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2iiom3
|
What sort of evidence is there of the interactions early modern humans had with other species of archaic humans that were alive at the same time?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are a few anthropologists in this sub who might take a run at this post, but fyi, the question would do better in /r/AskAnthropology. In fact, there have been many posts in that sub asking related questions",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53254",
"title": "History of Sardinia",
"section": "Section::::Prehistory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Modern humans appeared in the island during the Upper Paleolithic, a phalanx dated to 18000 BC had been found in the \"Corbeddu cave\", near Oliena. Mesolithic human remains had been discovered at \"Su Coloru cave\" of Laerru but also in the south (Sirri, Arbus).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27956",
"title": "South Carolina",
"section": "Section::::History.:Precolonial period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "There is evidence of human activity in the area about 40,000 years ago. At the time Europeans arrived, marking the end of the Pre-Columbian era around 1600, there were many separate Native American tribes, the largest being the Cherokee, and the Catawba, and the total population being up to 20,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18783051",
"title": "Quaternary extinction event",
"section": "Section::::Hunting hypothesis.:Objections to the hunting hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 679,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 679,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "BULLET::::- The hypothesis that the Clovis culture represented the first humans to arrive in the New World has been disputed recently. (See Settlement of the Americas.) However, they were certainly the first to leave abundant widespread evidence of their presence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3222831",
"title": "Archaic humans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Another group may also have been extant as recently as 11,500 years ago, the \"Red Deer Cave people\" of China. Chris Stringer of the Natural History Museum in London has suggested that these people could be a result of mating between Denisovans and modern humans. Other scientists remain skeptical, suggesting that the unique features are within the variations expected for modern human populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3276555",
"title": "History of communication",
"section": "Section::::Petroglyphs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "It is possible that Homo sapiens of that time used some other forms of communication, often for mnemonic purposes - specially arranged stones, symbols carved in wood or earth, quipu-like ropes, tattoos, but little other than the most durable carved stones has survived to modern times and we can only speculate about their existence based on our observation of still existing 'hunter-gatherer' cultures such as those of Africa or Oceania.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26569537",
"title": "Recent African origin of modern humans",
"section": "Section::::Genetic reconstruction.:Admixture of archaic and modern humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Archaic admixture in some Sub-Saharan African populations hunter-gatherer groups (Biaka Pygmies and San), derived from archaic hominins that broke away from the modern human lineage around 700,000 years, was discovered in 2011. The rate of admixture was estimated at around 2%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5434457",
"title": "Rincón de la Victoria",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Archaeological findings at the Cueva del Tesoro testify the human presence as early as the Palaeolithic Age. There are remains of walls from around 1000 BC which perhaps included an Iberian settlement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7vjgk0
|
the finances of power grids
|
[
{
"answer": "there is one grid that all plants give their power to. you sign a contract with a plant to pay them depending on how much you use, regardless of whose power you actually end up using. meanwhile the plants sign contracts with each other (or with the owner of the grid) to compare how much they produced and how much they were paid for\n\nif Plant A produced more than it sold and Plant B sold more than it produced, it means you used power from A but paid B. so B gives your money to A and they call it even. in return, B knows that A will do the same if the roles are ever switched\n\nat least that's the simple version. there is some nuance built in so it does matter which plant you pay, but it depends on the grid. they could do it so only part of the difference gets shared, so you can still support the plant you want (nuclear, solar, etc) by choosing who to pay",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My explanation is for the US -- I believe the UK system is similar.\n\nThe entire system is kind of a masterpiece of capitalism, run by interacting private corporations and nonprofit organizations, with no central government control. The players are:\n\n* Generators, companies who make electricity\n\n* Transmission line owners\n\n* Distributors, who own neighborhood power lines and sell electricity to customers.\n\nIn addition, there's the\n\n* Independent System Operator (ISO), a nonprofit organization that makes the rules and manages how the players interact. An ISO controls the power network for a large region of the country (say, New England or the Pacific Northwest).\n\nHere's how it works. Every day, the ISO holds an auction for tomorrow's power usage, hour by hour. A coal plant offers to produce 500 megawatt-hours of power at 10 am for $55 per megawatt-hour. A local gas plant offers to make 20 MWh at 9 pm for $45... and so on. Once all the bids are in, the lowest bids are accepted, up to the amount of power that matches the predicted demand for each hour tomorrow. (It's like a Dutch auction on eBay.) The winning power plants have the right to put their energy onto the grid and make money, the losers must go dark.\n\nThe ISO holds the auction for power delivered to a single spot location in its network, but distributors will demand power, and generators will be creating power, at various places. This means the price of electricity varies from place to place. Transmission line owners can take advantage of this by buying power at places where it's cheap and selling where it's expensive. That's how they make a profit, and pay for the upkeep of the transmission lines.\n\nOne last factor: this all assumes that the ISO can predict the demand for electricity tomorrow. What if it's wrong? Maybe the weather's unusually hot, or everyone turns on their TV to watch a news event. To deal with this, there's also a real-time auction, in which power plants bid for the right to produce power minute-by-minute. If there's an unexpected demand, the price can spike drastically, and some power plants are designed specifically to take advantage of these price spikes to fill in any unmet demand.\n\nYou want to see something cool, check this out: real-time data from New England's ISO, showing current power prices across the region, current and forecast power demand and supply, and the current mix of power plants feeding the grid.\n\n_URL_2_\n\nFor more info on ISOs and how they work:\n\n_URL_0_\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5199213",
"title": "Phasor measurement unit",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 927,
"text": "In simple terms, the public electric grid that a power company operates was originally designed to take power from a single source: the operating company's generators and power plants, and feed it into the grid, where the customers consume the power. Now, some customers are operating power generating devices (solar panels, wind turbines, etc.) and to save costs (or to generate income) are also feeding power back into the grid. Depending on the region, feeding power back into the grid may be done through net metering. Because of this process, voltage and current must be measured and regulated in order to ensure the power going into the grid is of the quality and standard that customer equipment expects (as seen through metrics such as frequency, phase synchronicity, and voltage). If this is not done, as Rob Landley puts it, \"people's light bulbs start exploding.\" This measurement function is what these devices do.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "867053",
"title": "National Grid (Great Britain)",
"section": "Section::::Transmission costs.:Triad demand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "This is the main source of income which National Grid uses to cover its costs. (This is for high-voltage long-distance transmission: lower voltage distribution is charged separately.) The grid also charges an annual fee to cover the cost of generators, distribution networks and large industrial users connecting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2428152",
"title": "Regional transmission organization (North America)",
"section": "Section::::Regional transmission organizations (RTOs).:Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Today's power industry is far more than a collection of power plants and transmission lines. Maintaining an effective grid requires management of three different but related sets of flows – the flow of energy across the grid; the exchange of information about power flows and the equipment it moves across; and the flow of money between producers, marketers, transmission owners, buyers and others. ISO/RTOs play an essential role in managing and enhancing all three of these flows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "843050",
"title": "Net metering",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Large scale viewpoint.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Many electric utilities state that owners of generation systems do not pay the full cost of service to use the grid, thus shifting their share of the cost onto customers without distributed generation systems. Most owners of rooftop solar or other types of distributed generation systems still rely on the grid to receive electricity from utilities at night or when their systems cannot generate sufficient power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46293573",
"title": "Laser Inertial Fusion Energy",
"section": "Section::::Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 882,
"text": "The levelized cost of electricity (LCoE) can be calculated by dividing the total cost to build and operate a power-generating system over its lifetime by the total amount of electricity shipped to the grid during that period. The amount of money is essentially a combination of the capital expense (CAPEX) of the plant and the interest payments on that CAPEX, and the discounted cost of the fuel, the maintenance needed to keep it running and its dismantling, the discounted operational expenses, or OPEX. The amount of power is normally calculated by considering the peak power the plant could produce, and then adjusting that by the capacity factor (CF) to account for downtime due to maintenance or deliberate throttling. As a quick calculation, one can ignore inflation, opportunity costs and minor operational expenses to develop a figure of merit for the cost of electricity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2696466",
"title": "Demand response",
"section": "Section::::Application for intermittent renewable distributed energy resources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1596,
"text": "The modern power grid is making a transition from the traditional vertically integrated utility structures to distributed systems as it begins to integrate higher penetrations of renewable energy generation. These sources of energy are often diffusely distributed and intermittent by nature. These features introduce problems in grid stability and efficiency which lead to limitations on the amount of these resources which can be effectively added to the grid. In a traditional vertically integrated grid, energy is provided by utility generators which are able to respond to changes in demand. Generation output by renewable resources is governed by environmental conditions and is generally not able to respond to changes in demand. Responsive control over non-critical loads which are connected to the grid has been shown to be an effective strategy which is able to mitigate undesirable fluctuations introduced by these renewable resources. In this way instead of the generation responding to changes in demand, the demand responds to changes in generation. This is the basis of demand response. In order to implement demand response systems, coordination of large numbers of distributed resources through sensors, actuators, and communications protocols becomes necessary. To be effective, the devices need to be economical, robust, and yet still effective at managing their tasks of control. In addition, effective controls requires a strong capability to coordinate large networks of devices, managing and optimizing these distributed systems both from economic and security standpoints.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11612450",
"title": "Financial incentives for photovoltaics",
"section": "Section::::National incentives.:Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Grid operators are legally obliged to pay producers of solar electricity a fixed remuneration (feed-in tariff or FIT) for solar generated electricity fed into the grid, depending on the size and type of the system, as well as the year of installation. The tariffs vary to account for the different costs of rooftop or ground-mounted systems in accordance with the size of the system and system cost reductions over time. Since the EEG guarantees the FIT payments for a duration of 20 years, it provides sustained planning security for investors in PV systems. Grid parity for large installation and small roof-top systems was already reached in 2011 and 2012, respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3bcwvc
|
Does dyslexia only effect your reading skills, or does it effects other aspects of your life as well?
|
[
{
"answer": "I have only minor problems so I’m probably not the best person to answer this.\n\nFirstly, dyslexia is not well understood or defined. So there is a broad spectrum of cognitive disabilities that make it difficult to read, write and understand written text, but it is caused by a multitude of different symptoms.\n\nIn my case the letters jump around on the page, so I find reading very tiring and stressful and my spelling is terrible (I will have to check this three times before I post it).\n\nAs for other symptoms, my balance was very bad as a child, and I was always running into things. I also wonder if it affects my hearing, I seem to have much more difficulty understanding people in loud crowded environments.\n\nBut the worst aspect of it is the negative psychological problems it causes. You know there is something different about you but you don’t know what it is, so you don’t trust yourself, or other people’s opinions of you. And not being able to trust yourself is very damaging and limiting.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2764306",
"title": "Reading disability",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke defines reading disability or dyslexia as follows: \"Dyslexia is a brain-based type of learning disability that specifically impairs a person's ability to read. These individuals typically read at levels significantly lower than expected despite having normal intelligence. Although the disorder varies from person to person, common characteristics among people with dyslexia are difficulty with spelling, phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), and rapid visual-verbal responding. In adults, dyslexia usually occurs after a brain injury or in the context of dementia. It can also be inherited in some families, and recent studies have identified a number of genes that may predispose an individual to developing dyslexia.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28081768",
"title": "Dybuster",
"section": "Section::::Dybuster Orthograph.:Hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Dyslexia also known as reading disabilities creates several possible symptoms. It is assumed, among other things, that auditive, visual and phonological deficits. In simplest terms, these deficiencies lead to difficulties in the task of translating the written language into the spoken language while reading, and, conversely, in writing the spoken language to the written language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21604581",
"title": "Language-based learning disability",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Dyslexia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Dyslexia is a common language-based learning disability. Dyslexia can affect reading fluency, decoding, reading comprehension, recall, writing, spelling, and sometimes speech and can exist along with other related disorders. The greatest difficult those with the disorder have is with spoken and the written word. These issues present pertain but are not limited to:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12328438",
"title": "Auditory processing disorder",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Relation to specific language impairment and developmental dyslexia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "Similarly with developmental dyslexia, there has been considerable interest in the idea that for some children reading problems are downstream consequences of difficulties in rapid auditory processing. Again, cause and effect can be hard to unravel. This is one reason why some experts have recommended using non-verbal auditory tests to diagnose APD. Specifically regarding the neurological factors of dyslexia, the disorder has been linked to polymicrogyria which causes cell migrational problems. This relates to APD because children that have polymicrogyri almost always present deficits on APD testing. It has also been suggested that APD may be related to cluttering, a fluency disorder marked by word and phrase repetitions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8305",
"title": "Dyslexia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Problems persist into adolescence and adulthood and may accompany difficulties with summarizing stories, memorization, reading aloud, or learning foreign languages. Adults with dyslexia can often read with good comprehension, though they tend to read more slowly than others without a learning difficulty and perform worse in spelling tests or when reading nonsense words – a measure of phonological awareness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11748495",
"title": "Phonological deficit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The phonological deficit hypothesis is a prevalent cognitive-level explanation for the cause of reading difficulties and dyslexia. It stems from evidence that individuals with dyslexia tend to do poorly on tests which measure their ability to decode nonsense words using conventional phonetic rules, and that there is a high correlation between difficulties in connecting the sounds of language to letters and reading delays or failure in children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24488251",
"title": "Rapid automatized naming",
"section": "Section::::Theories.:Double Deficit Hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "It has been proposed that dyslexia is due to a \"double-deficit hypothesis\" in which phonological deficits and naming-speed deficits are two separate causes of reading problems, such that when they are combined, they produce a greater dyslexic defect than would be produced by either deficit individually.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16xb8m
|
Does it make a difference if I turn my clothes inside out before I wish them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Side note - Stop using auto-correct if you're not going to at least proof read what it's typing for you",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1543585",
"title": "Longyi",
"section": "Section::::Versatility and convenience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Changing is done simply by stepping into the new longyi and pulling it up, at the same time loosening and dropping the old one, or the new one can be pulled over from the head down. However, even when in private, women change without removing all their clothes. Instead, they will wear one htaimin while changing into a new one. A woman may be seen pulling her htamein up bit by bit as she wades deeper and deeper into a river without getting it wet. It is merely a matter of lifting it up in the bathroom or in bed for that matter. Washing and ironing cannot be simpler as they are cylindrical pieces of cloth, easily hung, pressed, folded and stacked with a bare minimum use of wardrobe space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8797593",
"title": "All Eyez on Me (song)",
"section": "Section::::Writing and recording.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "\"The world has had plenty of tragedy to deal with recently so I wanted to do something that had a 'feel good' flavor to it [...] So when you go out and have a good time, if you get dressed up in the right thing, all eyes will be on you — it doesn't matter if it's Monica or whoever else.\"—Monica Arnold, \"MTV News\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9307148",
"title": "A Wedding Suit",
"section": "Section::::Film details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "A woman orders a suit from a tailor for her young son to wear to her sister's wedding. The tailor's apprentice, together with two other teenage boys who work in the same building, devise a plan to try on the suit at night to see what it feels like. Things get a little complicated but in the morning, at the last possible minute, they manage to return the suit to its proper place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1004372",
"title": "Changing room",
"section": "Section::::Types.:(Store) fitting rooms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Fitting rooms, or \"dressing rooms\", are rooms where people try on clothes, such as in a department store. The rooms are usually individual rooms in which a person tries on clothes to determine fit before making a purchase. People do not always use the fitting rooms to change, as to change implies to remove one set of clothes and put on another. Sometimes a person chooses to try on clothes over their clothes (such as sweaters or coats), but would still like to do this in private. Thus fitting rooms may be used for changing, or just for fitting without changing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39964793",
"title": "Semiotics of dress",
"section": "Section::::Psychology in dress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Psychologist J. C. Flugel concluded that styles of dress affect one's appearance, yet triggering feelings that enable role performance. This means that when an individual's body and clothes fuse together to form one, the individual's sense of importance increases. Increments in one's sense of importance yields to feelings and behaviors of being able to control the environment in which one is in. At the same time, this may work backwards. In other words, if one's body and clothes don't come together as a whole, then one may feel embarrassed, and therefore belittle its sense of importance. Flugel called this idea \"Image Contrast\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23395001",
"title": "Gettin' You Home (The Black Dress Song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "\"Gettin' You Home (The Black Dress Song)\" is a song co-written and recorded by American country music singer Chris Young. It was released in February 2009 as the second single from his 2009 album \"The Man I Want to Be\" (2009). Young wrote the song with Kent Blazy and Cory Batten. The song garnered positive reviews from critics who praised the suggestive lyrics for sounding sexy and for being a great non-sellout single.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41524699",
"title": "China Machado",
"section": "Section::::Early life and career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "They thought I was filling-in for a sick girl, so they grabbed me, put me in clothes, and threw me into the room where they were showing the collection. I barely knew anything about walking like a model, so I just copied the girl in front of me. At the end of the show, gorgeous Givenchy comes up to me and says, \"Would you like to be in the cabine?\" — that's what they called the group of models who worked for the house. That’s how it all started.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
hn2d2
|
Follow up on my previous question "Does light orbit black holes?": Is it possible that light from a star is warped around a source of gravity such that it appears as two points of light in the sky?
|
[
{
"answer": "When a bright object is behind a heavy object (like a black hole) relative to our line of site, it's called an Einstein Ring and [it looks awesome](_URL_0_).\n\nIt's also possible for the same object to appear [multiple times](_URL_1_) depending on the geometry.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I saw a link to this:\n_URL_0_\nWhere they talk about dark matter and bending light... \nmight be of interest.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Indeed it's possible. The overarching phenomenon is called [gravitational lensing](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2153281",
"title": "Dark star (Newtonian mechanics)",
"section": "Section::::Dark star theory history.:John Michell and dark stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "During 1783 geologist John Michell wrote a letter to Henry Cavendish outlining the expected properties of dark stars, published by The Royal Society in their 1784 volume. Michell calculated that when the escape velocity at the surface of a star was equal to or greater than lightspeed, the generated light would be gravitationally trapped so that the star would not be visible to a distant astronomer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24467573",
"title": "Black star (semiclassical gravity)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "A black star with a radius slightly greater than the predicted event horizon for an equivalent-mass black hole will appear very dark, because almost all light produced will be drawn back to the star, and any escaping light will be severely gravitationally redshifted. It will appear almost exactly like a black hole. It will feature Hawking radiation, as virtual particle pairs created in its vicinity may still be split, with one particle escaping and the other being trapped. Additionally, it will create thermal Planckian radiation that will closely resemble the expected Hawking radiation of an equivalent black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "418591",
"title": "John Michell",
"section": "Section::::Scientific work.:Black holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 900,
"text": "It was Michell who, in a paper for the \"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London\", read on 27 November 1783, first proposed the idea that there were such things as black holes, which he called \"dark stars\". Having accepted Newton’s corpuscular theory of light, which posited that light consists of minuscule particles, he reasoned that such particles, when emanated by a star, would be slowed down by its gravitational pull, and thought that it might therefore be possible to determine the star's mass based on the reduction in speed. This insight led in turn to the recognition that a star's gravitational pull might be so strong that the escape velocity would exceed the speed of light. Michell calculated that this would be the case with a star more than 500 times the size of the Sun. Since light would not be able to escape such a star, it would be invisible. In his own words:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27086745",
"title": "Frame-dragging",
"section": "Section::::Experimental tests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "In the case of stars orbiting close to a spinning, supermassive black hole, frame dragging should cause the star's orbital plane to precess about the black hole spin axis. This effect should be detectable within the next few years via astrometric monitoring of stars at the center of the Milky Way galaxy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3352536",
"title": "Exotic star",
"section": "Section::::Boson stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "that unlike normal stars (which emit radiation due to gravitational pressure and nuclear fusion), boson stars would be transparent and invisible. The immense gravity of a compact boson star would bend light around the object, creating an empty region resembling the shadow of a black hole's event horizon. Like a black hole, a boson star would absorb ordinary matter from its surroundings, but the transparency means this matter (which likely would heat up and emit radiation) would be visible at its center. Simulations further suggest that rotating boson stars would be doughnut-shaped as centrifugal forces would give the bosonic matter that form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12024",
"title": "General relativity",
"section": "Section::::Consequences of Einstein's theory.:Light deflection and gravitational time delay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "General relativity predicts that the path of light will follow the curvature of spacetime as it passes near a star. This effect was initially confirmed by observing the light of stars or distant quasars being deflected as it passes the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2153281",
"title": "Dark star (Newtonian mechanics)",
"section": "Section::::Dark star theory history.:Indirect radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "However, the dark star is capable of emitting indirect radiation – outward-aimed light and matter can leave the \"r\" = 2\"M\" surface briefly before being recaptured, and while outside the critical surface, can interact with other matter, or be accelerated free from the star through such interactions. A dark star, therefore, has a rarefied atmosphere of \"visiting particles\", and this ghostly halo of matter and light can radiate, albeit weakly. Also as Faster than light speeds are possible in Newtonian mechanics, it is possible for particles to escape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d11a5g
|
Are/were there any ancient tombs that resemble ones depicted in the Indiana Jones series?
|
[
{
"answer": "It seems this question is asked fairly regularly in some form or another. A search of r/AskHistorians gives [quite a selection.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "758704",
"title": "Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb is an action-adventure video game developed by The Collective and published by LucasArts in 2003 for the Xbox, Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2 and OS X. It features cover art by Drew Struzan. The game is an adventure of fictional archeologist Indiana Jones. The story takes place in 1935, between the events of \"Indiana Jones and the Shrine of the Sea Devil\" and \"Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom\". The tomb mentioned in the title is that of China's first Emperor Qin Shi Huang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1055075",
"title": "Indiana Jones Adventure",
"section": "Section::::Tokyo DisneySea version.:Story.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Set in an unspecified region of Mexico during the 1930s, Indiana Jones Adventure: Temple of the Crystal Skull takes place in the Temple of the Crystal Skull, an Aztec temple guarded by a Crystal Skull. Hosted by a character named Paco (portrayed by Katsuhisa Hōki), the story features Indiana Jones (voiced by Kunio Murai) searching for the Fountain of Youth. While the name is similar to that of the fourth \"Indiana Jones\" film, the design of the titular skull is entirely different and the scenarios in the attraction are unrelated to the film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24750113",
"title": "Chauchilla Cemetery",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Chauchilla Cemetery is a prominent setting in \"Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull\". Though not called by name in the film, the cemetery is explicitly identified in the screenplay, promotional materials, and merchandise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "295692",
"title": "Hal Barwood",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Video game work.:Work at LucasArts (1990-2003, 2011).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "Following the release of \"Infernal Machine\", Barwood worked on \"RTX Red Rock\" and revised the story of \"Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb\", another \"Indiana Jones\" video game; it involves Indiana Jones searching the tomb of the Chinese emperor Qin Shi Huang before the Nazis and a Chinese Triad can find it. Both \"Red Rock\" and \"Emperor's Tomb\" were released in 2003, the former with negative reviews and the latter to critical acclaim. After the release of \"Emperor's Tomb\", Barwood retired from making video games for LucasArts, although eight years later, he briefly returned in 2011 to work in cooperation with Zynga in the Facebook online video game \"Indiana Jones Adventure World\", which was discontinued in 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7958282",
"title": "Indiana Jones and the Tomb of the Templars",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Indiana Jones and the Tomb of the Templars, released in 1995, contains three adventures for use with West End Games Masterbook system: \"Indiana Jones and the Tomb of the Templars\" , \"Indiana Jones and the Druids' Curse,\" and \"Indiana Jones and the Sword in the Stone\", the adventures taking place between 1936 and 1938 and all in the United Kingdom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "758704",
"title": "Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 923,
"text": "\"Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb\" begins in the jungles of British Ceylon, where Indiana Jones is searching for the idol of Kouru Watu. After retrieving the idol, Jones meets a Nazi named Albrecht Von Beck who also seeks it. Jones defeats Von Beck's paid South African ivory hunters and takes his leave while Von Beck is attacked by a giant albino crocodile. Back at school in New York City, Chinese official Marshall Kai Ti Chan and his female assistant Mei Ying inform Jones of the \"Heart of the Dragon\", a black pearl buried with the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huangdi. The Heart is said to grant the wielder immense magical power, and Kai wants Jones to retrieve it before it falls into the wrong hands. Mei Ying breaks open the Ceylon idol to find the first piece of the \"Mirror of Dreams\" inside it, an artifact that will help navigate through the Emperor's Tomb and reveal the entrance to Huangdi's crypt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14814",
"title": "Indiana Jones",
"section": "Section::::Appearances.:Video games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Following this, the games branched off into original storylines with Indiana Jones in the Lost Kingdom, \"Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis\", \"Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine\", \"Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb\" and \"Indiana Jones and the Staff of Kings\". \"Emperor's Tomb\" sets up Jones's companion Wu Han and the search for Nurhaci's ashes seen at the beginning of \"Temple of Doom\". The first two games were developed by Hal Barwood and starred Doug Lee as the voice of Indiana Jones; \"Emperor's Tomb\" had David Esch fill the role and \"Staff of Kings\" starred John Armstrong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1b5zqj
|
cyprus banking crisis
|
[
{
"answer": "- _URL_9_\n- _URL_4_\n- _URL_7_\n- _URL_6_\n- _URL_3_\n- _URL_5_\n- _URL_8_\n- _URL_2_\n- _URL_0_\n- _URL_1_\n\n--- \n\nMy post from the first link:\n\nCyprus has a large banking industry that functions largely as a tax haven for foreigners (read: \"legitimate businessmen\" in Russia). Cypriot banks had enormous deposits, and invested those deposits. The financial crash caused many of those investments to fail, and the banks lost so much money that they are no longer able to pay back depositors. The nation of Cyprus doesn't want to lose all of the foreign banking business, but it simply doesn't have the money to fully guarantee everyone's deposits. And, since it doesn't control its own currency or monetary policy, it can't simply inflate away the brunt of the losses.\n\nTheir plan is to take out large bailout loans from the rest of the Eurozone, guarantee most of those deposits, and \"tax\" the remainder. This proved massively unpopular with ordinary Cypriots, who would lose part of their savings so that the government could bail out foreign ~~mobsters~~ investors. It seems that the new plan is to fully guarantee \"smaller\" deposits and tax larger deposits more heavily, which will probably spell an end to the Cypriot tax evasion industry.\n\nIf Cyprus had its own currency, and owed its debts in that currency, then it could simply \"print money\" using conventional monetary policy and avoid the worst of these problems, at the cost of inflation. But more powerful Eurozone nations don't want inflation, so Cyprus is out of luck on that front.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37925318",
"title": "2012–13 Cypriot financial crisis",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Cyprus banks first came under severe financial pressure as bad debt ratios rose. Former Laiki CEO Efthimios Bouloutas admitted that his bank was probably insolvent as early as 2008, even before Cyprus entered the Eurozone. The banks were then exposed to a haircut of upwards of 50% in 2011 during the Greek government-debt crisis, leading to fears of a collapse of the Cypriot banks. The Cypriot state, unable to raise liquidity from the markets to support its financial sector, requested a bailout from the European Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37925318",
"title": "2012–13 Cypriot financial crisis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "The 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis was an economic crisis in the Republic of Cyprus that involved the exposure of Cypriot banks to overleveraged local property companies, the Greek government-debt crisis, the downgrading of the Cypriot government's bond credit rating to junk status by international credit rating agencies, the consequential inability to refund its state expenses from the international markets and the reluctance of the government to restructure the troubled Cypriot financial sector.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5598",
"title": "Economy of Cyprus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1201,
"text": "The 2012–13 Cypriot financial crisis, part of the wider European debt crisis, has dominated the country's economic affairs in recent times. In March 2013, the Cypriot government reached an agreement with its eurozone partners to split the country's second biggest bank, the Cyprus Popular Bank (also known as Laiki Bank), into a \"bad\" bank which would be wound down over time and a \"good\" bank which would be absorbed by the larger Bank of Cyprus. In return for a €10 billion bailout from the European Commission, the European Central Bank and the International Monetary Fund, the Cypriot government would be required to impose a significant haircut on uninsured deposits Insured deposits of €100,000 or less would not be affected. After a three-and-a-half-year recession, Cyprus returned to growth in the first quarter of 2015. Cyprus successfully concluded its three-year financial assistance programme at the end of March 2016, having borrowed a total of €6.3 billion from the European Stability Mechanism and €1 billion from the IMF. The remaining €2.7 billion of the ESM bailout was never dispensed, due to the Cypriot government's better than expected finances over the course of the programme.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5593",
"title": "Cyprus",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "The 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis led to an agreement with the Eurogroup in March 2013 to split the country's second largest bank, the Cyprus Popular Bank (also known as Laiki Bank), into a \"bad\" bank which would be wound down over time and a \"good\" bank which would be absorbed by the Bank of Cyprus. In return for a €10 billion bailout from the European Commission, the European Central Bank and the International Monetary Fund, often referred to as the \"troika\", the Cypriot government was required to impose a significant haircut on uninsured deposits, a large proportion of which were held by wealthy Russians who used Cyprus as a tax haven. Insured deposits of €100,000 or less were not affected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5598",
"title": "Economy of Cyprus",
"section": "Section::::Eurozone crisis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "In 2012, Cyprus became affected by the Eurozone financial and banking crisis. In June 2012, the Cypriot government announced it would need € of foreign aid to support the Cyprus Popular Bank, and this was followed by Fitch down-grading Cyprus's credit rating to junk status. Fitch said Cyprus would need an additional € to support its banks and the downgrade was mainly due to the exposure of Bank of Cyprus, Cyprus Popular Bank and Hellenic Bank (Cyprus's 3 largest banks) to the Greek financial crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5593",
"title": "Cyprus",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "In the early 21st century the Cypriot economy has diversified and become prosperous. However, in 2012 it became affected by the Eurozone financial and banking crisis. In June 2012, the Cypriot government announced it would need € in foreign aid to support the Cyprus Popular Bank, and this was followed by Fitch downgrading Cyprus's credit rating to junk status. Fitch said Cyprus would need an additional € to support its banks and the downgrade was mainly due to the exposure of Bank of Cyprus, Cyprus Popular Bank and Hellenic Bank, Cyprus's three largest banks, to the Greek financial crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9331854",
"title": "Cyprus Popular Bank",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "BULLET::::- The 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis resulted in financial difficulties at CPB. The Cypriot state recapitalized CPB on 30 June 2012 with the result that the government acquired 84% of the bank's equity. This increased the bank's core tier 1 capital ratio towards 9%, the level mandated by the European Banking Authority.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1x8spg
|
How many revisions of the bible did it take to get to the current, most widely accepted English version?
