average income, thus making their purchasing power stronger than most of the world, which would make the prices seem high when you compare it to countries with less income per capita.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10921309",
"title": "Energy in Norway",
"section": "Section::::Fossil fuels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "In 2011, Norway was the eighth largest crude oil exporter in the world (at 78Mt), and the 9th largest exporter of refined oil (at 86Mt). It was also the world's third largest natural gas exporter (at 99bcm), having significant gas reserves in the North Sea. Norway also possesses some of the world's largest potentially exploitable coal reserves (located under the Norwegian continental shelf) on earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21241",
"title": "Norway",
"section": "Section::::Economy.:Resources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Export revenues from oil and gas have risen to almost 50% of total exports and constitute more than 20% of the GDP. Norway is the fifth-largest oil exporter and third-largest gas exporter in the world, but it is not a member of OPEC. In 1995, the Norwegian government established the sovereign wealth fund (\"Government Pension Fund – Global\"), which would be funded with oil revenues, including taxes, dividends, sales revenues and licensing fees. This was intended to reduce overheating in the economy from oil revenues, minimise uncertainty from volatility in oil price, and provide a cushion to compensate for expenses associated with the ageing of the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37292837",
"title": "Global warming in Norway",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:Carbon emissions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "Despite Norway maintaining its ranks among the 20 highest EPI countries, achieving a score of 86.9% and rank of 17th out of the 180 analysed in 2016, it is one of the world's largest oil exporter and has the largest sovereign fund of any country. In 2015, Norway produced 53.9 million tonnes of greenhouse gases (GHGs) noted as carbon dioxide emissions - 15.1 million tonnes were attributed to oil and gas extraction - accounting for the largest proportion of emissions than the other sources, e.g. energy supply, agriculture, road traffic. The total emissions of GHGs increased by 600,000 tonnes since 2014, with emissions from oil and gas extraction increasing by 83.3% since 1990. In more detail, a 25% increase CO emissions, 10% decrease in methane, 38% decrease in nitrous oxide; 44.7 million tonnes (Mt) was CO2, 5.5 Mt of CH4, 2.6 Mt of N20 (Figure 1).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37292837",
"title": "Global warming in Norway",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "The country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, fresh water and hydropower. The petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the country's gross domestic product (GDP). On a per-capita basis, Norway is the world's largest producer of oil and natural gas outside the Middle East.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32707857",
"title": "List of companies of Norway",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "The country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, fresh water and hydropower. The petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the country's gross domestic product (GDP). On a per-capita basis, Norway is the world's largest producer of oil and natural gas outside the Middle East.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16279219",
"title": "Outline of Norway",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Since World War II, Norway has experienced rapid economic growth, and is now amongst the wealthiest countries in the world. Norway is the world's third largest oil exporter after Russia and Saudi Arabia and the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of GDP. It has also rich resources of gas fields, hydropower, fish, forests, and minerals. Norway was the second largest exporter of seafood (in value, after China) in 2006. Other main industries include food processing, shipbuilding, metals, chemicals, mining and pulp and paper products. Norway has a Scandinavian welfare system and the largest capital reserve per capita of any nation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1436846",
"title": "Western Norway",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "By the mid-1990s Norway had become the world's second largest oil exporter (behind Saudi Arabia). The first commercially important discovery of petroleum on Norway's continental shelf was made at the Ekofisk field in the North Sea late in 1969, just as foreign oil companies were about to give up after four years of exploratory drilling. Intensified exploration increased reserves faster than production. Nevertheless, by the mid-1990s about half of export earnings and nearly one-tenth of government revenues came from offshore oil and gas, and these revenues continued to increase as the end of the century approached. It was estimated that the high rate of oil production could be sustained at least into the second decade of the 21st century, while that of natural gas was projected to increase dramatically and be sustained much longer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2353nx | Is anyone creating Atoms? Or is this even possible? | [
{
"answer": "Most of the elements on the periodic table above uranium are synthetically created.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While building atoms one proton or neutron at a time is certainly possible, it is very inefficient. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "902",
"title": "Atom",
"section": "Section::::Origin and current state.:Rare and theoretical forms.:Exotic matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Other exotic atoms have been created by replacing one of the protons, neutrons or electrons with other particles that have the same charge. For example, an electron can be replaced by a more massive muon, forming a muonic atom. These types of atoms can be used to test the fundamental predictions of physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5756554",
"title": "Atomism",
"section": "Section::::Antiquity.:Greek atomism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "Democritus believed that atoms are too small for human senses to detect, they are infinitely many, they come in infinitely many varieties, and that they have always existed. They float in a vacuum, which Democritus called the \"void\", and they vary in form, order, and posture. Some atoms, he maintained, are convex, others concave, some shaped like hooks, and others like eyes. They are constantly moving and colliding into each other. Democritus wrote that atoms and void are the only things that exist and that all other things are merely said to exist by social convention. The objects humans see in everyday life are composed of many atoms united by random collisions and their forms and materials are determined by what kinds of atom make them up. Likewise, human perceptions are caused by atoms as well. Bitterness is caused by small, angular, jagged atoms passing across the tongue; whereas sweetness is caused by larger, smoother, more rounded atoms passing across the tongue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "561941",
"title": "Kanada (philosopher)",
"section": "Section::::Ideas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "BULLET::::- Every object of creation is made of atoms (parmanu) which in turn connect with each other to form molecules (anu). Atoms are eternal, and their combinations constitute the empirical material world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8929369",
"title": "Vaiśeṣika Sūtra",
"section": "Section::::Physics and Philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "BULLET::::- Every object of creation is made of atoms (parmanu) which in turn connect with each other to form molecules (anu). Atoms are eternal, and their combinations constitute the empirical material world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31537",
"title": "Transuranium element",
"section": "Section::::Superheavy elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Superheavy atoms have all been created since the latter half of the 20th century, and are continually being created during the 21st century as technology advances. They are created through the bombardment of elements in a particle accelerator. For example, the nuclear fusion of californium-249 and carbon-12 creates rutherfordium-261. These elements are created in quantities on the atomic scale and no method of mass creation has been found.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "385334",
"title": "List of particles",
"section": "Section::::Composite particles.:Atoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Atoms are the smallest neutral particles into which matter can be divided by chemical reactions. An atom consists of a small, heavy nucleus surrounded by a relatively large, light cloud of electrons. Each type of atom corresponds to a specific chemical element. To date, 118 elements have been discovered or created.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902",
"title": "Atom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of a chemical element. Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms. Atoms are extremely small; typical sizes are around 100 picometers (, a ten-millionth of a millimeter, or 1/254,000,000 of an inch). They are so small that accurately predicting their behavior using classical physics – as if they were billiard balls, for example – is not possible. This due to quantum effects. Current atomic models now use quantum principles to better explain and predict this behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
x059y | Is there any rational explanation for these noises? | [
{
"answer": "Are they heard in any rural areas? It sounds like traffic noise echoing off of buildings.\n\n(It would be easy enough to drop in a sound to a film to further conspiracy theories, btw.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to the explanation offered, other possibilities include:\n\n- Man-made structures that produce the sounds inadvertently (e.g. wind currents from passing trains in a subway system, rushing out vents that produce a \"pipe organ\" effect). [Here is an example of structure built to purpose](_URL_0_). \n\n- [Natural structures](_URL_1_) that produce a pipe organ effect from wind.\n\n- Distant train, ship, or highway noises reflected oddly by natural or man-made structures.\n\n- A hoax.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27509740",
"title": "List of unexplained sounds",
"section": "Section::::NOAA (formerly unidentified).:Bloop.:Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "According to the NOAA description, it \"rises rapidly in frequency over about one minute and was of sufficient amplitude to be heard on multiple sensors, at a range of over .\" The NOAA's Dr. Christopher Fox did not believe its origin was man-made, such as a submarine or bomb, nor familiar geological events such as volcanoes or earthquakes. While the audio profile of Bloop does resemble that of a living creature, the source was a mystery both because it was different from known sounds and because it was several times louder than the loudest recorded animal, the blue whale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18994087",
"title": "Sound",
"section": "Section::::Perception of sound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Noise is a term often used to refer to an unwanted sound. In science and engineering, noise is an undesirable component that obscures a wanted signal. However, in sound perception it can often be used to identify the source of a sound and is an important component of timbre perception (see above).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19414028",
"title": "Misophonia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 606,
"text": " the literature on misophonia was limited. Some small studies show that people with misophonia generally have strong negative feelings, thoughts, and physical reactions to specific sounds, which the literature calls \"trigger sounds\". These sounds are apparently usually soft, but can be loud. One study found that around 80% of the sounds were related to the mouth (eating, slurping, chewing or popping gum, whispering, etc.), and around 60% were repetitive. A visual trigger may develop related to the trigger sound. It also appears that a misophonic reaction can occur in the absence of an actual sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19414028",
"title": "Misophonia",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Misophonia's mechanism is not known, but it appears that, like hyperacusis, it may be caused by a dysfunction of the central auditory system in the brain and not of the ears. The perceived origin and context of the sound appears to be essential to trigger a reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18994087",
"title": "Sound",
"section": "Section::::Infrasound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Infrasound is sound waves with frequencies lower than 20 Hz. Although sounds of such low frequency are too low for humans to hear, whales, elephants and other animals can detect infrasound and use it to communicate. It can be used to detect volcanic eruptions and is used in some types of music.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53717",
"title": "Taos, New Mexico",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.:Taos Hum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "An ongoing low-frequency noise, audible only to some, is thought to originate somewhere near this town and is consequently sometimes known as the Taos Hum. Those who have heard the Hum usually hear it west of Taos near Tres Orejas. The Taos Hum was featured on the TV show \"Unsolved Mysteries\", and it was also briefly mentioned in an episode of \"The X-Files\". It was the basis for the TV series \"Criminal Minds\" episode \"Mixed Signals\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6713415",
"title": "Prehistoric Sounds",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Clinton Walker said \"Prehistoric Sounds\" was, \"an extraordinary record - one of the period's best bar none - a brooding, melancholic collision of electrically charged rock balladry and swooping, brassy arrangements. Broadly misunderstood, it meant nothing to no-one.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
10a263 | Bio: X-inactivation and x-linked disorders? | [
{
"answer": "We evolved to handle two sets of every gene...except when it comes to the sex chromosomes. Having too much of certain proteins wreaks havoc during development (e.g. trisomy 21, having an extra chromosome 21 causes Down Syndrome), with most trisomies being fatal.\n\nX-inactivation serves the purpose of making sure you only have one X chromosome doing its thing, because doubling the dose with these particular genes can cause a lot of problems.\n\nIn fact, [Klinefelter's Syndrome](_URL_0_) is what can develop in someone with XXY. Even though their extra X chromosome does get inactivated, it's apparently not completely inactivated and causes some issues from the doubling doses of particular gene expression.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24072395",
"title": "X-linked myotubular myopathy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "The X-linked form of MTM is the most commonly diagnosed type. Almost all cases of X-linked MTM occurs in males. Females can be \"carriers\" for an X-linked genetic abnormality, but usually they will not be clinically affected themselves. Two exceptions for a female with a X-linked recessive abnormality to have clinical symptoms: one is a manifesting carrier and the other is X-inactivation. A manifesting carrier usually has no noticeable problems at birth; symptoms show up later in life. In X-inactivation, the female (who would otherwise be a carrier, without any symptoms), actually presents with full-blown X-linked MTM. Thus, she congenitally presents (is born with) MTM.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48358976",
"title": "ATR-16 syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Though only definitively diagnosable by genetic sequence testing, including a G band analysis, ATR-16 syndrome may be diagnosed from its constellation of symptoms. It must be distinguished from ATR-X syndrome, a very similar disease caused by a mutation on the X chromosome, and cases of alpha-thalassemia that co-occur with intellectual disabilities with no underlying genetic relationship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4529789",
"title": "X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "X-linked SCID is a known pediatric emergency which primarily affects males. If the appropriate treatment such as intravenous immunoglobulin supplements, medications for treating infections or a bone marrow transplant is not administered, then the prognosis is poor. The patients with X-linked SCID usually die two years after they are born. For this reason, the diagnosis of X-linked SCID needs to be done early to prevent any pathogens from infecting the infant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22689624",
"title": "Skewed X-inactivation",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Primary Nonrandom Inactivation.:Xce.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "There are two theories on the mechanism Xce uses to affect inactivation. The first is that genomic differences in the Xce alleles alter the sequence of the long non-coding RNA that is an integral part of X chromosome inactivation. The second is that Xce acts as a binding site for dosage factors that will affect XIST gene and Tsix expression (long non-coding RNAs involved in X chromosome inactivation).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "447832",
"title": "Helicase",
"section": "Section::::Helicase disorders and diseases.:ATRX helicase mutations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Various types of mutations found in ATRX have been found to be associated with ATR-X, including most commonly single-base missense mutations, as well as nonsense, frameshift, and deletion mutations. Characteristics of ATR-X include: microcephaly, skeletal and facial abnormalities, mental retardation, genital abnormalities, seizures, limited language use and ability, and alpha-thalassemia. The phenotype seen in ATR-X suggests that the mutation of ATRX gene causes the downregulation of gene expression, such as the alpha-globin genes. It is still unknown what causes the expression of the various characteristics of ATR-X in different patients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5424608",
"title": "Alpha-thalassemia mental retardation syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Epigenetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "ATR association can be separated into two groups. ATR-16 syndrome patients have a 1-2Mb deletion on the top of the chromosome 16 p-arm and are associated with a Mendelian inheritance of a-thalassemia. ATR-X syndrome patients have no deletion in chromosome 16, a-thalassemia is rare, and this syndrome is consistent with X-linked recessive inheritance. However, both groups have similar phenotypes. The phenotypes resulting from ATR-X are due to skewed x-inactivation. When X-inactivation occurs randomly, half of the cells in the carrier female would contain the abnormality. When X-inactivation is skewed, more than 50% of one X chromosome are becoming inactive, and if that X-chromosome is passed to a male, they will have a higher percent of heterochromatin. The ATR-X locus spans the control center Xist, which regulates X-inactivation. When there is a XH2 mutation in the ATR-X locus, this indicates Xist to inactivate the chromosome increasing the amount of heterochromatin in males.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5424608",
"title": "Alpha-thalassemia mental retardation syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Epigenetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1528,
"text": "\"The role of ATRX as a regulator of heterochromatin dynamics raises the possibility that mutations in \"ATRX\" may lead to downstream transcriptional effects across the complex of genes or repetitive regions involved in the global context of the disorder, in addition to explaining phenotypical differences in these patients. For example, \"ATRX\" mutations affect the expression of alpha-globin gene cluster, causing alpha-thalassemia\". \"ATRX\" interacts with the transcription co-factor \"DAXX\" and the alpha-globin gene cluster. Together they are all responsible for depositing the histone H3.3 at telomeric and pericentromeric regions. They are also responsible for regulating gene expression at these regions. \"ATRX\" is characterized by hypo- and hypermethylated regions. It's important to recognize that having a mutation in the \"ATRX\" gene does not necessarily guarantee that the patient has ATR-X syndrome. However, it is common within ATR-X patients to have global hypermethylation of usually unmethylated regions, like CpG islands and promoters. Several of the genes that undergo methylation changes are responsible for biosynthetic, metabolic, and methylation processes, and 42.5% of these genes are present in the telomeric and pericentromeric regions. A couple of these genes include: \"PRDM9\" and \"2-BHMT2\". PRDM9 encodes for a histone H3 lysine-4 trimethyltransferase, which is a known target for \"ATRX\", and \"2-BHMT2\" encodes for betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase, which catalyzes the methylation of homocysteine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
8mjhse | if we can have physician assisted suicides, why are there sometimes major malfunctions when administering the 'death penalty'? | [
{