|
[
{
"answer": "The answer: not many, and not much.\n\nVarious sects have their own bible preferences, of course, but the the best translation from an academic point of view is currently the NRSV. This edition was created from the Greek and/or Hebrew text, and we have copies of (almost?) all of these at least from the 3rd century. While any manuscript tradition will show some variation due to scribal error, interpolation, etc, modern scholarly techniques for creating a critical edition, that is, an edition which shows the most probable original text with major variations, are highly advanced. Thus, the Greek and Hebrew from which the NRSV is translated is considered to be highly accurate.\n\nWhile the NRSV was translated to English by competent scholars, translation will always be an act of interpretation. For example, the NRSV translators decided to represent the Greek word *ecclesía* as \"Church\", a meaning it would not have had for the actual authors of the New Testament, for whom it meant \"community.\" \n\nMost of these translator judgments are, however, relatively minor and only of interest with respect to intricate points of theology, and not of any practical consequence for most believers.\n\nSo, while I like Bill an awful lot, his point doesn't really stand up. ",
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},
{
"answer": "The textual basis of the Bible is fairly stable, current critical editions are the work of sifting through hundreds of texts, and the amount of overall variation is relatively minor, and the point of meaning up for grabs in textual variations is also relatively minor (there's only so much you can make of a difference between 'Jesus Christ' and 'Christ Jesus' in a verse, for instance).\n\nThe idea of numerous retranslations is a bit misleading. I don't know the context of the comment, but all major modern English translations are based on a translation of our critical editions of the Greek and Hebrew. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "567069",
"title": "New English Bible",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 887,
"text": "Near the time when the copyright to the English Revised Version was due to expire (1935), the Oxford University Press and the Cambridge University Press, who were the current English Revised Version copyright holders, began investigations to determine whether a modern revision of the English Revised Version text was necessary. In May 1946 G. S. Hendry, along with the Presbytery of Stirling and Dunblane produced a notice, which was presented to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, indicating that the work of translating should be undertaken in order to produce a Bible with thoroughly \"modern English.\" After the work of delegation was finished, a general conference was held in October 1946 where it was determined that a completely fresh translation should be undertaken rather than a revision as originally suggested by the University Presses of Oxford and Cambridge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1607109",
"title": "Reina-Valera",
"section": "Section::::History.:Further revisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "The British and Foreign Bible Society, the American Bible Society and the United Bible Societies published a total of fifteen revisions between 1808 and 1995 of which those of 1909, 1960 and 1995 are the most significant today and remain in print and a further revision appeared in 2011. Modern editions often omit the Apocrypha. The principle behind these revisions has been to remain as close to the original Reina–Valera as possible without causing confusion or misunderstanding. Even the 1995 New Testament is based on the traditional Textus Receptus despite the fact that the United Bible Societies use modern critical Greek texts as the basis for other translations. It retains the traditional form of the name of God, \"Jehová\" (with the notable exceptions of the Nueva Reina Valera 1990, revision which replaces \"Jehová\" with \"El Eterno\" and the Reina Valera Contemporánea, revision of 2011 which replaces \"Jehová\" with \"El Señor\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22969858",
"title": "The Woman's Bible",
"section": "Section::::Revising Committee.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "In 1881, 1885 and 1894, the Church of England published a Revised Version of the Bible, the first new English version in over two centuries. Stanton was dissatisfied with the Revised Version's failure to incorporate recent scholarship from Bible translator Julia Evelina Smith. She wrote: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "767137",
"title": "Revised English Bible",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The Revised English Bible (REB) is a 1989 English-language translation of the Bible that updates the New English Bible (NEB) of 1970. As with its predecessor, it is published by the publishing houses of both the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. It is not to be confused with the \"Revised English Bible\" of 1877, which was an annotated and slightly corrected version of the King James Bible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "316196",
"title": "Revised Version",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "While the text of the translation itself is widely regarded as excessively literal and flat, the Revised Version is significant in the history of English Bible translation for many reasons. At the time of the RV's publication, the nearly 300-year-old King James Version was the main Protestant English Bible in Victorian England. The RV, therefore, is regarded as the forerunner of the entire modern translation tradition. It was also considered more accurate than the King James Version in a number of verses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61268839",
"title": "March 1970",
"section": "Section::::March 16, 1970 (Monday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "BULLET::::- The New English Bible, an updated translation, went on sale worldwide after the completion of translation of the Old Testament. Rather than making a revision of previous English versions, a team of Biblical scholars worked from Hebrew language texts, and the publishers of the universities at Oxford and Cambridge stated that the new version was \"as truthful as human skill could make it— and carried out by the best scholars and translators that the churches possessed\" . The release came a little more than nine years after the release of the NEB New Testament translation on March 14, 1961.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "274466",
"title": "Revised Standard Version",
"section": "Section::::Making of the RSV.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Funding for the revision was assured in 1936 by a deal made with the publisher Thomas Nelson & Sons that gave Thomas Nelson & Sons the exclusive rights to print the new version for ten years. The Committee determined that, since the work would be a revision of the \"Standard Bible\" (as the ASV was sometimes called because of its standard use in seminaries in those days), the name of the work would be the \"Revised Standard Version\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
212fll
|
How many ants are there in the world? I've heard for every human on Earth there comes more then a million ants
|
[
{
"answer": "Holldobler and Willson (The Ants, 1990) estimate 10 000 trillion individuals. So that's probably closer to 1.4 million per person.\n\nBut ants are a large and diverse group with about 14 000 species. They also have a communal ecology wherein most individuals don't reproduce and cannot survive without the rest of the colony, so maybe the colony is the better unit of comparison rather than the individual.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2594",
"title": "Ant",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "It has been estimated by E.O. Wilson that the total number of individual ants alive in the world at any one time is between one and ten quadrillion (short scale) (i.e., between 10 and 10). According to this estimate, the total biomass of all the ants in the world is approximately equal to the total biomass of the entire human race. Also, according to this estimate, there are approximately 1 million ants for every human on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37486008",
"title": "Lists of organisms by population",
"section": "Section::::Animalia.:Hexapoda.:Insects (Insecta).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Recent figures indicate that there are more than 1.4 billion insects for each human on the planet An article in \"The New York Times\" claimed that the world holds 300 pounds of insects for every pound of humans. Ants have colonised almost every landmass on Earth. Their population is estimated as 10–10 (10-100 quadrillion).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "260914",
"title": "Orders of magnitude (numbers)",
"section": "Section::::10.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 199,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 199,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Biology-Insects\": 1,000,000,000,000,000 to 10,000,000,000,000,000 (10 to 10) – The estimated total number of ants on Earth alive at any one time (their biomass is approximately equal to the total biomass of the human race).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2594",
"title": "Ant",
"section": "Section::::Distribution and diversity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Ants are found on all continents except Antarctica, and only a few large islands, such as Greenland, Iceland, parts of Polynesia and the Hawaiian Islands lack native ant species. Ants occupy a wide range of ecological niches and exploit many different food resources as direct or indirect herbivores, predators and scavengers. Most ant species are omnivorous generalists, but a few are specialist feeders. Their ecological dominance is demonstrated by their biomass: ants are estimated to contribute 15–20 % (on average and nearly 25% in the tropics) of terrestrial animal biomass, exceeding that of the vertebrates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "369232",
"title": "Leafcutter ant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Next to humans, leafcutter ants form the largest and most complex animal societies on Earth. In a few years, the central mound of their underground nests can grow to more than across, with smaller radiating mounds extending out to a radius of , taking up and containing eight million individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2594",
"title": "Ant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Ants have colonised almost every landmass on Earth. The only places lacking indigenous ants are Antarctica and a few remote or inhospitable islands. Ants thrive in most ecosystems and may form 15–25% of the terrestrial animal biomass. Their success in so many environments has been attributed to their social organisation and their ability to modify habitats, tap resources, and defend themselves. Their long co-evolution with other species has led to mimetic, commensal, parasitic, and mutualistic relationships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25647966",
"title": "List of largest insects",
"section": "Section::::Ants, bees, and wasps (Hymenoptera).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "The largest of the ants, and the heaviest species of the family, are the females of \"Dorylus helvolus\", reaching a length of . The ant that averages the largest for the mean size of the whole colony is \"Dinoponera gigantea\", averaging up to . Another ant that is native to Australia, \"Myrmecia brevinoda\", workers are reported to be on average and queens are more than in length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
aklogb
|
If the goal was to win WWII, why on earth would the American military segregate white and black soldiers?
|
[
{
"answer": "By the start of WWII, the U.S. Army had been segregated since the Civil War, nearly 75 yeard ago. The Army had fought and won the Civil War, the Plains Wars, the Spanish-American War, the Philippine Insurrection, and WWI as a segregated force. From the Army's point of view, segregationist policies hadn't been an obstacle to victory in 1865, 1876, 1898, or 1918, so why change in 1941? Granted, that attitude would start to change by 1945.\n\nNow, the Army saw black manpower as highly useful in wartime, but often utilized black soldiers in non-combat roles. During World War I, the vast majority of the 367,410 blacks drafted were used as manual laborers or sent to service units. In WWII, much the same thing happened. Of the 922,965 black soldiers in WWII, most spent the war working in segregated rear-area service units. The all-black 2nd Cavalry Division was sent to North Africa and Italy, only to be broken up and used to provide troops for labor units or replacements for an all-black infantry division. The 555th Parachute Infantry Regiment wasn't ever sent to fight the Japanese, instead they spent the war as smokejumpers fighting forest fires in the Pacific Northwest. The U.S. Army had a huge need for laborers and support personnel to move supplies, build airfields, and do other vital work in rear areas. Although there was unquestionably a racial tint to the Army's choice, there was a certain half-sense to it - many black soldiers were undereducated and it would have been difficult to train them for other roles. \n\nSome Army officers believed there were racial differences between whites and blacks that justified, nay, demanded, segregation. This attitude, perhaps unsurprisingly, was prevalent amongst southern-born officers. Now, the U.S. Army deliberately assigned white officers from Southern states to command segregated black units. The theory was that Southern officers would have more experience dealing with blacks and would know how to handle them.\n\nThis lead to some ... issues. \n\nTake Virginian Ned Almond, for example. As a Brigadier General, Almond was made the assistant divisional commander of the all-black 93rd Infantry Division.* His divisional commander, Mississippi native Major General Charles P. Hall, was assigned to the unit for similar reasons. Later, Almond was promoted and given command of the 92nd Infantry Division, the \"Buffalo Soldiers Division\" before it was sent into combat in Italy.\n\nAlthough Almond had excellent paper qualifications, he was a terrible choice for the job. Almond was virulently racist (during the Korean War he called Chinese soldiers \"laundrymen\") and loathed his assignment. He went so far as to say:\n\n > \"No white man wants to be accused of leaving the battle line. The Negro doesn't care .... people think being from the South we don't like Negroes. Not at all, but we understand his capabilities. And we don't want to sit at the table with them.\"\n\nMany of Almond's white officers felt the same way. Being assigned to an all-black division was seen as a career-killer. Turnover rates were high, as some white officers schemed ways to get out of black units. Training and readiness suffered, especially since many black soldiers from Jim Crow areas could barely read or write. When the 92nd went into combat in Italy, it's combat debut went badly. Badly-lead and badly-trained soldiers failed to take objectives and took heavy casualties. Many black soldiers deserted or broke down. In fact, desertion became a chronic problem for the unit. Despite the fact he was partly to blame, Almond blamed his black soldiers and cursed his hard luck at getting the assignment.\n\nInterestingly enough, the combat failures of segregated units like the 92nd Infantry Division in WWII and the 24th Infantry Regiment in the Korean War spurred integration efforts in the late 1940s and 1950. Limited experience with integration in WWII had suggested mixed-race units did better in combat than segregated ones. \n\nDuring WWII, there had been some experiments with partial integration. Between June and January 1945, the Army had lost 430,000 troops in Europe. In January 1945, the Army desperately needed more troops. Lieutenant General John C.H. Lee suggested the Army send more black troops into combat. Lee was the Service of Supply (SOS) commander in the ETO, so he'd had extensive, often positive experiences working with all-black service units.\n\nThe Army accepted Lee's suggestion. To help fill the manpower demands, the Army sought out volunteers from all-black units. Initially, the Army only took 2,000 men (the maximum number that could be simultaneously trained at the Ground Forces Reinforcement Center (GFRC) in northern France). The spots were quickly filled with volunteers, many of them long-serving NCOs willing to be reduced in rank for a chance to fight in the rank. The Army now had enough manpower for 53 all-black rifle platoons. By March 1945, 37 platoons were ready. Some were formed into all-black company-sized units and attached to the 12th and 14th Armored divisions. Others were attached to all-white infantry companies to form a 5th rifle platoon (usually, rifle companies had three rifle platoons and a heavy weapons platoon).\n\nWhite officers were generally assigned to lead these new all-black platoons while they were in training at the GFRC. Some resented the job. Others, like combat veteran First Lieutenant Richard Ralston were more sanguine. He recalled:\n\n > \"There was a learning process on both sides ... They were pretty ginger about me because I was white, but once they were convinced that I was talking serious stuff and wasn’t racially prejudiced, they got down in the dirt and did what they had to do. They knew then I was talking survival.\"\n\n\"We kept training in earnest ... I exaggerated considerably about how many of them were going to die to try and scare them out of the unit. I only wanted the best and bravest. But nobody quit. They were pretty darned good.\" \n\nRalston's 5th Platoon was assigned to K Company, 394th Regiment, 99th Infantry Division. They were thrown into combat in March 1945. In the fighting around the Remagen bridgehead, the platoon took its first losses. It spent the rest of the war in the advance into the Rhineland. Another black platoon in the 393rd Infantry Regiment, 99th Infantry Division did so well it was regarded as one of the best platoons in the regiment\n\nOther all-black platoons did similarly well. Brigadier General Edwin F. Parker, the 78th Infantry Division's commander, asked for more black platoons after the fighting around Remagen. \n\nThe 104th Infantry Division reported:\n\n > \"Morale: Excellent. Manner of performance: Superior. Men are very eager to close with the enemy and to destroy him. Strict attention to duty, aggressiveness, common sense and judgment under fire has won the admiration of all the men in the country.\"\n\nThe 1st Infantry Division observed:\n\n > \"White platoons like to fight beside them because they laid a large volume of fire on the enemy positions.\"\n\nPost-war interviews revealed more. In mid-1945, the Army interviewed 250 officers and 1,700 enlisted men who had fought with or near the black soldiers. The results were promising. 84 percent of the officers said the black soldiers did \"very well\" in combat. The other 12 percent said the black riflemen had done \"fairly well.\" A mere 5 percent of officers thought black troops were inferior infantrymen to white soldiers. Race relations had also been better than expected. 73 percent of officers and 60 percent of NCOs thought black soldiers and white soldiers got along well with each other.\n\nIt is important to consider that the black soldiers in many of the 5th Platoons weren't representative of the average black soldier or the average Army infantryman in 1945. They were relatively older, longer-serving, and all were volunteers. That doesn't in any way diminish their combat performance or their service. It's just important context to consider when we evaluate their performance.\n\nOne company commander reported:\n\n > \"They were the best platoon in the regiment. I wish I could get a presidential citation for them. They are very aggressive as fighters — really good in woods and at close-quarters work.\"\n\nAnother officer had only one complaint:\n\n > \"The only trouble is getting them to stop; they just keep pushing.\"\n\nAfter the war, Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Forces (SHAEF) dissolved the black platoons and most of the men were forced to return to their original units. However, the experiment had been instructive to the Army. It had certainly given civil rights leaders lobbying for integration in the Army.\n\nIn July 1948, Truman signed Executive Order 9981, which read:\n\n > It is hereby declared to be the policy of the President that there shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion or national origin. This policy shall be put into effect as rapidly as possible, having due regard to the time required to effectuate any necessary changes without impairing efficiency or morale.\n\nThis integrated the U.S. Armed forces, although it would take years before the effort was complete. The need for troops, any troops, to provide casualty replacements in the Korean War really shoved forward integration.\n\n*The 93rd was nicknamed the \"Blue Helmet Division\" and had a blue French Adrian helmet on its shoulder patch. Partly for racial reasons, it hadn't fought under direct control of the U.S. Army, but had been attached to the French army. The blue helmet was a token of this history.\n\n\nSources: \n\n\"The 93rd Infantry Division: The Only African-American Division in the Pacific Theater\" by Stephen D. Lutz \n\n\"Bring on the Buffalo\" by Michael Lynch \n\n*The Day of Battle: The War in Sicily and Ital y, 1943-1944* by Rick Atkinson\n\n\"African American Platoons in World War II\" by David P. Colley",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3551123",
"title": "C.S.A.: The Confederate States of America",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:The Great Depression and World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "During the war, the C.S.A. military suffers massive losses and tries to solve its manpower shortages by recruiting a black regiment, promising the slaves freedom after the war. This regiment receives the most dangerous missions and suffers high casualties, and despite earning the respect of white officers, when the war concludes the black soldiers are enslaved once more, their promises of freedom being broken without explanation. The Japanese are defeated by use of the atomic bomb; the European war still ends in the Nazis' defeat, albeit with many more Soviet casualties. Joseph Stalin expands control over all Continental Europe and supports the holding of their colonies with exception of the British Empire (thanks to Canadian military assistance).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1850366",
"title": "John E. Rankin",
"section": "Section::::Bigotry.:African Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "During World War II, Rankin alleged that the U.S. Army's loss of a certain battle was due to the cowardice of black soldiers. Fellow Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas replied that many black soldiers had been decorated for bravery despite serving in a segregated Army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37826537",
"title": "Racial segregation in the United States Armed Forces",
"section": "Section::::United States Marine Corps.:Franklin Roosevelt administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "After wars broke out in the late 1930s in Africa, China and Europe, black community leaders determined to use the black workforce's loyalty as leverage to gain greater racial equality at home. In June 1940, the NAACP's magazine, \"The Crisis\", published a declaration that the fighting around the world was certainly bad, \"but the hysterical cries of the preachers of democracy for Europe leave us cold. We want democracy in Alabama, Arkansas, in Mississippi and Michigan, in the District of Columbia, in the Senate of the United States.\" During the 1940 presidential election, both parties courted the black vote. Incumbent President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was re-elected, partly because substantial numbers of black voters crossed previous party lines and voted for the Democratic Party candidate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31944849",
"title": "Desegregation in the United States Marine Corps",
"section": "Section::::History.:Franklin Roosevelt administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "After wars broke out in the late 1930s in Africa, China and Europe, black community leaders determined to use the black workforce's loyalty as leverage to gain greater racial equality at home. In June 1940, the NAACP's magazine, \"The Crisis\", published a declaration that the fighting around the world was certainly bad, \"but the hysterical cries of the preachers of democracy for Europe leave us cold. We want democracy in Alabama, Arkansas, in Mississippi and Michigan, in the District of Columbia, in the Senate of the United States.\" During the 1940 presidential election, both parties courted the black vote. Incumbent President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was re-elected, partly because substantial numbers of black voters crossed previous party lines and voted for the Democratic Party candidate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57998",
"title": "Battle of the Bulge",
"section": "Section::::Result.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 210,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 210,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "During World War II, most U.S. black soldiers still served only in maintenance or service positions, or in segregated units. Because of troop shortages during the Battle of the Bulge, Eisenhower decided to integrate the service for the first time. This was an important step toward a desegregated United States military. More than 2,000 black soldiers had volunteered to go to the front. A total of 708 black Americans were killed in combat during World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "397982",
"title": "369th Infantry Regiment (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "When the U.S. entered into World War I, many African Americans believed that entering the armed forces would help eliminate racial discrimination throughout the United States. Many felt it was \"a God-sent blessing\" so they could prove they deserved respect from their white compatriots through service in the armed forces. Through the efforts of the Central Committee of Negro College Men and President Wilson, a special training camp to train black officers for the proposed black regiments was established.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3300672",
"title": "Militia Act of 1862",
"section": "Section::::Legislative history.:Attitude of Congress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1112,
"text": "Observing the racial discrimination and strong opposition among ranks of military officers, Congress began to fear that black involvement would only prolong the war. Democratic Senator of Missouri John B. Henderson asserted that because white soldiers do not \"want to fight by side with the nigger\", \"[t]he rebellion will never end if they are used. I do not believe they will help you any.\" Henderson voiced the opinion that black and white cooperation in the war was not possible. Seconding his fellow Senator, Republican James W. Grimes of Iowa, who wished to see blacks fighting, regretfully informed those at the Congressional debate, \"I believe for that every good soldier you would get among them, you will lose a white man, who will be driven off by his prejudices.\" And even though Lincoln wished to see slaves free, he said the same thing in the late winter of 1862: \"To arm the negroes, would turn 50,000 bayonets from the loyal Border States against us that were for us.\" Although he uses kinder words, Lincoln, too, implies that the racist attitudes have the power to rip the Union apart even more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
488tfi
|
what makes "the cloud" different from just a regular server? why is there a new term for something that was already done before?
|
[
{
"answer": "The \"cloud\" is mostly just a buzzword to refer to a concept that is a little more abstract than just \"server\".\n\nInstead of your data being stored on one particular server (e.g. that you own or rent), your data is being passed off to a third-party company (i.e. \"the cloud\") that handles the data for you and stores it as they see fit. The data may be stored on some random server that third-party owns, or it may even be stored / replicated across different servers in different locations, etc.\n\nAs the end user of the cloud service, none of this matters to you. You don't concern yourself with what server(s) the data is being stored on or how the data is being stored, you just know that if you pass data to the service then they will store it for you and then you can later retrieve that data (from anywhere you have internet access).\n\nSo, before companies started moving to \"the cloud\", they would (for example) often host their own email servers in-house and often the only way for employees to access their work emails would be to connect to the corporate network (either physically at the office or remotely via a VPN connection) and then use a desktop email client like Outlook to read their emails.\n\nNow companies move stuff like email \"to the cloud\" where they get major service providers like Google and Microsoft to provide cloud-hosted solutions where all the corporate email etc. is managed by those third-parties and employees can login to their corporate email from anywhere via \"the cloud\" (using just their web browser). \n\nNow the company no longer has to worry about things like server operating costs, server maintenance / security, etc. now they just pay a provider like Google/Microsoft for a corporate cloud-solution and they handle everything instead.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's really just about marketing. In the IT world the cloud is not a new idea at all. It's used as a visual symbol to represent the internet in most IT textbooks, and has been for years(decades maybe?). So the cloud is really just the Internet, not necessarily a data server. \n\nMarketing campaigns from leading IT companies molded this into an idea to sell the public. The cloud became primarily about storage and backup in these campaigns. And people liked this idea of their data floating around just waiting for them to access it. So the idea stuck. \n\nBut in the IT industry the cloud still refers to systems utilizing the Internet. Cloud based systems are now just client server models that rely on an Internet link between the two. Weather it's for data storage and backup or things like [cloud9](_URL_0_), a complete development platform accessible to entire development teams and equipped with reconfigurable and custom environments. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the key concepts that separates the cloud from a server bank is virtualization. \n\n The cloud provides a level of hardware abstraction that allows your application to run in a virtual operating system that can be supported by generic cloud hardware and replicated at a moments notice. That hardware is fault tolerant by co-location and duplication ensuring a nearly 100% up-time. Load balancing and provisioning of hardware resources can happen dynamically in real time (elastically). All because of the extra layer of hardware abstraction. \n\nThese are platform as a service (PaaS) services , and they are what makes the cloud more than just a bunch of servers somewhere. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "With a regular server, you as the user control physical and virtual access. You most likely own the box itself and is located on your premises. Cloud is an abstract for \"3rd party facilities\".\n\nThis is a useful proxy: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's pure marketing. A \"cloud\" is an image used in networking maps to normally show the internet, instead of all the connections and routers in between a site to the Internet to another site.\n\nSo marketing used \"the cloud\" to just mean the data or service you are using is out somewhere on the internet. Saying \"it's in the Internet\" scared people to death with marketing having your important data or access to programs on the Internet, so they made up \"the cloud\" and it's often portrayed as being some specialized secure system to get people to commit.\n\n\nFunctionally, it could be a shitty desktop PC sitting in some jack wagons basement (I see local VOIP PBX hosters do this all the time), or a multi geographically redundant server platform with all sorts of power and functions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine your old style server architecture like your home closet. You know which closet to use, you put your coat (file) in a specific location that you know of, and when you want that coat (file), you go to that closet, find the specific spot where you stored the coat, and grab it.\n\nCloud is like the coat checker at a fancy restaurant. You give the coat to the clerk. They store the coat somewhere (you have no idea which closet they store your coat in, they might even store your coat, your gloves, and your hat at different closets), you just know that they store your coat securely and safely, and you can grab it any time you wish.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Computer Science PhD student here, researching mainly cloud computing and virtualization.\n\nThe best definition of cloud computing was made by NIST a few years ago and is (partially) as follows:\n\nCloud computing is a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction. This cloud model is composed of five essential characteristics, three service models, and four deployment models.\n\nEssential Characteristics:\n\n**On-demand self-service.** A consumer can unilaterally provision computing capabilities, such as server time and network storage, as needed automatically without requiring human interaction with each service provider.\n\n**Broad network access.** Capabilities are available over the network and accessed through standard mechanisms that promote use by heterogeneous thin or thick client platforms (e.g., mobile phones, tablets, laptops, and workstations).\n\n**Resource pooling.** The provider’s computing resources are pooled to serve multiple consumers using a multi-tenant model, with different physical and virtual resources dynamically assigned and reassigned according to consumer demand. There is a sense of location independence in that the customer generally has no control or knowledge over the exact location of the provided resources but may be able to specify location at a higher level of abstraction (e.g., country, state, or datacenter). Examples of resources include storage, processing, memory, and network bandwidth.\n\n**Rapid elasticity.** Capabilities can be elastically provisioned and released, in some cases automatically, to scale rapidly outward and inward commensurate with demand. To the consumer, the capabilities available for provisioning often appear to be unlimited and can be appropriated in any quantity at any time.\n\n**Measured service.** Cloud systems automatically control and optimize resource use by leveraging a metering capability1 at some level of abstraction appropriate to the type of service (e.g., storage, processing, bandwidth, and active user accounts). Resource usage can be monitored, controlled, and reported, providing transparency for both the provider and\nconsumer of the utilized service.\n\n[Source.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42757800",
"title": "Personal cloud",
"section": "Section::::Server device cloud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "In many ways cloud servers work in the same way as physical servers but the functions they perform can be very different. Typically, the cloud server is an on-premises device that is connected to the Internet and gives users the functions available on the online cloud but with the added benefit and security of the files being in their control on their premises.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43204134",
"title": "Cloud computing issues",
"section": "Section::::Ambiguity of terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Outside of the information technology and software industry, the term \"cloud\" can be found to reference a wide range of services, some of which fall under the category of cloud computing, while others do not. The cloud is often used to refer to a product or service that is discovered, accessed and paid for over the Internet, but is not necessarily a computing resource. Examples of service that are sometimes referred to as \"the cloud\" include, but are not limited to, crowd sourcing, cloud printing, crowd funding, cloud manufacturing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19541494",
"title": "Cloud computing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Cloud computing is the on-demand availability of computer system resources, especially data storage and computing power, without direct active management by the user. The term is generally used to describe data centers available to many users over the Internet. Large clouds, predominant today, often have functions distributed over multiple locations from central servers. If the connection to the user is relatively close, it may be designated an edge server.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19127563",
"title": "Rackspace Cloud",
"section": "Section::::Services.:Cloud Servers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "Cloud Servers is a cloud infrastructure service that allows users to deploy \"one to hundreds of cloud servers instantly\" and create \"advanced, high availability architectures\" similar to the Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud. The \"cloud servers\" are virtual machines running on the Xen hypervisor for Linux-based instances, and Citrix XenServer for Windows and Linux instances. Each quad core hardware node has between 16 and 32 GB of RAM, allowing for allocations between 256 MB and 30 GB. Disk and CPU allocations scale up with memory, with disk sizes ranging from 10 GB to 620 GB. Various distributions of Linux are supported, including Arch, CentOS, Debian, Fedora, Gentoo, Red Hat Enterprise Linux and Ubuntu.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42757800",
"title": "Personal cloud",
"section": "Section::::Online cloud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "The online cloud is also sometimes referred to as public cloud. Online cloud is the cloud computing model where online resources like software and data storage are made available over the Internet by a service provider. In an online cloud model, cloud services are provided in a virtualized system, are constructed using pooled, shared physical resources and are accessed by the Internet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42757800",
"title": "Personal cloud",
"section": "Section::::Server device cloud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "The server cloud has been historically enterprise-based deployed by businesses needing an in-house cloud. However, there are also in-house options available for individual users such as the open-source ownCloud (which runs on Linux), the CloudLocker device by StoAmigo and the Nimbus project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19541494",
"title": "Cloud computing",
"section": "Section::::Deployment models.:Others.:Big Data cloud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "The issues of transferring large amounts of data to the cloud as well as data security once the data is in the cloud initially hampered adoption of cloud for big data, but now that much data originates in the cloud and with the advent of bare-metal servers, the cloud has become a solution for use cases including business analytics and geospatial analysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
k0dvx
|
explain contemporary indian politics like i'm 5
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm commenting because I'm 5 and also want to know (when someone answers). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm commenting because I'm 5 and also want to know (when someone answers). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48708045",
"title": "Studies in Indian Politics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Studies in Indian Politics is a Peer reviewed journal. It provides a forum to explain different aspects of Indian politics. It covers a wide variety of sub-fields in politics, such as political ideas and thought in India, political institutions and processes, Indian democracy and politics in a comparative perspective particularly with reference to the global South and South Asia, India in world affairs, and public policies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17295755",
"title": "The Post-American World",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The fifth chapter focuses on India. Contrasted to China, India has a bottom-up democratic political system constantly subject to social unrest with only a few politicians losing elections. Its political system is characterized by strong regionalism — often placing high priority on regional interests rather than national. Zakaria lists India's advantages: independent courts that enforce contracts, private property rights, rule of law, an established private sector, and many business savvy English-speaking people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14599",
"title": "Politics of India",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "The politics of India works within the framework of the country's constitution. India is a federal parliamentary democratic republic in which the President of India is the head of state and the Prime Minister of India is the head of government. India follows the dual polity system, i.e. a double government (federal in nature) that consists of the central authority at the centre and states at the periphery. The constitution defines the organisational powers and limitations of both central and state governments, and it is well recognised, rigid and considered supreme; i.e. the laws of the nation must confirm to it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14599",
"title": "Politics of India",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "In recent decades, Indian politics has become a dynastic affair. Possible reasons for this could be the party stability, absence of party organisations, independent civil society associations that mobilise support for the parties and centralised financing of elections. The Economist Intelligence Unit rated India as a \"flawed democracy\" in 2016.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5620565",
"title": "Indomania",
"section": "Section::::21st century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "India is the world's largest democracy. The democratic nature of its politics has led many world leaders to praise Indian politics. George W. Bush commented: India is a great example of democracy. It is very devout, has diverse religious heads, but everyone is comfortable about their religion. The world needs India.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14533",
"title": "India",
"section": "Section::::Politics and government.:Politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "India is the world's most populous democracy. A parliamentary republic with a multi-party system, it has sevenrecognised national parties, including the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and more than 40regional parties. The Congress is considered centre-left in Indian political culture, and the BJP right-wing. For most of the period between 1950—when India first became a republic—and the late 1980s, the Congress held a majority in the parliament. Since then, however, it has increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP, as well as with powerful regional parties which have often forced the creation of multi-party coalition governments at the centre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54496972",
"title": "Conservatism in India",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Conservatism in India refers to the political philosophy of conservatism as it has developed in India. Politics in India has since at least the 1990s been most predominantly a contest between the centre-left Indian National Congress alliance and the center-right Bharatiya Janata Party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4epacf
|
Could a dinosaur regrow a severed tail like some lizards?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\nprobably not",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Neither birds nor crocodiles can regenerate lost body parts, and being the closest living relatives to dinosaurs (in birds case they are direct descendants) it's likely that dinosaurs couldn't regenerate body parts either.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39201589",
"title": "Anolis grahami",
"section": "Section::::Behavior And Reproduction.:Defense.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Like most lizards, these anoles possess autotomic tails. If the lizard is captured or pursued, the end portion of the tail may break off and continue to move for several minutes, hopefully distracting its attacker and giving the lizard enough time to escape. Given time, the dislocated portion of the tail may be replaced by a stiff, cartilaginous rod.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2078585",
"title": "Autotomy",
"section": "Section::::Vertebrates.:Reptiles and amphibians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Some lizards, salamanders and tuatara when caught by the tail will shed part of it in attempting to escape. In many species the detached tail will continue to wriggle, creating a deceptive sense of continued struggle, and distracting the predator's attention from the fleeing prey animal. Depending upon the species, the animal may be able to partially regenerate its tail, typically over a period of weeks or months. Though functional, the new tail section often is shorter and will contain cartilage rather than regenerated vertebrae of bone, and in colour and texture the skin of the regenerated organ generally differs distinctly from its original appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "241782",
"title": "Lepidosauria",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Second, most lepidosaurs have the ability to autotomize their tails. However, this trait has been lost on some recent species. In lizards, fracture planes are present within the vertebrae of the tail that allow for its removal. Some lizards have multiple fracture planes, while others just have a single fracture plane. The regrowth of the tail is not always complete and is made of a solid rod of cartilage rather than individual vertebrae. In snakes, the tail separates between vertebrae and some do not experience regrowth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18184",
"title": "Lizard",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.:Antipredator adaptations.:Autotomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Many lizards, including geckos and skinks, are capable of shedding their tails (autotomy). The detached tail, sometimes brilliantly coloured, continues to writhe after detaching, distracting the predator's attention from the fleeing prey. Lizards partially regenerate their tails over a period of weeks. Some 326 genes are involved in regenerating lizard tails. The fish-scale gecko \"Geckolepis megalepis \" sheds patches of skin and scales if grabbed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30786",
"title": "Tuatara",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Tail and back.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The spiny plates on the back and tail of the tuatara resemble those of a crocodile more than a lizard, but the tuatara shares with lizards the ability to break off its tail when caught by a predator, and then regenerate it. The regrowth takes a long time and differs from that of lizards. Well illustrated reports on tail regeneration in tuatara have been published by Alibardi & Meyer-Rochow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2694314",
"title": "European green lizard",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "The lizard reaches up to from the tip of the muzzle to the cloaca. The tail can be up to twice the length of the body, total length is up to . This lizard sometimes sheds its tail (autotomy) to evade the grasp of a predator, regrowing it later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12401561",
"title": "Bolitoglossa",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Tail autotomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Tail autotomy refers to the salamanders’ ability to release or lose their tail if necessary. This is a common characteristic of nearly all salamanders and lizards. (See autotomy). It is particularly helpful to the salamander in escaping attacks from its predators. Once the tail has been lost, it can regenerate one time. After this regeneration, the tail is incapable of separation with regeneration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3zeygu
|
how do scientist figure out when man-made things will decompose, like how do they know styrofoam takes 1000 years?