"answer": "Physician assistant suicide is often phenobarbital, something people would OD on back in the day. One single drug, gently knocks you out and kills you without any dramatic stuff. It basically amps up the brain receptor that says \"chill out neuron\" so your whole brain chills out, till it knocks you out, and your respiratory drive chills out too and you die. \n\nDeath penalty, that doesn't use such a method. There's a cocktail of 3 drugs, one to knock you out, then one that relaxes your muscles, then one to stop your heart. Since your heart is a muscle, the anti-heart drug also messes with your muscles so they can very dramatically spasm if the anti-muscle drug didn't work right. This is also complicated by many pharma companies refusing to provide the drug for moral reasons. Or the electric chair, which also doesn't always work. Or hanging, which can be ugly. \n\nDeath penalty uses more complicated and less reliable methods, physician assisted uses simpler and more reliable methods. ",
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{
"answer": "Also, physicians or even nurses aren’t allowed to participate in lethal injections, so it’s left to prison employees with little to no medical training, which leads to incorrect dosage, placing the IV incorrectly, etc etc ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "62745",
"title": "Lethal injection",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Single drug.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 924,
"text": "Regardless of an alternative protocol, some death-penalty opponents have claimed that execution can be less painful by the administration of a single lethal dose of barbiturate. Supporters of the death penalty, however, state that the single-drug theory is a flawed concept. Terminally ill patients in Oregon who have requested physician-assisted suicide have received lethal doses of barbiturates. The protocol has been highly effective in producing a painless death, but the time to cause death can be prolonged. Some patients have taken days to die, and a few patients have actually survived the process and have regained consciousness up to three days after taking the lethal dose. In a California legal proceeding addressing the issue of the lethal injection cocktail being \"cruel and unusual,\" state authorities said that the time to death following a single injection of a barbiturate could be as much as 45 minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10752609",
"title": "Vacco v. Quill",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The State of New York had enacted a prohibition against physician-assisted suicide, making it a crime for a physician to administer lethal medication or to otherwise knowingly and intentionally end the life of a patient, even a consenting, mentally competent, and terminally ill patient. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8283285",
"title": "Euthanasia in the Netherlands",
"section": "Section::::Practice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "A study in 2000 found that Dutch physicians who intend to provide assistance with suicide sometimes end up administering a lethal medication themselves because of the patient's inability to take the medication or because of problems with the completion of physician-assisted suicide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26824878",
"title": "Terminal dehydration",
"section": "Section::::Voluntary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1204,
"text": "Terminal dehydration (also known as voluntary death by dehydration or VDD) has been described as having substantial advantages over physician-assisted suicide with respect to self-determination, access, professional integrity, and social implications. Specifically, a patient has a right to refuse treatment and it would be a personal assault for someone to force water on a patient, but such is not the case if a doctor merely refuses to provide lethal medication. Some physicians believe it might have distinctive drawbacks as a humane means of voluntary death. One survey of hospice nurses in Oregon (where physician-assisted suicide is legal) found that nearly twice as many had cared for patients who chose voluntary refusal of food and fluids to hasten death as had cared for patients who chose physician-assisted suicide. They also rated fasting and dehydration as causing less suffering and pain and being more peaceful than physician-assisted suicide. Patients undergoing terminal dehydration can often feel no pain, as they are often given sedatives and care such as mouth rinses or sprays There can be a fine line between terminal sedation that results in death by dehydration and euthanasia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162615",
"title": "Assisted suicide",
"section": "Section::::Opposition.:Medical ethics.:Code of Ethics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "The most current version of the American Medical Association's Code of Ethics states that physician-assisted suicide is prohibited. It prohibits physician-assisted suicide because it is “fundamentally incompatible with the physician’s role as healer” and because it would be “difficult or impossible to control, and would pose serious societal risks”. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "712395",
"title": "Terminal illness",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Physician-assisted suicide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Physician-assisted suicide (PAS) is a highly controversial concept, only legal in a few countries. In PAS, physicians, with voluntary written and verbal consent from the patient, give patients the means to die, usually through lethal drugs. The patient then chooses to \"die with dignity,\" deciding on his/her own time and place to die. Reasons as to why patients choose PAS differ. Factors that may play into a patient's decision include future disability and suffering, lack of control over death, impact on family, healthcare costs, insurance coverage, personal beliefs, religious beliefs, and much more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2548579",
"title": "Voluntary euthanasia",
"section": "Section::::Medical ethics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Physicians who are in favor of euthanasia state that to keep euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide (PAS) illegal is a violation of patient freedoms. They believe that any competent terminally-ill patient should have the right to choose death or refuse life-saving treatment. Suicide and assistance from their physician is seen as the only option those patients have. With the suffering and the knowledge from the doctor, this may also suggest that PAS is a humane answer to the excruciating pain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
364ze9 | what's the purpose of the num lock key on a full sized keyboard? | [
{
"answer": "The first IBM PC keyboard had 83 keys. The numeric keypad doubled as the cursor control keys, and you used Num Lock to toggle between the two.\n\nA few years later, IBM introduced what is now the familiar 101 key layout, with dedicated cursor control keys. Even though the Num Lock key was no longer strictly necessary, they left it in for backwards compatibility (some programs use it for other purposes) and because some people preferred the cursor control keys in the numeric keypad layout.\n\nEven through that was almost 30 years ago, the layout has become so standard no one has seen a need to change it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "555359",
"title": "Num Lock",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "The Num Lock key exists because earlier 84-key IBM PC keyboards did not have cursor control or arrows separate from the numeric keypad. Most earlier computer keyboards had separate number keys and cursor control keys; however, to reduce cost, IBM chose to combine the two in their early PC keyboards. Num Lock would be used to choose between the two functions. On some laptop computers, the Num Lock key is used to convert part of the main keyboard to act as a (slightly skewed) numeric keypad rather than letters. On some laptop computers, the Num Lock key is absent and replaced by the use of a key combination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6145986",
"title": "Hebrew keyboard",
"section": "Section::::Layouts.:Standard Hebrew keyboard.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "In a 102/105-key layout of this form, there would be an additional key to the right of the left shift key. This would be an additional backslash key (). Keyboards with 102 keys are not sold as standard, except by certain manufacturers who mistakenly group Israel into Europe, where 102 keyboards are the norm (most notable of the later group are Logitech and Apple).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "860664",
"title": "IEC 60309",
"section": "Section::::Dimensions.:Extra-low voltage variant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Keying is done by one or two keys on the inside of the socket, which fit into grooves provided on the outside of the plug's shroud. The major keyway is 4 mm deep, and there is a corresponding flat protruding into the interior of the shroud to accommodate it. The width of the major keyway defines the current rating: 32 A plugs have a 5 mm wide groove, while 16 A plugs have an 8 mm groove, and will therefore fit into 32 A sockets but not vice versa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28637",
"title": "Scroll Lock",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Window scrolling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The key was meant to lock all scrolling techniques, and is a vestige of the original IBM PC keyboard. In the original design, was intended to modify the behavior of the arrow keys. When the mode was on, the arrow keys would scroll the contents of a text window instead of moving the cursor. In this usage, is a toggling lock key like Num Lock or Caps Lock, which have a state that persists after the key is released.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48280120",
"title": "Hex key",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Each key is meant to be used with screws of a specific socket size, with rather tight tolerances; so the tool is commonly sold in kits that include half a dozen or more keys of different sizes. Usually the size of the key increases with the size of the socket, but not necessarily in direct proportion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "933806",
"title": "Space bar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "A typical space bar key is very large, enough so that a thumb from either hand can use it, and is almost always found on the bottom row of standard keyboard layouts. Over time space bars have become narrower on computers to make way for keys such as control key and alt key.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21871509",
"title": "Samsung NC20",
"section": "Section::::Technical overview.:Keyboard and touchpad.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "The 84-key keyboard is a full-size keyboard, with standard 18.5mm key pitch between keys. The keyboard has also been coated with anti-bacterial Silver Nano ions. The touchpad supports multi-touch gestures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
95bu6z | how is it so hard for many people to even try to read or pronounce foreign names? | [
{
"answer": "This is a strange question. We more or less use the same alphabet, but the letters and combinations are pronounced differently in every language. \n\nIf you think its easy, try these Irish words and names:\n\nConchubhur\n\nDé Domhnaigh\n\nMilseáin\n\nCaoilte\n\nró the",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Part of how most people read is not by looking at each individual letter but rather looking at the word as a whole, more like a singular shape rather than a string of letters. If you've been reading \"by shape\" and have to switch to reading each individual letter it's pretty jarring. Also different languages will pronounce the same letters differently and so combinations that make sense in Spanish won't make sense in English. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Different languages (that use the same alphabet) have different rules for how letters map to sounds, but these rules often work on letter combinations and have the same letter pronounced differently depending on what other letters to before or after.\n\nWhen you see a word in a language you don't speak and thus don't know these pronounciation rules, you'll have two main problems:\n\n* You'll pronounce parts according to the rules you know and the result is simply wrong.\n* You'll encounter letter combinations that the language(s) you know never uses and therefore does not have pronounciation rules for. You have no idea how to pronounce that. And if a single word has several such unknown combinations, you have little chance to gloss over it or wing it in some way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Each language has their own rules about how to produce sounds based on letters. If you don't know the rules, then you can at best make guesses about what those rules might be. Even worse, each language has their own set of sounds they use to communicate, and these sounds are clumped together based on rules inherent to the language. For example, English has quite a bit of variance in the ways you can pronounce 'a'. In some languages, these ways are distinguished so that they are actually separate, and using the wrong one would change the meaning of the word. Which would be awkward for an english speaker since to them the words both sound the same, more or less.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "It's probably caused by the differences between the sound of the letters on different languages. And there are some sounds that don't exist at all on some of them, like the \"TH\" in english, it was hard to me to learn (i'm brazilian) because in portuguese it sounds like a simple \"T\", but in english it's totally different. \nApply the same logic on names. I took a long time to learn properly how to speak \"Deutschland\" because the letters sound totally different from what they'd sound in portuguese.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you do not speak a language commonly, and potentially rarely ever hear it spoken then you have no concept in your brain of how to pronounce the words in it. Some of the sounds may not even exist in your language at all and so your ability to say the word properly will be next to impossible. \n\n > I know that most english speakers can't roll their \"R\" like most Spanish speakers do, but having a word in front of you and not being able to read it just blows my mind.\n\nEnglish and Spanish share an alphabet. The English speaker is saying the word pronouncing all the letters in the way they are said in English in this scenario. As someone who has to dealt with Mexican Immigrants from time to time they do the exact same thing with English words, saying them wrong because they are using the pronunciation of letters that Spanish has. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4051786",
"title": "Anglophone pronunciation of foreign languages",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "The following is a list of common non-native pronunciations that English speakers make when trying to speak foreign languages. Many of these are due to transfer of phonological rules from English to the new language as well as differences in grammar and syntax that they encounter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49699560",
"title": "Smigin",
"section": "Section::::Products.:Smigin Travel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Users have the ability to hear their phrases spoken by native speakers, read simplified phonetic spelling to learn how best to pronounce them using their native syllables, and save phrases for later use. Additionally, users have the ability to create their own personal phrasebook that suits the needs of their travel experiences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6727548",
"title": "Foreign language writing aid",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "The four major components in the acquisition of a language are namely; listening, speaking, reading and writing. While most people have no difficulties in exercising these skills in their native language, doing so in a second or foreign language is not that easy. In the area of writing, research has found that foreign language learners find it painstaking to compose in the target language, producing less eloquent sentences and encountering difficulties in the revisions of their written work. However, these difficulties are not attributed to their linguistic abilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "194491",
"title": "Mispronunciation",
"section": "Section::::Pronunciation change.:Adaptation to a different language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Still other words, including proper nouns such as names of people and places, are not only written as foreign words, but often given their native pronunciation too. For example, the French term \"mange tout\" (a type of pea) is often pronounced with a nasal vowel. To do otherwise, especially with a proper noun, is often considered a mispronunciation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1872124",
"title": "Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩",
"section": "Section::::Phonetic realization.:Acquisition problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "Foreign learners may have parallel problems. Learners from very many cultural backgrounds have difficulties with English dental fricatives, usually caused by interference with either sibilants or stops. Words with a dental fricative adjacent to an alveolar sibilant, such as \"clothes\" , \"truths\" , \"fifths\" , \"sixths\" , \"anesthetic\" , etc., are commonly very difficult for foreign learners to pronounce. Some of these words containing consonant clusters can also be difficult for native speakers, including those using the standard and pronunciations generally, allowing such accepted informal pronunciations of \"clothes\" as (a homonym of the verb \"close\") and \"fifth(s)\" as . \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4532447",
"title": "Grammar–translation method",
"section": "Section::::Principles and goals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The users of foreign language wanted simply to note things of their interest in the literature of foreign languages. Therefore, this method focuses on reading and writing and has developed techniques which facilitate more or less the learning of reading and writing only. As a result, speaking and listening are overlooked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1015914",
"title": "Kalaw Lagaw Ya",
"section": "Section::::Orthography.:Saibai, Boigu, Dauan students.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 313,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 313,
"end_character": 841,
"text": "In general the pronunciation of older people has priority; however, some people can actually get quite offended if they think the language is written the 'wrong' way. Some insist that the mission spelling should be used, others the Bani spelling, and still others the KKY (Saibai etc.) spelling, and still again others use mixes of two or three, or adaptations thereof. Some writers of the Mabuiag-Badhu dialect (Kalaw Lagaw Ya), for example, write mainly in the Mission system, sometimes use the diagraphs \"oe\", \"th\", \"dh\" (variant \"dth\") and sometimes use capital letters at the ends of words to show devoiced vowels, such as \"ngukI\" 'fresh water/drinking water, fruit juice' . In the Bani/Klokheid orthograophy \"nguki\" is written \"nguuki\", and in the other dialects the final vowel is either fully voiced, \"nguki\" ), or elided, \"nguk\" ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
85p1bb | if water is not compressible, why does a pressure exists if pipe has limited volume of water ? | [
{
"answer": "Water is compressible; everything is. Water pressure is typically generated by having the storage tank at some height above the pipes. The static pressure in the pipes is proportional to the height.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Water is compressible and the pipe is expandable. Neither the bulk density nor the volume are fixed. Water is just not very compressible compared to air",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The compressibility of water is so negligible, that it is essentially zero.\n\nWater companies pump water (an incompressible fluid) into (nearly) rigid pipes using pumps. To keep the pressure constant, and to prevent accidental pipe rupture, accumulators are used as shock absorbers. Accumulators are essentially vessels filled with compressed gas, that provide the expansion and contraction necessary to keep pipes safe, and water pressure constant. The pipes themselves also stretch (a little).\n\nIn a closed vessel, when water pressure increases, the vessel itself stretches, which then acts on the water it contains. Even metal tanks stretch somewhat, which is why you can have a water vessel with no bubbles that maintains its pressure. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "You do not need to be able to compress at all to have pressure.\n\nPressure means force per surface area. So if a pipe has pressure of one pascal it means that the water inside is pushing one square meter of pipe with force of one newton.\n\nYou can also have pressure with solid matter and solid matter complresses even less than water. For example if push at weak ice with sharpl stick you can break it easily but if you push with a flat plate the ice won't break.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "18993825",
"title": "Liquid",
"section": "Section::::Mechanical properties.:Volume.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "On the other hand, liquids have little compressibility. Water, for example, will compress by only 46.4 parts per million for every unit increase in atmospheric pressure (bar). At around 4000 bar (400 megapascals or 58,000 psi) of pressure at room temperature water experiences only an 11% decrease in volume. Incompressibility makes liquids suitable for transmitting hydraulic power, because a change in pressure at one point in a liquid is transmitted undiminished to every other part of the liquid and very little energy is lost in the form of compression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18993825",