|
[
{
"answer": "Actually, we don't. Plastic bags have only been around for about 50 years, so there's no firsthand evidence of their decomposition rate. To make long-term estimates of this sort, scientists often use respirometry tests. The experimenters place a solid waste sample—like a newspaper, banana peel, or plastic bag—in a vessel containing microbe-rich compost, then aerate the mixture. Over the course of several days, microorganisms assimilate the sample bit by bit and produce carbon dioxide; the resultant CO2 level serves as an indicator of degradation.\n\nRespirometry tests work perfectly for newspapers and banana peels. (Newspapers take two to five months to biodegrade in a compost heap; banana peels take several days.) But when scientists test generic plastic bags, nothing happens—there's no CO2 production and no decomposition. Why? The most common type of plastic shopping bag—the kind you get at supermarkets—is made of polyethylene, a man-made polymer that microorganisms don't recognize as food.\n\nSo, where does the 500-year statistic come from? Although standard polyethylene bags don't biodegrade, they do photodegrade. When exposed to ultraviolet radiation from sunlight, polyethylene's polymer chains become brittle and start to crack. This suggests that plastic bags will eventually fragment into microscopic granules. As of yet, however, scientists aren't sure how many centuries it takes for the sun to work its magic. That's why certain news sources cite a 500-year estimate while others prefer a more conservative 1,000-year lifespan. According to some plastics experts, all these figures are just another way of saying \"a really, really long time.\"\n\nSometimes, even banana peels don't decompose once they reach the landfill. For sanitary reasons, modern landfills are lined on the bottom with clay and plastic to keep waste from escaping into the soil and are covered daily with a layer of earth to reduce odor. The landfill, then, acts like a trash tomb—the garbage within receives little air, water, or sunlight. This means that even readily degradable waste objects, including paper and food scraps, are more likely to mummify than decompose.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7050493",
"title": "Glossary of Dune terminology",
"section": "Section::::N.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "BULLET::::- Nullentropy – Technology akin to the science fiction concept of stasis, in which the natural processes of time, such as decomposition, are ceased. In this way, perishable matter such as food and even human cells may be stored for millennia and remain undamaged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422698",
"title": "Decomposer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "Decomposers are organisms that break down dead or decaying organisms, and in doing so, they carry out the natural process of decomposition. Like herbivores and predators, decomposers are heterotrophic, meaning that they use organic substrates to get their energy, carbon and nutrients for growth and development. While the terms decomposer and detritivore are often interchangeably used, detritivores must ingest and digest dead matter via internal processes while decomposers can directly absorb nutrients through chemical and biological processes hence breaking down matter without ingesting it. Thus, invertebrates such as earthworms, woodlice, and sea cucumbers are technically detritivores, not decomposers, since they must ingest nutrients and are unable to absorb them externally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "324741",
"title": "Replicator (Star Trek)",
"section": "Section::::Origins and limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "According to an academic thesis: \"The so-called 'replicators' can reconstitute matter and produce everything that is needed out of pure energy, no matter whether food, medicaments, or spare parts are required.\" A replicator can create any inanimate matter, as long as the desired molecular structure is on file, but it cannot create antimatter, dilithium, latinum, or a living organism of any kind; in the case of living organisms, non-canon works such as the \"Star Trek: the Next Generation Technical Manual\" state that, though the replicators use a form of transporter technology, it's at such a low resolution that creating living tissue is a physical impossibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188731",
"title": "Decomposition",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Decomposition is the process by which organic substances are broken down into simpler organic matter. The process is a part of the nutrient cycle and is essential for recycling the finite matter that occupies physical space in the biosphere. Bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death. Animals, such as worms, also help decompose the organic materials. Organisms that do this are known as decomposers. Although no two organisms decompose in the same way, they all undergo the same sequential stages of decomposition. The science which studies decomposition is generally referred to as \"taphonomy\" from the Greek word \"taphos\", meaning tomb.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25560578",
"title": "Metamaterial cloaking",
"section": "Section::::Cloaking attempts.:Broadband ground-plane cloak.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "An automated process, guided by a set of algorithms, was used to construct a metamaterial consisting of thousands of elements, each with its own geometry. Developing the algorithm allowed the manufacturing process to be automated, which resulted in fabrication of the metamaterial in nine days. The previous device used in 2006 was rudimentary in comparison, and the manufacturing process required four months in order to create the device. These differences are largely due to the different form of transformation: the original 2006 cloak transformed a singular point, while the ground-plane version transforms a plane, and the transformation in the carpet cloak was quasi-conformal, rather than non-conformal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "855850",
"title": "Extrusion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long material) or semi-continuous (producing many pieces). The extrusion process can be done with the material hot or cold. Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete, modelling clay, and foodstuffs. The products of extrusion are generally called \"extrudates\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42126908",
"title": "Gregory Maass & Nayoungim",
"section": "Section::::Works.:Relationships Do Not Exist.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "They proceeded by choosing samples from a wide collection of figurines ranging from the 1950s until today. In an intricate process the bodies are dismembered and reassembled, painted and mounted on empty trophy pedestals. Gregory Maass & Nayoungim call this an adaptation method: \"First we cannibalize them and then they get frankensteined back together.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12mzu2
|
Would it be possible to make a bio-luminescent tattoo?
|
[
{
"answer": "I couldn't find anything that had already been done the way you're looking for (UV tattoos have already been mentioned and I think you're looking for something that glows under any amount of light). So, I went about trying to figure out how this could be accomplished. The idea of bio-luminescent organisms was interesting but it brings up the question of a \"food\" source for the organisms. If you aren't having to constantly feed them by putting some sort of media on the tattoo, then one would presume they would have to take it from your skin in some way, and I imagine it would probably cause some long term damage to the skin. Then you run into problems of keeping the culture exactly in the shape of the tattoo and I'm sure countless other issues that I can't think of.\n\nThe solution that seemed easiest (or at least the most effective and practical) would be a light emitting and heat sensitive nanoparticle. [This article](_URL_0_) (which you can't access the full version without subscribing to the service, but the abstract and highlights are available to anyone) seems to be looking at a way to construct chains of nanoparticles that will absorb heat and emit light. I'm not suggesting using this particle, in particular, because I also can't access the full findings, but with the ever increasing number of nanoparticles being able to be synthesized and all of the different properties coming from them, I would imagine there are others with similar properties already being produced or at least in the making. \n\nThese particles could then be put into the \"ink\" and injected into the surface of the skin to produce the desired result. I will point out, though, that not a lot is known about most of the nanoparticles being developed today in relation to their toxicology. Nanoparticles tend to be very reactive with such a high surface area to volume ratio and this leads to many having unexpected dangers that have to be dealt with.\n\nThe conclusion I've reached, then, is that these tattoos are very possible but also most likely several to many years in the future, provided someone with the know-how and the resources decides to endeavor into tattoos.\n\nP.S. Please correct me if I've misrepresented anything and I'll make adjustments as necessary, it's 4 am my time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25250687",
"title": "LED tattoo",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "A light-emitting diode tattoo is a type of body modification similar to a tattoo, but specifically involves implantation of technologically based materials versus traditional ink injection into the layers of the skin. LED tattoos are accomplished by a combination of silicon-silk technology and a miniature lighting device known as a light-emitting diode. While there is potential for many applications in the medical, commercial and personal domains, the technology is still in the development stage. Once the ability is attained to condense the parts of a LED to a small enough level, it will be possible for the tattoos to be implanted in humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6605268",
"title": "Thermofax",
"section": "Section::::Modern uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "As of 2009, Thermofax machines were still widely used by artists. In addition to making copies, Thermofax machines can be used to make a \"spirit master\" for spirit duplicator machines. Tattoo artists use these spirit masters as tattoo stencils, to quickly and accurately mark the outlines of a tattoo on the skin of the person to be tattooed using a transfer solution. Textile and Printmaking artists use these machines for creating silk screens in several seconds by running a piece of Riso film through with a photocopied image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26672881",
"title": "Prison tattooing",
"section": "Section::::Risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Since the tattoo machines are homemade and efficient means of sterilization are not available, there are many health risks involved. Deadly diseases like hepatitis and HIV/AIDS can be passed from one person to the next through shared needles. Also, the makeshift ink can damage the skin, cause permanent scarring, or contain harmful chemicals. Tattoo equipment is also considered contraband, and tattooing can be considered by prison officials to be a punishable form of self-mutilation. The Federal Bureau of Prisons in 2011 reclassified tattooing as a high severity prohibited act.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47542541",
"title": "Microblading",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "Safety precautions for microblading are similar to those for any other tattooing technique. The most common complications and client dissatisfaction that results from any form of tattooing is misapplication of the pigment, pigment migration, colour change and in some cases, unintended hyperpigmentation. Serious complications are uncommon. Like with all forms of tattooing, risks associated with microblading include the transmission of blood-borne pathogenic organisms (e.g. HIV, hepatitis C), as well as short-term or long-terms reactions to pigment ingredients. Therefore, it is essential to check that the technician holds appropriate licenses and registrations for the provision of tattoo services, as well as inquire about the technician's standard of training.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24776087",
"title": "Health effects of tattoos",
"section": "Section::::Infection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "Infections that can theoretically be transmitted by the use of unsterilised tattoo equipment or contaminated ink include surface infections of the skin, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, tuberculosis, and HIV. However, no person in the United States is reported to have contracted HIV via a commercially applied tattooing process. Washington state's OSHA studies have suggested that since the needles used in tattooing are not hollow, in the case of a needle stick injury the amount of fluids transmitted may be small enough that HIV would be difficult to transmit. Tetanus risk is reduced by having an up-to-date tetanus booster prior to being tattooed. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, of 13,387 hepatitis cases in the USA in 1995, 12 cases (0.09%) were associated with tattoo parlours; by comparison, 43 cases (0.32%) were associated with dentists' offices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5094726",
"title": "Tattoo removal",
"section": "Section::::Laser removal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "Tattoo pigments have specific light absorption spectra. A tattoo laser must be capable of emitting adequate energy within the given absorption spectrum of the pigment to provide an effective treatment. Certain tattoo pigments, such as yellows and fluorescent inks are more challenging to treat than darker blacks and blues, because they have absorption spectra that fall outside or on the edge of the emission spectra available in the tattoo removal laser. Recent pastel coloured inks contain high concentrations of titanium dioxide which is highly reflective. Consequently, such inks are difficult to remove since they reflect a significant amount of the incident light energy out of the skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24776087",
"title": "Health effects of tattoos",
"section": "Section::::Dermal conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The most common dermal reactions to tattoo pigments are granulomas and various lichenoid diseases. Other conditions noted have been cement dermatitis, collagen deposits, discoid lupus erythematosus, eczematous eruptions, hyperkeratosis and parakeratosis, and keloids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
qudif
|
How fast do newly formed stars move away from the nebula where they were born?
|
[
{
"answer": "Stars form from molecular gas clouds, which tend to be large. As more stars form in the cloud, the radiation pressure disperses the gas leaving what we see as an [open cluster](_URL_0_).\n\nWhile the stars form close together, gravitational perturbations make the stars disperse and the open cluster basically falls apart. For most clusters, the time frame for this to happen is on the order of millions of years, which is fairly short in the big scheme of things.\n\nAs the open cluster loses more members, they tend to still move roughly together and appear to have similar motions in space, just they're not in a nice little cluster anymore. At that point we can see them as a [\"moving group\"](_URL_1_), of which the most prominent is the Ursa Majoris group. The wiki article on kinematics is *okay* to start with, though I'll edit in a better one a little later.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39674",
"title": "Planetary nebula",
"section": "Section::::Lifetime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1413,
"text": "After a star passes through the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) phase, the short planetary nebula phase of stellar evolution begins as gases blow away from the central star at speeds of a few kilometers per second. The central star is the remnant of its AGB progenitor, an electron-degenerate carbon-oxygen core that has lost most of its hydrogen envelope due to mass loss on the AGB. As the gases expand, the central star undergoes a two-stage evolution, first growing hotter as it continues to contract and hydrogen fusion reactions occur in the shell around the core and then slowly cooling when the hydrogen shell is exhausted through fusion and mass loss. In the second phase, it radiates away its energy and fusion reactions cease, as the central star is not heavy enough to generate the core temperatures required for carbon and oxygen to fuse. During the first phase, the central star maintains constant luminosity, while at the same time it grows ever hotter, eventually reaching temperatures around 100,000 K. In the second phase, it cools so much that it does not give off enough ultraviolet radiation to ionize the increasingly distant gas cloud. The star becomes a white dwarf, and the expanding gas cloud becomes invisible to us, ending the planetary nebula phase of evolution. For a typical planetary nebula, about 10,000 years passes between its formation and recombination of the resulting plasma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39674",
"title": "Planetary nebula",
"section": "Section::::Membership in clusters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Theoretical models predict that planetary nebulae can form from main-sequence stars of between one and eight solar masses, which puts the progenitor star's age at greater than 40 million years. Although there are a few hundred known open clusters within that age range, a variety of reasons limit the chances of finding a planetary nebula within. For one reason, the planetary nebula phase for more massive stars is on the order of thousands of years, which is a blink of the eye in cosmic terms. Also, partly because of their small total mass, open clusters have relatively poor gravitational cohesion and tend to disperse after a relatively short time, typically from 100 to 600 million years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16699367",
"title": "BD+60°2522",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Although BD+60°2522 is around two million years old, the surrounding nebula is apparently only about 40,000 years old. The bubble is expected to be formed as a shock front where the stellar wind meets interstellar material at supersonic speeds. The wind from BD+60°2522 is travelling outwards at 1,800–2,500 km/s, causing the star to lose over a millionth of the mass of the Sun every year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21160349",
"title": "NGC 2818",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Theoretical models predict that planetary nebulae can form from main-sequence stars of between 8 and 1 solar masses, which puts their age at 40 million years and older. Although there are a few hundred known open clusters within that age range, a variety of reasons limit the chances of finding a member of an open cluster in a planetary nebula phase. One such reason is that the planetary nebula phase for more massive stars belonging to younger clusters is on the order of thousands of years - a blink of the eye in cosmic terms. Only one association has been established between open clusters and nearby nebulae, the extremely distant nebula PHR 1315-6555\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28603",
"title": "Star cluster",
"section": "Section::::Open clusters.:Embedded clusters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "The embedded cluster phase may last for several million years, after which gas in the cloud is depleted by star formation or dispersed through radiation pressure, stellar winds and outflows, or supernova explosions. In general less than 30% of cloud mass is converted to stars before the cloud is dispersed, but this fraction may be higher in particularly dense parts of the cloud. With the loss of mass in the cloud, the energy of the system is altered, often leading to the disruption of a star cluster. Most young embedded clusters disperse shortly after the end of star formation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43948",
"title": "Star formation",
"section": "Section::::Observations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Initial research indicates star-forming clumps start as giant, dense areas in turbulent gas-rich matter in young galaxies, live about 500 million years, and may migrate to the center of a galaxy, creating the central bulge of a galaxy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1661177",
"title": "Accretion (astrophysics)",
"section": "Section::::Accretion of stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "The initial collapse of a solar-mass protostellar nebula takes around 100,000 years. Every nebula begins with a certain amount of angular momentum. Gas in the central part of the nebula, with relatively low angular momentum, undergoes fast compression and forms a hot hydrostatic (non-contracting) core containing a small fraction of the mass of the original nebula. This core forms the seed of what will become a star. As the collapse continues, conservation of angular momentum dictates that the rotation of the infalling envelope accelerates, which eventually forms a disk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3pmwue
|
why won't a pair of aaa batteries neutralize their charges when you touch one positive end to the other's negative end?
|
[
{
"answer": "Batteries contain chemicals that will react when given a path for electrons to flow from the positive end to the negative end. Touching the positive end of one battery to the negative end of the next doesn't complete a circuit and allow electrons to flow, therefore nothing happens.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43023729",
"title": "Organic radical battery",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "The negative electrode uses the nitroxide - hydroxylamine anion redox pair to create an electrochemical potential, i.e. when the battery discharges the nitroxide radical is reduced to the hydroxylamine anion and when the battery charges the hydroxylamine anion is oxidized back to the nitroxide. This half-reaction has an oxidation potential of -0.11 V. Since this half-reaction is not readily reversible as the half-reaction at the positive electrode, several research groups have steered away from using pure organic radical batteries and instead use metal/ORB hybrid batteries usually consist of a radical polymer cathode and the same anode found in rechargeable Li-ion batteries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6944",
"title": "Cathode",
"section": "Section::::Charge flow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Cathode polarity with respect to the anode can be positive or negative depending on how the device is being operated. Although positively charged cations always move towards the cathode (hence their name) and negatively charged anions move away from it, cathode polarity depends on the device type, and can even vary according to the operating mode. In a device which absorbs energy of charge (such as recharging a battery), the cathode is negative (electrons flow out of the cathode, and charge flows into it), and in a device which provides energy (such as battery in use), the cathode is positive (electrons flow into it and charge flows out):\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10589639",
"title": "Battery isolator",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "This is beneficial because a weak or dead battery will drain the charge from a strong battery if both are connected directly together. The disadvantage to an isolator is added cost and complexity, and if a diode-type isolator is used (which is very common) there is additional voltage drop in the circuit between the charging source and the batteries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38436",
"title": "Half-reaction",
"section": "Section::::Example: oxidation of magnesium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "The Mg(s) with zero charge gains a +2 charge going from the reactant side to product side, and the O(g) with zero charge gains a -2 charge. This is because when Mg(s) becomes Mg, it loses 2 electrons. Since there are 2 Mg on left side, a total of 4 electrons are lost according to the following oxidation half reaction:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28462507",
"title": "Electrostatic fluid accelerator",
"section": "Section::::Physical principles.:Production of thrust.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "Once the ions reach the attracting electrode most of them will lose their charge, i.e., by gaining an electron from the electrode. The fraction of the ions that do not collide with the attracting electrode will tend to be drawn back (up stream) to the attracting electrode. This causes the EFA device to be, more or less, being \"driven with a foot on the gas and a foot on the brake.\" An alternating driving voltage of the right frequency can, in principle, minimize this effect. The neutralized molecules may bounce off the attracting electrode in any random direction. The neutral molecules are not influenced by either electrode and thus their net flow is unaffected as they exit the EFA device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65894",
"title": "Electromotive force",
"section": "Section::::Voltage difference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The electric charge that has been separated creates an electric potential difference that can be measured with a voltmeter between the terminals of the device. The magnitude of the emf for the battery (or other source) is the value of this 'open circuit' voltage. When the battery is charging or discharging, the emf itself cannot be measured directly using the external voltage because some voltage is lost inside the source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12252139",
"title": "Electrostatic separator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "An electric charge can be positive or negative — objects with a positive charge repel other positively charged objects, thereby causing them to push away from each other, while a positively charged object would attract to a negatively charged object, thereby causing the two to draw together. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
wq8z7
|
How many WWII draftees were working in the CCC before they were drafted?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Civilian Conservation Corps was far and away the largest of the make-work projects during the New Deal. It was operated by the US Army, since they were the only government organization in 1933 that had the ability to handle such a large number of men. The CCC workers were civilians, so the army could not boss them around, using army regulations. The army NCOs and lieutenants had to develop real leadership skills, to get the CCC workers to do their jobs. That was far more valuable for the military's overall readiness than any physical fitness benifits. CCC jobs were also temporary, and the turnover each year was enormous. There must have been at least a million CCC alumni in the World War II US Army. During the nine years the CCC was in operation, 2.5 million different men were on its payroll, although never more than 375,000 in any one year. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37108221",
"title": "Henry Koerner",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Drafted into the U.S. Army, he was ordered in 1944 to the Graphics Division of the Office of Strategic Services in Washington, D.C. where he made war posters, including \"Save Waste Fats\" and \"Someone Talked\", the latter winning an award from the Museum of Modern Art. Shipped to London, he documented, in pen and ink sketches and photographs, everyday life during wartime. After VE Day (8 May 1945), Koerner was reassigned to Germany, working in Wiesbaden and Berlin, and sketching defendants at the Nuremberg trials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6355570",
"title": "Charles F. Marshall",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "He was drafted into the U.S. Army Sixth Corps in World War II for military intelligence and interrogated German POWs and analyzed captured and stolen German maps and charts. He was present at the Sixth Corps' landing at Anzio and the subsequent battles in southern France. He produced \"The Beachhead News\" newspaper and kept extensive notes on the war. He later authored two books on the subject, \"Discovering the Rommel Murder\", and \"A Ramble Through My War: Anzio and Other Joys\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10830607",
"title": "Minnesota Starvation Experiment",
"section": "Section::::Participant volunteers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 904,
"text": "In early 1944, a recruitment brochure was drafted and distributed within the network of CPS work camps throughout the United States. Over 400 men volunteered to participate in the study as an alternative to military service; of these, about 100 were selected for detailed examination. Drs. Taylor, Brožek, and Henschel from the Minnesota Laboratory of Physiological Hygiene traveled to the various CPS units to interview the potential candidates and administer physical and psychological tests to the volunteers. 36 men were ultimately selected who demonstrated evidence of the required mental and physical health, the ability to get along reasonably well within a group while enduring deprivation and hardship, and sufficient commitment to the relief and rehabilitation objectives of the investigation to complete the study. The subjects were all white males, with ages ranging from 22 to 33 years old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1155507",
"title": "Allen Hoskins",
"section": "Section::::World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "In 1940 President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Selective Service Act. Hoskins volunteered to serve in the Army in August 1940, shortly before the first draft registration took place on September 16, 1940. In 1941 Hoskins was stationed at Monterey, California, where a reporter found him:br\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "679421",
"title": "William McChesney Martin",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "During World War II he was drafted into the United States Army as a private. There he supervised the disposal of raw materials on the Munitions Allocation Board. He was also a liaison between the Army and Congress and the supervisor of the lend-lease program with the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1165995",
"title": "Committee on Public Information",
"section": "Section::::Organizational history.:Activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "The committee used newsprint, posters, radio, telegraph, and movies to broadcast its message. It recruited about 75,000 \"Four Minute Men,\" volunteers who spoke about the war at social events for an ideal length of four minutes. They covered the draft, rationing, war bond drives, victory gardens and why America was fighting. They were advised to keep their message positive, always use their own words and avoid \"hymns of hate.\" For ten days in May 1917, the Four Minute Men were expected to promote \"Universal Service by Selective Draft\" in advance of national draft registration on June 5, 1917.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14049029",
"title": "George Koval",
"section": "Section::::Recruitment and espionage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1258,
"text": "During the beginning of World War II, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had re-introduced the draft (conscription) in September 1940, and Koval registered for it on January 2, 1941. Raven Electric Company secured him a year's deferment from service until February 1942. According to historian Vladimir Lota, Koval's handlers wanted him to steal information about chemical weapons, and felt that he would not be able to do so while drafted. When the deferment expired, Koval was inducted into the United States Army. He received basic training at Fort Dix in New Jersey before being sent to the Citadel in Charleston, South Carolina. There, Koval served as a private in the 3410th Specialized Training and Reassignment Unit. On August 11, 1943, he was transferred to the Army Specialized Training Program, a unit established in December 1942 to provide talented enlistees with an education and technical training. Koval attended the City College of New York (CCNY) and studied electrical engineering. His CCNY classmates looked up to the older Koval as a role model and father figure who never did homework and was a noted ladies' man, never knowing about his Soviet education and wife. Colleagues recalled that he never discussed politics or the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2o5vv4
|
why can news stations not delay the broadcast by a few seconds incase something goes wrong?