"title": "Liquid",
"section": "Section::::Mechanical properties.:Volume.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "However, the negligible compressibility does lead to other phenomena. The banging of pipes, called water hammer, occurs when a valve is suddenly closed, creating a huge pressure-spike at the valve that travels backward through the system at just under the speed of sound. Another phenomenon caused by liquid's incompressibility is cavitation. Because liquids have little elasticity they can literally be pulled apart in areas of high turbulence or dramatic change in direction, such as the trailing edge of a boat propeller or a sharp corner in a pipe. A liquid in an area of low pressure (vacuum) vaporizes and forms bubbles, which then collapse as they enter high pressure areas. This causes liquid to fill the cavities left by the bubbles with tremendous localized force, eroding any adjacent solid surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235576",
"title": "Suction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "When the pressure in one part of a system is reduced relative to another, the fluid in the higher pressure region will exert a force relative to the region of lowered pressure. Pressure reduction may be static, as in a piston and cylinder arrangement, or dynamic, as in the case of a vacuum cleaner when air flow results in a reduced pressure region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6553728",
"title": "Trompe",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "The energy of the falling water creates negative pressure inside the pipe that is compensated by the air from the outside atmosphere provided through inlet. The air is compressed by surrounding water pressure (which increases under a column due to the discharge to atmospheric pressure). The pressure of the air delivered cannot exceed the hydraulic head of the discharge pipe of the separation chamber. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14340",
"title": "Hydraulic ram",
"section": "Section::::Construction and principle of operation.:Sequence of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1253,
"text": "A pressure vessel [6] containing air cushions the hydraulic pressure shock when the waste valve closes, and it also improves the pumping efficiency by allowing a more constant flow through the delivery pipe. Although the pump could in theory work without it, the efficiency would drop drastically and the pump would be subject to extraordinary stresses that could shorten its life considerably. One problem is that the pressurized air will gradually dissolve into the water until none remains. One solution to this problem is to have the air separated from the water by an elastic diaphragm (similar to an expansion tank); however, this solution can be problematic in developing countries where replacements are difficult to procure. Another solution is to have a mechanism such as a snifting valve that automatically inserts a small bubble of air when the suction pulse described above reaches the pump. Another solution is to insert an inner tube of a car or bicycle tire into the pressure vessel with some air in it and the valve closed. This tube is in effect the same as the diaphragm, but it is implemented with more widely available materials. The air in the tube cushions the shock of the water the same as the air in other configurations does.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10261414",
"title": "Hot chocolate effect",
"section": "Section::::Origin of the phenomenon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Water is approximately 800 times denser than air, and air is approximately 15,000 times more compressible than water. When water is filled with air bubbles, however, the fluid's density is very close to the density of water, but the compressibility will be the compressibility of air. This greatly reduces the speed of sound in the liquid. Wavelength is constant for a given volume of fluid, therefore the frequency (pitch) of the sound will decrease as long as gas bubbles are present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41270451",
"title": "Broadband acoustic resonance dissolution spectroscopy",
"section": "Section::::Principles of the BARDS response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "where V is the volume of the medium, and dV is the volume decrease due to the pressure increase dp of the sound wave. When water is filled with air bubbles, the fluid density is essentially the density of water, and the air will contribute significantly to the compressibility. Crawford derived the relationship between fractional bubble volume and sound velocity in water, and hence the sound frequency in water, given as.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1w7hd6 | Were there any examples of Fascist states before 1930's Europe? | [
{
"answer": "Fascism at the best of times is a vague description. As a Marxist, I see fascism as being a reaction to a crisis of state brought on by a crisis of capitalism, as such, to argue that fascist states existed before capitalism wouldn't make sense. The goal of a fascist state then is to try and maintain capital as a mode of production, even if this is an unconscious and only historical role. Have there been dictatorial states and rulers before fascism? Yes, but I think to describe them as being fascist would be taking fascism out of the specifics of the 20th century. A nice pamphlet you can read would be Gilles Dauve's [When Insurrections Die](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4305070",
"title": "History of Western civilization",
"section": "Section::::Inter-war years: 1918–1939.:Rise of totalitarianism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 201,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 201,
"end_character": 1360,
"text": "The first totalitarian state in the West was established in Italy. Unlike the Soviet Union however, this would be a Fascist rather than a Communist state. Fascism is a less organized ideology than Communism, but generally it is characterized by a total rejection of humanism and liberal democracy, as well as very intense nationalism, with government headed by a single all-powerful dictator. The Italian politician Benito Mussolini established the Fascist Party, from which Fascism derives its name following World War I. Fascists won support by many disillusioned Italians, angry over Italy's treatment following World War I. They also employed violence and intimidation against their political enemies. In 1922 Mussolini seized power by threatening to lead his followers on a march on Rome if he was not named prime minister. Although he had to share some power with the monarchy, Mussolini ruled as a dictator. Under his rule, Italy's military was built up and democracy became a thing of the past. One important diplomatic achievement of his reign, however, was the Lateran Treaty, between Italy and the Pope, in which a small part of Rome where St. Peter's Basilica and other Church property was located was given independence as Vatican City and the Pope was reimbursed for lost Church property. In exchange, the Pope recognized the Italian government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17546747",
"title": "Fascism in Europe",
"section": "Section::::Regimes and parties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "After the Second World War, most fascist regimes were dismantled by the victors, with only those in Spain and Portugal surviving. Parties, movements or politicians who carried the label \"fascist\" quickly became political pariahs with many nations across Europe banning any organisations or references relating to fascism and Nazism. With this came the rise of Neo-Fascism, movements like the Italian Social Movement, Socialist Reich Party and Union Movement attempted to continue fascism's legacy but failed to become mass movements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4843627",
"title": "List of fascist movements",
"section": "Section::::The Axis (1922-1945).:Italy (1922–1943).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The first fascist country, Italy, was ruled by Benito Mussolini (\"Il Duce\") until he was dismissed and arrested on 25 July 1943. Mussolini was then rescued from prison by Germany, and was given made head of a state named \"Repubblica di Salò\" in northern Italy that continued to fight the allies alongside Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17546747",
"title": "Fascism in Europe",
"section": "Section::::Regimes and parties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Prior to and during the Second World War, Nazi Germany imposed numerous fascist/fascist related regimes across occupied Europe, these may not fully espouse the form of fascism established by Mussolini however they were authoritarian, nationalist, anti-communist and staunchly pro-Axis powers:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9804204",
"title": "Kingdom of Italy",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Between 1925 and 1943, Italy was a quasi-\"de jure\" Fascist dictatorship, as the constitution formally remained in effect without alteration by the Fascists, though the monarchy also formally accepted Fascist policies and Fascist institutions. Changes in politics occurred, consisting of the establishment of the Grand Council of Fascism as a government body in 1928, which took control of the government system, as well as the Chamber of Deputies being replaced with the Chamber of Fasci and Corporations as of 1939.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53528780",
"title": "International relations (1919–1939)",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Fascism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "Fascism is a form of radical authoritarian nationalism in Europe shortly after the First World War. It dominated Italy (1923–43) and Nazi Germany (1933-45) and played a role in other countries. It was based in tightly organised local groups, all controlled from the top. It violently opposed to liberalism, Marxism, and anarchism, and tried to control all aspects of society. The foreign policy Militaristic and aggressive. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany were critical allies in the second world war. Japan, with an authoritarian government that did not have a well-mobilised popular base, was allied with them to form the Axis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22459146",
"title": "Fascism in South America",
"section": "Section::::Brazil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1000,
"text": "Fascism first appeared in Brazil in 1922 with the foundation of the \"Legião do Cruzeiro do Sul\" and within ten years this had been followed by the \"Legião de Outubro\", the \"Partido Nacional Sindicalista\", the \"Partido Fascista Nacional\", the \"Legião Cearense do Trabalho\", the \"Partido Nacionalista\" of São Paulo, the \"Partido Nacional Regenerador\",and the \"Partido Socialista Brasileiro\", all minor groups that espoused some form of fascism However one of the most important fascist movements on the continent was Brazilian Integralism, which shared a heritage with Italian fascism as well as Integralismo Lusitano. At its peak the \"Ação Integralista Brasileira\", led by Plínio Salgado, claimed as many as 200,000 members although following coup attempts it faced a crackdown from the Estado Novo of Getúlio Vargas in 1937. Like the Portuguese Estado Novo that influenced it, Vargas' regime borrowed from fascism without fully endorsing it and in the end repressed those who advocated full fascism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3m79f9 | where did the misconception that radioactive waste glows green come from? | [
{
"answer": "An early use of radioactive material was luminescent applications. You've seen glow in the dark watches as an example. These commonly involved a phosphor that glowed green via interaction with the radioactive substance. \n\nThis also led to [radium girls](_URL_0_) as an early terrifying example of what can go bad with radiation. \n\nSo you have a combination of 'green glow' and 'horrible radiation damage.'",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably from [uranium glass](_URL_0_). Before we knew that tiny amounts of it were highly radioactive, we used Uranium based glass for all sorts of stuff. It turns out it's a pale green. If I had to guess, that's where this idea comes from.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1021628",
"title": "Chernobyl Exclusion Zone",
"section": "Section::::Radioactive contamination.:Flora and fauna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Near the facility, a dense cloud of radioactive dust killed off a large area of Scotch pine trees; the rusty orange color of the dead trees led to the nickname \"The Red Forest\" (\"Рудий ліс\"). The Red Forest was among the world's most radioactive places; to reduce the hazard, the Red Forest was bulldozed and the highly irradiated wood was buried, though the soil continues to emit significant radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177174",
"title": "Orion Nebula",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Coloration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "The green hue was a puzzle for astronomers in the early part of the 20th century because none of the known spectral lines at that time could explain it. There was some speculation that the lines were caused by a new element, and the name nebulium was coined for this mysterious material. With better understanding of atomic physics, however, it was later determined that the green spectrum was caused by a low-probability electron transition in doubly ionized oxygen, a so-called \"forbidden transition\". This radiation was all but impossible to reproduce in the laboratory at the time, because it depended on the quiescent and nearly collision-free environment found in the high vacuum of deep space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23318",
"title": "Phosphorus",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Chemiluminescence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "When first isolated, it was observed that the green glow emanating from white phosphorus would persist for a time in a stoppered jar, but then cease. Robert Boyle in the 1680s ascribed it to \"debilitation\" of the air. Actually, it is oxygen being consumed. By the 18th century, it was known that in pure oxygen, phosphorus does not glow at all; there is only a range of partial pressures at which it does. Heat can be applied to drive the reaction at higher pressures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25700641",
"title": "Green Run",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "The \"Green Run\" was a secret U.S. Government release of radioactive fission products on December 2–3, 1949, at the Hanford Site plutonium production facility, located in Eastern Washington. Radioisotopes released at that time were supposed to be detected by U.S. Air Force reconnaissance. Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests to the U.S. Government have revealed some of the details of the experiment. Sources cite of iodine-131 released, and an even greater amount of xenon-133. The radiation was distributed over populated areas, and caused the cessation of intentional radioactive releases at Hanford until 1962 when more experiments commenced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2761377",
"title": "Agent Green",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Agent Green is the code name for a powerful herbicide and defoliant used by the U.S. military in its herbicidal warfare program during the Vietnam War. The name comes from the green stripe painted on the barrels to identify the contents. Largely inspired by the British use of herbicides and defoliants during the Malayan Emergency, it was one of the so-called \"Rainbow Herbicides\". Agent Green was only used between 1962 and 1964, during the early \"testing\" stages of the spraying program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144056",
"title": "Fluorescent lamp",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Because they contain mercury, many fluorescent lamps are classified as hazardous waste. The United States Environmental Protection Agency recommends that fluorescent lamps be segregated from general waste for recycling or safe disposal, and some jurisdictions require recycling of them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "949651",
"title": "Criticality accident",
"section": "Section::::Observed effects.:Blue glow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The blue glow of a criticality accident can result from the fluorescence of the excited ions, atoms and molecules of air (mostly oxygen and nitrogen) falling back to unexcited states, which produces an abundance of blue light. This is also the reason electrical sparks in air, including lightning, appear electric blue. The smell of ozone was said to be a sign of high ambient radioactivity by Chernobyl liquidators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
308cdo | Clarification of the disputed status of the Nagorno-Karabakh region | [
{
"answer": "International norms. Since roughly WWII, it's been very rare for international organizations like the UN or NATO to recognize territorial changes adjudicated through conquest. Look at North Cyprus, or Western Sahara--they've been under the control of Turkey and Morocco, respectively, for decades but few countries formally acknowledge it. When you see a UN health statistic map, for example, you'll see that Western Sahara has \"no data\" even though Moroccan data includes data from Western Sahara and it is made to appear like the data from Cyprus covers the whole island. [Look at this map for example](_URL_0_) (you can't really see Cyprus, but trust me, it's undivided in that map).\n\nSecond, the norms of how states change borders have become fairly firm. Other than colonial possession, you see states can split up (as in the Soviet Union or Yugoslavia, most famously, but also East Timor from Indonesia, Singapore from Malaysia, Eritrea from Ethiopia, and South Sudan from Sudan), and you see them combine (as in Vietnam, Tanzania, Germany, Yemen, Sikkim going in India), but I can not think of a single case since 1946 where a significant part of one state broke off and was allowed to join another, other than a few random post-colonial cities like Ifni or Pondicherry or Hong Kong. There have been many attempts that have failed, like Iraq's attempts to annex parts of Iran and all of Kuwait, but I honestly cannot think of an example that has succeeded. You see small border adjustments here and there, but they're mainly technocratic things that affect few people--nothing like before WWII when you'd see Alsace go to France, and then the Sudetenland go to Germany, and then Germany and the USSR split Poland, etc. Kosovo is 90% ethnic Albanian, but when it broke off from Serbia, it was explicitly not allowed to join Albania. Furthermore, when 10% of Kosovo that is ethnic Serb lives next to Serbia, but they're not allowed to split off from Kosovo and join Serbia. The international community is also generally very reluctant to recognize split-off claims at all without the state they're splitting off from approving, which is why we have a laundry list of things like Transnistria, Abkhazia, Puntland, Somaliland, Tamil Eelam, North Cyprus, Palestine, Daesh, and even Kosovo itself (Serbia officially only recognizes Kosovo as having a \"special status\" within Serbia--Kosovo was a weird precedent for NATO to set, but they haven't really followed up on it). ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "65220",
"title": "Nagorno-Karabakh",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "Nagorno-Karabakh is a disputed territory, internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan, but most of the region is governed by the Republic of Artsakh (formerly named Nagorno-Karabakh Republic), a \"de facto\" independent state with Armenian ethnic majority established on the basis of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. Azerbaijan has not exercised political authority over the region since the advent of the Karabakh movement in 1988. Since the end of the Nagorno-Karabakh War in 1994, representatives of the governments of Armenia and Azerbaijan have been holding peace talks mediated by the OSCE Minsk Group on the region's disputed status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4414154",
"title": "Frozen conflict",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:In post-Soviet territories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "Nagorno-Karabakh is a disputed territory, internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan, but most of the region is governed by the Republic of Artsakh (formerly named Nagorno-Karabakh Republic), a \"de facto\" independent state with Armenian ethnic majority established on the basis of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. Azerbaijan has not exercised political authority over the region since the advent of the Karabakh movement in 1988. Since the end of the Nagorno-Karabakh War in 1994, representatives of the governments of Armenia and Azerbaijan have been holding peace talks mediated by the OSCE Minsk Group on the region's disputed status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38078889",
"title": "Political status of Nagorno-Karabakh",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "The political status of the Nagorno-Karabakh region remains unresolved. Since 1991, it has been largely controlled by the self-proclaimed Republic of Artsakh, a \"de facto\" independent entity. The region, however, is internationally recognized as an integral part of Azerbaijan, although it has not exercised power over most of the region since 1991. Since the end of the Nagorno-Karabakh War in 1994, representatives of the governments of Armenia and Azerbaijan have been holding peace talks mediated by the OSCE Minsk Group on the region's disputed status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4695860",
"title": "Nagorno-Karabakh conflict",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict is a territorial and ethnic conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh and seven surrounding districts, which are \"de facto\" controlled by the self-declared Republic of Artsakh, but are internationally recognized as \"de jure\" part of Azerbaijan. The conflict has its origins in the early 20th century. Under the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin decided to make the Nagorno-Karabakh region, historically Armenian and with a majority-Armenian population, an autonomous oblast in Soviet Azerbaijan. The present conflict began in 1988, when the Karabakh Armenians demanded that Karabakh be transferred from Soviet Azerbaijan to Soviet Armenia. The conflict escalated into a full-scale war in the early 1990s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29806125",
"title": "Madrid Principles",
"section": "Section::::Principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "According to that statement, the Basic Principles for the settlement of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict are based on the Helsinki Final Act (1975) principles of Non-Use of Force, Territorial Integrity, and the Equal Rights and Self-Determination of Peoples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "385441",
"title": "HALO Trust",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Caucasus.:Nagorno Karabakh.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Nagorno Karabakh Republic is a disputed region in the South Caucasus. Internationally recognised as part of Azerbaijan, it is populated primarily by ethnic Armenians, who declared independence in 1988. This resulted in Nagorno-Karabakh War from 1992 to 1994, which ended with a ceasefire that left Nagorno Karabakh and seven surrounding Azerbaijani provinces controlled by Armenians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15226",
"title": "Irredentism",
"section": "Section::::Other irredentism.:Western Asia.:Caucasus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "In the view of Nadia Milanova, Nagorno-Karabakh represents a combination of separatism and irredentism. However, the area has historically been Armenian, known as the Kingdom of Artsakh or Khachen. When the Caucuses came under the rule of the Soviet Union, the land was given to Azerbaijan abruptly and arbitrarily due to pressure by Joseph Stalin, along with the ancient Armenian lands of Nakhichevan, to appease Turkey during 1919-1921.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1dx9jy | Were their any non-medieval jousts, for example in Japan or Ancient Rome? | [
{
"answer": "OP, I was waiting for 3rd or 4th level comments to mention this, but since there aren't any responses... \n\nI actually saw a jousting tournament at a marina in southern France (Nice?) but rather than two knights on horseback, it was two teams of two in small boats: one standing on the prow with a sheild & jousting pole, the other rowing. Per Wiki, I find that *[joute nautique](_URL_1_)* has not only existed in Southern France for centuries, but traces back to ancient [Egypt](_URL_0_), Greece and Rome. I'll leave further searching for you.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6440544",
"title": "Water jousting",
"section": "Section::::Ancient world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "Evidence of jousting is subsequently found in Ancient Greece. The Greeks introduced the practice into Sicily where the Latins, great lovers of all kinds of spectacle, immediately adopted it. Indeed, there are countless signs of jousting in the Roman Empire, especially during naumachia (literally \"naval combat\"). The latter featured naval re-enactments and other water-sports that took place in arenas designed to be flooded for the purpose. In all likelihood, the Romans introduced these types of games throughout their empire. Evidence for this comes from the description of a fête held at Strasbourg in 303 in honour of Emperor Diocletian. Some historians argue, however, for an introduction of the games from the foundation of Massilia, a Greek colony founded in 570BC and later to become the French city of Marseille.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "493913",
"title": "Plate armour",
"section": "Section::::Renaissance.:Jousting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "The medieval joust has its origins in the military tactics of heavy cavalry during the High Middle Ages. Since the 15th century, jousting had become a sport (\"hastilude\") with less direct relevance to warfare, for example using separate specialized armour and equipment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "221562",
"title": "Jousting",
"section": "Section::::Medieval joust.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "The medieval joust has its origins in the military tactics of heavy cavalry during the High Middle Ages. By the 14th century, many members of the nobility, including kings had taken up jousting to showcase their own courage, skill and talents, and the sport proved just as dangerous for a king as a knight, and from the 15th century on, jousting became a sport (\"hastilude\") without direct relevance to warfare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "221562",
"title": "Jousting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Jousting is a martial game or \"hastilude\" between two horsemen wielding lances with blunted tips, often as part of a tournament. The primary aim was to replicate a clash of heavy cavalry, with each participant trying hard to strike the opponent while riding towards him at high speed, breaking the lance on the opponent's shield or jousting armour if possible, or unhorsing him. The joust became an iconic characteristic of the knight in Romantic medievalism. The participants experience close to three and a quarter times their body weight in G-forces when the lances collide with their armour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11380610",
"title": "Hastilude",
"section": "Section::::Types of hastiludes.:Joust.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "There were several types of joust, including some regional preferences or rules. For example, in fourteenth-century Germany, distinction was made between the \"Hohenzeuggestech\", where the aim was to break the lance, and the \"Scharfrennen\", where knights sought to unhorse their opponents. These types called for different lances (light in the former, heavy in the latter), and saddles (where the \"Scharfrennen\" called for saddles without front or rear supports, which would impede the fall).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "221562",
"title": "Jousting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Jousting is based on the military use of the lance by heavy cavalry. It transformed into a specialised sport during the Late Middle Ages, and remained popular with the nobility in England and Wales, Germany and other parts of Europe throughout the whole of the 16th century (while in France, it was discontinued after the death of King Henry II in an accident in 1559). In England, jousting was the highlight of the Accession Day tilts of Elizabeth I and of James VI and I, and also was part of the festivities at the marriage of Charles I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6440544",
"title": "Water jousting",
"section": "Section::::Ancient world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The oldest representations of water jousting have been found on bas-reliefs dating from the Ancient Egyptians (2780 – 2380BC). It would seem however, that these relate more to a form of brawling than a leisure activity; given that the jousters are wearing no form of protection and carry gaffes armed with two points at their end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1o8noi | Has anyone come across any papers on attempts to elucidate how telomerase becomes upregulated in cancerous cells? | [
{
"answer": "Try this one:\n\nWnt/β-catenin signaling regulates telomerase in stem cells and cancer cells.\nHoffmeyer K, Raggioli A, Rudloff S, Anton R, Hierholzer A, Del Valle I, Hein K, Vogt R, Kemler R.\n\nStem cells use Wnt signaling through receptors (Lgr5 for instance) which modulates ß-catenin activity. Without Wnt ß-catenin is degraded by the SCF-ßTrCP E3 ligase complex, but the moment Wnt binds to Lgr5 this degradation is inhibited, ß-catenin moves to the nucleus and triggers accumulation of TCF BCL9 and ß-catenin complexes in the nucleus. \n\nThis then leads to a whole variety of signaling events that are associated with stem cell phenotype and behaviour, including upregulated telomerase activity.\n\n[EDIT]Cancer cells, especially as the disease progresses, display a lot of so-called stemness; a phenotype that closely resembles stem cells. Wnt-signaling plays an important part in many, many cancers, either directly by aberrant upregulation of Lgr5 or by disruption of the downstream regulation mechanisms.",
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"answer": "Upregulation of genes can come in a variety of ways, from activating mutations in the gene itself or promoters, loss-of-function of inhibitory proteins or sequences, increased expression, increased protein half life, etc.\n\nFor TERT (telomerase reverse transcriptase) the main telomere extending enzyme, specifically, this \"upregulation\" has been well studied in the context of cancer. What generally happens is an increased level of gene expression:\n\n* [In this Cell Signals paper](_URL_3_) the authors found that in a variant of Mesethelioma, TERT is overexpressed in cancer cells compared to control and there are mutations in the promotor binding region that further increases expression\n\n* [Some TERT promoter region mutations can also lead to changes in the histone acetylation patterns which in turn can cause activation of transcription of the gene](_URL_1_)\n\n* These two reviews, in [Gene](_URL_2_) and [Cellular Signalling](_URL_0_), outline some of the common protein signaling pathways in which mutations or phosphorylation can cause upregulation but overexpression or loss of repression.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This paper has found that the MAPK pathway is used in estrogen-induced telomerase upregulation in human endometrial cancer. The paper was just published this year.\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12303321",
"title": "Telomerase reverse transcriptase",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Therapeutic potential.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1451,
"text": "If increased telomerase activity is associated with malignancy, then possible cancer treatments could involve inhibiting its catalytic component, hTERT, to reduce the enzyme’s activity and cause cell death. Since normal somatic cells do not express TERT, telomerase inhibition in cancer cells can cause senescence and apoptosis without affecting normal human cells. It has been found that dominant-negative mutants of hTERT could reduce telomerase activity within the cell. This led to apoptosis and cell death in cells with short telomere lengths, a promising result for cancer treatment. Although cells with long telomeres did not experience apoptosis, they developed mortal characteristics and underwent telomere shortening. Telomerase activity has also been found to be inhibited by phytochemicals such as isoprenoids, genistein, curcumin, etc. These chemicals play a role in inhibiting the mTOR pathway via down-regulation of phosphorylation. The mTOR pathway is very important in regulating protein synthesis and it interacts with telomerase to increase its expression. Several other chemicals have been found to inhibit telomerase activity and are currently being tested as potential clinical treatment options such as nucleoside analogues, retinoic acid derivatives, quinolone antibiotics, and catechin derivatives. There are also other molecular genetic-based methods of inhibiting telomerase, such as antisense therapy and RNA interference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "273854",
"title": "Telomerase",
"section": "Section::::Clinical implications.:Cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "This model of cancer in cell culture accurately describes the role of telomerase in actual human tumors. Telomerase activation has been observed in ~90% of all human tumors, suggesting that the immortality conferred by telomerase plays a key role in cancer development. Of the tumors without TERT activation, most employ a separate pathway to maintain telomere length termed Alternative Lengthening of Telomeres (ALT ). The exact mechanism behind telomere maintenance in the ALT pathway is unclear, but likely involves multiple recombination events at the telomere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "273854",
"title": "Telomerase",
"section": "Section::::Clinical implications.:Cancer.:Drugs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "The ability to maintain functional telomeres may be one mechanism that allows cancer cells to grow \"in vitro\" for decades. Telomerase activity is necessary to preserve many cancer types and is inactive in somatic cells, creating the possibility that telomerase inhibition could selectively repress cancer cell growth with minimal side effects. If a drug can inhibit telomerase in cancer cells, the telomeres of successive generations will progressively shorten, limiting tumor growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6121900",
"title": "Eternal youth",
"section": "Section::::Telomeres.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Studies have shown that 90 percent of cancer cells contain large amounts of an enzyme called telomerase. Telomerase is an enzyme that replenishes the worn away telomeres by adding bases to the ends and thus renewing the telomere. A cancer cell has in essence turned on the telomerase gene, and this allows them to have an unlimited amount of divisions without the telomeres wearing away. Other kinds of cells that can surpass the Hayflick limit are stem cells, hair follicles, and germ cells. This is because they contain raised amounts of telomerase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12303321",
"title": "Telomerase reverse transcriptase",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Role in cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1192,
"text": "Telomerase activity is associated with the number of times a cell can divide playing an important role in the immortality of cell lines, such as cancer cells. The enzyme complex acts through the addition of telomeric repeats to the ends of chromosomal DNA. This generates immortal cancer cells. In fact, there is a strong correlation between telomerase activity and malignant tumors or cancerous cell lines. Not all types of human cancer have increased telomerase activity. 90% of cancers are characterized by increased telomerase activity. Lung cancer is the most well characterized type of cancer associated with telomerase. There is a lack of substantial telomerase activity in some cell types such as primary human fibroblasts, which become senescent after about 30–50 population doublings. There is also evidence that telomerase activity is increased in tissues, such as germ cell lines, that are self-renewing. Normal somatic cells, on the other hand, do not have detectable telomerase activity. Since the catalytic component of telomerase is its reverse transcriptase, hTERT, and the RNA component hTERC, hTERT is an important gene to investigate in terms of cancer and tumorigenesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3076958",
"title": "Dyskeratosis congenita",
"section": "Section::::Predisposition to cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "Susceptibility to cancer seems counterintuitive because in many known cancers reactivation of telomerase is actually a required step for malignancy to evolve (see telomere). In a disease where telomerase is affected, it does not seem to follow that cancer would be a complication to result. The authors note the paradoxical nature of cancer predisposition in individuals who seem to lack one of the required components for cancer to form. It is thought that without functional telomerase, chromosomes will likely be attached together at their ends through the non-homologous end joining pathway. If this proves to be a common enough occurrence, malignancy even without telomerase present is possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167544",
"title": "Transcription (biology)",
"section": "Section::::Reverse transcription.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Telomerase is often activated in cancer cells to enable cancer cells to duplicate their genomes indefinitely without losing important protein-coding DNA sequence. Activation of telomerase could be part of the process that allows cancer cells to become \"immortal\". The immortalizing factor of cancer via telomere lengthening due to telomerase has been proven to occur in 90% of all carcinogenic tumors \"in vivo\" with the remaining 10% using an alternative telomere maintenance route called ALT or Alternative Lengthening of Telomeres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1nluhl | why do certain franchising companies limit intentionally limit their geographic distribution? (i.e. why is there no steak n shake or in n out in the northeast?) | [
{
"answer": "Part of bring a.franchise is maintaining uniformity of goods. You can't have an In N Out unless you get their meat, bread, etc. The parent company doesn't want to deal with shipping food across the country or setting up regional distribution.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In and out doesn't use frozen beef. Because they deal with only fresh beef, their locations have to be within a reasonable distance from the meat processing plant.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21299762",
"title": "The Cartel (record distributor)",
"section": "Section::::Indie labels and distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Regional distributors appeared, offering pressing and distribution deals to the small labels that would reach all of the shops in a region. Shops preferred to deal with only a handful of distributors and so the small distributors agreed to also distribute each other's stock, segregating the market by the geography of the shops, rather than by the content or particular labels. This was the beginning of the idea behind the Cartel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16892577",
"title": "Burger King franchises",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "When McLamore and Edgarton's Burger King Corporation began a full franchising system in 1961, it relied on a regional franchising model where franchisees would purchase the right to open stores within a defined geographic region. These franchise agreements granted the company very little oversight control over its franchisees and resulted in issues of product quality control, store image and design and operations procedures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15760517",
"title": "Sociology of food",
"section": "Section::::Food Distribution.:Impact from scale effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 941,
"text": "Scale effects resulting from centralized acquisition purchase centres in the food supply chain favor large players such as big retailers or distributors in the food distribution market. This is due to the fact that they can utilize their strong market power and financial advantage over smaller players. Having both strong market power and greater access to the financial credit market meant that they can impose barriers to entry and cement their position in the food distribution market. This would result in a food distribution chain that is characterized by large players on one end and small players choosing niche markets to operate in on the other end. The existence of smaller players in specialized food distribution markets could be attributed to their shrinking market share and their inability to compete with the larger players due to the scale effects. Through this mechanism, globalization has displaced smaller role players.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "307229",
"title": "Regional lockout",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "A regional lockout may be enforced for several reasons, such as to stagger the release of a certain product, to avoid losing sales to the product's foreign publisher, to maximize the product's impact in a certain region through localization, to hinder grey market imports by enforcing price discrimination, or to prevent users from accessing certain content in their territory because of legal reasons (either due to censorship laws, or because a distributor does not have the rights to certain intellectual property outside their specified region).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15760517",
"title": "Sociology of food",
"section": "Section::::Food Distribution.:Impact from scale effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Another mechanism troubling the specialized food distribution markets is the ability of distribution chains to possess their own brand. Stores with their own brand are able to combat price wars between competitors by lowering the price of their own brand, thus making consumers more likely to purchase goods from them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34526863",
"title": "Showrooming",
"section": "Section::::Efforts to combat showrooming by retailers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Many retailers have tried to compete with showroomers by slashing their own prices. Independent businesses, however, are advised to counter showrooming by adding value via included services and other tactics, such as making information and reviews more readily available to customers so that they might not choose to seek it out online.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186493",
"title": "Supply chain",
"section": "Section::::Role of the Internet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "On the Internet, customers can directly contact the distributors. This has reduced the length of the chain to some extent by cutting down on middlemen. Some of the benefits are cost reduction and greater collaboration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