|
[
{
"answer": "They can and do. However, the process still has some dependency on human attention and reaction time. [Here](_URL_0_) is a relevant article. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Th person holding the delay control on that Fox Broadcast probably felt safe with the presenters so was drinking coffee or updating facebook. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1136392",
"title": "Broadcast delay",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "In radio and television, broadcast delay is an intentional delay when broadcasting live material. Such a delay may be short (often seven seconds) to prevent mistakes or unacceptable content from being broadcast. Longer delays lasting several hours can also be introduced so that the material is aired at a later scheduled time (such as the prime time hours) to maximize viewership.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40847",
"title": "Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection",
"section": "Section::::Channel capture effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "A negative side effect of the capture effect would be the idle time created due to stations backing off. Once one station is finished transmitting on the medium, large idle times are present because all other stations were continually backing off. In some instances, back-off can occur for so long that some stations actually discard packets because maximum attempt limits have been reached.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9634133",
"title": "Local insertion",
"section": "Section::::Within individual programs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 895,
"text": "Various television morning news shows (such as \"Good Morning America\" and \"Today\") also allocate five minutes of programming time each half-hour for stations to carry a local news update (which sometimes run as little as three minutes) at :25 and :55 minutes past the hour; however the national feed continues for stations that do not wish to \"break away\", either because they do not air a morning newscast or simply do not have a news department (for example, some mid-sized and smaller market NBC affiliates, such as KTEN in Ada, Oklahoma, do not air news cut-ins during the weekend edition of \"Today\" if they do not have a weekend morning newscast, but cut-ins are shown during the weekday telecasts where \"Today\" follows a morning newscast). This also occurs with news on NPR's \"Morning Edition\" and \"All Things Considered\", which respectively air during the morning and evening rush hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22379280",
"title": "We Interrupt This Broadcast",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The phrase \"we interrupt this broadcast\" has been used frequently by radio and television networks when breaking into a program in progress to deliver important news or information. The description on the book jacket states: \"Wherever we may happen to be, our lives stop for a moment, and we experience those few seconds of anxiety between the interruption and the actual announcement of what has happened.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18864490",
"title": "Olympics on United States television",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "The broadcast delay practice even for major events has become increasingly frustrating with viewers in recent times due to the increased usage of social networking and Web sites (including the official Olympic site and NBC's Olympic website) posting results in real time. As a result, these practices has spawned outrage across the internet and even raising concerns from politicians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1449800",
"title": "Breaking news",
"section": "Section::::Formats.:Television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1205,
"text": "If the event occurs during prime time, the anchor will usually remind viewers that there will be more details on their late local newscast and on the network's overnight news program (if applicable) the next morning. Programming at this time is either joined in progress or started back up at the point of the interruption, depending on whether the program is new to air, highly rated or has time left in its time slot to finish airing (for instance, ABC's breaking news report involving the April 2017 Shayrat missile strike took into account a new episode of the popular series \"Scandal\", where the show was resumed right at the point of interruption twice for those reports; NBC's coverage featured the low-rated \"\" joined in the middle of an episode in progress after their special report without any of that consideration). In either of the above instances, network (and in some cases, for local stations, syndicated) programs that have segments not aired or are pre-empted in their entirety by breaking news reports – particularly those that extend to or longer than 20 or 45 minutes, depending on the length of the previously scheduled program – may have to be rescheduled to air at a later time. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1829495",
"title": "Chase play",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "If a user is interrupted while watching television, they can use Chase Play to 'pause' the television until they can keep watching. Initiating 'Chase Play' means that the user no longer has to wait until the show is over before finding out what they have missed. When returning from the interruption, 'Chase Play' allows the user to start viewing the program from precisely where they left off. The recording device will continue to capture the program in 'real time' until instructed to stop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
m8ool
|
What effect might hallucinogens have on a comatose patient? Could it bring them out of the coma?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hmm, interesting idea. I have heard of Zolpidem (Ambien) being used recently for comatose patients [link](_URL_0_), which is kind of ironic since it's a sleep aid (and also a hallucinogen at clinical doses)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most definitely if we look at the word 'could'.\n\nBecause these hallucinogens rather improve brain stimulation through external means (we're rather discussing through natural receptor stimulation, biochemics such as dopamine (so to say)). Nevertheless, watch the word 'could' and think of allergic reflexes and certain types of hallucinogens which could as well impose danger to the patient.\n\nThis definitely needs more research. Current legislation is rather obstructing that as well as stimulating public ignorance, obstructing even education and political means next to just scientific. \n\n[edit]\nA little question to moderators/scientists/otherwise posters in here;\nWhen posting in /r/askscience am I obliged to use scientific terms rather making people asking unable to understand?\nAlso, are postings of opinions allowed? To what I saw, it is.\nTo what extend is source propagation demanded?\nThank you. As well for downvoting without commenting, which is VERY unscientific.\n[/edit]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can I tag a question onto this post? Fairly nubile redditor myself and the reddiquette is unknown to me. Are there different classifications for types of coma? Can someone provide information on how these different coma types, provided they exist, effect brain behaviour? I'd be grateful for the chance to get at that data and then take another look at how a few different hallucinogens work on the brain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Semi-related, there has been instances when giving the sleeping pill Ambien to coma patients has caused them to wake up for short periods of time. link 1: _URL_2_\nlink 2: _URL_0_\nlink 3: _URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I see there are people in this thread talking about Ambien's use on comatose patients. Here is a video demonstrating the difference it can seem to make in severely brain damaged patients. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hmm, interesting idea. I have heard of Zolpidem (Ambien) being used recently for comatose patients [link](_URL_0_), which is kind of ironic since it's a sleep aid (and also a hallucinogen at clinical doses)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most definitely if we look at the word 'could'.\n\nBecause these hallucinogens rather improve brain stimulation through external means (we're rather discussing through natural receptor stimulation, biochemics such as dopamine (so to say)). Nevertheless, watch the word 'could' and think of allergic reflexes and certain types of hallucinogens which could as well impose danger to the patient.\n\nThis definitely needs more research. Current legislation is rather obstructing that as well as stimulating public ignorance, obstructing even education and political means next to just scientific. \n\n[edit]\nA little question to moderators/scientists/otherwise posters in here;\nWhen posting in /r/askscience am I obliged to use scientific terms rather making people asking unable to understand?\nAlso, are postings of opinions allowed? To what I saw, it is.\nTo what extend is source propagation demanded?\nThank you. As well for downvoting without commenting, which is VERY unscientific.\n[/edit]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can I tag a question onto this post? Fairly nubile redditor myself and the reddiquette is unknown to me. Are there different classifications for types of coma? Can someone provide information on how these different coma types, provided they exist, effect brain behaviour? I'd be grateful for the chance to get at that data and then take another look at how a few different hallucinogens work on the brain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Semi-related, there has been instances when giving the sleeping pill Ambien to coma patients has caused them to wake up for short periods of time. link 1: _URL_2_\nlink 2: _URL_0_\nlink 3: _URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I see there are people in this thread talking about Ambien's use on comatose patients. Here is a video demonstrating the difference it can seem to make in severely brain damaged patients. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49159",
"title": "Hallucination",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Migraine coma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "This type of hallucination is usually experienced during the recovery from a comatose state. The migraine coma can last for up to two days, and a state of depression is sometimes comorbid. The hallucinations occur during states of full consciousness, and insight into the hallucinatory nature of the images is preserved. It has been noted that ataxic lesions accompany the migraine coma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5721",
"title": "Coma",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Many types of problems can cause coma. Forty percent of comatose states result from drug poisoning. Drugs damage or weaken the synaptic functioning in the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) and keep the system from properly functioning to arouse the brain. Secondary effects of drugs, which include abnormal heart rate and blood pressure, as well as abnormal breathing and sweating, may also indirectly harm the functioning of the ARAS and lead to a coma. Given that drug poisoning is the cause for a large portion of patients in a coma, hospitals first test all comatose patients by observing pupil size and eye movement, through the vestibular-ocular reflex. (see \"Diagnosis\" below).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1275750",
"title": "Induced coma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Induced coma usually results in significant systemic adverse effects. The patient is likely to completely lose respiratory drive and require mechanical ventilation. Gut motility is reduced. Hypotension can complicate efforts to maintain cerebral perfusion pressure and often requires the use of vasopressor drugs. Hypokalemia often results. And the completely immobile patient is at increased risk of bed sores as well as infection from indwelling lines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "724730",
"title": "Clonazepam",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Overdose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Coma can be cyclic, with the individual alternating from a comatose state to a hyper-alert state of consciousness, which occurred in a four-year-old boy who suffered an overdose of clonazepam. The combination of clonazepam and certain barbiturates (for example, amobarbital), at prescribed doses has resulted in a synergistic potentiation of the effects of each drug, leading to serious respiratory depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2436541",
"title": "Hervey M. Cleckley",
"section": "Section::::Coma shock therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Cleckley practiced the controversial Coma Therapy, where psychiatric patients would be repeatedly put into coma over several weeks through overdoses of insulin, metrazol or other drugs. In the wake of sometimes fatal complications, Cleckley published in 1939 and 1941 advising on theoretical grounds the prophylactic administration of various vitamins, salts and hormones. In 1951, he also co-published case study research suggesting the use of electronarcosis for various conditions, a form of deep sleep therapy initiated by passing electric current through the brain, without causing seizures as in electroconvulsive therapy which he also used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1275750",
"title": "Induced coma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "An induced coma, also known as a medically induced coma, a barbiturate-induced coma, or a barb coma, is a temporary coma (a deep state of unconsciousness) brought on by a controlled dose of a barbiturate drug, usually pentobarbital or thiopental. Barbiturate comas are used to protect the brain during major neurosurgery, as a last line of treatment in certain cases of status epilepticus that have not responded to other treatments, and in refractory intracranial hypertension following traumatic brain injury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187262",
"title": "Brain death",
"section": "Section::::Medical criteria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Brain death can sometimes be difficult to differentiate from other medical states such as barbiturate overdose, alcohol intoxication, sedative overdose, hypothermia, hypoglycemia, coma, and chronic vegetative states. Some comatose patients can recover to pre-coma or near pre-coma level of functioning, and some patients with severe irreversible neurological dysfunction will nonetheless retain some lower brain functions, such as spontaneous respiration, despite the losses of both cortex and brain stem functionality. Such is the case with anencephaly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1iklfm
|
when is it the proper time to use the characters ; , : - in writing? examples would be helpful too!
|
[
{
"answer": "I've used _URL_2_ many times and found it easy to understand.\n\nHere are their entries (with examples) on [semicolon](_URL_1_), [comma](http://_URL_2_/punctuation/commas.asp) and [colon](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Colon (:) is used when making a list or explanation. For example: hey, look at that, I'm making an explanation already. \n\nComma (,) is simply used to separate things within a sentence. For example: in this example, i am using both a colon and a comma, and the comma is separating ideas.\n\nSemi-colon (;) is basically used to join a sentence and a clause related to it, and is used in place of words like \"and,\" \"or\" and \"but.\" For example: I am going to use a semi-colon in this example; they are easy enough to use.\n\nAlso, do not use semi-colons WITH conjunctions like \"and\" \"or\" or \"but.\" \nFor example: It is poor form to use a conjunction with semicolons; and this is an example of that. \n\nHyphens (-) are used in joining words without turning them into larger words (which can have different meanings). For example: if an NFL player retires from football, he can resign; if his team extends his contract, he can re-sign.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Commas (,) are used to separate clauses (groups of words about the same subject) within a sentence. It's a helpful way to break up sentences so that they're easier to read. Use it in places that you would pause while speaking a sentence. \n\n\"Billy could hear the ice cream truck driving down his street, carrying lots of frozen goodies.\"\n\nNote that the part of the sentence after the comma cannot exist as a standalone sentence; it's too related to the first part to work on its own. \n\nSemicolons (;) can only be used in places where a period would also work. It's not as definite of a stop as a period, so it allows for a smoother flow from one idea to another. \n\nFor example, \"I really like ice cream; it's my favorite kind of food.\" works, but \"I really like ice cream; which is my favorite kind of food.\" does not. \n\nIf the two halves of your sentence cannot both work as standalone sentences, do not use a semicolon. Also, the two halves have to be part of the same idea. \"I really like ice cream; Here comes the bus!\" doesn't really work, and a period would serve you better. As the punctuation suggests, a semicolon is a cross between a period and a comma.\n\nFinally, colons (:) are only used for one purpose: when you are listing or declaring something. The previous sentence works as an example, as does this one: \"Billy had three favorite flavors of ice cream: chocolate, vanilla, and strawberry.\" The phrase before the colon has to include whatever it is the phrase after talks about. In the previous examples, it was \"purpose\", \"this one\" (referring to the sentence), and \"flavors\" (of ice cream).\n\nDashes are used to hyphenate words, while double dashes (--) usually work about the same way as semicolons. The sidebar actually has a couple of examples! \n\n > Be polite and respectful-- rude, offensive, and judgmental posts will be removed at the discretion of the mods.\n\n > Remember the top answer may not always be the best one. It could even be incorrect-- be sure to read multiple responses!\n\n > Do not ask yes-or-no questions or ask for a walkthrough/procedure-- try /r/answers or /r/techsupport. This is for conceptual explanations.\n\nThere are official grammatical definitions for each of these, but that's the way I remember how to use them. Hope that helps!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "91231",
"title": "Chinese characters",
"section": "Section::::Written styles.:Calligraphy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "The art of writing Chinese characters is called Chinese calligraphy. It is usually done with ink brushes. In ancient China, Chinese calligraphy is one of the Four Arts of the Chinese Scholars. There is a minimalist set of rules of Chinese calligraphy. Every character from the Chinese scripts is built into a uniform shape by means of assigning it a geometric area in which the character must occur. Each character has a set number of brushstrokes; none must be added or taken away from the character to enhance it visually, lest the meaning be lost. Finally, strict regularity is not required, meaning the strokes may be accentuated for dramatic effect of individual style. Calligraphy was the means by which scholars could mark their thoughts and teachings for immortality, and as such, represent some of the most precious treasures that can be found from ancient China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1119765",
"title": "Chinese calligraphy",
"section": "Section::::Rules of Modern Calligraphy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "BULLET::::- The characters must be written correctly. A correctly written character is composed in a way that is accepted as correct by legitimate calligraphers. Calligraphic works often use variant Chinese characters, which are deemed correct or incorrect case-by-case, but in general, more popular variants are more likely to be correct. Correct characters are written in the traditional stroke order and not a modern standard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1119765",
"title": "Chinese calligraphy",
"section": "Section::::Rules of Modern Calligraphy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "BULLET::::- The characters must fit their context. All reputable calligraphers in China were well educated and well read. In addition to calligraphy, they were skilled in other areas, most likely painting, poetry, music, opera, martial arts, and Go. Therefore, their abundant education contributed to their calligraphy. A calligrapher practicing another calligrapher's characters would always know what the text means, when it was created, and in what circumstances. When they write, their characters' shape and weight agrees with the rhythm of the phrases, especially in less constrained styles such as semi-cursive and cursive. One who does not know the meaning of the characters they write, but varies their shape and weight on a whim, does not produce good calligraphy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "317342",
"title": "Mawangdui Silk Texts",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "BULLET::::- It may have been a form of jargon; similar writing of partial characters are found in ancient Chinese musical (pipa, guqin and guzheng) scores. Partial characters and their derivatives are building blocks for the writing systems of some historical (such as Khitan and Tangut) and modern languages, such as Japanese.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91225",
"title": "Written Chinese",
"section": "Section::::Literacy.:Dictionaries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "Every Chinese character falls (sometimes arbitrarily or incorrectly) under the heading of exactly one of these 214 radicals. In many cases, the radicals are themselves characters, which naturally come first under their own heading. All other characters under a given radical are ordered by the stroke count of the character. Usually, however, there are still many characters with a given stroke count under a given radical. At this point, characters are not given in any recognizable order; the user must locate the character by going through all the characters with that stroke count, typically listed for convenience at the top of the page on which they occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91231",
"title": "Chinese characters",
"section": "Section::::Indexing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 207,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 207,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "Chinese character dictionaries often allow users to locate entries in several ways. Many Chinese, Japanese, and Korean dictionaries of Chinese characters list characters in radical order: characters are grouped together by radical, and radicals containing fewer strokes come before radicals containing more strokes (radical-and-stroke sorting). Under each radical, characters are listed by their total number of strokes. It is often also possible to search for characters by sound, using pinyin (in Chinese dictionaries), zhuyin (in Taiwanese dictionaries), kana (in Japanese dictionaries) or hangul (in Korean dictionaries). Most dictionaries also allow searches by total number of strokes, and individual dictionaries often allow other search methods as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5948",
"title": "Chinese input methods for computers",
"section": "Section::::Categories.:Phonetic-based.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "While the phonetic system is easy to learn, choosing appropriate Chinese characters slows typing speed. Most users report a typing speed of fifty characters per minute, though some reach over one hundred per minute. With some phonetic IMEs, in addition to predictive input based on previous conversions, it is possible for users to create custom dictionary entries for frequently used characters and phrases, potentially lowering the number of characters required to evoke it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9qcogy
|
If hitler was arrested what crimes would he be charged for?
|
[
{
"answer": "*Borrowing from a previous answer I have written, with some minor addendum*\n\nSo obviously, we can't *know* what would happen, but as has been noted by several mods, we can say what was discussed in the event that Hitler was captured. In the tome \"*What If?*\", Roger Spiller's chapter, \"The Führer in the Dock\", focuses on this very scenario, and while he goes on to contemplate various scenarios as they may have played out, he spends much of the chapter establishing how he arrives at those conclusions, and looking at how plans progressed up until Hitler's hypothetical capture in the Spring of '45.\n\nTo start with, there was considerable disagreement on just what would be done, although punishment for war crimes was essentially assumed by all - see the St. James Declaration of early 1942, which stated \"*international solidarity is necessary to avoid the repression of these acts of violence simply by acts of vengeance on the part of the general public and in order to satisfy the sense of justice of the civilized world*\". The Moscow Declaration of late 1943 would further solidify that sentiment, but while it directed 'minor' war criminals would be tried in \"*the countries in which their abominable deeds were done in order that they may be judged and punished according to the laws of those liberated countries and of the Free Governments which will be erected therein*\" it continued to leave open the situation with the 'big guys', explicitly noting that \"*major criminals whose offences have no particular geographical location*\" would be \"*punished by a joint declaration of the Governments of the Allies*\"... but no agreement on what that punishment would be had yet been hammered out! It didn't even spell out whether or not they would be granted trials.\n\nWinston Churchill, contemplated several possible scenarios through the years. Early in the war, he considered exile for the high-leadership of the Party, similar to the treatment of Napoleon, placing them on a remote island (although he specifically stated he would not desecrate St. Helena by doing so). He also proposed a rather gruesome end for Mussolini at that time, proposing that he be strangled in the same manner the Romans (who Il Duce sought to emulate) had killed the Gallic leader Vercingetorix. As the war progressed though, he became more amenable to summary execution. In a meeting of the War Cabinet in 1942, he stated:\n\n > If Hitler falls into our hands we shall certainly put him to death. [He is] not a sovereign who could be said to be in [the] hands of ministers, like [the] Kaiser.\n\nOthers also seemed to support a similar approach. FDR seems to have liked the very harsh proposal made by Henry Morgenthau for mass executions of Nazi \"archvillains\", possibly numbering in the thousands (And apparently joked [?] once or twice about mass castration of Germans to boot). Cordell Hull proposed a similar idea, executing Hitler within hours of his capture, noting:\n\n > I would take Hitler and Mussolini and Tojo and their accomplices and bring them before a drumhead court martial, and at sunrise the following morning there would occur an historic incident.\n\nIn the US, calmer heads prevailed though, and in discussions on the matter in October, 1944, Henry Stimson would have none of it. He was insistent that an international tribunal of the Nazi leadership was the only method of dealing with Hitler and his ilk while remaining true to the moral justifications that the Allies gave for the war, noting \"*the punishment of these men in a dignified manner will have all the greater effect upon posterity\", which did in the end win Roosevelt over. \n\nInterestingly, Stalin was also in favor of trials, although it is safe to say that a trial, as envisioned by him, was little more than a rubber-stamp show trial that was already typical of him. While earlier in the war, Stalin had expressed a desire for blood, toasting to \"*the quickest possible justice for all German war criminals*\" at the Tehran Conference in '43 for instance, although his accompanying suggestion that this would mean 50,000 executions might have been a joke. Certainly it shocked all present, but either way, he seems to have mellowed a year later. While Churchill might still have had bloodspilling on his mind, and certainly wanted execution to be meted out as punishment in the end, it was Stalin who turned him, during their Moscow meeting in 1944, where Stalin insisted that \"*There must be no executions without trial otherwise the world would say that we were afraid to try them.*\"\n\nIt perhaps went even further than that. When the first reports of Hitler's suicide were coming in, and Stalin heard of it, he was reportedly put out by the fact, and it seems to have been quite clear that he considered taking Hitler alive to be part of his victory, a trophy, and putting him on trial a means of displaying his achievement.\n\nTo be sure, that isn't to say, of course, than anyone necessarily *wanted* to deal with a trial of Hitler. A month before Hitler's demise, Anthony Eden remarked that were a Tommy to have the opportunity to capture Adolf, \"I am quite satisfied to leave the decision to the British soldier concerned\". And while Stimson might have won the debate in the US Cabinet, the concerns that he had fought against, namely that giving Hitler *any* sort of platform to defend himself was dangerous, never entirely went away. It is doubtful you can find very many leaders at the time who were put out by the fact Hitler escaped trial, as his death put the nail in the coffin of a debate that not everyone saw eye to eye on.\n\nIf you are interested in what such a trial might have looked like, well, I recommend you look for the book, but simply put, we can only guess. What we can say though is that while there were variances within the Allies about what to do, and some voices in the leadership would have liked nothing more than to dispose of Hitler and the Nazi leadership with \"no fuss\", by the last days of the war, the agreed to policy would be to put Hitler on trial for his life if captured. The charges would certainly have been the same four counts that the other principal defendents at Nuremberg had to face, as laid in the London Charter of the International Military Tribunal:\n\n > Article 6. The Tribunal established by the Agreement referred to in Article 1 hereof for the trial and punishment of the major war criminals of the European Axis countries shall have the power to try and punish persons who, acting in the interests of the European Axis countries, whether as individuals or as members of organizations, committed any of the following crimes.\n\n > The following acts, or any of them, are crimes coming within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal for which there shall be individual responsibility:\n\n > (a) CRIMES AGAINST PEACE: namely, planning, preparation, initiation or waging of a war of aggression, or a war in violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances, or participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the foregoing;\n\n > (b) WAR CRIMES: namely, violations of the laws or customs of war. Such violations shall include, but not be limited to, murder, ill-treatment or deportation to slave labor or for any other purpose of civilian population of or in occupied territory, murder or ill-treatment of prisoners of war or persons on the seas, killing of hostages, plunder of public or private property, wanton destruction of cities, towns or villages, or devastation not justified by military necessity;\n\n > (c) CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY: namely, murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population, before or during the war; or persecutions on political, racial or religious grounds in execution of or in connection with any crime within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal, whether or not in violation of the domestic law of the country where perpetrated.\n\n > Leaders, organizers, instigators and accomplices participating in the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy to commit any of the foregoing crimes are responsible for all acts performed by any persons in execution of such plan.\n\nThese were charges which were successfully prosecuted against key figures of the Nazi hierarchy who survived, most importantly perhaps, given their proximity to Hitler, Goering (guilty on all counts), Hess (guilty on A, not guilty on B/C), as well as Martin Bormann (guilty on B and C, not guilty on A) who we know know to have been dead by then, but at the time, this being unconfirmed, was tried in absentia. There is no reason to believe Hitler would not have been found guilty on all charges, and hanged in due course, but any specifics are, again, speculative.\n\n-----\n\n*London Charter of the International Military Tribunal*. Aug 8, 1945.\n\nSpiller, Roger. \"The Führer in the Dock.\" In *The Collected What If?: Eminent Historians Imagining What Might Have Been*, edited by Robert Cowley, 744-65. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2001.\n\nThompson, Jonathan. \"Churchill Wanted a Captured Hitler to Die 'like a Gangster' in the Electric Chair.\" December 31, 2005. Accessed October 10, 2016. _URL_0_.\n\nTusa, John & Tusa, Ann. \"The Nuremberg Trial\", New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2010.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30873849",
"title": "Hitler: The Rise of Evil",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Arrested by the authorities and tried for treason, Hitler manages to use the trial to his advantage, winning over the audience and the Judge with his courtroom theatrics. Consequently, he is awarded a lenient sentence in Landsberg Prison, during which he writes his memoirs (later published as \"Mein Kampf\"). In 1925, Hitler goes to the countryside to escape from politics and is joined by his older half-sister, Angela, and her daughter Geli Raubal. When he returns to Munich, Hitler takes Geli with him but, distraught by his overbearing control of her life, she later commits suicide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "46820543",
"title": "June 1932",
"section": "Section::::June 9, 1932 (Thursday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "BULLET::::- In Munich, Adolf Hitler was fined 1,000 marks for contempt of court and threatened with prison time for refusing to answer questions from a Jewish lawyer. Hitler had been called as a witness in a perjury lawsuit against the writer Werner Abel, who accused Hitler of accepting bribes from Italian Fascists in exchange for abandoning his party's demand for the return of South Tyrol to Austria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57538",
"title": "Beer Hall Putsch",
"section": "Section::::Trial and prison.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "This was not the first time Hitler had been in trouble with the law. In an incident in September 1921, he and some men of the SA had disrupted a meeting of the \"Bayernbund\" (\"Bavaria Union\") which Otto Ballerstedt, a Bavarian federalist, was to have addressed, and the Nazis who had gone there to cause trouble were arrested as a result. Hitler ended up serving a little over a month of a three-month jail sentence. Judge Georg Neithardt () was the presiding judge at both of Hitler's trials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47770140",
"title": "March 1937",
"section": "Section::::March 9, 1937 (Tuesday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "BULLET::::- Heinrich Himmler ordered the arrest of \"professional criminals\" who had committed two or more crimes but were now free after serving their sentences. Over the next few days some 2,000 people were arrested without charges and sent to concentration camps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57538",
"title": "Beer Hall Putsch",
"section": "Section::::Trial and prison.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Two days after the putsch, Hitler was arrested and charged with high treason in the special People's Court. Some of his fellow conspirators, including Rudolf Hess, were also arrested, while others, including Hermann Göring and Ernst Hanfstaengl, escaped to Austria. The Nazi Party's headquarters was raided, and its newspaper, the \"Völkischer Beobachter\" (\"The People's Observer\"), was banned. In January 1924, the Emminger Reform, an emergency decree, abolished the jury as trier of fact and replaced it with a mixed system of judges and lay judges in Germany's judiciary, which still exists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2731583",
"title": "Adolf Hitler",
"section": "Section::::Entry into politics.:Beer Hall Putsch and Landsberg Prison.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "Hitler fled to the home of Ernst Hanfstaengl and by some accounts contemplated suicide. He was depressed but calm when arrested on 11 November 1923 for high treason. His trial before the special People's Court in Munich began in February 1924, and Alfred Rosenberg became temporary leader of the NSDAP. On 1 April, Hitler was sentenced to five years' imprisonment at Landsberg Prison. There, he received friendly treatment from the guards, and was allowed mail from supporters and regular visits by party comrades. Pardoned by the Bavarian Supreme Court, he was released from jail on 20 December 1924, against the state prosecutor's objections. Including time on remand, Hitler served just over one year in prison.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "48300185",
"title": "February 1901",
"section": "Section::::February 8, 1901 (Friday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "BULLET::::- Gustav Dahrendorf, German member of Parliament who would be arrested and charged with treason after being suspected of involvement in the 1944 assassination plot against Adolf Hitler; in Hamburg. Remarkably, Dahrendorf would be given a 7-year prison sentence rather than being executed, and be released after the German surrender (died 1954)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
wx3e2
|
Why was there such a backlash against disco?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think that the backlash against disco came from a number of different factors at different times. This is because disco was not one homogeneous music and culture. The original disco came out of soul and funk. This party scene music was embraced by a gay subculture which obviously was hated upon by homophobes. The \"four on the floor\" rhythm was then co-opted by any number of producers who just wanted to jump on the bandwagon. Eventually there were many novelty hits e.g. Disco Duck and then you had The Bee Gees and Cliff Richard *et al* all cashing in upon it.\n\nSo in the first place homophobia and then after when it became the dominant pop culture there was a lot of derivative dross floating about being danced to badly by a lot of posers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was trying to get into the music biz around then, as a rocker. Although I didn't hate disco, I could under stand why mt friends didn't get into it. It's over-produced and most of the \"artists\" were just singers put up to sing someone else's music. And the lyrics were almost universally uninspiring, and mostly sounded like a narration of a night at a club. Pretty silly to anybody who takes music seriously.\n\nThe backlash caught on when disco had overwhelmed all other pop music. And like all pop phenomenons, it became over-exposed. I admit I got pretty sick of it, too, towards the end.\n\nThe music producers hastened the end by abruptly abandoning all disco in an over-reaction to the haters and made it seem as if the haters could take credit for ending disco suddenly with one punch.\n\nFor quite a while, dance music artists could only survive by clearly distinguishing themselves as apart from disco.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The answers so far are incomplete, disco was overexposed and it did come in for a lot of criticism for being production heavy, but the viciousness of the backless stemmed from the fact that as a genre it grew out of the gay and black subcultures. In the 50s and 60s you'd be running grave risks if you were openly gay, with discos in the 70s gay people started not only being open about, but celebrating, singing and dancing about their sexuality and a lot of people didn't like that. \n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's like baseball in New York. You can't be a Mets and a Yankees fan. Punk music came of age at the same time. You couldn't be a punk and a disco fan. Their ethos were in stark opposition to each other, although eventually their styles were more or less melded together to create what is known as \"post-punk\" or \"new wave\" in the mid-80s, sometimes by groups like Talking Heads and Blondie who were staples of the New York punk scene in the late seventies.\n\nYou can't ignore, as well, the third movement that started at this time - hip-hop, which took a little longer to catch mainstream attention or really produce a lot of really interesting music. (Note the \"a lot,\" there were a few really great early hip-hop artists in this time period).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was also a big falloff in record sales as people didn't need to buy the records to hear the music - they went to clubs instead. So, part of the backlash came from the record industry, hoping to get people to buy music again, rather than gathering to hear it in discos. \n\nHere's a podcast from Stuff You Should Know that talks about disco (direct link to the podcast itself: _URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I remember reading once that Disco was the unholy union between gay culture and black culture. Also that the original Discos were more similar to modern day raves than the shit that was made up by Saturday Night Fever (which was written by people who had never even been to a Disco at that time).\n\nThis was probably the reason that a lot of \"Middle America\" didn't like it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Disco lives. They just call it EDM now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you want a more detailed explanation then check out 'Last Night A DJ Saved My Life' by Bill Brewster & Frank Broughton. It chronicles Disco and a lot of other genres. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7966",
"title": "Disco",
"section": "Section::::History.:1979–81: Backlash and decline.:Factors contributing to disco's decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "Factors that have been cited as leading to the decline of disco in the United States include economic and political changes at the end of the 1970s, as well as burnout from the hedonistic lifestyles led by participants. In the years since Disco Demolition Night, some social critics have described the backlash as implicitly macho and bigoted, and an attack on non-white and non-heterosexual cultures. The backlash also made its way into US politics with the election of conservative Ronald Reagan in 1980, which also led to Republican control of the United States Senate for the first time since 1954, plus the subsequent rise of the Religious Right around the same time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "424471",
"title": "Grammy Award for Best Disco Recording",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "Nationally, a \"backlash\" took hold, as public support for disco music faded. According to author Craig Werner, as quoted in the British newspaper \"The Independent\", the \"anti-disco movement represented an unholy alliance of funkateers and feminists, progressives and puritans, rockers and reactionaries. None the less, the attacks on disco gave respectable voice to the ugliest kinds of unacknowledged racism, sexism and homophobia.\" By 1980 \"mainstream disco\" had ended, by 1985 WKTU had returned to playing rock music, and by the end of the decade the famous dance venues Studio 54, Paradise Garage, and Clubhouse had all closed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7966",
"title": "Disco",
"section": "Section::::History.:1979–81: Backlash and decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "By the end of the 1970s, a strong anti-disco sentiment developed among rock fans and musicians, particularly in the United States. Disco was criticized as mindless, consumerist, overproduced and escapist. The slogans \"Disco sucks\" and \"Death to disco\" became common. Rock artists such as Rod Stewart and David Bowie who added disco elements to their music were accused of being sell-outs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2924002",
"title": "Electronic dance music",
"section": "Section::::History.:Dance music in the 1980s.:Post-disco.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1043,
"text": "During the post-disco era that followed the backlash against \"disco\" which began in the mid to late 1979, which in the United States lead to civil unrest and a riot in Chicago known as the Disco Demolition Night, an underground movement of \"stripped-down\" disco inspired music featuring \"radically different sounds\" started to emerge on the East Coast. This new scene was seen primarily in the New York metropolitan area and was initially led by the urban contemporary artists that were responding to the over-commercialisation and subsequent demise of disco culture. The sound that emerged originated from P-Funk the electronic side of disco, dub music, and other genres. Much of the music produced during this time was, like disco, catering to a singles-driven market. At this time creative control started shifting to independent record companies, less established producers, and club DJs. Other dance styles that began to become popular during the post-disco era include dance-pop, boogie, electro, Hi-NRG, Italo disco, house, and techno.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2063313",
"title": "Euro disco",
"section": "Section::::Influence in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The influence of Euro disco had infiltrated dance and pop in the U.S. by 1983, as European producers and songwriters inspired a new generation of American performers. While disco had been declared \"dead\" due to a backlash there in 1979, subsequent Euro-flavored successes crossing the boundaries of rock, pop and dance, such as \"Call Me\" by Blondie and \"Gloria\" by Laura Branigan, ushered in a new era of American-fronted dance music.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "309106",
"title": "Disco Demolition Night",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Some felt disco was too mechanical; \"Time\" magazine deemed it a \"diabolical thump-and-shriek\". Others hated it for the associated scene, with its emphasis on personal appearance and style of dress. The media emphasized its roots in gay culture. According to historian Gillian Frank, \"by the time of the Disco Demolition in Comiskey Park, the media ... cultivated a widespread perception that disco was taking over\". Performers who cultivated a gay image, such as the Village People (described by \"Rolling Stone\" as \"the face of disco\"), did nothing to efface these perceptions, and fears that rock music would die out increased after disco albums dominated the 21st Grammy Awards in February 1979.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13371576",
"title": "Post-disco",
"section": "Section::::History.:Background events.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "Unlike in the United States, where anti-disco backlash generated prominent effect on general perception of disco music, in Britain, the new-wave movement initially drew heavily from disco music (although this association would be airbrushed out by the end of 1979) and took many elements from American post-disco and other genres, thus creating a characteristic scene. According to \"Billboard\", American post-disco was merely a crossover of different genres, while focusing on the electronic and R&B overtones, whereas jazz-funk was a crucial element of the British post-disco scene that generated musicians like Chaz Jankel, Central Line or Imagination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
u8muf
|
why do people think that blacking out their eyes in pictures protects their identity?
|
[
{
"answer": "Eyes presumably show the most emotion / personality etc of any body part, so we're most likely to remember those, if we see them again.\n\nAlso, who blacks out their own eyes..? It's usually done by others to protect the identity of someone.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Good question. I was going to answer \"so we don't remember them\" but I remembered that we remember people like Stevie Wonder and we've never seen his eyes.\nI guess it gives the sense of privacy and at the same time not ruin the photo by having a big blur spot in it. if someone were to try to find out who the person is with just the eyes area blackened, it wouldn't be difficult at all. \n\nWhen keeping the identity of a person secret is critical, then the whole head is blurred.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "eyes give more of an individualized experience then any other part of the body, especially for ease of concealment. People are better concealed when their all fuzzed out and their voices are changed, but the blacking out of the eyes is a quick way to add anonymity",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It works because humans make eye contact first, and it is where we look most of the time. It also takes out all or part of the nose. The other big features that are left are the chin, ears, lips, and hair. Generally not enough to know for sure unless you are doing a side by side. But you can still get a feeling for who it is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48520884",
"title": "Blackout Day",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 2043,
"text": "In addition, he noticed that when black people were depicted it was usually in a negative light. Research has shown that Black images in the media adversely affect how members of the Black community view themselves. These harmful images are not only seen by the Black community, but by everyone who has access to a media outlet. Although images of Black people have increased in mass media, those images have been disproportionally harmful due to their violent and crime related content. Generally, if Black people are not being depicted as criminals, they are represented as entertainers such as athletes or musicians. Having these two polar identities of a lawless individual and highly adored star leaves a spectrum of people in the Black community unrepresented. While associating Blacks with athleticism is not harmful in itself, it becomes harmful when that is one of the only thing Blacks are associate with. This reality led to an ethical need for positive and relatable images of the black community on platforms like social media. Concerned about these issues Green decided to gain feedback on his idea by going on Tumblr and through those interactions he met Marissa Sebastian, who came up with the name behind the movement and later on became the PR and CEO of the movement, and Tumblr user V. Matthew-King Yarde (known as Nukrik on social media) the creator behind the various logos for the event. Blackout Day was created as a 24-hour event that would expose the online black community and others on social media to positive images of everyday beautiful black individuals, through selfies, videos, gifs and other media. Its goal was simple, shed a positive light on black individuals and cripple stereotypes. The idea spread quickly once given a name, and gained supporters within the black Tumblr community. An official website was created to help the online black community access up to date information on when and how it would work. Before the event, the creators posted guidelines on who could participate and how to do so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37767093",
"title": "Whitewashing (beauty)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Whitewashing can also be seen when a film or television show based on a book or other precedent decides to rewrite a non-white role as white and use a white actor to portray the role. This is not to be confused with blackface, which is when a person who is not Black attempts to portray a darker skin tone with makeup or digital editing. This type of whitewashing is most common in the film industry and has been a problem since the beginning of Hollywood. More people of color are being represented in the industry as of late, but whitewashing remains a prevalent issue that can affect self-image of young children whose races have been marginalized in film.'\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1228060",
"title": "Internet privacy",
"section": "Section::::Risks to Internet privacy.:Photographs on the Internet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Some organizations attempt to respond to this privacy-related concern. For example, the 2005 Wikimania conference required that photographers have the prior permission of the people in their pictures, albeit this made it impossible for photographers to practice candid photography and doing the same in a public place would violate the photographers' free speech rights. Some people wore a \"no photos\" tag to indicate they would prefer not to have their photo taken .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21698457",
"title": "List of Chuck gadgets",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:The Intersect.:Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Retention of data can be blocked by shielding the eyes, and even regular sunglasses appear to be sufficient for this purpose. It is strongly implied, but never stated, that once a person begins looking at the images, it is impossible to stop looking before the sequence is complete, even among those who are not especially receptive to them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6869687",
"title": "Forward intelligence team",
"section": "Section::::Legal issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "In May 2009, the Court of Appeal ruled that photographs collected by FITs of people who have not committed a criminal offence can no longer be kept. The ruling was made after Andrew Wood, an arms trade activist, was photographed after challenging the management of Reed Elsevier at their AGM over them organising arms trade exhibitions. Wood argued that police had harassed him and infringed his right to privacy by photographing him. Lord Collins of Mapesbury said that the police presence had a \"chilling effect\" on people who were protesting lawfully. FITs have not been banned but they must now justify the retention of photographs on a case-by-case basis. As a result of the ruling the Metropolitan Police's public order unit, CO11 was forced to delete 40% of the photos of protesters that it held.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48703437",
"title": "Myra Greene",
"section": "Section::::Artwork.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1113,
"text": "The premise for her most well-known collection of photographs \"My White Friends\" originated after a discussion she had with one of her white friends about her images in \"Character Recognition\". Greene commented in an \"Art Beat\" interview that her friend said \"they're really beautiful, but I just don't feel comfortable thinking about blackness.\" In the conversation that followed, this friend admitted that he didn't think about his own whiteness when he looked at photos, which started Greene on a path to examine what it would look like to photograph her friends for their whiteness. Traveling around the country and asking her friends if she can \"photograph them for their whiteness\", Greene uses her friends' styles, gestures, and natural environments to create an image of them that captures their whiteness. While these images are constructed and are not meant to be portraits, her work prompts questions about what can and cannot be captured in a photo, what truths, if any, can be discovered through looking at photographs, and what assumptions viewers make every time they look at an image of a person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52487254",
"title": "Oppositional gaze",
"section": "Section::::Male gaze.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "The concept of seeing one's self in opposition to the 'ideal ego' must begin with recognition of one's body as comparably different. Black female representation in film exists primarily in opposition to the white woman's body. Thus, black women often remain in search of a mirror stage because they metaphorically have yet to see true representations of themselves. hooks gives an example of this rare recognition through two characters in the film \"Passion of Remembrance\". She writes, \"Dressing to go to a party, Louise and Maggie claim the 'gaze'. Looking at one another, staring in mirrors, they appear completely focused on their encounter with black femaleness\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6h59tu
|
What's happening to the human body when it faints for 3 or 4 seconds, then regains consciousness for 3 or 4 seconds, then faints back again and so on? An example is on amusement park rides.
|
[
{
"answer": "The short answer: Your brain loses oxygen for whatever reason, you pass out, you drop to the floor so gravity works less, the vessels relax etc, and more blood flows to the brain, which thus regains consciousness.\n\nThe long explaination (this is gonna be pretty complicated)\n\nThere are a lot of reasons for syncope (Fainting), but the major categories are\nNeurally mediated reflex (60 % of cases)\nOrthostatic hypotension (15 %)\nCardiac arrythmias (10 %)\nStructural cardiopulmonary reasons (5%)\nThe numbers are from Denmark.\n\nThere are also pseudo-syncopes, which are not a *real* syncope. For example, an old patient may not be certain if they actually passed out or not. For it to be a true syncope, it must be sudden and you must almost immediately regain consciousness.\n\nSo the most common is neurally mediated and the most serious are the cardiac ones.\nBut orthostatic is probably the one most people are familiar with, remember it's all (mostly) about losing blood in the brain.\n\nOrthostatic is when a person gets up from a chair, vision goes black and they pass out. What normally is when you get up, the sympathic nervous system will make the arteries in the legs smaller, so it presses the blood upwards / prevents it from going into the leg. But in people with hypotension or a weak sympathicus response (fx elderly), the response isn't sufficient, so the blood they have pool in the legs and thus the brain gets no blood, passes out to make you completely relaxed, then you regain blood supply to brain -- > conscious again.\n\nThe vasovagal reflex, which is (i'd imagine) the most common of the neural syncopes, is the one you're talking about in the amusement park ride. Can happen for a lot of reasons, doesn't have to be something scary, it can just be taking a dump basically. Or urinating.\n\nHere's a figure of the vasovagal syncope _URL_2_ from Boron & Boulpaep, Medical Physiology, 2nd ed, update 1.\n\n_URL_0_ and this is a figure of the nerves involved (if it's for example during defecation). Same book.\n\nSo what happens is basically - You have a stressful experience, for example a scare or a crazy ride (or an amazing poop). The nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS on figure 2) is activated, which increases parasympathetic tone and decreases sympathetic tone.\n\nThis causes multiple things (Figure 2):\n\nDecreased sympathetic tone to the heart meaning **less** ionotrophy and heart rate (So the heart relaxes/works less)\nLess sympathetic tone to the vessels, causing them to relax more, ie **dilate**\n\nThis combination makes sure that you cannot maintain a high enough blood pressure because your heart doesnt pump hard enough and the blood that it does pump is pooling in the legs.\n\nAnd thus you faint, until your brain gets blood back.\n\nThe exact mechanism as to why this happens in most cases is unknown.\nBut as mentioned, it comes down to rapid drop in blood pressure in the brain.\n\nAs for the numbers, I got them from a lecture I had about 4 months back. Not sure what the lecturers source is, but here's a source on some slightly similar numbers _URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9697861",
"title": "Suspension trauma",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Onset of symptoms may be after just a few minutes, but usually occurs after at least 20 minutes of free hanging. Typical symptoms are pallor, sweating, shortness of breath, blurred vision, dizziness, nausea, hypotension and numbness of the legs. Eventually it leads to fainting, which may result in death due to oxygen deprivation of the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20254750",
"title": "Syncope (medicine)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "Syncope, also known as fainting, is a loss of consciousness and muscle strength characterized by a fast onset, short duration, and spontaneous recovery. It is caused by a decrease in blood flow to the brain, typically from low blood pressure. There are sometimes symptoms before the loss of consciousness such as lightheadedness, sweating, pale skin, blurred vision, nausea, vomiting, or feeling warm. Syncope may also be associated with a short episode of muscle twitching. When consciousness and muscle strength are not completely lost, it is called presyncope. It is recommended that presyncope be treated the same as syncope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9697861",
"title": "Suspension trauma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "Suspension trauma \"(Syn. \"orthostatic shock while suspended\")\", also known as harness hang syndrome (HHS), suspension syndrome, or orthostatic intolerance, is an effect which occurs when the human body is held upright without any movement for a period of time. If the person is strapped into a harness or tied to an upright object they will eventually suffer the central ischaemic response (commonly known as fainting). Fainting while remaining vertical increases the risk of death from cerebral hypoxia. Since there is no evidence that these effects are specifically due to trauma, or caused by the harness itself, climbing medicine authorities have argued against the terminology of suspension trauma or harness hang syndrome and instead termed this simply \"suspension syndrome\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2419312",
"title": "Choking game",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms of effect.:Other mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "In both \"strangulation\" and \"self-induced hypocapnia\" blackouts the victim may experience dreaming or hallucinations, though fleetingly, and regains consciousness with short-term memory loss and involuntary movement of their hands or feet. Full recovery is usually made within seconds if the strangulation stops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "685936",
"title": "Torsades de pointes",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Most episodes will revert spontaneously to a normal sinus rhythm. Symptoms and consequences include palpitations, dizziness, lightheadedness (during shorter episodes), fainting (during longer episodes), and sudden cardiac death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "101956",
"title": "Orthostatic hypotension",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "Orthostatic hypotension is characterized by symptoms that occur after standing (from lying or sitting), particularly when this is done rapidly. Many report lightheadedness (a feeling that one might be about to faint), sometimes severe. With chronic orthostatic hypotension, the condition and its effects may worsen even as fainting and many other symptoms become less frequent. Generalized weakness or tiredness may also occur. Some also report difficulty concentrating, blurred vision, tremulousness, vertigo, anxiety, palpitations (awareness of the heartbeat), unsteadiness, feeling sweaty or clammy, and sometimes nausea. A person may look pale. Some people may experience severe orthostatic hypotension with the only symptoms being confusion and/or extreme fatigue. Chronic severe orthostatic hypotension may present as fluctuating cognition/delirium. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5553931",
"title": "Adams–Stokes syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "As with any syncopal episode that results from a cardiac dysrhythmia, the fainting does not depend on the patient's position. If they occur during sleep, the presenting symptom may simply be feeling hot and flushed on waking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qtry9
|
why does the freight elevator in a building require a union employee to operate? (nyc)
|
[
{
"answer": " > Is it a safety thing?\n\nNo, it is a union thing. There was a time before unions when companies could offer whatever jobs they wanted, and workers were free to take them or leave them. A big problem was that companies would offer dangerous jobs with low pay, and yet workers would still take them and get angry about the conditions.\n\nSo, a bunch of them got together and decided that they would try to bargain with the companies as a group. If the companies wouldn't agree to their demands then they would all stop working, and then the company would be in trouble! This tactic tended to work, so the unions go what they wanted: Better working conditions and higher pay. ... And then rules preventing any new workers from being hired who didn't join the unions, so the unions would maintain their monopoly on bargaining with the company. Also, preventing any non-union person from doing their jobs so the companies remained crippled by union strikes. Also, some unions became involved with organized crime and would intimidate their opponents through physical attacks and backroom dealings.\n\nAfter a while the rules and limitations of companies which contained unions were so terrible that new companies would pay their employees more than those with unions, just so the limitations of the unions wouldn't get in the way of operating the business. Such as the stupid rule that only a union employee can operate a freight elevator, and that employee cannot be told to work late, meaning if you need to take a late delivery you are out of luck. Any normally functioning business could easily respond to such a request, but the union rules crippled it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5320522",
"title": "Elevator mechanic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "An elevator mechanic is someone who constructs, modernizes, repairs, or services conveyances. Typically elevator mechanics only work on elevators, escalators, dumbwaiters, wheelchair lifts, moving walkways, and other equipment providing vertical transportation. In many countries, particularly in North America, the elevator mechanic belongs to a trade, called Elevator Constructors. In this profession, labor unions have a large impact on who works as an elevator mechanic, depending on the country they work in. Local codes and laws only allow certain people with permits, to work on conveyances like elevators. Mechanics make anywhere from 80k-150k\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44855785",
"title": "List of elevator manufacturers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "This is a list of companies that manufacture elevators. An elevator is a type of vertical transport equipment that efficiently moves people or goods between floors (levels, decks) of a building, vessel, or other structure. Elevators are generally powered by electric motors that either drive traction cables or counterweight systems like a hoist, or pump hydraulic fluid to raise a cylindrical piston like a jack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19373997",
"title": "Elevator",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Freight elevators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 207,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 207,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "A freight elevator, or goods lift, is an elevator designed to carry goods, rather than passengers. Freight elevators are generally required to display a written notice in the car that the use by passengers is prohibited (though not necessarily illegal), though certain freight elevators allow dual use through the use of an inconspicuous riser. In order for an elevator to be legal to carry passengers in some jurisdictions it must have a solid inner door. Freight elevators are typically larger and capable of carrying heavier loads than a passenger elevator, generally from 2,300 to 4,500 kg. Freight elevators may have manually operated doors, and often have rugged interior finishes to prevent damage while loading and unloading. Although hydraulic freight elevators exist, electric elevators are more energy efficient for the work of freight lifting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19373997",
"title": "Elevator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "An elevator (US and Canada) or lift (UK, Ireland and Australia) is a type of vertical transportation device that moves people or goods between floors (levels, decks) of a building, vessel, or other structure. Elevators are typically powered by electric motors that drive traction cables and counterweight systems like a hoist, although some pump hydraulic fluid to raise a cylindrical piston like a jack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19373997",
"title": "Elevator",
"section": "Section::::Special operating modes.:Emergency power operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 176,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 176,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Many elevator installations now feature emergency power systems such as uninterruptible power supply (UPS) which allow elevator use in blackout situations and prevent people from becoming trapped in elevators. To be compliant with BS 9999 safety standards, a passenger lift being used in an emergency situation must have a secondary source of power. In many cases, providing a secondary mains feed simply isn't possible, so a UPS and or generator combination is used instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27944981",
"title": "Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)",
"section": "Section::::Independence and the Federalist Era (1776–1801).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 151,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 151,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "BULLET::::- An elevator or lift is a vertical transport vehicle that efficiently moves people or goods between floors of a building. In 1852, Elisha Graves Otis invented the first safety brake for elevators which prevents an elevator from spiralling into a free fall between numerous floors inside a building.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19373997",
"title": "Elevator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "In agriculture and manufacturing, an elevator is any type of conveyor device used to lift materials in a continuous stream into bins or silos. Several types exist, such as the chain and bucket elevator, grain auger screw conveyor using the principle of Archimedes' screw, or the chain and paddles or forks of hay elevators. Languages other than English may have loanwords based on either \"elevator\" or \"lift\". Because of wheelchair access laws, elevators are often a legal requirement in new multistory buildings, especially where wheelchair ramps would be impractical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14gbax
|
gravitational pull in relation to the ocean's tide...
|
[
{
"answer": "[I wrote this a few days back](_URL_0_), let me know if anything needs clarifying.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41044068",
"title": "Long period tide",
"section": "Section::::Formation mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1576,
"text": "Gravitational Tides are caused by changes in the relative location of the Earth, sun, and moon, whose orbits are perturbed slightly by Jupiter. Newton's law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational force between a mass at a reference point on the surface of the Earth and another object such as the Moon is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The declination of the Moon relative to the Earth means that as the Moon orbits the Earth during half the lunar cycle the Moon is closer to the Northern Hemisphere and during the other half the Moon is closer to the Southern Hemisphere. This periodic shift in distance gives rise to the lunar fortnightly tidal constituent. The ellipticity of the lunar orbit gives rise to a lunar monthly tidal constituent. Because of the nonlinear dependence of the force on distance additional tidal constituents exist with frequencies which are the sum and differences of these fundamental frequencies. Additional fundamental frequencies are introduced by the motion of the Sun and Jupiter, thus tidal constituents exist at all of these frequencies as well as all of the sums and differences of these frequencies, etc. The mathematical description of the tidal forces is greatly simplified by expressing the forces in terms of gravitational potentials. Because of the fact that the Earth is approximately a sphere and the orbits are approximately circular it also turns out to be very convenient to describe these gravitational potentials in spherical coordinates using spherical harmonic expansions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7783",
"title": "Coriolis force",
"section": "Section::::Applied to the Earth.:Meteorology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Because surface ocean currents are driven by the movement of wind over the water's surface, the Coriolis force also affects the movement of ocean currents and cyclones as well. Many of the ocean's largest currents circulate around warm, high-pressure areas called gyres. Though the circulation is not as significant as that in the air, the deflection caused by the Coriolis effect is what creates the spiraling pattern in these gyres. The spiraling wind pattern helps the hurricane form. The stronger the force from the Coriolis effect, the faster the wind spins and picks up additional energy, increasing the strength of the hurricane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2939202",
"title": "Earth's inner core",
"section": "Section::::Dynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 1009,
"text": "In 1999, M. Greff-Lefftz and H. Legros noted that the gravitational fields of the Sun and Moon that are responsible for ocean tides also apply torques to the Earth, affecting its axis of rotation and a slowing down of its rotation rate. Those torques are felt mainly by the crust and mantle, so that their rotation axis and speed may differ from overall rotation of the fluid in the outer core and the rotation of the inner core. The dynamics is complicated because of the currents and magnetic fields in the inner core. They find that the axis of the inner core wobbles (nutates) slightly with a period of about 1 day. With some assumptions on the evolution of the Earth, they conclude that the fluid motions in the outer core would have entered resonance with the tidal forces at several times in the past (3.0, 1.8, and 0.3 billion years ago). During those epochs, which lasted 200–300 million years each, the extra heat generated by stronger fluid motions might have stopped the growth of the inner core.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "325060",
"title": "Tidal power",
"section": "Section::::Principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Tidal power is taken from the Earth's oceanic tides. Tidal forces are periodic variations in gravitational attraction exerted by celestial bodies. These forces create corresponding motions or currents in the world's oceans. Due to the strong attraction to the oceans, a bulge in the water level is created, causing a temporary increase in sea level. As the Earth rotates, this \"bulge\" of ocean water meets the shallow water adjacent to the shoreline and creates a tide. This occurrence takes place in an unfailing manner, due to the consistent pattern of the moon's orbit around the earth. The magnitude and character of this motion reflects the changing positions of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth, the effects of Earth's rotation, and local geography of the sea floor and coastlines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2015",
"title": "Antarctic Circumpolar Current",
"section": "Section::::Dynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1079,
"text": "In latitudes where there are continents, winds blowing on light surface water can simply pile up light water against these continents. But in the Southern Ocean, the momentum imparted to the surface waters cannot be offset in this way. There are different theories on how the Circumpolar Current balances the momentum imparted by the winds. The increasing eastward momentum imparted by the winds causes water parcels to drift outward from the axis of the Earth's rotation (in other words, northward) as a result of the Coriolis force. This northward Ekman transport is balanced by a southward, pressure-driven flow below the depths of the major ridge systems. Some theories connect these flows directly, implying that there is significant upwelling of dense deep waters within the Southern Ocean, transformation of these waters into light surface waters, and a transformation of waters in the opposite direction to the north. Such theories link the magnitude of the Circumpolar Current with the global thermohaline circulation, particularly the properties of the North Atlantic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30647",
"title": "Tidal acceleration",
"section": "Section::::Earth–Moon system.:Effects of Moon's gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "In addition to the effect of the ocean tides, there is also a tidal acceleration due to flexing of Earth's crust, but this accounts for only about 4% of the total effect when expressed in terms of heat dissipation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5672031",
"title": "Orbit of the Moon",
"section": "Section::::Tidal evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "The gravitational attraction that the Moon exerts on Earth is the cause of tides in the sea; the Sun has a smaller tidal influence. If Earth had a global ocean of uniform depth, the Moon would act to deform both the solid Earth (by a small amount) and the ocean in the shape of an ellipsoid with the high points roughly beneath the Moon and on the opposite side of Earth. However, because of the presence of the continents, Earth's much faster rotation and varying ocean depths, this simplistic visualisation does not happen. Although the tidal flow period is generally synchronized to the Moon's orbit around Earth, its relative timing varies greatly. In some places on Earth, there is only one high tide per day, whereas others such as Southampton have four, though this is somewhat rare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
pjbp7
|
What is the net metabolic benefit of the caffeine in a cup of coffee?