110wx9 | What were the economic causes of the Hundred Years War. And are there any parallels today? | [
{
"answer": "Man I really wish I could give you a clear and direct answer but it has been a while since I spent any time on the 100 Years' War. \n\nI'll try to sketch out some of the basic economic aspects of the war but a real late Medieval or Early Modern person can probably go further and do better.\n\nFirst off, 1415 is not the beginning of the 100 Years War but rather the beginning of its last phase, marking the resumption of hostilities after a peace which had lasted since 1389. 1415 is the year that Henry V invades Northern France and things get rolling again.\n\nSome economic aspects:\n\n* The Wool Trade. England's economy was heavily dependent upon the wool trade which was intimately connected with Flanders (Belgium, the Netherlands and Northern France). Control or easy access to this area was essential to both the merchants in England and the Crown which taxed those merchants.\n\n* Chevauchée. Much of the 100 Years War was in reality a series of ongoing raids by the English, rather than attempts to conquer and hold land. These raids allowed for the taking of booty, the sacking of town and were generally about making a profit and earning praise. The fact that these had ceased when peace fell was extremely unpopular among the aristocratic classes (both high and lower) who had a lot to gain from these military ventures. Moreover even the 'yeoman' class, the typical class of everyday soldiers, could stand to make a living off these events. \n\n* Ransom. While war could certainly be bloody the 100 Years' War is more known for the number of nobles (including a French king) who were captured than who were killed. Capturing a noble was a great way to make bank. I recall reading a court case where a French night found himself captured three times in one day and the various claimants of his ransom were disputing in court. Warfare could be a great way to bring in money to the English economy in this way as well.\n\n* Banking. While warfare could generate income for nobles it was, in fact, incredibly expensive for the Crown overall. Edward III pawned the crown jewels to Italian bankers, for instance, in order to raise cash to campaign in Northern France. Credit certainly became scarce and there was always a fear that the crown would default on its loans or worse that race-riots would target Italian bankers (as happened under Richard II). \n\nSo those are some of the economic elements. I would imagine that the issue of credit and banking is what the lecture was talking about but again a real expert would probably be able to answer you.\n\nSome other places to look would be:\n\nJonathan Sumption's *The Hundred Years' War* is huge (3 BIG volumes so far) but it also narrative and a good read. The caveat, it is not complete yet, which means it doesn't actually get up to 1415! \n\nC. T. Allmand's book *The Hundred Years War* (noticing a trend?) is much smaller and easier to read but not nearly as exhaustive.\n\nFor a great primary source check out Jean Froissart. It is in translation in penguin, cheap.\n\nGood luck!",
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},
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"answer": "The causes of the 100 years war were political rather than economic.\n\nIt was the appreciation by the French Kings of the reality that France was not a big enough country for two Kings and so the English one had to go.\n\nAn appreciation as accurate as it was trenchant.\n\nThe 100 Years War should be seen as a continuum of the policies of Philip Augustus that ejected the English from Normandy and Anjou at the beginning of the 13th century.\n\nBy the early 15th century the war was already some 60 years old and by that time the economics were very much to the fore, with the English wool trade to Flanders and the Bordeaux wine trade to England central to everyone's considerations.\n\nThe best source for this is of course Sumption's masterful history. This guy is not only an excellent historian but also an English supreme court judge and he brings his lawyer's intimacy with the frailties and fundamentals of humankind to his work. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16509",
"title": "Joan of Arc",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "The Hundred Years' War had begun in 1337 as an inheritance dispute over the French throne, interspersed with occasional periods of relative peace. Nearly all the fighting had taken place in France, and the English army's use of \"chevauchée\" tactics (destructive \"scorched earth\" raids) had devastated the economy. The French population had not regained its former size since the Black Death of the mid-14th century, and its merchants were isolated from foreign markets. Before the appearance of Joan of Arc, the English had nearly achieved their goal of a dual monarchy under English control and the French army had not achieved any major victories for a generation. In the words of DeVries, \"The kingdom of France was not even a shadow of its thirteenth-century prototype.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3525088",
"title": "Crisis of the Late Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Demography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Meanwhile, many of the largest countries, most notably England and Scotland, had been at war, using up much of their treasury and exacerbating inflation. In 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death, England and France went to war in what became known as the Hundred Years' War. This situation was worsened when landowners and monarchs such as Edward III of England (r. 1327–1377) and Philip VI of France (r. 1328–1350), raised the fines and rents of their tenants out of a fear that their comparatively high standard of living would decline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34567",
"title": "15th century",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The Hundred Years' War end with a decisive French victory over the English in the Battle of Castillon. Financial troubles in England following the conflict results in the Wars of the Roses, a series of dynastic wars for the throne of England. The conflicts end with the defeat of Richard III by Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth Field, establishing the Tudor dynasty in the later part of the century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30275656",
"title": "Wars of the Roses",
"section": "Section::::Armies and warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 180,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 180,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Following defeat in the Hundred Years' War, English landowners complained vociferously about the financial losses resulting from the loss of their continental holdings; this is often considered a contributory cause of the Wars of the Roses. The wars were fought largely by the landed aristocracy and armies of feudal retainers, with some mercenaries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29227373",
"title": "Economics of English towns and trade in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Late medieval economic recovery (1350–1509).:Governance and taxation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "The 1370s also saw the government facing difficulties in funding the war with France. The impact of the Hundred Years War on the English economy as a whole remains uncertain; one suggestion is that the high taxation required to pay for the conflict \"shrunk and depleted\" the English economy, whilst others have argued for the war having a more modest or even neutral economic impact. The English government clearly found it difficult to pay for its army and from 1377 turned to a new system of poll taxes, aiming to spread the costs of taxation across the entire of English society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30231271",
"title": "Périgord noir",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "During the Hundred Years War (1337 till 1453) the Périgord noir witnessed many battles between the English and French kings and the region was devastated several times. A good example is the Château de Carlux which was under attack several times and finally got burnt down by the English in 1406. The population was diminished severely during the war and despite attempts in the 15th and 16th century to revitalize the economy again the region never fully recovered and kept suffering from the sequels of the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28714419",
"title": "Economy of England in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Late medieval economic recovery (1350–1509).:Governance and taxation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "The 1370s also saw the government facing difficulties in funding the war with France. The impact of the Hundred Years War on the English economy as a whole remains uncertain; one suggestion is that the high taxation required to pay for the conflict \"shrunk and depleted\" the English economy, whilst others have argued for a more modest or even neutral economic impact for the war. The English government clearly found it difficult to pay for its army and from 1377 turned to a new system of poll taxes, aiming to spread the costs of taxation across the entirety of English society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
malzz | the problem with hipsters | [
{
"answer": "Hipsters invented hipster hate as a way to make themselves appear more underground and oppressed. It is my belief that the majority of hipster hate posts are originated by hipsters....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hipsters invented hipster hate as a way to make themselves appear more underground and oppressed. It is my belief that the majority of hipster hate posts are originated by hipsters....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8612424",
"title": "Hipster (contemporary subculture)",
"section": "Section::::Critical analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Greif's efforts puts the term \"hipster\" into a socioeconomic framework rooted in the petit bourgeois tendencies of a youth generation unsure of their future social status. The cultural trend is indicative of a social structure with heightened economic anxiety and lessened class mobility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8612424",
"title": "Hipster (contemporary subculture)",
"section": "Section::::Critical analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "Mark Greif, a founder of \"n+1\" and an Assistant Professor at The New School, in a \"New York Times\" editorial, states that \"hipster\" is often used by youth from disparate economic backgrounds to jockey for social position. He questions the contradictory nature of the label, and the way that no one thinks of themselves as a hipster: \"Paradoxically, those who used the insult were themselves often said to resemble hipsters—they wore the skinny jeans and big eyeglasses, gathered in tiny enclaves in big cities, and looked down on mainstream fashions and 'tourists'\". He believes the much-cited difficulty in analyzing the term stems from the fact that any attempt to do so provokes universal anxiety, since it \"calls everyone's bluff\". Like Arsel and Thompson, he draws from \"La Distinction\" by Pierre Bourdieu to conclude:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8612424",
"title": "Hipster (contemporary subculture)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "The term \"hipster\" in its current usage first appeared in the 1990s and became particularly prominent in the late 2000s and early 2010s, being derived from the earlier hipster movements of the 1940s. Members of the subculture typically do not self-identify as hipsters, and the word \"hipster\" is often used as a pejorative for someone who is pretentious or overly trendy; or as a stereotypical term that has been reclaimed and redefined by some as a term of pride and group identity. Some scholars contend that the contemporary hipster is a \"marketplace myth\" that has a complex, two-way relationship with the worldview and value system of indie-oriented consumers. The hipster subculture is considered part of Generation Y.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8612424",
"title": "Hipster (contemporary subculture)",
"section": "Section::::Critical analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Elise Thompson, an editor for the LA blog \"LAist\" argues that \"people who came of age in the 70s and 80s punk rock movement seem to universally hate 'hipsters'\", which she defines as people wearing \"expensive 'alternative' fashion[s]\", going to the \"latest, coolest, hippest bar...[and] listen[ing] to the latest, coolest, hippest band\". Thompson argues that hipsters \"don't seem to subscribe to any particular philosophy ... [or] ... particular genre of music\". Instead, she argues that they are \"soldiers of fortune of style\" who take up whatever is popular and in style, \"appropriat[ing] the style[s]\" of past countercultural movements such as punk, while \"discard[ing] everything that the style stood for\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2182776",
"title": "Thrift store chic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "Entering the 2000s, this look because associated with musical scenes including indie rock and emo gradually spreading to the hipster movement. The hipster movement is popular among people in their 20s and 30s whose style attempts to reject mainstream trends. The hipster movement embraced thrift store chic because of its love for vintage items, especially clothing. Items that became popular for indie girls included flowery cotton dresses, cardigans, keffiyehs, and eyeglasses chosen deliberately for their unfashionable connotations. Hipster-thrift-store-chic embraces nostalgia and irony by combining old trucker-caps and vintage bowling t-shirts with worn luxury goods like leather jackets, old military dress uniforms as a protest against the war in Iraq, or used business wear, such as tweed cloth sportcoats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11089411",
"title": "Etymology of hippie",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "In Greenwich Village, New York City by the end of the 1950s, young counterculture advocates were widely called \"hips\" because they were considered \"in the know\" or \"cool\", as opposed to being \"square\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47646",
"title": "Hippie",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 894,
"text": "In Greenwich Village in the early 1960s, New York City, young counterculture advocates were named \"hips\" because they were considered \"in the know\" or \"cool\", as opposed to being \"square\", meaning conventional and old-fashioned. In the April 27, 1961 issue of The Village Voice, \"An open letter to JFK & Fidel Castro\", Norman Mailer utilizes the term hippies, in questioning JFK's behavior. In a 1961 essay, Kenneth Rexroth used both the terms \"hipster\" and \"hippies\" to refer to young people participating in black American or Beatnik nightlife. According to Malcolm X's 1964 autobiography, the word \"hippie\" in 1940s Harlem had been used to describe a specific type of white man who \"acted more Negro than Negroes\". Andrew Loog Oldham refers to \"all the Chicago hippies,\" seemingly in reference to black blues/R&B musicians, in his rear sleeve notes to the 1965 LP \"The Rolling Stones, Now!\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3so6cx | when we call or write our representatives in congress, what incentive do they have to listen to us instead of just doing what they wanted to do in the first place? | [
{
"answer": "Because you voted them in and will choose whether or not they get re-elected in the next election. If your representative doesn't represent you very well, you're much less likely to vote for them next time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In theory, they will not get reelected (or may even get impeached and removed from office) if they don't listen to the voters. In reality, the voters mostly don't pay attention and end up just electing the same people who really only listen to their donors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There may be an issue which either they believe lots of people support when they don't, or they think it has low salience (people won't care). Lots of people contacting them to say 'I disagree with you, and I care about it' places their re-election in doubt, and encourages them to vote in a manner their constituents find pleasing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18562765",
"title": "Neri vs. Senate",
"section": "Section::::Right of Congress to information and the right to public information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Even if Congress is composed of representatives elected by the people, it does not follow, except in a highly qualified sense, that in every exercise of its power of inquiry, the people are exercising their right to information. The members of respondent Committees should not invoke as justification in their exercise of power a right properly belonging to the people in general. This is because when they discharge their power, they do so as public officials and members of Congress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26715093",
"title": "Director of Floor Operations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Another responsibility of the role is persuading Members of Congress from their party to vote along with their party's Leadership, even when it is unpopular. They may also be charged with coordinating outreach to allied groups of lobbyists, corporations, or unions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28881123",
"title": "U.S. Congress and citizens",
"section": "Section::::Congresspersons and constituents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1794,
"text": "A major aspect of the role for a Senator and a representative consists of services to his or her constituency. Members receive thousands of letters, phone calls, and e-mails, with some expressing opinion on an issue, or displeasure with a member's position or vote. Often the incoming messages are not from concerned citizens but are barrages of electronic mail and interactive video designed to pressure the congressperson and his or her staff. Constituents request assistance with particular problems or ask questions. Members of Congress want to leave a positive impression on the constituent, rather than leave them disgruntled. Thus, their offices will often be responsive, and go out of their way to help steer the citizen through the intricacies of the bureaucracy. In this role, members and their staffers act as an ombudsman at the Federal level. This unofficial job has become increasingly time-consuming, and has significantly reduced the time that members have for the preparation or inspection of bills. Providing services helps congresspersons win elections and there are reports that some congresspersons compete actively to try to convince voters that they deliver the best services. It can make a difference in close races. For example, Erika Hodell-Cotti talked about how her congressperson, Frank Wolf, sent her letters when her children got awards; the congressperson helped her brothers win admission to the West Point Military Academy. Much of what citizens want is merely help with navigating government bureaucracies. Oftentimes citizens contact member offices that do not represent them. Because resources for helping non-constituents are limited, an additional component of constituent service becomes directing citizens to their assigned representative in Congress. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28881123",
"title": "U.S. Congress and citizens",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "All congressional officials try to serve two distinct purposes which sometimes overlap––representing their constituents (local concerns) and making laws for the nation (national concerns). There has been debate throughout American history about how to straddle these dual obligations of representing the wishes of citizens while at the same time trying to keep mindful of the needs of the entire nation. Often, compromise is required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6308914",
"title": "Lobbying in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Lobbying as a business.:Lobbying methods and techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Lobbyists routinely monitor how congressional officials vote, sometimes checking the past voting records of congresspersons. One report suggested that reforms requiring \"publicly recorded committee votes\" led to more information about how congresspersons voted, but instead of becoming a valuable resource for the news media or voters, the information helped lobbyists monitor congressional voting patterns. As a general rule, lawmakers must vote as a particular interest group wishes them to vote, or risk losing support.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1443452",
"title": "Quorum call",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "What happens after debate stops depends on the legislature in question. In the United States Congress, bells are rung in the various congressional office buildings to indicate to members that their presence is required in their respective chambers. Members of the House use the same electronic system as is used for voting to register their presence; in the Senate, one of the clerks will read out a roll call of senators, who indicate their presence when called. In fact, if any Senator \"suggests the absence of a quorum,\" the Presiding Officer must direct the roll to be called. For practical purposes, a quorum call is a delaying measure that permits the Senate leadership to work out some difficulty or to await a Senator's arrival.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7934272",
"title": "Powell v. McCormack",
"section": "Section::::Decision.:Warren's majority opinion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1058,