|
[
{
"answer": "EDIT: Caffeine Only\n\n\"Measurements of energy expenditure (EE) in a room respirometer indicate that repeated caffeine administration (100 mg) at 2-h intervals over a 12-h day period increased the EE of both subject groups by 8-11% (p less than 0.01) during that period but had no influence on the subsequent 12- h night EE. The net effect was a significant increase (p less than 0.02) in daily EE of 150 kcal in the lean volunteers and 79 kcal in the postobese subjects.\"\n\n100 mg every 2 hours is a lot of caffeine. For an example, to burn 150 kcal you would need 7.5 Red Bulls at 80 mg/250 ml. At 110 kcal per can, you drank 825 kcal. So, if you want to burn calories, you need a low calorie source of caffeine.\n\nSource: _URL_1_\n------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI just found a group that studied a specific suplement. It contained 10 mg of caffeine and 5 mg of ephedrine. The crossover trial measured oxygen consumption for 45 minutes after taking two herbal dietary supplement capsules. \n\nThe Results were as follows: The herbal dietary supplement increased peak oxygen consumption 0.178 ± 0.03 (SEM) kcal/min (8.01 ± 1.35 kcal/min expressed over 45 minutes) above baseline (p < 0.0001), and 2.0 ± 0.56 kcal/min over 45 minutes compared to placebo (p < 0.006).\n\nSOURCE: _URL_0_\n\nI will try to find a \"Caffeine Only\" experiment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6868",
"title": "Caffeine",
"section": "Section::::Products.:Beverages.:Coffee.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "The world's primary source of caffeine is the coffee \"bean\" (the seed of the coffee plant), from which coffee is brewed. Caffeine content in coffee varies widely depending on the type of coffee bean and the method of preparation used; even beans within a given bush can show variations in concentration. In general, one serving of coffee ranges from 80 to 100 milligrams, for a single shot (30 milliliters) of arabica-variety espresso, to approximately 100–125 milligrams for a cup (120 milliliters) of drip coffee. \"Arabica\" coffee typically contains half the caffeine of the \"robusta\" variety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11783723",
"title": "ConsumerLab.com",
"section": "Section::::Dietary supplement testing.:Notable findings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "In 2012, a ConsumerLab.com study on 5-hour Energy drink reported the tested sample contained about 207 mg of caffeine. This may be considered notably higher than the advertised \"about as much caffeine as a cup of the leading premium coffee,\" as the FDA states a cup of coffee usually contains 80-100 mg of caffeine and a cup of Starbucks coffee is 130 mg of caffeine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "604727",
"title": "Coffee",
"section": "Section::::Caffeine content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Depending on the type of coffee and method of preparation, the caffeine content of a single serving can vary greatly. The caffeine content of a cup of coffee varies depending mainly on the brewing method, and also on the coffee variety. According to the USDA National Nutrient Database, an 8-ounce (237 ml) cup of \"coffee brewed from grounds\" contains 95 mg caffeine, whereas an espresso (25 ml) contains 53 mg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215424",
"title": "Instant coffee",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "The caffeine content of instant coffee is generally less than that of brewed coffee. One study comparing various home-prepared samples came to the result that regular instant coffee (not decaffeinated) has a median caffeine content of 66 mg per cup (range 29–117 mg per cup), with a median cup size of 225 ml (range 170-285 ml) and a caffeine concentration of 328 µg/ml (range 102-559 µg/ml). In comparison, drip or filter coffee was estimated to have a median caffeine content of 112 mg, with a median concentration of 621 µg/ml for the same cup size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6868",
"title": "Caffeine",
"section": "Section::::Natural occurrence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "Caffeine in plants acts as a natural pesticide: it can paralyze and kill predator insects feeding on the plant. High caffeine levels are found in coffee seedlings when they are developing foliage and lack mechanical protection. In addition, high caffeine levels are found in the surrounding soil of coffee seedlings, which inhibits seed germination of nearby coffee seedlings, thus giving seedlings with the highest caffeine levels fewer competitors for existing resources for survival. Caffeine is stored in tea leaves in two places. Firstly, in the cell vacuoles where it is complexed with polyphenols. This caffeine probably is released into the mouth parts of insects, to discourage herbivory. Secondly, around the vascular bundles, where it probably inhibits pathogenic fungi from entering and colonizing the vascular bundles. Caffeine in nectar may improve the reproductive success of the pollen producing plants by enhancing the reward memory of pollinators such as honey bees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25249846",
"title": "Functional beverage",
"section": "Section::::Health concerns.:Energy drinks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "In some functional beverages, particularly energy drinks, the caffeine content can be up to 141 milligrams per serving, more than an average 8-ounce cup of coffee containing 133 mg of caffeine. There have been reports to Health Canada of adverse reactions involving energy drinks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38434293",
"title": "Caffeine dehydrogenase",
"section": "Section::::Industrial significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine), the substrate in the above reaction, is a purine alkaloid found in a variety of plant species, such as coffee, cacao, cola, and tea leaves. Caffeine has also been used as a cardiac, neurological, and respiratory stimulant. Because of its prevalence in the modern world in the form of beverages, food, and medicine, caffeine has become one of the world's major agro-industrial wastes. Thus, caffeine has become more noticeable in surface water, groundwater, and waste water effluents all over the world. In addition to being an addictive substance, it has also been shown to lead to adverse health effects, such as irregular sleeping patterns, increase in blood pressure, palpitations, and anxiety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3nya76
|
Suppose you visited Ireland in 1415, what would the farmland that would later be used for potatoes, have been used for at that time before they were brought back from the Americas?
|
[
{
"answer": "You'll expect a sizable arable farming component, based on wheat, barley, some oats, probably still rye in areas with monastic influence. Rye was big in the Early Christian Period and associated with monasteries. Some peas and perhaps other crops as well. However, Ireland's farming economy has always been (since the start in the Early Neolithic c. 3800 BC) predominantly based on pastoral activity. You will expect a lot of grazing (cattle, sheep) throughout the country. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14592519",
"title": "Killua Castle",
"section": "Section::::Raleigh Obelisk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "The obelisk, erected in 1810 by Sir Thomas Chapman some 200m to 300m from the house, marks the position where Sir Walter Raleigh planted some of the first potatoes that he imported to Ireland. Antoine Parmentier who promoted the cultivation of potatoes for human consumption and the Spanish conquistadores who first imported them from South America along the south and west Irish coast are also associated with Irish potato promotion. However, it is uncertain who is initially responsible of the first potato plantation in Ireland, even though Raleigh is frequently credited with this milestone in Irish history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "991296",
"title": "Culture of Ireland",
"section": "Section::::Food and drink.:The Potato in Ireland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1250,
"text": "The potato would appear to have been introduced into Ireland in the second half of the 16th century, as a result of the European colonisation of the Americas, initially as a garden crop. It eventually came to be the main food field crop of the tenant and labouring classes. As a food source, the potato is extremely efficient in terms of energy yielded per unit area of land. The potato is also a good source of many vitamins and minerals, particularly vitamin C (especially when fresh). As a result, the typical 18th- and 19th-century Irish diet of potatoes and buttermilk was a contributing factor in the population explosion that occurred in Ireland at that time. However, due to the political rule of the time, the majority of Irish produce (root crops, cereals and animal produce) was exported to Britain, leaving few strains of potato as the sole food source for the Irish. This, along with the spread of potato blight led to shortages and famines, the most notable instance being the Great Irish Famine (1845–1849). The causes are attributed by some to potato blight, others to an adherence to laissez-faire economic policies of the Liberal government, which kept food exports at the pre-famine level leading to disease, death and emigration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36801884",
"title": "History of the potato",
"section": "Section::::History by region.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "In Ireland, the expansion of potato cultivation was due entirely to the landless labourers, renting tiny plots from landowners who were interested only in raising cattle or in producing grain for market. A single acre of potatoes and the milk of a single cow was enough to feed a whole Irish family a monotonous but nutritionally adequate diet for a healthy, vigorous (and desperately poor) rural population. Often even poor families grew enough extra potatoes to feed a pig that they could sell for cash.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42796737",
"title": "Agriculture in Connecticut",
"section": "Section::::History.:18th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Irish settlers introduced potatoes in Connecticut in 1720, but colonial farmers would be slow to adopt the crop. Connecticut onion farmers had ample success exporting, both to neighboring colonies like New York as well as the Caribbean, with southwest Connecticut becoming a center of the industry. Farmers in some parts of Connecticut made maple syrup and sugar, and pressed apple cider including fermented varieties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "119369",
"title": "Ham Lake, Minnesota",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "The early settlers found the soil well suited to farming as it was not as rocky as they had been accustomed to in Scandinavia. Through the years, dairying became an important industry. The pioneer farmers soon found the soil well suited to growing potatoes and this became an important commodity for both cash sales and trading. Ham Lake Township would split from Grow Township (Andover) in 1871. From the early 1900s through the 1930s, potato farming was at its peak in then named \"Ham Lake Township\". Some of the farms remaining today are the sod farms in the southeast part of the city, where the ground is low and the soil black and heavy making it well suited to this crop as well as corn and potatoes in some places.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "996372",
"title": "Banagher",
"section": "Section::::History.:Decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Various causes contributed to this decline. The abolition of the Corn Laws in 1846 allowed the free importation of grain into these islands. Unable to compete with foreigners, the Irish farmer turned his land to pasture and grew only sufficient grain for his own use. The Banagher corn trade rapidly declined, and would have completely vanished were it not that barley growing was kept alive by Waller's malthouse. The clearances in East Galway in the years immediately succeeding the Great Irish Famine adversely affected the trade of the town while the smaller industries were unable to compete against the highly organised industries of Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5759288",
"title": "Ballinlass incident",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "At this time, Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, governed directly by its parliament in London. Many working class Irish farmers were tenants under landlords, producing cereals, potatoes and livestock. But only the potatoes remained as food for the farmers themselves; the other products were used for paying the rent and exported from Ireland to Great Britain. These exports continued when the potato crop failed in 1845.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4pp2va
|
why does playing music on devices at full volume decreases the lifespan of the speakers?
|
[
{
"answer": "Why do fat people have knee problems? Because there's more force acting on the same object over time. \n\nThe same goes for speakers. When you play music louder, the suspension of the speaker cone is being driven with more force. Over time that wears it down faster than if it was played quietly. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4557961",
"title": "Alignment level",
"section": "Section::::The reason for alignment level.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1075,
"text": "Digital audio players such as the iPod, demonstrate the need for a common alignment level. While tracks taken from recent CDs sound loud enough, many older recordings (such as Pink Floyd albums which notably allowed lots of headroom for stunning dynamic range and rarely reach peak digital level) are far too quiet, even at full volume setting. Older audio systems typically incorporated 12dB of 'overvolume', meaning that it was possible to turn up the loudness on a quiet recording to make maximum use of amplifier output even if peak level was never reached on the recording. Modern devices, however, tend to produce maximum output at full volume only on recordings that reach full-scale digital level. If extra gain is added, then playing a modern CD after listening to a well recorded older one is likely to deafen, requiring the volume control to be turned down by a huge amount. Again, the adoption of a common alignment level (early CDs allowed around 18dB of headroom by common consent) would make sense, improving quality and usability and ending the loudness war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191884",
"title": "Headphones",
"section": "Section::::Health and safety.:Dangers and risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "The usual way of limiting sound volume on devices driving headphones is by limiting output power. This has the additional undesirable effect of being dependent of the efficiency of the headphones; a device producing the maximum allowed power may not produce adequate volume when paired with low-efficiency, high-impedance equipment, while the same amount of power can reach dangerous levels with very efficient earphones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10006",
"title": "Electronic musical instrument",
"section": "Section::::Modern electronic musical instruments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The increasing power and decreasing cost of sound-generating electronics (and especially of the personal computer), combined with the standardization of the MIDI and Open Sound Control musical performance description languages, has facilitated the separation of musical instruments into music controllers and music synthesizers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "764380",
"title": "Sound reinforcement system",
"section": "Section::::System components.:Output transducers.:Main loudspeakers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "A number of companies are now making lightweight, portable speaker systems for small venues that route the low-frequency parts of the music (electric bass, bass drum, etc.) to a powered subwoofer. Routing the low-frequency energy to a separate amplifier and subwoofer can substantially improve the bass-response of the system. Also, clarity may be enhanced, because low-frequency sounds take a great deal of power to amplify; with only a single amplifier for the entire sound spectrum, the power-hungry low-frequency sounds can take a disproportionate amount of the sound system's power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202115",
"title": "MOS Technology 6581",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "The better manufacturing technology in the 8580 used in the later revisions of Commodore 64C and the Commodore 128DCR caused the bias to almost entirely disappear, causing the digitized sound samples to become very quiet. Fortunately, the volume level could be mostly restored with either a hardware modification (biasing the audio-in pin), or more commonly a software trick involving using the Pulse waveform to intentionally recreate the required bias. The software trick generally renders one voice temporarily unusable, although clever musical compositions can make this problem less noticeable. An excellent example of this quality improvement noticeably reducing a sampled channel can be found in the introduction to Electronic Arts' game Skate or Die (1987). The guitar riff played is all but missing when played on the Commodore 64c or the Commodore 128.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3576625",
"title": "Loudness war",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Because of the limitations of the vinyl format, the ability to manipulate loudness was also limited. Attempts to achieve extreme loudness could render the medium unplayable. Digital media such as CDs remove these restrictions and as a result, increasing loudness levels have been a more severe issue in the CD era. Modern computer-based digital audio effects processing allows mastering engineers to have greater direct control over the loudness of a song: for example, a \"brick wall\" limiter can look ahead at an upcoming signal to limit its level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "275878",
"title": "Moog synthesizer",
"section": "Section::::Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Early electronic music performance devices like the Theremin were also relatively limited in function. The classic Theremin, for example, produces only a simple sine wave tone, and the antennae that control the pitch and volume respond to small changes in the proximity of the operator's hands to the device, making it difficult to play accurately.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17mw90
|
During conditions of severe smog, etc, is the air quality indoors actually appreciably better?
|
[
{
"answer": "It depends on the building and the nature of the air quality crisis. Buildings have a turnover time of air, and you can lengthen that time by closing doors, windows, and vents. The air might get stuffy inside, but the smog won't mix much. If there is a few-hour smog event, that could reduce the interior smog level.\n\nSome buildings have HEPA or electrostatic filters on their interior air supply; these filters remove particulates from the air and can increase air quality if the main problem is small particles. \n\nSome buildings contain smokers. That degrades interior air quality.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "67042",
"title": "Weatherization",
"section": "Section::::Air Quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Weatherization can have a negative impact on indoor air quality, especially among occupants with respiratory illnesses. This occurs because of a decrease in air exchange in the home, and resulting increase in moisture. This leads to higher concentrations of pollutants in the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2236730",
"title": "Kitchen cabinet",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Considering that North Americans spend a large proportion of their lives indoors, it’s clear why this is a key issue in designing healthy spaces. Additionally, air quality is not a stand-alone problem; rather, every other component of the home can affect air quality. Air quality can be compromised by off-gassing from cabinetry, countertops, flooring, wall coverings or fabrics; by cooking by-products released into the air, and by mold caused by excess moisture or poor ventilation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30206738",
"title": "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Air pollution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Both indoor and outdoor air quality can be improved, which may prevent COPD or slow the worsening of existing disease. This may be achieved by public policy efforts, cultural changes, and personal involvement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4148087",
"title": "Displacement ventilation",
"section": "Section::::Benefits and Limitations.:Indoor air quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "One benefit of displacement ventilation is possibly the superior indoor air quality achieved with exhausting contaminated air out of the room. Better air quality is achieved when the pollution source is also a heat source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46840722",
"title": "Air pollution sensor",
"section": "Section::::Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Scientific evidence has indicated that indoor air pollution can be worse than outdoor pollutants in large and industrialized cities. Many products and chemicals used inside the home, for cooking and heating, and for appliances and home décor are primary sources of indoor air pollutants. Everything we use in the home contributes to the pollution, and can possibly degrade the environment. Air pollution is responsible for 7 million premature deaths around the world each year. When pollutants enter the body through our respiratory system, they can be absorbed in the blood and travel throughout the body, and can directly damage the heart and other vital organs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38000135",
"title": "Airlog",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Although, from a global perspective, harmful indoor air pollution is caused by cooking and heating with solid fuels on open fires or traditional stoves, especially in poorly ventilated rooms, indoor air pollutants may also come from heating and cooling equipment, electronic appliances, cleaning products, air fresheners, insecticides, and construction materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10934212",
"title": "Air pollution",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives to pollution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "BULLET::::- Induced humidity and ventilation both can greatly dampen air pollution in enclosed spaces, which was found to be relatively high inside subway lines due to braking and friction and relatively less ironically inside transit buses than lower sitting passenger automobiles or subways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a04qg9
|
does sunlight coming through a windowpane onto skin provide any benefits at all?
|
[
{
"answer": "That warm feeling like a cat napping in the sun?..........",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It would depend on the type of glass — with just straight window glass with no coatings, yeah, there’d be some vitamin D benefit. With highly tinted or UV-coated glass, probably significantly less benefit, if any. \n\nThere are mood benefits to being able to see the sun, even through a window, so there’s that, at least...,",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28350333",
"title": "Picture framing glass",
"section": "Section::::UV Protection in Art Glazing.:Controlling UV Lighting Inside.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "While determining how much UV light should be filtered by art glazing, it may also be important to consider the amount of UV light present inside a room or a building. Note that regular window glazing filters away a significant portion of the UV light, which originates from the sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7293427",
"title": "Solar gain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Objects struck by sunlight absorb its visible and short-wave infrared components, increase in temperature, and then re-radiate that heat at longer infrared wavelengths. Though transparent building materials such as glass allow visible light to pass through almost unimpeded, once that light is converted to long-wave infrared radiation by materials indoors, it is unable to escape back through the window since glass is opaque to those longer wavelengths. The trapped heat thus causes solar gain via a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect. In buildings, excessive solar gain can lead to overheating within a space, but it can also be used as a passive heating strategy when heat is desired.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4759830",
"title": "Photochromic lens",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Photochromic lenses filter 100% UVA as well as UVB. UVB light is more energetic and causes sunburn as well as skin damage including cancers, UVA light causes skincancers but not usually sunburn. UVB is blocked by all glass, UVA light is not blocked by ordinary windows or lenses glass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1864909",
"title": "Window film",
"section": "Section::::Primary properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "To keep the sun's heat out of the house, a low-emissivity coating should be applied to the outside pane of glazed windows. If the windows are designed to provide heat energy in the winter and keep heat inside the house (typical of cold climates), the low-emissivity coating should be applied to the inside pane of glazed windows. Such films also reduce the amount of visible and ultraviolet radiation entering a window, and are often applied to reduce fading of the contents of a room. Silvered film may also be employed to the same end. Spectrally selective films act by blocking certain wavelengths of the sun's infrared radiation and reject heat without reducing natural light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18993816",
"title": "Solid",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Optical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Many materials will transmit some wavelengths while blocking others. For example, window glass is transparent to visible light, but much less so to most of the frequencies of ultraviolet light that cause sunburn. This property is used for frequency-selective optical filters, which can alter the color of incident light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30653352",
"title": "Heatable glass",
"section": "Section::::Standard windows.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Heat insulation of translucent constructions can be improved by increasing the number of glasses and chambers of multiple glass panes, but will result in increased construction cost and decreased optical transmission. The reasonable alternative is the usage of low-emissivity glass, which is practically the same as ordinary glass in terms of optical transmission, but it also reflects the heat radiation back into the room. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24998247",
"title": "Vitamin D",
"section": "Section::::Biosynthesis.:Synthesis in the skin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Sunscreen absorbs or reflects ultraviolet light and prevents much of it from reaching the skin. Sunscreen with a sun protection factor (SPF) of 8 based on the UVB spectrum decreases vitamin D synthetic capacity by 95%, and SPF 15 decreases it by 98%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
48juez
|
Is the Hubble sphere expanding or shrinking?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Hubble sphere is not the same as the observable universe. The Hubble sphere is the radius beyond which light *emitted now* will never reach us, whereas the observable universe is the radius from which light that *reaches us now* was emitted from. \n\nThe Hubble sphere does expand in an accelerating universe, but the Universe is expanding faster, and thus things within our Hubble sphere now can pass out of it in the future. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7960760",
"title": "Hubble volume",
"section": "Section::::Hubble limit as an event horizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "However, the Hubble parameter is not constant in various cosmological models so that the Hubble limit does not, in general, coincide with a cosmological event horizon. For example, in a decelerating Friedmann universe the Hubble sphere expands with time, and its boundary overtakes light emitted by more distant galaxies so that light emitted at earlier times by objects \"outside\" the Hubble sphere still may eventually arrive inside the sphere and be seen by us. Conversely, in an accelerating universe, the Hubble sphere shrinks with time, and its boundary overtakes light emitted by nearer galaxies so that light emitted at earlier times by objects \"inside\" the Hubble sphere will eventually recede outside the sphere and will never be seen by us.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42975",
"title": "Hubble's law",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "Since the Hubble \"constant\" is a constant only in space, not in time, the radius of the Hubble sphere may increase or decrease over various time intervals. The subscript '0' indicates the value of the Hubble constant today. Current evidence suggests that the expansion of the universe is accelerating (\"see\" Accelerating universe), meaning that, for any given galaxy, the recession velocity dD/dt is increasing over time as the galaxy moves to greater and greater distances; however, the Hubble parameter is actually thought to be decreasing with time, meaning that if we were to look at some \"fixed\" distance D and watch a series of different galaxies pass that distance, later galaxies would pass that distance at a smaller velocity than earlier ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7960760",
"title": "Hubble volume",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "In cosmology, a Hubble volume or Hubble sphere is a spherical region of the observable universe surrounding an observer beyond which objects recede from that observer at a rate greater than the speed of light due to the expansion of the Universe. The Hubble volume is approximately equal to 10 cubic light years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7960760",
"title": "Hubble volume",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "The proper radius of a Hubble sphere (known as the Hubble radius or the Hubble length) is formula_1, where formula_2 is the speed of light and formula_3 is the Hubble constant. The surface of a Hubble sphere is called the \"microphysical horizon\", the \"Hubble surface\", or the \"Hubble limit\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30721431",
"title": "Hubble bubble (astronomy)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "In astronomy, a Hubble bubble would be \"a departure of the local value of the Hubble constant from its globally averaged value,\" or, more technically, \"a local monopole in the peculiar velocity field, perhaps caused by a local void in the mass density.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2848730",
"title": "Cosmological horizon",
"section": "Section::::Hubble horizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1010,
"text": "Hubble radius, Hubble sphere, Hubble volume, or Hubble horizon is a conceptual horizon defining the boundary between particles that are moving slower and faster than the speed of light relative to an observer at one given time. Note that this does not mean the particle is unobservable, the light from the past is reaching and will continue to reach the observer for a while. Also, more importantly, in the current expansion model e.g., light emitted from the Hubble radius will reach us in a finite amount of time. It is a common misconception that light from the Hubble radius can never reach us. It is true that particles on the Hubble radius recede from us with the speed of light, but the Hubble radius gets larger over time (because the Hubble parameter H gets smaller over time), so light emitted towards us from a particle on the Hubble radius will be inside the Hubble radius some time later. Only light emitted from the cosmic event horizon or further will never reach us in a finite amount of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35223708",
"title": "History of the center of the Universe",
"section": "Section::::The nonexistence of a center of the Universe.:Expanding Universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The redshift observations of Hubble, in which galaxies appear to be moving away from us at a rate proportional to their distance from us, are now understood to be a result of the metric expansion of space. This is the increase of the distance between two distant parts of the Universe with time, and is an intrinsic expansion whereby the scale of space itself changes. As Hubble theorized, all observers anywhere in the Universe will observe a similar effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4a6pjf
|
Gilgamesh in Cuneiform
|
[
{
"answer": "What you are asking for is the two-volume [*The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic* by A. R. George](_URL_0_). This masterful work includes the editions of all of the known tablets of the Gilgamesh epic (except for [the most recenly discovered tablet](_URL_1_)), an English translation, and images of the cuneiform tablets. These aren't side-by-side like the Loeb Classical texts, but it's the best you will be able to find. The set is expensive, so you will likely need to find an academic library in order to use it. It also may not be suitable for non-specialists. The work was published mainly with Assyriologists in mind, so if you cannot read Akkadian, looking at the editions and the tablets won't be of much help.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "80028",
"title": "Epic of Gilgamesh",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "The \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" was discovered by Austen Henry Layard, Hormuzd Rassam, and W. K. Loftus in 1853. The central character of Gilgamesh was initially reintroduced to the world as \"\"Izdubar\"\", before the cuneiform logographs in his name could be pronounced accurately. The first modern translation was published in the early 1870s by George Smith. Smith then made further discoveries of texts on his later expeditions, which culminated in his final translation which is given in his book \"The Chaldaean Account of Genesis\" (1880).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46426961",
"title": "Statue of Gilgamesh, University of Sydney",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "Gilgamesh was a king of Uruk in the land of Sumer, Mesopotamia. Gilgamesh is described as a demigod of superhuman strength, as he was two-thirds God from his mother, Ninsun, and one-third human from his father, the former king, Lugalbunda. Gilgamesh built the city walls of Uruk to defend his people. Gilgamesh fought the demon Humbaba (or Huwawa), along with wild man Enkidu and brought his head back to Uruk on a raft. The pair also defeated the Bull of Heaven sent by the furious goddess Ishtar. These conquered beasts can be linked to the creature in the statue as a representation of Gilgamesh's strength and power. Gilgamesh is seen as a worldly-wise, cultured king and protector who is at the centre of human society. The statue was erected to celebrate the might and power of Gilgamesh and commemorate his achievements as a protector and king.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37706858",
"title": "The Epic of Gilgamesh (Martinů)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Gilgameš (English: The Epic of Gilgamesh) is an oratorio by Bohuslav Martinů composed 1954–1955 near Nice in France and premiered in 1958 in Basel, Switzerland, with a title and text in German, as \"Das Gilgamesch-Epos\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21703",
"title": "Noah",
"section": "Section::::Comparative mythology.:Mesopotamian.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "The earliest Sumerian Gilgamesh poems date from as early as the Third dynasty of Ur (2100–2000 BC). One of these poems mentions Gilgamesh’s journey to meet the flood hero, as well as a short version of the flood story. The earliest Akkadian versions of the unified epic are dated to ca. 2000–1500 BC. Due to the fragmentary nature of these Old Babylonian versions, it is unclear whether they included an expanded account of the flood myth; although one fragment definitely includes the story of Gilgamesh’s journey to meet Utnapishtim. The \"standard\" Akkadian version included a long version of the flood story and was edited by Sin-liqe-unninni sometime between 1300 and 1000 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6095325",
"title": "Gilgamesh flood myth",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "The earliest Sumerian Gilgamesh poems date from as early as the Third dynasty of Ur (2100–2000 BCE). One of these poems mentions Gilgamesh’s journey to meet the flood hero, as well as a short version of the flood story. The earliest Akkadian versions of the unified epic are dated to ca. 2000–1500 BCE. Due to the fragmentary nature of these Old Babylonian versions, it is unclear whether they included an expanded account of the flood myth; although one fragment definitely includes the story of Gilgamesh’s journey to meet Utnapishtim. The “standard” Akkadian version included a long version of the story and was edited by Sin-liqe-unninni sometime between 1300 and 1000 BCE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13151",
"title": "Gilgamesh",
"section": "Section::::Deification and legendary exploits.:Sumerian poems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1627,
"text": "During this period, a large number of myths and legends developed surrounding Gilgamesh. Five independent Sumerian poems narrating various exploits of Gilgamesh have survived to the present. Gilgamesh's first appearance in literature is probably in the Sumerian poem \"Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld\". The narrative begins with a \"huluppu\" tree—perhaps, according to the Sumerologist Samuel Noah Kramer, a willow, growing on the banks of the river Euphrates. The goddess Inanna moves the tree to her garden in Uruk with the intention to carve it into a throne once it is fully grown. The tree grows and matures, but the serpent \"who knows no charm,\" the \"Anzû\"-bird, and \"Lilitu\", the Sumerian forerunner to the Lilith of Jewish folklore, all take up residence within the tree, causing Inanna to cry with sorrow. Gilgamesh, who in this story is portrayed as Inanna's brother, comes along and slays the serpent, causing the \"Anzû\"-bird and Lilitu to flee. Gilgamesh's companions chop down the tree and carve its wood into a bed and a throne, which they give to Inanna. Inanna responds by fashioning a \"pikku\" and a \"mikku\" (probably a drum and drumsticks respectively, although the exact identifications are uncertain), which she gives to Gilgamesh as a reward for his heroism. Gilgamesh loses the \"pikku\" and \"mikku\" and asks who will retrieve them. Enkidu descends to the Underworld to find them, but disobeys the strict laws of the Underworld and is therefore required to remain there forever. The remaining portion of the poem is a dialogue in which Gilgamesh asks the shade of Enkidu questions about the Underworld.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80028",
"title": "Epic of Gilgamesh",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1050,
"text": "The Epic of Gilgamesh () is an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia that is often regarded as the earliest surviving great work of literature. The literary history of Gilgamesh begins with five Sumerian poems about Bilgamesh (Sumerian for \"Gilgamesh\"), king of Uruk, dating from the Third Dynasty of Ur (). These independent stories were later used as source material for a combined epic in Akkadian. The first surviving version of this combined epic, known as the \"Old Babylonian\" version dates to the 18th century BC and is titled after its \"incipit\", Shūtur eli sharrī (\"Surpassing All Other Kings\"). Only a few tablets of it have survived. The later \"standard\" version compiled by Sîn-lēqi-unninni dates from the 13th to the 10th centuries BC and bears the \"incipit\" Sha naqba īmuru (\"He who Saw the Abyss\", in modern terms: \"He who Sees the Unknown\"). Approximately two thirds of this longer, twelve-tablet version have been recovered. Some of the best copies were discovered in the library ruins of the 7th-century BC Assyrian king Ashurbanipal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
y9qfm
|
Does fiber simply speed up our digestive system, or do our bodies want to expel fiber quickly?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your body can't break down fiber, and it holds water as it moves through your bowels, making it easy to eliminate compared to denser or drier stuff. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fiber acts as a bulking agent, and as mentioned by HonorAmongSteves, it carries water, creating a rather substantial mass that moves through one's digestive tract. Peristaltic movements by the colon and eventually defecation are stimulated by stretch receptors present in the wall of the colon. Due to the increased bulk in the colon, stretch receptors are activated, passage is expedited, leading to a faster mouth to anus transit. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "93827",
"title": "Human nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Nutrients.:Fiber.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "Whole grains, beans and other legumes, fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. Fiber is important to digestive health and is thought to reduce the risk of colon cancer. For mechanical reasons, fiber can help in alleviating both constipation and diarrhea. Fiber provides bulk to the intestinal contents, and insoluble fiber especially stimulates peristalsis – the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines which move digesta along the digestive tract. Some soluble fibers produce a solution of high viscosity; this is essentially a gel, which slows the movement of food through the intestines. Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, may help lessen insulin spikes and reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66554",
"title": "Dietary fiber",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "Dietary fibers can act by changing the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract and by changing how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Some types of soluble fiber absorb water to become a gelatinous, viscous substance which may or may not be fermented by bacteria in the digestive tract. Some types of insoluble fiber have bulking action and are not fermented. Lignin, a major dietary insoluble fiber source, may alter the rate and metabolism of soluble fibers. Other types of insoluble fiber, notably resistant starch, are fermented to produce short-chain fatty acids, which are physiologically active and confer health benefits. Health benefit from dietary fiber and whole grains may include a decreased risk of death and lower rates of coronary heart disease, colon cancer, and type 2 diabetes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66554",
"title": "Dietary fiber",
"section": "Section::::Activity in the gut.:Dietary fiber in the upper gastrointestinal tract.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Dietary fiber interacts with pancreatic and enteric enzymes and their substrates. Human pancreatic enzyme activity is reduced when incubated with most fiber sources. Fiber may affect amylase activity and hence the rate of hydrolysis of starch. The more viscous polysaccharides extend the mouth-to-cecum transit time; guar, tragacanth and pectin being slower than wheat bran.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19319",
"title": "Myelin",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "When a peripheral fiber is severed, the myelin sheath provides a track along which regrowth can occur. However, the myelin layer does not ensure a perfect regeneration of the nerve fiber. Some regenerated nerve fibers do not find the correct muscle fibers, and some damaged motor neurons of the peripheral nervous system die without regrowth. Damage to the myelin sheath and nerve fiber is often associated with increased functional insufficiency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66554",
"title": "Dietary fiber",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "BULLET::::- Insoluble fiber – which does not dissolve in water – is inert to digestive enzymes in the upper gastrointestinal tract and provides bulking. Some forms of insoluble fiber, such as resistant starches, can be fermented in the colon. Bulking fibers absorb water as they move through the digestive system, easing defecation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66554",
"title": "Dietary fiber",
"section": "Section::::Activity in the gut.:Dietary fiber and cholesterol metabolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "An important action of some fibers is to reduce the reabsorption of bile acids in the ileum and hence the amount and type of bile acid and fats reaching the colon. A reduction in the reabsorption of bile acid from the ileum has several direct effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66554",
"title": "Dietary fiber",
"section": "Section::::Activity in the gut.:Dietary fiber and cholesterol metabolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "BULLET::::2. The prime mechanism whereby fiber influences cholesterol metabolism is through bacteria binding bile acids in the colon after the initial deconjugation and dehydroxylation. The sequestered bile acids are then excreted in feces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2jtzs3
|
If you could make a race car's tires, and the road it drives on, out of any materials know to man, what combo would perform the best?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well it depends what you mean by \"perform the best\".\n\nLet's start off at the most basic level. Wheels work because of friction. An ideal wheel is one that does not slip at the point of contact. Imagine a car on ice - it wouldn't be going anywhere. The higher the [coefficient of friction](_URL_1_) the better. This allows the wheel to convert as much energy as possible to forward motion.\n\nAnother big factor is [rolling resistance](_URL_0_). A common misconception is that this resistance is due to friction; really, it is due to the deformation of the tire. Because of this factor, you would want a wheel that is as perfectly rigid as possible. The less the wheel deforms, the less energy is lost due to rolling resistance.\n\nWell, these two factors alone would mean you want a really hard material for your tire in contact with another material that provides as much friction as possible. [Metal on metal does that job well.](_URL_2_) This is one of the reasons why trains are so efficient at transporting cargo - they are \"the best\" at efficiently converting energy into forward motion and then maintaining that forward motion.\n\nThe way you put it, a race car with train-like wheels on a train track would be the best race car you could get based on the mechanics of wheels only. Unfortunately, cost and resources do apply to the real world. We couldn't just turn all the roads into rails - that would introduce a mind boggling number of engineering challenges. Not only that, but you loose out a number of other benefits to traditional rubber tire trucks/cars such as maneuverability and not necessarily needing a paved road to travel on. As far as the real world is concerned, asphalt and rubber is incredibly efficient and economical for the purposes it is used for.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "65037",
"title": "Tire",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Automotive.:Light–medium duty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Race-car tires\"—Race car tires come in three main categories, \"DOT\" (street-legal), \"slick\", and \"rain\". Race car tires are designed to maximize cornering and acceleration friction at the expense of longevity. Racing slicks have no tread to maximize contact with the pavement and rain tires have channels to eject water to avoid hydroplaning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13051422",
"title": "World of Outlaws: Sprint Cars 2002",
"section": "Section::::Career mode.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "The racing happens on dirt ovals - 12 real-world tracks and several simulated ovals. The gameplay is known for its unpredictability: artificial intelligence (AI) cars sometimes drive perfect laps and sometimes spin out after bumping into other sprint cars. The dirt surface can quickly change between laps with the addition of loose dirt, hard surface, and ruts. Another example of its realism is that the player receives a limited number of tearoffs to clean the loose dirt which accumulates on the player's helmet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "12707313",
"title": "Formula One tyres",
"section": "Section::::Design and usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "Formula One tyres bear only a superficial resemblance to a normal road tyre. Whereas the latter has a useful life of up to , the tyres used in Formula One are built to last less than one race distance. The purpose of the tyre determines the compound of the rubber to be used. In extremely wet weather, such as that seen in the 2007 European Grand Prix, the F1 cars are unable to keep up with the safety car in deep standing water due to the risk of aquaplaning. In very wet races, such as the 2011 Canadian Grand Prix, the tyres are unable to provide a safe race due to the amount of water, and so the race can be red flagged. The race is either then stopped permanently, or suspended for any period of time until the cars can race safely again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23459660",
"title": "GeneRally",
"section": "Section::::The game and its system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "Up to six cars (either human or computer-controlled by AI) can race at the same time on a track. The game is quite easy to learn because the game physics are quite forgiving if you happen to lose control of the car. The game offers three game modes - time trial mode (player attacks best lap of a track; option of ghost car is available), race mode (against next 1-5 human or artificial opponents) and championship mode (season of several races). No matter on simple appearance, the game offers a basic damage model and even tire wear and fuel consumption causing necessity of pit-stops during the race - rare options in genre of arcade racing games including commercial titles. All settings of game are fully customizable (including details like separate adjustable AI level of every single AI opponent or pointing system of held championship).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14027960",
"title": "Auto Race (Japanese sport)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Auto Race competitions are held on tarmac tracks, and usually involve eight riders and runs for six laps. The hard surface dictates riders lean round the corners rather than slide as in conventional Speedway, the sport from which Autorace was derived. A typical Auto Race bike is 599㏄ and has a two-speed gearbox. As in Speedway, the bikes have no brakes and are designed with the left handlebar higher than the right in order to help maintain stability while leaning the machine on the banked oval circuit. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25263901",
"title": "Nigel Mansell's World Championship Racing",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "The player can race a single race, participate in a season of Formula One, or practice their skills on a particular race track. The changing of the tires is mandatory on pit road during the middle of each race, and weather can determine whether the player should use hard tires, soft tires, or rain tires. Before the beginning of the race, it is possible to change some aspects of the car, such as spoilers, tires and gearbox. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "857305",
"title": "Cyclo-cross bicycle",
"section": "Section::::Equipment choice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Because ground conditions can vary greatly, equipment choice is extremely important. Add to this the fact that the races are relatively short and that equipment changes are allowed during races and equipment selection can get fanatical. Since tubular tires are popular in professional and some amateur racing and tires cannot easily be removed from the rim, collections of wheels with tires installed, are required for the varying conditions. It is common for racers even at an amateur level to have a pair of race bikes (one to ride and one in the pits as a back-up) and several wheels to choose from. At the professional level it is essential to have several bikes and wheel options available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1olp6w
|
When did local lords lose their political authority in England?