"text": "The people, by their Constitution, affirmatively posited, defined, and delimited all qualifications for standing in elections for membership in the Congress. The states, under the 9th and 10th amendments explicitly retain unto themselves the power to make the laws for the government and regulation of elections for federal offices that are apportioned to them (the states) by the US Constitution. Therefore, the people and the states together have the sole authority for the creation, production, and generation of candidate members of the US Congress through the operation of the laws of the several states and the articles and clauses of the US Constitution. Thus, the Congress itself is become a creation of and subordinate to this process. Congress's processes and procedures for the management, administration, and discipline of members (once they have taken the oath, been sworn, and entered upon the rolls) are constitutionally subordinate to the sovereignty of the people and the states respectively over the creation of the membership of Congress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
26ngkg | What exactly is asthma? Like what is it, how does it form, and how severe can it get | [
{
"answer": "Asthma is, essentially, a chronic inflammatory disease. After, being exposed to an allergen, your body sensitizes itself to that pathogen, so that in the future it garners a large immune response. In the early phase, you have cells that release a substance called histamine, this causes bronchoconstriction (basically your airways getting smaller) and make it difficult for you to breathe all of your air out. So you get hyper inflated lungs and people tend to hyperventilate. After this there is usually a later phase called an inflammatory phase that involves swelling of the airways. So you get airways that are smaller, and are more prone to collapse.\n\nAsthma ranges from mildly severe to being extremely severe. Luckily we have pretty good medications that help prevent attacks, and quickly treat them when they do occur.",
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"answer": "Asthma is a chronic disease of airway over-reactivity and inflammation which causes *reversible airway obstruction*. Asthma is characterised by airway constriction, airway oedema, and mucus plugging affecting the small sized airways. Clinically it appears as episodes of shortness of breath and wheeze (due to obstruction of gas flow in the smaller airways) that occurs episodically and is reversible with drugs such as salbutamol (albuterol). Airway obstruction is demonstrated by spirometry on a maximal forced expiration, or more simply by using a peak flow meter (and showing improvement following albuterol/salbutamol).\n\nEpisodes can occur due to exposure to an antigen like pollen, cat hair, dust mites, smoke, or it can occur due to exercise, or a change in weather, or due to a viral illness, or it can occur without any apparent trigger. Episodes can be mild moderate or severe and life threatening. Episodes can occur rarely, infrequently, daily.\n\nSomeone with mild asthma may get a bit of wheeze on exercise that is relieved by their inhaler. Someone with severe asthma may get frequent severe attacks requiring hospital admission and corticosteroid treatment. Severe attacks can become life threatening as the person tired from the excess work of breathing. These life-threatening attacks can require tracheal intubation, mechanical ventilation, and sedation (\"coma\"). People die from asthma, but less commonly nowadays due to improved awareness and treatments to prevent exacerbations (basically with inhaled steroids). (At least in my affluent country.)\n\nIt doesn't really occur in infants and children < 2 or 3 years. Infants tend to get bronchiolitis from viral infections. Infants and small children can get wheezy, but it is hard to diagnose it as asthma when they are very young because it is hard to demonstrate reversibility of airway obstruction in a small child (because they aren't good at blowing a peak flow meter).",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "GLAD YOU ASKED....I did my graduate work on asthma and COPD.\n\nAsthma is a reversible hyperresponsiveness of the airways to stimuli. That's it. Your airways are bounded by little rings of smooth muscle, and these rings of smooth muscle contract and relax in order to change the velocity and volume of air that can go through your lungs. \n\nIn healthy people, these will contract in response to things. For example : Get a little dust in there, and the airways contract to increase the velocity of airflow in an attempt to dislodge the dust. \n\nIn an asthmatic, however, this response is exaggerated. The airways constrict more dramatically, and/or take longer to relax. Sometimes, the airway can completely close off. \n\nThe \"reversible\" bit means that your airways may twitch closed, but they can be reopened.\n\nThis overreaction can be caused by many things. The nerves that are connected to that muscle ring may be twitchy, the muscle itself may be hypertrophied (bro, do you even lift?), the inside of the airway tube may be thicker than it should be, the tube itself may be more \"floppy\" than it should be, the structures supporting the airway may be weak or not present...or a host of other things or combinations of things.\n\nAfter your airways violently twitch closed a few times, there is damage. This damage can generate an inflammatory response, and this inflammatory response can lead to *remodeling* events...that is, your lung changes its structure in response to what's going on. This can include thickening of the airway walls, hypertrophy of the smooth muscles, breakdown of the internal and external support structure of the airways, and increased inflammatory cells....see where this is headed?\n\nAsthma is a cycle....it causes (and can amplify) its own causes...this is from the molecular level on up.\n\nWe do not know what ultimately causes it. \n\nIt can range from subclinical (that is, you may not even know you have it) to deadly (as in you literally die from it).\n\n* EDIT : Asthma is NOT allergy. There is allergic asthma, but asthma is most certainly NOT allergy. In the case of allergic asthma, the thing that you \"hyprerespond\" to is an allergen...but it's not the allergy that is the asthma. The asthma is the underlying hyperresponsiveness to stimuli. The allergen just so happens to be the stimulus.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44905",
"title": "Asthma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Asthma is a common long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs. It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and easily triggered bronchospasms. Symptoms include episodes of wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath. These may occur a few times a day or a few times per week. Depending on the person, they may become worse at night or with exercise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13937378",
"title": "Obstructive lung disease",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Asthma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Asthma is an obstructive lung disease where the bronchial tubes (airways) are extra sensitive (hyperresponsive). The airways become inflamed and produce excess mucus and the muscles around the airways tighten making the airways narrower. Asthma is usually triggered by breathing in things in the air such as dust or pollen that produce an allergic reaction. It may be triggered by other things such as an upper respiratory tract infection, cold air, exercise or smoke. Asthma is a common condition and affects over 300 million people around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44905",
"title": "Asthma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Asthma is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Environmental factors include exposure to air pollution and allergens. Other potential triggers include medications such as aspirin and beta blockers. Diagnosis is usually based on the pattern of symptoms, response to therapy over time, and spirometry. Asthma is classified according to the frequency of symptoms, forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), and peak expiratory flow rate. It may also be classified as atopic or non-atopic, where atopy refers to a predisposition toward developing a type 1 hypersensitivity reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44905",
"title": "Asthma",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "While asthma is a well-recognized condition, there is not one universal agreed upon definition. It is defined by the Global Initiative for Asthma as \"a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways in which many cells and cellular elements play a role. The chronic inflammation is associated with airway hyper-responsiveness that leads to recurrent episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness and coughing particularly at night or in the early morning. These episodes are usually associated with widespread but variable airflow obstruction within the lung that is often reversible either spontaneously or with treatment\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12442888",
"title": "Occupational asthma",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Like other types of asthma, it is characterized by airway inflammation, reversible airways obstruction, and bronchospasm, but it is caused by something in the workplace environment. Symptoms include shortness of breath, tightness of the chest, coughing, sputum production and wheezing. Some patients may also develop upper airway symptoms such as itchy eyes, tearing, sneezing, nasal congestion and rhinorrhea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3154534",
"title": "Acute severe asthma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Acute severe asthma is an acute exacerbation of asthma that does not respond to standard treatments of bronchodilators (inhalers) and corticosteroids. Symptoms include chest tightness, rapidly progressive dyspnea (shortness of breath), dry cough, use of accessory respiratory muscles, fast and/or labored breathing, and extreme wheezing. It is a life-threatening episode of airway obstruction and is considered a medical emergency. Complications include cardiac and/or respiratory arrest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44905",
"title": "Asthma",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Asthma is characterized by recurrent episodes of wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing. Sputum may be produced from the lung by coughing but is often hard to bring up. During recovery from an attack, it may appear pus-like due to high levels of white blood cells called eosinophils. Symptoms are usually worse at night and in the early morning or in response to exercise or cold air. Some people with asthma rarely experience symptoms, usually in response to triggers, whereas others may have marked reactivity and persistent symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
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| null |
1cg7es | I just read that major works by Cicero, Aristotle, etc. are missing. How often do these things get found? Any hope of excavating a library? ... | [
{
"answer": "Absolutely there is - hope of excavating a library, that is - and new works continue to be discovered, not on a timetable, but regularly. The Greeks and Romans generally used papyrus scrolls to record works of literature, and, in most places where the Greeks and Romans lived, papyrus and linen don't preserve well - but there are some major exceptions. One is in Egypt, where the dry desert preserves practically everything; tens of thousands of documents and literary works have been dug out of [a rubbish heap at Oxyrhynchus](_URL_7_) - and there's no reason to think that Oxyrhynchus is in any way unique - and Egyptians tended to reuse scrolls, including literary works, to wrap mummies, which preserves the text quite well indeed. The most important recent discoveries I know of came from mummy cartonnage: a [fourth poem by Sappho](_URL_5_), published in 2005, and a large fraction of a [book of poetry by Posidippus](_URL_6_), published in 2001.\n\n(Edit: I just saw an article in /r/archaeology discussing [a new discovery of 4500-year-old papyrus texts in Egypt](_URL_2_), including a *diary* from one of the builders of the Great Pyramid. This may not be as exciting as finding Euripides' lost *Telephus* would be, but it's still really neat - and suggests what other sorts of things are still out there beneath the sands.)\n\nAnother exception is Pompeii and Herculaneum, where [we did excavate a library!](_URL_3_) The papyrus scrolls - burnt and charred - survived under the volcanic ash; it was once thought impossible to unroll and read scrolls like that, but science finds a way. Since many wealthy Romans had private libraries, further excavations in those cities - if Italy can find the funding, [which is doubtful](_URL_1_) - are very likely to dig up more collections of this sort.\n\nA third way new texts can be discovered is by using modern technology to read *erased* texts from existing parchments that were cleaned off and reused for other purposes. An example of this is the [Archimedes Palimpsest](_URL_0_), a medieval prayer book which reused pages from (lost, and now rediscovered) treatises from Archimedes, speeches from Athenian orators, etc. \n\nSo yeah, tl;dr: new texts are appearing all the time, and the development of new *technologies* for reading burned and erased texts means that we're entering into a new age of textual discovery. [Science!](_URL_4_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "there is also _URL_1_\nthat was a big coup for the development of epicurean philosophy\n\n_URL_0_\n\nanyone know of a place online that reports new findings? i find it very interesting but whenever i hear of something to that effect it is just by random luck.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10197451",
"title": "The Alexandria Link",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "The Library of Alexandria was the most important collection of ancient knowledge ever assembled. The building stood for six hundred years and contained more than half a million manuscripts. Then suddenly it vanished. No trace of this literary treasure has ever been unearthed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4134966",
"title": "List of libraries in the ancient world",
"section": "Section::::Greece.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Library of Aristotle (Athens) (384–321 B.C.)The Library of Aristotle was a private library and the earliest one reported on by ancient chroniclers. It is not known what books nor the number of books that were included in the library. Accounts in antiquity state that the library formed part of the later Library of Alexandria in Egypt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25617723",
"title": "Lyceum (Classical)",
"section": "Section::::Aristotle's school and library.:History of Aristotle's library.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "The library then disappeared for several centuries until it appears to have been bought from Neleus's heirs in the 1st century BCE and returned to the school. However, when Sulla attacked Athens, the books were shipped to Rome. Throughout their travels one fifth of Aristotle's works were lost and thus are not a part of the modern Aristotelian collection. Still, what did remain of Aristotle's works and the rest of the library were arranged and edited for school use between 73 and , supposedly by Andronicus of Rhodes, the Lyceum's eleventh leader. Since then, the remaining works have been translated and widely distributed, providing much of the modern knowledge of ancient Western philosophy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1692795",
"title": "Physics (Aristotle)",
"section": "Section::::The authorship paradox.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1208,
"text": "According to Diogenes Laertius, The library of the Lyceum at its peak under Aristotle comprised many types of books: works authored by the elders under their names, works authored by elders and young men, signatures uncertain, copies of works written by other authors on research topics, and research results of unspecified form. This same library continues under Theophrastus, acquiring more works of the same type, except that Aristotle is no longer a contributor. On the death of Theophrastus, we are led to believe, the library disappears for 200 years, having been safely abscended by Neleus. Just as suddenly it reappears, having been rescued, cared for by three editors and a powerful aristocrat, to be published in a new recension by Andronicus, and to descend to us this very day as Bekker pages. The paradox is that the recension that descends bears little resemblance to the library at Athens. It contains only books specifically authored by Aristotle with the inclusions of works later shown to be spurious. There are no works of Theophrastus or anyone else and no explanation of what happened to all the other books. The library that was rescued cannot possibly be the one that needed rescuing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32686306",
"title": "Leuven Database of Ancient Books",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The Leuven Database of Ancient Books (LDAB) is a resource for all ancient written literary manuscripts, from 500 BC to AD 800. It currently lists more than 16.000 Greek, Latin, Coptic, Syriac and Demotic literary texts. It \"attempts to collect the basic information on all ancient literary texts\". It includes authors from Homer to Gregory the Great and more than 3.600 texts of unidentified authors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17726",
"title": "Library of Alexandria",
"section": "Section::::Under Ptolemaic patronage.:Founding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "The Library was one of the largest and most significant libraries of the ancient world, but details about it are a mixture of history and legend. The earliest known surviving source of information on the founding of the Library of Alexandria is the pseudepigraphic \"Letter of Aristeas\", which was composed between 180 and 145 BC. The \"Letter of Aristeas\" claims that the Library was founded during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter ( 323– 283 BC) and that it was initially organized by Demetrius of Phalerum, a student of Aristotle who had been exiled from Athens and taken refuge in Alexandria within the Ptolemaic court. Nonetheless, the \"Letter of Aristeas\" is very late and it contains information that is now known to be inaccurate. Other sources claim that the Library was instead created under the reign of Ptolemy I's son Ptolemy II Philadelphus (283–246 BC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58819200",
"title": "Archivio Biblioteca Museo Civico",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The library stores valuable books and archeological finds, such as \"cofanetto limosino\", the tonograph and both ancient and modern art paintings. It also stores some bone fragments believed to have been from Dante Alighieri's hand. Indro Montanelli also mentioned it in his book \"Dante Alighieri\" (booklet number 4 of series “I Protagonisti”, published and sold in 1993 together with Italian newspaper \"Il Giornale\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
tfzik | What happens if an electron met the nucleus of an atom? | [
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nIt has nothing to do with temperature. Electrons are already in the lowest energy state they can occupy relative to the nucleus.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "516756",
"title": "Internal conversion",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "In the quantum mechanical model of the electron, there is a non-zero probability of finding the electron within the nucleus. During the internal conversion process, the wavefunction of an inner shell electron (usually an \"s\" electron) is said to penetrate the volume of the atomic nucleus. When this happens, the electron may couple to an excited energy state of the nucleus and take the energy of the nuclear transition directly, without an intermediate gamma ray being first produced. The kinetic energy of the emitted electron is equal to the transition energy in the nucleus, minus the binding energy of the electron to the atom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2817855",
"title": "Larmor formula",
"section": "Section::::Issues and implications.:Atomic physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "A classical electron orbiting a nucleus experiences acceleration and should radiate. Consequently, the electron loses energy and the electron should eventually spiral into the nucleus. Atoms, according to classical mechanics, are consequently unstable. This classical prediction is violated by the observation of stable electron orbits. The problem is resolved with a quantum mechanical description of atomic physics, initially provided by the Bohr model. Classical solutions to the stability of electron orbitals can be demonstrated using Non-radiation conditions and in accordance with known physical laws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3043836",
"title": "Nuclear binding energy",
"section": "Section::::Binding energy for atoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "This is also evident from phenomena like electron capture. Theoretically, in orbital models of heavy atoms, the electron orbits partially inside the nucleus (it does not \"orbit\" in a strict sense, but has a non-vanishing probability of being located inside the nucleus).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2796131",
"title": "Introduction to quantum mechanics",
"section": "Section::::The quantization of matter: the Bohr model of the atom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "By the dawn of the 20th century, evidence required a model of the atom with a diffuse cloud of negatively charged [[electron]]s surrounding a small, dense, positively charged [[Atomic nucleus|nucleus]]. These properties suggested a model in which electrons circle around the nucleus like planets orbiting a sun. However, it was also known that the atom in this model would be unstable: according to classical theory, orbiting electrons are undergoing centripetal acceleration, and should therefore give off electromagnetic radiation, the loss of energy also causing them to spiral toward the nucleus, colliding with it in a fraction of a second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2796131",