|
[
{
"answer": "I asked a related question (about when making knights became a royal monopoly rather than something any lord could do) about a month ago, and despite a very courteous effort by a mod, it wasn't really his field and I didn't get a satisfactory answer.\n\nHowever it prompted me to do a bit of research and the answer is 1504.\n\nHenry VII passed a law restricting non-royal retainers. This effectively restricted and regulated the swearing of fealty to anyone but the king. Thus the nobility (peerage rank) were unable to rely on the social and military support of their local gentry. \n\nFew lords personally owned all the land in the territory they controlled. However they were able to effectively control the middle-sized landowners in their locality through personal ties, diplomacy and the offering of political protection. Think of the Roman patron/client system rather than the lord of the manor/serf relationship, personal and economic ties rather than legal ones. \n\nThrough this system prominent nobles would have been able to call on the services of every landowning family in their area, and field a much larger army than through arming their own tenants and peasants alone.\n\nHenry VII, having successfully exploited this system to win the crown, didn't want anyone else to do the same. Hence the 1504 act of parliament. NB: gentry is a purely English term, the equivalent on the continent would be the lower nobility (nobility in England being tied to the peerage and thus restricted to those with actual titles).\n\nYour question wasn't phrased too well though, I almost answered 1998 since that was when Tony Blair kicked all but 90 of the hereditary peers out of the House of Lords.\n\nedit: added an interesting but a bit pop-historyish link _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13658",
"title": "House of Lords",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "The House of Lords developed from the \"Great Council\" (\"Magnum Concilium\") that advised the King during medieval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, and representatives of the counties of England and Wales (afterwards, representatives of the boroughs as well). The first English Parliament is often considered to be the \"Model Parliament\" (held in 1295), which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs of it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "436950",
"title": "House of Lords Act 1999",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "Prior to the 16th century, the Lords was the stronger of the two houses of Parliament. A process of gradual developments combined with such moments of crisis as the English Civil Wars transferred the political control of England, first from the Crown to the House of Lords and then to the House of Commons. The rising wealth of the Commons eventually allowed it to wage two civil wars, dethrone two kings, and gradually reduce the power of the Lords. Prior to the House of Lords Act 1999, the power of the Lords had been diminished by the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 which stripped the Lords of the ability to block, or veto, adoption of most bills; at most it could delay bills for one year. Furthermore, the Commons has absolute power when it comes to money bills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "93865",
"title": "Battersea",
"section": "Section::::Governance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "The tradition of local government in England was based in part of Manor, and later on the Parish. Battersea's governance can be traced back to 693, when the manor was held by the nunnery of St. Mary at Barking Abbey. After the Norman Conquest of 1066, control of the manor passed to Westminster Abbey, ending at the time of the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1540. Battersea was one of only three of the Abbey's demesne directly supervised by monks, rather than being let to tenants. Local control rested with an officer appointed by the abbey, variously termed a beadle, reeve or sergeant, whose responsibility it was supervise the farm servants of the manor, and to enforce and direct customary work performed by manorial tenants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "491064",
"title": "Province of Carolina",
"section": "Section::::History.:1663 Charter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "The Lords Proprietors, operating under their royal charter, were able to exercise their authority with nearly the independence of the king himself. The actual government consisted of a governor, a powerful council, on which half of the councillors were appointed by the Lords Proprietors themselves, and a relatively weak, popularly elected assembly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "161083",
"title": "Marcher Lord",
"section": "Section::::End of Marcher powers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "By the 16th century, many lordships had passed into the hands of the crown, which governed its lordships through the traditional institutions. The crown was also directly responsible for the government of the Principality of Wales, which had its own institutions and was (like England) divided into counties. The jurisdiction of the remaining marcher lords was thus an anomaly. This was abolished by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 (also known as the Acts of Union), which organised the Marches of Wales into counties, adding some lordships to adjoining English counties. It also gave statutory recognition to the Council of Wales and the Marches (based at Ludlow), responsible for oversight of the area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13658",
"title": "House of Lords",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "During the reign of Edward II's successor, Edward III, Parliament clearly separated into two distinct chambers: the House of Commons (consisting of the shire and borough representatives) and the House of Lords (consisting of the bishops, abbots and peers). The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and during the early 15th century both Houses exercised powers to an extent not seen before. The Lords were far more powerful than the Commons because of the great influence of the great landowners and the prelates of the realm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24451",
"title": "Privy Council of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "By the end of the English Civil War, the monarchy, House of Lords, and Privy Council had been abolished. The remaining parliamentary chamber, the House of Commons, instituted a Council of State to execute laws and to direct administrative policy. The forty-one members of the Council were elected by the House of Commons; the body was headed by Oliver Cromwell, \"de facto\" military dictator of the nation. In 1653, however, Cromwell became Lord Protector, and the Council was reduced to between thirteen and twenty-one members, all elected by the Commons. In 1657, the Commons granted Cromwell even greater powers, some of which were reminiscent of those enjoyed by monarchs. The Council became known as the Protector's Privy Council; its members were appointed by the Lord Protector, subject to Parliament's approval.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3jytm6
|
color correction glasses
|
[
{
"answer": "[This question has just been asked and answered](_URL_0_?).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1788660",
"title": "Anaglyph 3D",
"section": "Section::::Viewing.:Anachrome filters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "Plastic glasses, developed in recent years, provide both the diopter \"fix\" noted above, and a change in the cyan filter. The formula provides intentional \"leakage\" of a minimal (2%) percentage of red light with the conventional range of the filter. This assigns two-eyed \"redness cues\" to objects and details, such as lip color and red clothing, that are fused in the brain. Care must be taken, however, to closely overlay the red areas into near-perfect registration, or \"ghosting\" can occur. Anachrome formula lenses work well with black and white, but can provide excellent results when the glasses are used with conforming \"anachrome friendly\" images. The US Geological Survey has thousands of these \"conforming\" full-color images, which depict the geology and scenic features of the U.S. National Park system. By convention, anachrome images try to avoid excess separation of the cameras and parallax, thereby reducing the ghosting that the extra color bandwidth introduces to the images.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58592450",
"title": "Enchroma",
"section": "Section::::University experiments.:University of Otago.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The experiment demonstrated that the glasses have a positive effect on the everyday life of those subject to color blindness. The glasses achieve better results with some colors than others. The biggest improvements are achieved with greens, followed by purples, pinks, and reds. Subtle differences emerged when users looked longer and more carefully.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3296741",
"title": "Color correction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Color correction is a process used in stage lighting, photography, television, cinematography, and other disciplines, which uses color gels, or filters, to alter the overall color of the light. Typically the light color is measured on a scale known as color temperature, as well as along a green–magenta axis orthogonal to the color temperature axis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58592450",
"title": "Enchroma",
"section": "Section::::University experiments.:Pacific University and Qassim University.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "The Pacific University College of Optometry's experiment tested whether the glasses helped people with particular deficiencies improve the way they see colors. The study involved ten individuals with hereditary deficiencies (nine males and one female from age 19 to 52).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1788660",
"title": "Anaglyph 3D",
"section": "Section::::Viewing.:Red sharpened anaglyph glasses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "The correction is only about 1/2 + diopter on the red lens. However, some people with corrective glasses are bothered by difference in lens diopters, as one image is a slightly larger magnification than the other. Though endorsed by many 3D websites, the diopter \"fix\" effect is still somewhat controversial. Some, especially the nearsighted, find it uncomfortable. There is about a 400% improvement in acuity with a molded diopter filter, and a noticeable improvement of contrast and blackness. The American Amblyopia Foundation uses this feature in their plastic glasses for school screening of children's vision, judging the greater clarity as a significant plus factor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12581",
"title": "Glass",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary production.:Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Color in glass may be obtained by addition of electrically charged ions (or color centers) that are homogeneously distributed, and by precipitation of finely dispersed particles (such as in photochromic glasses).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74844",
"title": "Glasses",
"section": "Section::::Types.:3D glasses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Anaglyph 3D glasses have a different colored filter for each eye, typically red and blue or red and green. A polarized 3D system on the other hand uses polarized filters. Polarized 3D glasses allow for color 3D, while the red-blue lenses produce an image with distorted coloration. An active shutter 3D system uses electronic shutters. Head-mounted displays can filter the signal electronically and then transmit light directly into the viewer's eyes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ubpbw
|
How accurate is the TV series "Rome" in depicting the daily life of both plebians and patricians?
|
[
{
"answer": "This has been discussed a few times before. Here are a couple answers I've found that might answer your questions.\n\n/u/Taiko offers their opinion on the accuracy of the show [here](_URL_0_). \n\nAnd /u/peripatos offers their take [here](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Alrighty, first off - I'm going to preface this with a couple of disclaimers. Or a few. Whatever :P\n\n* **I LIKED *Rome*. What I say below doesn't change that.**\n\n* **The show is more accurate than most movies that are \"based on history.** \n\n* **Obviously, there are spoilers. I've only seen most of the first season, and I'm basing this off of what I've seen.** If you want to continue watching the show in blissful ignorance of the stuff that makes me go \"Well that's not quite right...\", then please, don't read any more! \n\n---\n\nOkay, now that the prelims are done with, I'm going to address the idea that the producers did their homework regarding the Roman army. Honestly, it's better than *most* (They're not wearing *lorica segmentata*, for one thing), but again, it's not quite right. I love how they showed the discipline of the Roman army, however, again, it was not quite right. For example, Pullo, when he breaks formation and strikes a superior officer, would have been executed on the spot. No questions. The Roman army had *extraordinarily* strict discipline and specific, harsh laws regarding their behaviour. Pullo should not have survived the first episode. Speaking of the first episode, the show depicted a battle - however, I'm not sure WHAT battle it was, even though they claim it was Alesia (By Vercingetorix being captured afterwards). The Battle of Alesia was a totally different beast - it was a desperate siege, with the besiegers themselves being besieged, and an incredible display of Julius Caesar's brilliance as a commander, as well as an indisputable example of Roman engineering at its finest. I didn't get that from the show :/\n\nThen, one little nitpick that would have been a HUGE deal. Caesar (and others) rode through the Roman camp. Again - seems like a funny thing to nitpick, no? The thing is, *no* one, not even kings and commanders, were allowed to ride through the camp - it was considered extreme bad luck, and at least one Roman loss that I've read about was blamed partly on a couple of individuals riding through the Roman camp. Caesar, a man who publicly based his reputation on his fantastically good luck, would never *ever* have committed such a *faux pas*. \n\nOh right. Speaking of Caesar and *faux pas*-es. Another thing he would never have done is shown that much favour to the Thirteenth Legion over all of his others - his favoured legion was the *Tenth*, and he spent the vast majority of his time with that legion, as opposed to the others. The *Tenth* went with Caesar almost everywhere he went (The only exception being the one legion he took with him when he went to Rome, crossing the Rubicon - which WAS the *Thirteenth*). When Caesar fought the Alexandrian Civil War, the *Thirteenth* wasn't originally with him, as shown (poorly) in the show - that was the *Sixth* and the *Twenty-Eighth*. But they did get the armour right, and it's absolutely possible that they rotated their ranks like they showed in the show, even if we have no proof of it! :)\n\n---\n\nNow, on to non-army things. As /u/Tiako noted so well [here](_URL_0_), with broad strokes, the show is pretty solid. Showing street life is fantastic, showing the colours of the city, rather than the blase, stolid marble that we're used to is utterly gorgeous. But then there are the little things - and I'll just give you a couple of examples of those.\n\nFirst of all, Caesar's...uh....sleeping around was rather well known. He'd slept with half of the married women in the Senate, it seems, and Servilia was Cato's (Who was FAR too old in the show, and would NOT have worn a black toga in the Senate) half-sister. Also, she had a daughter - who Caesar also slept with. Cato's wife? Yeah, Caesar slept with her too, I believe (He divorced her for sleeping around). Caesar's legionaries sang songs about how much Roman tax money was spent on Gallic women. My point to all of this is that *Caesar's wife would not have been surprised at his propensity to bang everything with boobs and two legs.* She certainly wasn't about to divorce him over it. \n\nThe one big one that ground my gears a bit - they got housing completely wrong. The vast majority of Romans would have lived in houses called *insulae*, which were essentially big tenement complexes. Rooms were small, shoddily built, and they were generally five stories tall or so. Contrast that with Lucius' lodgings - the room is relatively comfy, larger than you would get from one of these *insulae*, and, most of all, it had something that those tenements would NOT have had - a kitchen. Funny how we just take that bit for granted, eh?\n\nAnd then, of course, the excessive incest and random sex between Servilia and Octavia, Octavia and Octavian, Atia being batshit loony, etc etc are completely ridiculous. If you have specific questions about what you're looking for, please, feel free to ask them :) The issue with this question is that it's extremely broad - but in general, this all sums up to **NOT ALL THAT ACCURATE.** Compared to other Hollybood butcheries? It's amazing. Compared to reality? Not all that true.\n\nIf you'd like an amazing overview of life in the Late Republic, feel free to check out Adrian Goldsworthy's *Caesar: Life of a Colossus*. If you'd like some other book recommendations, just let me know and I'll provide :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37071590",
"title": "Primrose Hill Productions",
"section": "Section::::Projects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Rome\": A historical drama set in Ancient Rome that primarily chronicles the lives and deeds of the rich, powerful and historically significant, but also focuses on the lives, fortunes, families and acquaintances of two common men, Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo. They both manage to witness and often influence many of the historical events presented in the series. Primrose Hill Productions was not created yet, but the whole show was executive produced by Bruno Heller, who also served as head writer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2069837",
"title": "Rome (TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "The series features a sprawling cast of characters, many of whom are based on real figures from historical records, but the lead protagonists are ultimately two soldiers named Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo, who find their lives intertwined with key historical events. \"Rome\" was initially a ratings success for HBO and the BBC, though the numbers declined considerably in the second season. The series received much media attention from the start, and was honoured with numerous awards and nominations in its two-season run. The series was filmed in various locations, but most notably in the Cinecittà studios in Italy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "1504896",
"title": "Cyberpunk derivatives",
"section": "Section::::Other proposed science fiction derivatives.:Sandalpunk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "It can also be compared with \"modern day\" satirical TV shows set in this period like Hanna-Barbera's \"The Roman Holidays\" (1972) (a rehashing of \"The Flintstones\" set in Classical Rome) or ITV2's \"Plebs\" (2013-Present) (a sitcom in which Rome is a stand-in for modern-day London). This subgenre is noted for having Ancient analogues to modern technology (like vending machines and water coolers) or using manpower or animal power to do mechanical tasks (copy and send documents, mow the lawn, or power a vehicle). The characters have anachronistic modern-day concerns and beliefs and are ahistorically aware of modern philosophical and intellectual concepts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "105309",
"title": "Satyricon",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.:Genre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "Unlike Fellini’s film discussed below, the caricature of the \"Satyricon\" does not deform the everyday life of the Roman people. Petronius uses real names for all his characters, most of them laypeople, who talk about the theatre of ancient Rome, the amphitheatre and the circus with the same enthusiasm of today’s fans of football and other team sports. If there is parody in the \"Satyricon\" it is not about the main characters—Encolpius, Giton and Ascyltos—but of the described social reality, and the literary genres of certain famous poets and writers, Homer, Plato, Virgil and Cicero included. Petronius's realism has a Greek antecedent in Aristophanes, who also abandoned the epical tone to focus on ordinary subjects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4543092",
"title": "The Caesars (TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "The Caesars is a British television series produced by Granada Television for the ITV network in 1968. Made in black-and-white and written and produced by Philip Mackie, it covered similar dramatic territory to the later BBC adaptation of \"I, Claudius\", dealing with the lives of the early emperors of Ancient Rome but differed in its less sensationalist depictions of historical characters and their motives, in particular the Emperor Tiberius is portrayed much more sympathetically.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2069837",
"title": "Rome (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Broadcast and DVD releases.:International syndication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "A \"sanitized\" version of the first series of \"Rome\" – with toned-down nudity and violence – aired on Rai 2 in Italy, garnering only a meager 10% audience share. RAI also stated to have co-produced the show, whereas HBO listed only itself and BBC as co-producers. The Italian newspaper, \"Corriere della Sera\" called it a \"prime example of historical misinformation\", and called actor Ciarán Hinds (Julius Caesar) a \"parody\". The paper also called the relationship between Atia of the Julii (Polly Walker) and Mark Antony (James Purefoy) \"ridiculous\". The second series was never broadcast at all on analog TV; however, starting from October 2009, digital-only channel Rai 4 broadcast the original uncut version of the first series and went on to broadcast the second series unaltered as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143229",
"title": "Gallic Wars",
"section": "Section::::The Gallic Wars in literature and culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The TV series \"Rome\" begins during the conquest of Gaul, and protagonists Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo, are based on two historical centurions who fought during the Gallic Wars in Caesar's Legio XI Claudia and are mentioned in \"Commentarii de Bello Gallico\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2a0fwg
|
when i have to "stop and think" to solve a problem, what is going no in my body as i stare at nothing? is this different from "stopping to think" to remember a fact?