"title": "Introduction to quantum mechanics",
"section": "Section::::The quantization of matter: the Bohr model of the atom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "In 1913 [[Niels Bohr]] proposed [[Bohr model|a new model of the atom]] that included quantized electron orbits: electrons still orbit the nucleus much as planets orbit around the sun, but they are permitted to inhabit only certain orbits, not to orbit at any distance. When an atom emitted (or absorbed) energy, the electron did not move in a continuous trajectory from one orbit around the nucleus to another, as might be expected classically. Instead, the electron would jump instantaneously from one orbit to another, giving off the emitted light in the form of a photon. The possible energies of photons given off by each element were determined by the differences in energy between the orbits, and so the emission spectrum for each element would contain a number of lines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59613",
"title": "Ionization energy",
"section": "Section::::Electrostatic explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Consider an electron of charge \"-e\" and an atomic nucleus with charge \"+Ze\", where \"Z\" is the number of protons in the nucleus. According to the Bohr model, if the electron were to approach and bond with the atom, it would come to rest at a certain radius \"a\". The electrostatic potential \"V\" at distance \"a\" from the ionic nucleus, referenced to a point infinitely far away, is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36139328",
"title": "Electron precipitation",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "Often, as an electron precipitates, it is directed into the upper atmosphere where it may collide with neutral particles, thus depleting the electron's energy. If an electron makes it through the upper atmosphere, it will continue into the ionosphere. Groups of precipitated electrons can change the shape and conductivity of the ionosphere by colliding with atoms or molecules (usually oxygen or nitrogen based particles) in the region. When colliding with an atom, the electron strips the atom of its other electrons creating an ion. Collisions with the air molecules also release photons which provide a dim \"aurora\" effect. Because this occurs at such a high altitude, humans in aircraft are not affected by the radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
832yja | What was the medical process like when an organ displayed symptoms (e,g gall or kidney stones, liver disease, stomach ulcers) back in the Medieval times? | [
{
"answer": "One of our most interesting sources for medieval medicine is *Bald's Leechbook*, an Anglo-Saxon medical textbook of sorts, likely dating from the late ninth century and potentially a result of Alfred the Great's literary and educational reforms. The book itself is the only surviving copy, and was written by a scribe called Cild on Bald's behalf.\n\nThe text itself is split into two sections, dealing with external and internal maladies and afflictions respectively. As one might expect from an early medieval source, much of the 'medicine' therein is of a 'folk' nature and involves ritual almost as often as it does actual remedy, coming dangerously close in some places to the kind of 'witchcraft' proscibed by contemporary penitentials like the *Scrifboc*. Some afflictions, for example, may be caused by Elves and cured by carving runes into a ceremonial dagger hilt. However, we must as always be wary of presentism and accusing the Anglo-Saxons of a 'primitive' or even dangerous superstition or lack of medical awareness. The *Leechbook* appears to be the result of a genuine attempt to compile the best and most effective medical treatments from a variety of Anglo-Saxon, British, Roman and Greek sources, and we must assume that the cures it provides appeared to be in some way effective at the time, even if only through the power of placebo. Indeed, the text gained some passing fame in 2015 when researchers at Nottingham found that one of its cures for dealing with an eye infection was surprisingly effecacious against antibiotic-resistant MRSA.\n\nMany different afflictions of organs are discussed, particularly of the *maw* and *wamb* (stomach and intestines) and the liver, which is discussed in surprising detail. Many remedies appear designed to flush out an organ, or to reduce swellings. Crushed poppy seeds in wine or in a poultice are regularly prescribed as a painkiller. Wormwood is a particularly popular panacea, one which is somewhat born out by modern medicine, as is vinegar. Refined honey mixed with vinegar is prescribed for an 'evil humour' of the upper belly, which may indicate ulcers. For symptoms of 'maw' pain which may be gallstones, great importance is made of diet: fatty meats are to be avoided, bread and water and fruit should be eaten instead. Vinegar and oil should also be ingested.\n\nIn cases of liver disease, the *Leechbook* recommends forgoing medical treatment until diet is properly examined, and especially until fat is given up. Then a medicine of dill, wormwood, marchseed, pepper and costmary should be taken. Vinegar and wine and other 'cure-alls' should be avoided.\n\nAn online archive of the *Leechbook* can be found [here](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3545953",
"title": "Dongui Bogam",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "human organs affected, rather than the disease itself, was a revolutionary development at that time. It contains insights that in some cases did not enter the medical knowledge of Europe until the twentieth century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20440423",
"title": "History of tuberculosis",
"section": "Section::::Europe: Middle Ages and Renaissance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "In Medieval Hungary, the Inquisition recorded the trials of pagans. A document from the 12th century recorded an explanation of the cause of illness. The pagans said that tuberculosis was produced when a dog-shaped demon occupied the person's body and started to eat his lungs. When the possessed person coughed, then the demon was barking, and getting close to his objective, which was to kill the victim.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14194",
"title": "History of medicine",
"section": "Section::::The Middle Ages, 400 to 1400.:Europe.:Humours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "The underlying principle of most medieval medicine was Galen's theory of humours. This was derived from the ancient medical works, and dominated all western medicine until the 19th century. The theory stated that within every individual there were four humours, or principal fluids—black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood, these were produced by various organs in the body, and they had to be in balance for a person to remain healthy. Too much phlegm in the body, for example, caused lung problems; and the body tried to cough up the phlegm to restore a balance. The balance of humours in humans could be achieved by diet, medicines, and by blood-letting, using leeches. The four humours were also associated with the four seasons, black bile-autumn, yellow bile-summer, phlegm-winter and blood-spring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "482938",
"title": "Medieval medicine of Western Europe",
"section": "Section::::Theories of medicine.:Humours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "The underlying principle of medieval medicine was the theory of humours. This was derived from the ancient medical works, and dominated all western medicine until the 19th century. The theory stated that within every individual there were four humours, or principal fluids - black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood, these were produced by various organs in the body, and they had to be in balance for a person to remain healthy. Too much phlegm in the body, for example, caused lung problems; and the body tried to cough up the phlegm to restore a balance. The balance of humours in humans could be achieved by diet, medicines, and by blood-letting, using leeches. The four humours were also associated with the four seasons, black bile-autumn, yellow bile-summer, phlegm-winter and blood-spring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45710",
"title": "Forensic science",
"section": "Section::::History.:Development of forensic science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "In 16th-century Europe, medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather information on the cause and manner of death. Ambroise Paré, a French army surgeon, systematically studied the effects of violent death on internal organs. Two Italian surgeons, Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia, laid the foundation of modern pathology by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the result of disease. In the late 18th century, writings on these topics began to appear. These included \"A Treatise on Forensic Medicine and Public Health\" by the French physician Francois Immanuele Fodéré and \"The Complete System of Police Medicine\" by the German medical expert Johann Peter Frank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2339351",
"title": "Portative organ",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1056,
"text": "These medieval portative organs, so extensively used during the 14th and 15th centuries, were revivals of those used by the Romans, of which a specimen excavated at Pompeii in 1876 is preserved in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale Napoli. The case measures 14½ inches (36.8 cm) by 9⅓ inches (23.7 cm) and contains nine pipes, of which the longest measures only 9¾ inches (24.8 cm); six of the pipes have oblong holes at a short distance from the top similar to those made in \"gamba\" pipes of modern organs to give them their reedy quality, and also to those cut in the bamboo pipes of the Chinese sheng, which is a mouth organ furnished with free reeds. From the description of these remains by C. F. Abdy Williams, it would seem that a bronze plate 11½ inches (29.2 cm) by 2¾ inches (7.0 cm) having 18 rectangular slits arranged in three rows to form vandykes was found inside the case, with three little plates of bronze just wide enough to pass through the slits lying by it; this plate possibly formed part of the mechanism for the sliders of the keys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "714428",
"title": "Acute kidney injury",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Before the advancement of modern medicine, acute kidney injury was referred to as \"uremic poisoning\" while uremia was contamination of the blood with urine. Starting around 1847, \"uremia\" came to be used for reduced urine output, a condition now called oliguria, which was thought to be caused by the urine's mixing with the blood instead of being voided through the urethra.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1lxe9n | if you want to heat an oven or stove to 175 degrees, does turning it way up to 400 degrees make it get to 175 faster? | [
{
"answer": "For an electric oven, no. The temperature control is a thermostat, not an accelerator. If the oven is below the set point, the element is on; otherwise it's off. It will take the same amount of time regardless of the setting.\n\nFor a stove, it depends. A gas stove uses valves to control how much gas comes out, so turning it up will heat the pan faster. A regular electric stove turns the element on more if you turn the knob higher, so it will also heat faster. An infrared or ceramic cooktop works with a thermostat, as described above, so turning it up will not speed it up.",
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},
{
"answer": "No. An oven heats up at a fairly constant rate once the element is up to temperature. The temperature setting just controls when the element cuts out, ie when it has got the oven to the required temperature. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[relevant peep show] (_URL_0_)\n",
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "68316",
"title": "Heat pump",
"section": "Section::::Performance considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "When there is a high temperature differential (e.g., when an air-source heat pump is used to heat a house with an outside temperature of, say, 0 °C (32 °F)), it takes more work to move the same amount of heat to indoors than on a milder day. Ultimately, due to Carnot efficiency limits, the heat pump's performance will decrease as the outdoor-to-indoor temperature difference increases (outside temperature gets colder), reaching a theoretical limit of 1.0 at −273 °C. In practice, a COP of 1.0 will typically be reached at an outdoor temperature around −18 °C (0 °F) for air source heat pumps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1075005",
"title": "Exergy",
"section": "Section::::Quality of energy types.:Exergy of heat available at a temperature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Maximal possible conversion of heat to work, or exergy content of heat, depends on the temperature at which heat is available and the temperature level at which the reject heat can be disposed, that is the temperature of the surrounding. The upper limit for conversion is known as Carnot efficiency and was discovered by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824. See also Carnot heat engine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17198809",
"title": "Hot air oven",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "A complete cycle involves heating the oven to the required temperature, maintaining that temperature for the proper time interval for that temperature, turning the machine off and cooling the articles in the closed oven till they reach room temperature. The standard settings for a hot air oven are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "556358",
"title": "Stove",
"section": "Section::::Emission regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "The burn temperature in modern stoves can increase to the point where secondary and complete combustion of the fuel takes place. A properly fired masonry heater has little or no particulate pollution in the exhaust and does not contribute to the buildup of creosote in the heater flues or the chimney. Some stoves achieve as little as 1 to 4 grams per hour. This is roughly 10% as much smoke than older stoves, and equates to nearly zero visible smoke from the chimney. This is largely achieved through causing the maximum amount of material to combust, which results in a net efficiency of 60 to 70%, as contrasted to less than 30% for an open fireplace. Net efficiency is defined as the amount of heat energy transferred to the room compared to the amount contained in the wood, minus any amount central heating must work to compensate for airflow problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5382536",
"title": "Rochester Products Division",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "In 1952 the \"Oregonian\" reported: \"Automobile cigarette lighters produced by the Rochester Automotive products division of General Motors are tested to reach a temperature of 1400 degrees in no less than 10 and no more than 12 seconds.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26159716",
"title": "Hydronic balancing",
"section": "Section::::The reason for balancing the system and some basic information on how to do it.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Instead of letting your central heating system cool down completely, so that you often have to keep switching it on for a short time to give your home a big blast of heat, it is best to keep your central heating running continuously with the central wall-mounted thermostat set at the lowest temperature at which you feel comfortable. Doing this could save you money because you will not be wasting so much fuel, especially if your home is well insulated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31302381",
"title": "Oven temperatures",
"section": "Section::::Standard phases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The various standard phrases, to describe oven temperatures, include words such as \"cool\" to \"hot\" or \"very slow\" to \"fast\". For example, a \"cool oven\" has temperature set to 200 °F (90 °C), and a \"slow oven\" has a temperature range from 300-325 °F (150-160 °C). A \"moderate oven\" has a range of 350-375 °F (180-190 °C), and a \"hot oven\" has temperature set to 400-450 °F (200-230 °C). A \"fast oven\" has a range of 450-500 °F (230-260 °C) for the typical temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
4dnlw4 | How are scientists sure that the theory of a singularity at the centre of a black hole, is correct? | [
{
"answer": "GR black holes have singularities. Most physicists expect that if we had a theory of quantum gravity these would disappear, but they are fairly [unavoidable](_URL_0_) in GR",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > how are scientists so sure that black holes have a singularity where all our understanding of physics breaks down rather than saying that the theory may have inaccuracies?\n\nWhen they say \"all our understanding of physics breaks down\" is the same in this context as \"the theory may have inaccuracies.\" \"The laws of physics break down\" or some similar variant is a pretty common hyperbole in this and other scenarios, but what is really meant is that the laws of physics we use break down. Inside a black hole, it's likely that a theory of quantum gravity will dominate, and we don't have a working (and experimentally verified) theory of quantum gravity.\n\n*Classically* the existence of singularities is inescapable. The Hawking-Penrose singularity theorems guarantee that a singularity will form under reasonably physical conditions that come with the formation of a black hole in general relativity. However, nature is not fully classical. I'd wager most physicists working near the field suspect that this singularity will disappear completely in a full theory of quantum gravity. Physicists don't like singularities hanging around in their theories.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We consider this singularity to be an \"error\" too, or at least an indication that our model of gravity is not complete. \n\nMost engineers (yourself included) would see singularities in their fields in the same light. Somewhere in the construction of your mathematical model you made some simplifying assumptions (i.e. you could neglect certain forces or nonlinear terms in an equation) that just aren't true in a certain range of parameters. One example I can think of is the [Van der Waals](_URL_0_) equation, where the isothermal compressibility goes negative below a critical temperature. At this critical temperature, more than just pairwise inter-atomic interactions become important, and you get a \"singularity\" (which we understand to be a phase transition). \n\nThe general relativity that we know and love is an elegant mathematical model for the physics of gravity in the limit of large length scales and low energies. When you apply the model to short length scales (i.e. below the plank length) and high temperatures (above the plank temperature), you can get nonsense results because you are not using the appropriate model. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Attempting to answer perhaps the spirit of the question, as others have answered the specific: Physics is fundamentally in a weird spots at the frontiers of its applicability. It runs, for example, to the very core of how things are calculated at high energies (quantum field theory) that our theoretical description IS NOT complete. As you have some math background I'd describe it as basically none of the important integrals that need to be solved with bounds from positive infinity to negative infinity can be solved. But rather we need to force some limits on these quite complicated integrals and say \"they're really big but not infinite\" and then we solve it. But crucially, the answer we get, DOESN'T depend on WHAT that trivial upper or lower bound was. Thus, in order to get numbers out we effectively have to say, at SOME energy, our theory must fail, in order to get experimentally verifiable predictions out. Add to that the bizarre situation that, so far, none of these predictions have failed. They're all super accurate. So in some sense, in something like the LHC, people want to fill in the small parameters in the theory that require experimental fits. But on the other hand people would really like to see evidence of some breaking point. So far everything is in order. For particle physicists that's somewhat infuriating",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26193",
"title": "Roger Penrose",
"section": "Section::::An earlier universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "In simple terms, he believes that the singularity in Einstein's field equation at the Big Bang is only an apparent singularity, similar to the well-known apparent singularity at the event horizon of a black hole. The latter singularity can be removed by a change of coordinate system, and Penrose proposes a different change of coordinate system that will remove the singularity at the big bang. One implication of this is that the major events at the Big Bang can be understood without unifying general relativity and quantum mechanics, and therefore we are not necessarily constrained by the Wheeler–DeWitt equation, which disrupts time. Alternatively, one can use the Einstein–Maxwell–Dirac equations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "294408",
"title": "Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation and significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "One cannot predict what might come \"out\" of a big-bang singularity in our past, or what happens to an observer that falls \"in\" to a black-hole singularity in the future, so they require a modification of physical law. Before Penrose, it was conceivable that singularities only form in contrived situations. For example, in the collapse of a star to form a black hole, if the star is spinning and thus possesses some angular momentum, maybe the centrifugal force partly counteracts gravity and keeps a singularity from forming. The singularity theorems prove that this cannot happen, and that a singularity will always form once an event horizon forms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54244",
"title": "Gravitational singularity",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Curvature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "While in a non-rotating black hole the singularity occurs at a single point in the model coordinates, called a \"point singularity\", in a rotating black hole, also known as a Kerr black hole, the singularity occurs on a ring (a circular line), known as a \"ring singularity\". Such a singularity may also theoretically become a wormhole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "Section::::Formation and evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "Penrose demonstrated that once an event horizon forms, general relativity without quantum mechanics requires that a singularity will form within. Shortly afterwards, Hawking showed that many cosmological solutions that describe the Big Bang have singularities without scalar fields or other exotic matter (see \"Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems\"). The Kerr solution, the no-hair theorem, and the laws of black hole thermodynamics showed that the physical properties of black holes were simple and comprehensible, making them respectable subjects for research. Conventional black holes are formed by gravitational collapse of heavy objects such as stars, but they can also in theory be formed by other processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1716550",
"title": "Physical paradox",
"section": "Section::::Paradoxes relating to unphysical mathematical idealizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 955,
"text": "A similar situation occurs in general relativity with the gravitational singularity associated with the Schwarzschild solution that describes the geometry of a black hole. The curvature of spacetime at the singularity is infinite which is another way of stating that the theory does not describe the physical conditions at this point. It is hoped that the solution to this paradox will be found with a consistent theory of quantum gravity, something which has thus far remained elusive. A consequence of this paradox is that the associated singularity that occurred at the supposed starting point of the universe (see Big Bang) is not adequately described by physics. Before a theoretical extrapolation of a singularity can occur, quantum mechanical effects become important in an era known as the Planck time. Without a consistent theory, there can be no meaningful statement about the physical conditions associated with the universe before this point.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "456715",
"title": "Kerr metric",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "Rotating black holes have surfaces where the metric appears to have a singularity; the size and shape of these surfaces depends on the black hole's mass and angular momentum. The outer surface encloses the ergosphere and has a shape similar to a flattened sphere. The inner surface marks the \"radius of no return\" also called the event horizon; objects passing through this radius can never again communicate with the world outside that radius. However, neither surface is a true singularity, since their apparent singularity can be eliminated in a different coordinate system. Objects between these two horizons must co-rotate with the rotating body, as noted above; this feature can be used to extract energy from a rotating black hole, up to its invariant mass energy, \"Mc\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54244",
"title": "Gravitational singularity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "General relativity predicts that any object collapsing beyond a certain point (for stars this is the Schwarzschild radius) would form a black hole, inside which a singularity (covered by an event horizon) would be formed. The Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems define a singularity to have geodesics that cannot be extended in a smooth manner. The termination of such a geodesic is considered to be the singularity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2b3crn | eli 5 if there is so much junk and satellites orbiting earth, how come we never see any of it in the background of pictures taken from space? | [
{
"answer": "Because there *isn't* that much.\n\nYes there is a lot of it, but the amount of space is *huge*. You're talking about a density like one Volkswagen Beetle in the state of Texas.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10615708",
"title": "List of satellite map images with missing or unclear data",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "This is a list of satellite map images with missing or unclear data. Some locations on free, publicly viewable satellite map services have such issues due to having been intentionally digitally obscured or blurred for various reasons. For example, Westchester County, New York asked Google to blur potential terrorism targets (such as an amusement park, a beach, and parking lots) from its satellite imagery. There are cases where the censorship of certain sites was subsequently removed. For example, when Google Maps and Google Earth were launched, images of the White House and United States Capitol were blurred out; however, these sites are now uncensored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17123820",
"title": "Failure in the intelligence cycle",
"section": "Section::::Collection.:IMINT.:Satellites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 980,
"text": "Matters of weather play a large role in IMINT failure. While radar imaging can see through clouds, it is unlikely that a general satellite sweep could find something buried under a few feet of snow or in a frozen lake. Another problem with satellite imagery is that it is a simple snapshot in time. If the satellite that captures the image is not in a geo-synchronous orbit, there is a risk of the target not being there when the satellite passes over the area again. There is also the possibility of camouflage. For example, the entrance to an underground bunker may be camouflaged with foliage and it would take an arduous examination of the image to find the information needed. Another potential failure is a satellite being unavailable at the time needed because it is being used for other intelligence purposes, and the situation or event of interest is missed. Images can also be misinterpreted, generating misleading information and potentially supporting a bad decision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81997",
"title": "Luna 3",
"section": "Section::::Mission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "A total of 29 pictures were taken, covering 70% of the far side. After the photography was complete the spacecraft resumed spinning, passed over the north pole of the Moon and returned towards the Earth. Attempts to transmit the pictures to the Soviet Union began on October 8 but the early attempts were unsuccessful due to the low signal strength. As Luna 3 drew closer to the Earth, a total of about 17 viewable but poor quality photographs were transmitted by 18 October. All contact with the probe was lost on 22 October 1959. The space probe was believed to have burned up in the Earth's atmosphere in March or April 1960. Another possibility was that it might have survived in orbit until 1962 or later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "449531",
"title": "The Blue Marble",
"section": "Section::::The photograph.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "All Apollo flights were heavily scheduled down to the minute. At the time this photo was taken, none of the astronauts was scheduled to do so. Thus this photo was taken quickly in a stolen moment. The astronaut who took the picture was weightless, and the continents were hard to see, and he took the photo quickly, which explains why he held the camera upside down compared to the north up orientation of all maps. If every photo on this roll of film is printed, and all of the photos on the roll of film are oriented the same way, then when viewed in sequence, to put feet down and heads up, this photo will have the south pole up, breaking the map convention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233636",
"title": "Spherical Earth",
"section": "Section::::Effects and empirical evidence.:Spacecraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Many pictures have been taken of the entire Earth by satellites launched by a variety of governments and private organizations. From high orbits, where half the planet can be seen at once, it is plainly spherical. The only way to piece together all the pictures taken of the ground from lower orbits so that all the surface features line up seamlessly and without distortion is to put them on an approximately spherical surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42165878",
"title": "Black Knight satellite conspiracy theory",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Space debris photographed in 1998 during the STS-88 mission has been widely claimed to be the Black Knight satellite. Space journalist James Oberg considers it probable that the photographs are of a thermal blanket that was confirmed as lost during an EVA by Jerry L. Ross and James H. Newman.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1827851",
"title": "Marine debris",
"section": "Section::::Great Pacific Garbage Patch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Patches may be large enough to be viewed by satellite. For example, when the Malaysian Flight MH370, disappeared in 2014, satellites were scanning the oceans surface for any sign of it, and instead of finding debris from the plane they came across floating garbage. The gyre contains approximately six pounds of plastic for every pound of plankton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
eal2wg | What's past the cosmological horizon? | [
{
"answer": "By definition, no; the observable universe encompasses all that we can have any information about. But there's no particular reason to imagine it would be much different from the local area--it's just impossible to confirm.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The definition of the cosmological horizon has it that it is the furthest we can have information from; there's no way of knowing about anything further. The *assumption* is that it's just more space, the same of here, nothing of interest. From there you can speculate on things such as the [shape of the universe](_URL_0_), but so far there has been no experiment to suggest that the universe is anything but boring and flat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As the universe is the same everywhere we can look it should be the same in places a bit farther out as well. But this is purely inference, we can't observe it by definition.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31880",
"title": "Universe",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Shape.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "The cosmological horizon (also called the particle horizon or the light horizon) is the maximum distance from which particles can have traveled to the observer in the age of the Universe. This horizon represents the boundary between the observable and the unobservable regions of the Universe. The existence, properties, and significance of a cosmological horizon depend on the particular cosmological model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2848730",
"title": "Cosmological horizon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "A cosmological horizon is a measure of the distance from which one could possibly retrieve information. This observable constraint is due to various properties of general relativity, the expanding universe, and the physics of Big Bang cosmology. Cosmological horizons set the size and scale of the observable universe. This article explains a number of these horizons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99293",
"title": "Shape of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Shape of the observable universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1027,
"text": "Cosmologists normally work with a given space-like slice of spacetime called the comoving coordinates, the existence of a preferred set of which is possible and widely accepted in present-day physical cosmology. The section of spacetime that can be observed is the backward light cone (all points within the cosmic light horizon, given time to reach a given observer), while the related term Hubble volume can be used to describe either the past light cone or comoving space up to the surface of last scattering. To speak of \"the shape of the universe (at a point in time)\" is ontologically naive from the point of view of special relativity alone: due to the relativity of simultaneity we cannot speak of different points in space as being \"at the same point in time\" nor, therefore, of \"the shape of the universe at a point in time\". However, the comoving coordinates (if well-defined) provide a strict sense to those by using the time since the Big Bang (measured in the reference of CMB) as a distinguished universal time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29320146",
"title": "Event horizon",
"section": "Section::::Cosmic event horizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "In cosmology, the event horizon of the observable universe is the largest comoving distance from which light emitted \"now\" can ever reach the observer in the future. This differs from the concept of particle horizon, which represents the largest comoving distance from which light emitted in the \"past\" could have reached the observer at a given time. For events beyond that distance, light has not had time to reach our location, even if it were emitted at the time the universe began. How the particle horizon changes with time depends on the nature of the expansion of the universe. If the expansion has certain characteristics, there are parts of the universe that will never be observable, no matter how long the observer waits for light from those regions to arrive. The boundary past which events cannot ever be observed is an event horizon, and it represents the maximum extent of the particle horizon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29320146",
"title": "Event horizon",
"section": "Section::::Interacting with an event horizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "In the case of a horizon perceived by an occupant of a de Sitter universe, the horizon always appears to be a fixed distance away for a non-accelerating observer. It is never contacted, even by an accelerating observer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4116",
"title": "Big Bang",
"section": "Section::::Problems and related issues in physics.:Horizon problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "The horizon problem results from the premise that information cannot travel faster than light. In a universe of finite age this sets a limit—the particle horizon—on the separation of any two regions of space that are in causal contact. The observed isotropy of the CMB is problematic in this regard: if the universe had been dominated by radiation or matter at all times up to the epoch of last scattering, the particle horizon at that time would correspond to about 2 degrees on the sky. There would then be no mechanism to cause wider regions to have the same temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29320146",
"title": "Event horizon",
"section": "Section::::Cosmic event horizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "In this equation, \"a\" is the scale factor, \"c\" is the speed of light, and \"t\" is the age of the Universe. If (i.e., points arbitrarily as far away as can be observed), then no event horizon exists. If , a horizon is present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
31frfy | why couldn't data be transmitted back to us beyond the event horizon of a black hole, i understand gravity prevents light from escaping, but how, and would it be a similar scenario for data? | [
{
"answer": "Well, first off, the data would be travelling as some frequency of light, like radio. So, consider them one and the same.\n\nThe way it prevents light from escaping is that gravity actually bends space. Light travels along space, and when [space gets curved](_URL_0_), the light has a longer journey and that journey takes a little longer.\n\nIn the case of a black hole, space gets bent so much that the light can't get out -- [kind of like a deep, deep hole](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30259292",
"title": "Black hole complementarity",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Ever since Stephen Hawking suggested information is lost in an evaporating black hole once it passes through the event horizon and is inevitably destroyed at the singularity, and that this can turn pure quantum states into mixed states, some physicists have wondered if a complete theory of quantum gravity might be able to conserve information with a unitary time evolution. But how can this be possible if information cannot escape the event horizon without traveling faster than light? This seems to rule out Hawking radiation as the carrier of the missing information. It also appears as if information cannot be \"reflected\" at the event horizon as there is nothing special about it locally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151013",
"title": "T-symmetry",
"section": "Section::::Macroscopic phenomena: black holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "An object can cross through the event horizon of a black hole from the outside, and then fall rapidly to the central region where our understanding of physics breaks down. Since within a black hole the forward light-cone is directed towards the center and the backward light-cone is directed outward, it is not even possible to define time-reversal in the usual manner. The only way anything can escape from a black hole is as Hawking radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9223226",
"title": "Gullstrand–Painlevé coordinates",
"section": "Section::::Speeds of light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "BULLET::::- At the event horizon, formula_30 the speed of light shining outward away from the center of black hole is formula_31 It can not escape from the event horizon. Instead, it gets stuck at the event horizon. Since light moves faster than all others, matter can only move inward at the event horizon. Everything inside the event horizon is hidden from the outside world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37749068",
"title": "Extreme mass ratio inspiral",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "However, if the object passes too close to the central supermassive black hole, it will make a direct plunge across the event horizon. This will produce a brief violent burst of gravitational radiation which would be hard to detect with currently planned observatories. Consequently, the creation of EMRI requires a fine balance between objects passing too close and too far from the central supermassive black hole. Currently, the best estimates are that a typical supermassive black hole of , will capture an EMRI once every 10 to 10 years. This makes witnessing such an event in our Milky Way unlikely. However, a space based gravitational wave observatory like LISA will be able to detect EMRI events up to cosmological distances, leading to an expected detection rate somewhere between a few and a few thousand per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "Section::::Properties and structure.:Event horizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "On the other hand, indestructible observers falling into a black hole do not notice any of these effects as they cross the event horizon. According to their own clocks, which appear to them to tick normally, they cross the event horizon after a finite time without noting any singular behaviour; in classical general relativity, it is impossible to determine the location of the event horizon from local observations, due to Einstein's equivalence principle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "Section::::Properties and structure.:Photon sphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "While light can still escape from the photon sphere, any light that crosses the photon sphere on an inbound trajectory will be captured by the black hole. Hence any light that reaches an outside observer from the photon sphere must have been emitted by objects between the photon sphere and the event horizon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14464469",
"title": "Outline of black holes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 941,
"text": "Black hole – mathematically defined region of spacetime exhibiting such a strong gravitational pull that no particle or electromagnetic radiation can escape from inside it. The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole. The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon. Although crossing the event horizon has enormous effect on the fate of the object crossing it, it appears to have no locally detectable features. In many ways a black hole acts like an ideal black body, as it reflects no light. Moreover, quantum field theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation, with the same spectrum as a black body of a temperature inversely proportional to its mass. This temperature is on the order of billionths of a kelvin for black holes of stellar mass, making it essentially impossible to observe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
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