|
[
{
"answer": "You are simply shutting down the other activities that your brain is usually forced to multi-task, in order to divert more of your brains attention to the task at hand. You have markedly diminished critical thinking skills when you are multi-tasking, so if you can just quiet down for a second and stop intaking other sensory information, you can do a much better job of solving problems and thinking.\n\nNotably, you also function in the opposite way when you encounter a thought or situation that you find unpleasant. You will start moving, touching, and making noises to force your brain to multi-task and oversaturate so you can't focus on the unpleasant situation as easily.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I wonder if we look up when trying to remember something because there's usually less activity up there to distract us visually. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1250358",
"title": "Émile Coué",
"section": "Section::::\"La méthode Coué\" (The Coué method).:Willpower.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "For example, when a student has forgotten an answer to a question in an exam, he will likely think something such as \"I have forgotten the answer\". The more they try to think of it, the more the answer becomes blurred and obscured. However, if this negative thought is replaced with a more positive one (\"No need to worry, it will come back to me\"), the chances that the student will come to remember the answer will increase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6795380",
"title": "Thought suppression",
"section": "Section::::Other methodologies.:Think/no think paradigm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "Research has also shown that doing difficult counting tasks at the same time as a think/no think task leads to less forgetting in the no think condition, which suggests that suppression takes active mental energy to be successful. Furthermore, the most forgetting during the no think phase occurs when there is a medium amount of brain activation while learning the words. The words are never learned if there is too little activation, and the association between the two words is too strong to be suppressed during the no think phase if there is too much activation. However, with medium activation, the word pairs are learned but able to be suppressed during the no think phase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13033878",
"title": "Incubation (psychology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "The experience of leaving a problem for a period of time and then finding that the difficulty evaporates on returning to the problem, or, even more striking, that the solution \"comes out of the blue\" when thinking about something else, is widespread. Many guides to effective thinking and problem solving advise the reader to set problems aside for a time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6331719",
"title": "Mind-wandering",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Mind-wandering (sometimes referred to as task unrelated thought, or, colloquially, autopilot) is the experience of thoughts not remaining on a single topic for a long period of time, particularly when people are engaged in an attention-demanding task.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21312273",
"title": "Metamemory",
"section": "Section::::Phenomena.:Knowing that you do not know.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "There are two basic types of \"do not know\" decisions. First is a slow, low confidence decision. This occurs when a person has some knowledge relevant to the question asked. This knowledge is located and evaluated to determine whether the question can be answered based on what is stored in memory. In this case, the relevant knowledge is not enough to answer the question. Second, when a person has zero knowledge relevant to a question asked, he or she is able to produce a rapid response of not knowing. This occurs because the initial search for information draws a blank and the search stops, thus producing a faster response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "759866",
"title": "Tad Williams",
"section": "Section::::On writing.:Collaborating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "\"For me, probably trying to slow down and explain my jumps of logic–the sort of thing you don’t have to explain when you’re working by yourself (unless you’re really weird and you don’t trust your own judgment and you argue with yourself). Because all I have to do when I’m writing on my own is feel the ‘ping’ that says, ‘that fits!’ and the problem is solved and I’m on to the next one. But you can’t always convince someone else so quickly that you’re right. (And, to be fair, you might not BE right when someone else’s ideas are taken into account.)\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168845",
"title": "Closure (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Implications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "A need for cognitive closure may occur while engaged in goal-driven or goal-motivated cognitive functions (e.g., attention control, memory recall, information selection and processing, cognitive inhibition, etc.). Ideally, people should attempt to acquire new knowledge to satisfy questions regarding particular issues (specific cognitive closure) irrespective of whether that knowledge points to a conclusion having positive or negative implications for them (non-specific cognitive closure). But because urgency and permanence are central to the motivational core of this overall process, individuals (or groups) may be compelled, consciously or unconsciously, to obtain information prematurely and irrespective of content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8qsj1y
|
Ancient Greek helmets on heads
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi, not discouraging direct answers here, but you may be interested in some earlier threads: \n\n* /u/Iphikrates in [Is it true that those helmets of the kind Pericles is shown wearing in the now famous bust never \"closed\"? If yes, why? Is it supposed to represent an owl or was it an intimation thing?](_URL_2_)\n\n* Iphikrates and /u/XenophonTheAthenian in [Why do many Ancient Greek sculptures of Gods and soldiers depict their helmets atop their heads, rather than over their faces?](_URL_0_)\n\n* /u/Deirdre_Rose in [Why is the Corinthian helmet being worn over the forehead so common in Greek art?](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56007967",
"title": "Caetrati",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Helmets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 839,
"text": "The Iberians did wear bronze helmets, sometimes of Greek and Corinthian shape (due to Greek influence and trade in the southern and eastern parts of the peninsula), with either a low or high crest, but they seem to have been rare. They were probably worn only by the nobles and the tribal leaders. The crests are said to have been purple or maybe crimson. The most common headwear seems to have been a simple helmet of bronze or leather, occasionally extended at the back to form a neckguard and with cheek guards added at the sides. Strabo says the Lusitanians wore helmets of sinew with a crest, and sculptures in southern Spain and South-west France do show some form of crested cap or hood. Diodorus Siculus says the Celtiberians wore helmets of brass or copper with red plumes. Another helmet widely used was the Montefortino helmet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10958",
"title": "Fossil",
"section": "Section::::History of the study of fossils.:Ancient civilizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "From the 13th century to the present day, scholars pointed out that the fossil skulls of Deinotherium giganteum, found in Crete and Greece, resemble cyclops skulls, and are quite possibly the origin of that Greek myth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2001989",
"title": "Corinthian helmet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "The Corinthian helmet originated in ancient Greece and took its name from the city-state of Corinth. It was a helmet made of bronze which in its later styles covered the entire head and neck, with slits for the eyes and mouth. A large curved projection protected the nape of the neck. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13062594",
"title": "Pileus (hat)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "In the 5th century BC a bronze version began to appear in Ancient Greece and during the Hellenistic era it became a popular infantry helmet. It occasionally had a horsehair crest. The Greek (\"pilidion\") and Latin \"pilleolus\" were smaller versions, similar to a skullcap. The plis, an Albanian felt cap, originated from a similar felt cap worn by the Illyrians, and is worn even today in Albania, Kosovo and surrounding regions. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24210634",
"title": "Phrygian helmet",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "The names given to this type of helmet are derived from its shape, in particular the high and forward inclined apex, in which it resembles the caps (usually of leather) habitually worn by Phrygian and Thracian peoples. Like other types of Greek helmet, the vast majority of Phrygian helmets were made of bronze. The skull of the helmet was usually raised from a single sheet of bronze, though the forward-pointing apex was sometimes made separately and riveted to the skull. The skull was often drawn out into a peak at the front, this shaded the wearer's eyes and offered protection to the upper part of the face from downward blows. The face was further protected by large cheekpieces, made separately from the skullpiece. Sometimes these cheekpieces were so large that they met in the centre leaving a gap for the nose and eyes. When constructed in this manner they would have embossed and engraved decoration to mimic a beard and moustache.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14256983",
"title": "Boeotian helmet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "The Boeotian helmet was a type of military helmet used in Ancient Greece during the classical and Hellenistic periods, as well as in Ancient Rome; it possibly originated in the Greek region of Boeotia. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23804970",
"title": "Konos",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "The Konos/Pilos helmet belongs to one in five standard types of ancient Greek headgear and weaponry. A clause of military regulation from Amphipolis proclaims that the Konos is to be the helmet of Phalangites—infantry standing in close rectangular or squared formation. According to the Military Decree of Amphipolis, \"...those not bearing the weapons appropriate to them are to be fined: two obols for the kotthybos, the same amount for the konos, three obols for the sarissa...\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
68gjyw
|
governing during american civil war
|
[
{
"answer": "Its super complicated. Some representatives of these states stayed as like a goverment in exile, some positions were left vacant, representaives who took direct part in seccesion were expelled. \n\nThis gives a general overview of the beginning of the war. \n_URL_0_\n\nThere was definitly more pro union and north bills passed. West Virginia was also allow ro break off of virginia and was admitted. The southern states would had never allowed this to happen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37032556",
"title": "Protectionism in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "The American Civil War (1861-1865) was fought over the issue of tariffs as well as slavery. At the time of independence, the agrarian interests of the South were opposed to any protection, while the manufacturing interests of the North wanted to maintain it. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2208837",
"title": "History of South Carolina",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1016,
"text": "In April 1861, the American Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the American fort at Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor. From 1865 to 1877, South Carolina underwent Reconstruction. Congress shut down the civilian government in 1867, put the army in charge, gave Freedmen (freed slaves) the vote and prevented ex-Confederates from holding office. A Republican legislature supported by Freedmen, northern Carpetbaggers and white Southern Scalawags created and funded a public school system, and created social welfare institutions. The constitution they passed was kept nearly unaltered for 27 years, and most legislation passed during the Reconstruction years lasted longer than that. By 1877, the white conservatives, called \"Redeemers\" had regained political power. In the 1880s, Jim Crow laws were passed that were especially severe in the state, to create public segregation and control movement of African American laborers. After 1890, almost all blacks lost their vote, not to regain it until 1965.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58389273",
"title": "Tax resistance in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Practice.:Undermining Reconstruction state governments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "After the American Civil War, the United States government established Reconstruction era governments in the states of the former Confederacy that included black and carpetbagger representatives. The loss of political power by the formerly dominant white supremacists led to resentment, protest, and the formation of paramilitaries and parallel governments. Occasionally, tax resistance was used as a tactic to withdraw financial support and political legitimacy from the reconstruction governments in favor of the white supremacist parallel governments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10648080",
"title": "List of American Civil War generals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "The American Civil War (April 1861 – May 1865) pitted the forces of the northern \"Union\" or \"Free\" states against those of the southern \"Confederate states\". Long simmering sectional antagonisms and differences were brought to a head by the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States in November 1860 and led to the Civil War. These centered on the possible abolition of slavery but included competing understandings of federalism, party politics, expansionism, sectionalism, tariffs, economics, values, and social structures\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31983145",
"title": "Meridian race riot of 1871",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Ku Klux Klan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "After the American Civil War ended in 1865, the country underwent a period of Reconstruction. During this period, under the Reconstruction Acts the United States Army directly controlled the states that were formerly part of the Confederacy. This takeover was resented by white Democrats in the South, most of whom were temporarily disfranchised by service for the Confederacy. Their resentment increased with the passage of constitutional amendments making freedmen full citizens and the Voting Rights Act of 1867, which enabled freedmen to vote, serve on juries, and hold official positions in government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32411133",
"title": "Kenneth C. Martis",
"section": "Section::::Contributions to Political Geography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1355,
"text": "During the Civil War the Confederate Constitution set up a government with a president and a legislature, which was composed of a Senate and House of Representatives. The Confederate congressional atlas maps the districts, characteristics, elections and roll call voting behavior of this institution. The illustration shows the Union occupation status of the 106 districts of the Confederate House of Representatives in late 1863 and early 1864. Note the Confederacy admitted the slave states of Missouri and Kentucky, and they had full voting rights in the Confederate Congress, in spite of being Union controlled virtually from the beginning of the war, and in spite of their continued representation in the United States Congress. At the end of the First Confederate Congress only a little over a half of the House districts (52.8%) were unoccupied. The Union occupied areas mostly supported the increasingly stringent legislative proposals of Confederate President Jefferson Davis with respect to measures like conscription, impressment and habeas corpus. In other words, Confederate congressmen from occupied districts tended to support increasing conscription knowing men from their areas would not be subject, but many representatives from unoccupied districts tended to vote no, knowing men from their areas would bear the brunt of being drafted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9704515",
"title": "Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "The American Civil War ended in 1865, marking the start of the Reconstruction era in the eleven former Confederate states. Congress passed the Reconstruction Acts, starting in 1867, establishing military districts to oversee the affairs of these states pending reconstruction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ercc1
|
how is it in tennis that players ranked in the hundreds and thousands are matched against players in the top 20?
|
[
{
"answer": "Traditionally, large single elimination tournaments are seeded, meaning that the 'more qualified' participants are given an easier set of opponents.\n\nObviously this sucks for the poorly seeded participants, but it also serves to encourage viewers to watch the tournament to the end. If you wanted to watch really high-class tennis, and you knew the #1 and #2 would be matched up in round one, guaranteeing the elimination of one of them, a lot of viewers would stop caring after their hero lost.\n\nSo, for example, in a 64 entry bracket, in round one you have (1 vs 64), (2 vs 63), (3 vs 62), etc. This guarantees that #1 and #2 will only meet in the final.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29773",
"title": "Tennis",
"section": "Section::::Tournaments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Most large tournaments seed players, but players may also be matched by their skill level. According to how well a person does in sanctioned play, a player is given a rating that is adjusted periodically to maintain competitive matches. For example, the United States Tennis Association administers the National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP), which rates players between 1.0 and 7.0 in 1/2 point increments. Average club players under this system would rate 3.0–4.5 while world class players would be 7.0 on this scale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27897834",
"title": "Elle (sport)",
"section": "Section::::Play.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "In a match, the maximum number of players in a team is sixteen with the minimum being twelve. The team with the lesser number would not usually call for the excess number of players to be removed from the opposing team. Instead the additional players in the larger team could be included in the line up prior to the commencement of the third innings. Striking or fielding could be decided upon by the toss of a coin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4811501",
"title": "World number 1 ranked male tennis players",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "World number 1 ranked male tennis players is a year-by-year listing of the male tennis players who were, at the end of a full calendar year of play, at the time, generally considered to be the best overall for that entire calendar year. The runner-up for each year is also listed as is a summary of the reasons why both were ranked as such, which includes the performance of the players in major tennis tournaments of the particular year, and the tennis ranking authorities which provided rankings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8857251",
"title": "World Tavern Poker",
"section": "Section::::Player Rankings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "A player only needs one Top 20 finish during a season at a given bar in order to receive a Tavern Ranking at that location. For ranking and scoring purposes, a game is a regular-season tournament in which the player finished in the top 20.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31663615",
"title": "Table tennis at the 2012 Summer Olympics",
"section": "Section::::Qualification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The top 28 male and top 28 female players on the International Table Tennis Federation's ranking list immediately after the 2011 World Table Tennis Championships, which finished on 15 May 2011 in the Netherlands, were qualified for the singles events at Games. No nation can have more than two players per gender in the singles events at the Games, so some players below 28th place were given a qualification berth based on their ranking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146996",
"title": "Tournament",
"section": "Section::::Promotion and relegation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Where the number of competitors is larger than a tournament format permits, there may be multiple tournaments held in parallel, with competitors assigned to a particular tournament based on their ranking. In Chess, Scrabble, and many other individual games, many tournaments over one or more years contribute to a player's ranking. However, many team sports involve teams in only one major tournament per year. In European sport, including football, this constitutes the sole ranking for the following season; the top teams from each division of the league are promoted to a higher division, while the bottom teams from a higher division are relegated to a lower one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46434240",
"title": "Table tennis at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Qualification",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "The top 22 male and top 22 female players on the International Table Tennis Federation's Olympic ranking list as of May 2016 will be qualified for the singles event at the Games. No nation can have more than two players per gender in the singles at these Games, so some players below the twenty-eighth position are given a qualifying place based on ranking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2uv4ys
|
Why was Shakespeare not knighted?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most knights were either of low noble background, or knighted after making their fortunes. Most also had done governmental or military service to the crown; the modern practice of recognizing the arts with a knighthood simply didn't exist.\n\nFrancis Drake, for instance, was already a successful privateer in the service of the crown before he became a knight. Walter Raleigh had first been introduced at court as a child, but wasn't knighted until after he helped suppress Irish uprisings against England. As an arbitrary example of a non-military knight made by Elizabeth I, Nicholas Mosley started off his career as a weaver of wool cloth, but was knighted only after serving as Lord Mayor of the City of London.\n\nShakespeare was never in government, never a military officer, and poor. Knighting him wouldn't have made any sense to the monarchs of his day.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "173060",
"title": "English drama",
"section": "Section::::Renaissance: Elizabethan and Jacobean periods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1009,
"text": "William Shakespeare stands out in this period as a poet and playwright as yet unsurpassed. Shakespeare was not a man of letters by profession, and probably had only some grammar school education. He was neither a lawyer, nor an aristocrat as the \"university wits\" that had monopolised the English stage when he started writing. But he was very gifted and incredibly versatile, and he surpassed \"professionals\" as Robert Greene who mocked this \"shake-scene\" of low origins. He was himself an actor and deeply involved in the running of the theatre company that performed his plays. Most playwrights at this time tended to specialise in, either histories, or comedies, or tragedies. but Shakespeare is remarkable in that he produced all three types. His 38 plays include tragedies, comedies, and histories. In addition, he wrote his so-called \"problem plays\", or \"bitter comedies\", that includes, amongst others, \"Measure for Measure\", \"Troilus and Cressida\", \"A Winter's Tale\" and \"All's Well that Ends Well\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3981316",
"title": "Ruled Britannia",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Shakespeare is rewarded by the reinstated Queen Elizabeth with a knighthood and an annulment of his unhappy marriage to Anne Hathaway, which frees him to marry his longtime mistress. The queen also grants his daring request that his \"King Philip\" play, which he considers to contain some of his best work, be staged. At the end of the story, Shakespeare uses his new status to facilitate the release of Lope de Vega from English captivity, provided that he immediately return to the Continent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31635665",
"title": "Shakespeare authorship question",
"section": "Section::::Case against Shakespeare's authorship.:Circumstances of Shakespeare's death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 in Stratford, leaving a signed will to direct the disposal of his large estate. The language of the will is mundane and unpoetic and makes no mention of personal papers, books, poems, or the 18 plays that remained unpublished at the time of his death. Its only theatrical reference—monetary gifts to fellow actors to buy mourning rings—was interlined after the will had been written, casting suspicion on the authenticity of the bequests.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2969979",
"title": "Life of William Shakespeare",
"section": "Section::::Early life.:Family origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "Shakespeare's family was above average materially during his childhood. His father's business was thriving at the time of William's birth. John Shakespeare owned several properties in Stratford and had a profitable—though illegal—sideline of dealing in wool. He was appointed to several municipal offices and served as an alderman in 1565, culminating in a term as bailiff, the chief magistrate of the town council, in 1568. For reasons unclear to history he fell upon hard times, beginning in 1576, when William was 12. He was prosecuted for unlicensed dealing in wool and for usury, and he mortgaged and subsequently lost some lands he had obtained through his wife's inheritance that would have been inherited by his eldest son. After four years of non-attendance at council meetings, he was finally replaced as burgess in 1586.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2969979",
"title": "Life of William Shakespeare",
"section": "Section::::Business affairs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "By the early 17th century, Shakespeare had become very prosperous. Most of his money went to secure his family's position in Stratford. Shakespeare himself seems to have lived in rented accommodation while in London. According to John Aubrey, he travelled to Stratford to stay with his family for a period each year. Shakespeare grew rich enough to buy the second-largest house in Stratford, New Place, which he acquired in 1597 for £60 from William Underhill. The Stratford chamberlain's accounts in 1598 record a sale of stone to the council from \"Mr Shaxpere\", which may have been related to remodelling work on the newly purchased house. The purchase was thrown into doubt when evidence emerged that Underhill, who died shortly after the sale, had been poisoned by his oldest son, but the sale was confirmed by the new heir Hercules Underhill when he came of age in 1602.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41662861",
"title": "William Knell (actor)",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "The death of Knell has provided a convenient explanation for how Shakespeare came into the acting profession. As Samuel Schoenbaum puts it, \"When the Queen's Men stopped in Stratford in 1587, they were short a man, William Knell having been lately killed in a brawl with a fellow actor. Maybe Shakespeare took Knell's place and thus found his way to London and stage-land.\" Shakespeare's father, John Shakespeare, as High Bailiff of Stratford, was responsible for the acceptance and welfare of visiting theatrical troupes. However there is no direct evidence of Shakespeare's membership of the Queen's Men, so it remains speculation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31635665",
"title": "Shakespeare authorship question",
"section": "Section::::History of the authorship question.:Bardolatry and early doubt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "Despite adulatory tributes attached to his works, Shakespeare was not considered the world's greatest writer in the century and a half following his death. His reputation was that of a good playwright and poet among many others of his era. Beaumont and Fletcher's plays dominated popular taste after the theatres reopened in the Restoration Era in 1660, with Ben Jonson's and Shakespeare's plays vying for second place. After the actor David Garrick mounted the Shakespeare Stratford Jubilee in 1769, Shakespeare led the field. Excluding a handful of minor 18th-century satirical and allegorical references, there was no suggestion in this period that anyone else might have written the works. The authorship question emerged only after Shakespeare had come to be regarded as the English national poet and a unique genius.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4vyykx
|
Why is the earth so wet?
|
[
{
"answer": "1. It's not the most common molecule. It's only about 0.02% of earth's total mass [Source](_URL_0_). Water is common simply because Oxygen is the 3rd most common element after Hydrogen and Helium. It's more common than Lithium, Beryllium, and Boron because it's synthesized in a few different fusion processes where Lithium, Beryllium, and Boron are mostly made from cosmic rays breaking apart heavier elements.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A partial answer to your first set of questions.\n\n > Why is water so common in the universe in general? \n\nHydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe and oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe (per mass). Since the second most abundant element (helium) is chemically inert, it shouldn't be that surprising that the two most abundant chemically reactive elements should form a common molecule.\n\n > I get why hydrogen is super common, but why is oxygen so common?\n\nBecause the most common fusion reaction in the [Alpha process](_URL_1_) produces oxygen.\n\n > And are there other compounds of similar complexity that are significantly more common?\n\nH*_2_* and CO are more common. See this answer by u/Stargrazer82301 for details:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33978",
"title": "Weather",
"section": "Section::::Shaping the planet Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "Weather is one of the fundamental processes that shape the Earth. The process of weathering breaks down the rocks and soils into smaller fragments and then into their constituent substances. During rains precipitation, the water droplets absorb and dissolve carbon dioxide from the surrounding air. This causes the rainwater to be slightly acidic, which aids the erosive properties of water. The released sediment and chemicals are then free to take part in chemical reactions that can affect the surface further (such as acid rain), and sodium and chloride ions (salt) deposited in the seas/oceans. The sediment may reform in time and by geological forces into other rocks and soils. In this way, weather plays a major role in erosion of the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2160676",
"title": "Coastal geography",
"section": "Section::::Biological processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "In tropical regions in particular, plants and animals not only affect the weathering of rocks but are a source of sediment themselves. The shells and skeletons of many organisms are of calcium carbonate and when this is broken down it forms sediment, limestone and clay.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40083369",
"title": "Land",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Land, sometimes referred to as dry land, is the solid surface of Earth that is not permanently covered by water. The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred in land areas that support agriculture, habitat, and various natural resources. Some life forms (including terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals) have developed from predecessor species that lived in bodies of water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1570772",
"title": "Paleosol",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "Because of the changes in the Earth's climate over the last fifty million years, soils formed under tropical rainforest (or even savanna) have become exposed to increasingly arid climates which cause former oxisols, ultisols or even alfisols to dry out in such a manner that a very hard crust is formed. This process has occurred so extensively in most parts of Australia as to restrict soil development - the former soil is effectively the parent material for a new soil, but it is so unweatherable that only a very poorly developed soil can exist in present dry climates, especially when they have become much drier during glacial periods in the Quaternary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "286260",
"title": "Precipitation",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Large-scale geographical distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "On the large scale, the highest precipitation amounts outside topography fall in the tropics, closely tied to the Intertropical Convergence Zone, itself the ascending branch of the Hadley cell. Mountainous locales near the equator in Colombia are amongst the wettest places on Earth. North and south of this are regions of descending air that form subtropical ridges where precipitation is low; the land surface underneath these ridges is usually arid, and these regions make up most of the Earth's deserts. An exception to this rule is in Hawaii, where upslope flow due to the trade winds lead to one of the wettest locations on Earth. Otherwise, the flow of the Westerlies into the Rocky Mountains lead to the wettest, and at elevation snowiest, locations within North America. In Asia during the wet season, the flow of moist air into the Himalayas leads to some of the greatest rainfall amounts measured on Earth in northeast India.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14135865",
"title": "Earthflow",
"section": "Section::::Features and behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "As earthflows are usually water-dependent, the risk of one occurring is much higher in humid areas especially after a period of heavy rainfall or snowmelt. The high level of precipitation, which saturates the ground and adds water to the slope content, increases the pore-water pressure and reduces the shearing strength of the material. As the slope becomes wet, the earthflow may start as a creep downslope due to the clay or silt having less friction. As the material is increasingly more saturated, the slope will fail, which depends on slope stability. In earthflows, the slope does not fail along a clear shear plane and is instead more fluid as the material begins to move under the force of gravity as friction and slope stability is reduced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32310218",
"title": "Classical compass winds",
"section": "Section::::Roman.:Isidore of Seville.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Aquilo\" (NNE) – Isidore relates it to water (\"acqua\"), because but probably from \"aquilus\", because it soaks up water from the ground. Pliny says the surface of the earth \"announces the approach\" of Aquilo by drying, and the approach of Auster, by becoming moist \"without any apparent cause\". Alternative etymologies is that it derives from \"aquilus\" (\"dark\"), meaning either dark rainclouds (although it is not usually characterized as wet) or simply because it blows from the \"land of darkness\" (the far north)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e0w9s9
|
why a person can feel groggy and fatigued after getting very little rest, but feel energized after work with no sleep in between (no caffeine/drugs involved)
|
[
{
"answer": "My first experience working was with 40 hour weeks which is a bit of a shock for a 17 year old and this used to and still happens to me. \n\nI reckon your threshold for energy just increases the more active you are. It kind of makes sense when you think about how you always feel much more tired when you do nothing all day or after a long car journey. Your body probably gets used to what you're doing and gives you energy accordingly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Being tired isn't just caused by being awake for a certain amount of time, it's also caused by your natural biorhythms. It's a balance of the two. Most people are programmed to get tired at night, because we evolved to sleep when it's dark out. In your case, my guess would be that, for some reason, your body's 'clock' has been thrown off so your body sends 'wake up' and 'sleep' signals at the wrong times. Maybe try melatonin to help reprogram it? Not sure how well that works...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You don't want to go to work. But you do want to leave work. Your mood can effect your energy just as the amount of rest you get can.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20261953",
"title": "Effects of fatigue on safety",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Fatigue can be a symptom of a medical problem, but more commonly it is a normal physiological reaction to exertion, lack of sleep, boredom, changes to sleep-wake schedules (including jet lag), or stress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235562",
"title": "Fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Comparison with sleepiness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Fatigue is generally considered a more long-term condition than sleepiness (somnolence). Although sleepiness can be a symptom of medical issues, it usually results from lack of restful sleep, or a lack of stimulation. Chronic fatigue, on the other hand, is a symptom of a greater medical problem in most cases. It manifests in mental or physical weariness and inability to complete tasks at normal performance. Both are often used interchangeably and even categorized under the description of 'being tired.' Fatigue is often described as an uncomfortable tiredness, whereas sleepiness is comfortable and inviting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235562",
"title": "Fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Fatigue is a normal result of working, mental stress, overstimulation and understimulation, jet lag or active recreation, depression, boredom, disease, and lack of sleep. It may also have chemical causes, such as dehydration, poisoning, low blood sugar, or mineral or vitamin deficiencies. Chronic blood loss frequently results in fatigue, as do other conditions that cause anemia. Fatigue is different from drowsiness, where a patient feels that sleep is required. Fatigue is a normal response to physical exertion or stress, but can also be a sign of a physical disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "665578",
"title": "Somnolence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Sleepiness can be dangerous when performing tasks that require constant concentration, such as driving a vehicle. When a person is sufficiently fatigued, microsleeps may be experienced. In individuals deprived of sleep, somnolence may spontaneously dissipate for short periods of time; this phenomenon is the second wind, and results from the normal cycling of the circadian rhythm interfering with the processes the body carries out to prepare itself to rest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28278287",
"title": "Sleep state misperception",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms and diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "This sleep disorder frequently applies when patients report not feeling tired despite their subjective perception of not having slept. Generally, they may describe experiencing several years of no sleep, short sleep, or non-restorative sleep. Otherwise, patients appear healthy, both psychiatrically and medically. (That this condition is often asymptomatic could explain why it is relatively unreported.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167184",
"title": "Rapid eye movement sleep",
"section": "Section::::Deprivation effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1253,
"text": "It has been suggested that acute REM sleep deprivation can improve certain types of depression when depression appears to be related to an imbalance of certain neurotransmitters. Although sleep deprivation in general annoys most of the population, it has repeatedly been shown to alleviate depression, albeit temporarily. More than half the individuals who experience this relief report it to be rendered ineffective after sleeping the following night. Thus, researchers have devised methods such as altering the sleep schedule for a span of days following a REM deprivation period and combining sleep-schedule alterations with pharmacotherapy to prolong this effect. Antidepressants (including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, tricyclics, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors) and stimulants (such as amphetamine, methylphenidate and cocaine) interfere with REM sleep by stimulating the monoamine neurotransmitters which must be suppressed for REM sleep to occur. Administered at therapeutic doses, these drugs may stop REM sleep entirely for weeks or months. Withdrawal causes a REM rebound. Sleep deprivation stimulates hippocampal neurogenesis much as antidepressants do, but whether this effect is driven by REM sleep in particular is unknown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31595228",
"title": "Psychological stress",
"section": "Section::::Physiological impacts of stress.:Quality of sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Sleep allows people to rest and re-energize for another day filled with interactions and tasks. If someone is stressed it is extremely important for them to get enough sleep so that they can think clearly. Unfortunately, chemical changes in the body caused by stress can make sleep a difficult thing. Glucocorticoids are released by the body in response to stress which can disrupt sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
247zwr
|
Why are there so many variations of some names? For example: Edward, Edwin, Edmund, etc.
|
[
{
"answer": "In this case, this is due to the nature of ancient Germanic personal names. They were “dithematic,” *i.e.* composed of two meaningful elements (though there were “hypocoristic” names, of which only one element was commonly used; over the course of time, these monothematic names became normal names of their own right—cf. Hugh/Chuco, Charles/Karl or Otto). This onomastic structure became very common in Europe as a result of the Germanic take-over of the majority of the former Roman West. These elements were transmitted within family groups and recomposed to form new names ([here is an example](_URL_0_) [1] of the transmission of a few elements in a 7th-century Frankish family). The choice of these elements was precisely made to emphasise one's position within a family group. Over the course of time (in royal families at first, and then in the aristocracy), recomposition stopped and was replaced by transmission of names (something historians link with the transformation of family structure: belonging to a (paternal) line became more important). But these names were still inherited from the previous system; therefore, the plurality of Ed- names reflects the relative frequence of the theme “Ead” in Anglo-Saxon royal onomastics. Similarly, several continental names were formed with the component Adal- (A(da)lbert, Ad(al)olf), whose Old English equivalent was Æthel- (Æthelberht, Æthelbald—though its influence was not, in this case, paralleled in modern personal names).\n\n[1] from Régine le Jan's *Famille et pouvoir dans le monde Franc*.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38791509",
"title": "Ellsworth (surname)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Ellsworth is a surname, originating in England prior to or around the 11th Century A.D. in the Cambridgeshire area. The name comes from as \"Ellesworth\" or possibly Elsworth, from the place-name (and family seat) which in turn was derived from the Old English name \"Eli\" and \"worth\", an Old English word for farm or homestead. The original spelling was Aylesworth. Many spelling variants are known to exist, including Ellesworth, Elsworth, Ellsworth, Elisworth, Ellisworth, Ellsworthy, Aylesworth, Aylsworth, etc. Ellsworth is by far the most common Americanized / \"standard\" spelling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21299158",
"title": "English name",
"section": "Section::::Given names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Most given names used in England do not have English etymology. Most traditional names are Latin or Romance, Christian or Biblical names/Hebrew (Daniel, David, John, Michael), Greek (Nicholas, Peter, Paul) or Germanic names adopted via the transmission of Old French/Norman, such as Robert, Richard, Henry or William.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "774770",
"title": "Edwin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "The name Edwin means \"rich friend\". It comes from the Old English elements \"ead\" (rich, blessed) and persian name eid (عید). The original Anglo-Saxon form is Eadwine, which is also found for Anglo-Saxon figures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20649407",
"title": "Eddy (surname)",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Frank R. Holmes, in his \"Directory of the Ancestral Heads of New England Families, 1600-1700\", proposes two possible origins; the Gaelic \"eddee\", \"instructor\", or from the Saxon \"ed\" and \"ea\", \"backwards\" and \"water\", a whirlpool or eddy, making the surname Eddy a place-name. Another possible origin is the Saxon root \"ead\", \"success\" or \"prosperity\". \"Ead\" occurs in numerous commonly used names, as Edgar, Edmund, Edward, Edwin, and the outdated Edwy. John Eddy of Taunton spells the name Eddway in the earliest record so far found. Eddy could also be a diminutive of any one of these names.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50944285",
"title": "Animal epithet",
"section": "Section::::Surnames.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Some English surnames from the Middle Ages name animals. These have different origins. Some, like Pigg (1066), Hogg (1079) and Hoggard, Hogarth (1279) are metonyms for a swineherd, while Oxer (1327) similarly denotes an oxherd and Shepherd (1279 onwards) means as it sounds a herder of sheep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17085898",
"title": "Welsh toponymy",
"section": "Section::::Relationship between Welsh and English place-names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "In other cases, the Welsh and English names clearly share the same original form, but spellings and pronunciation have diverged over the years. One obvious example is Cardiff (\"Caerdydd\"). The medieval Welsh form was \"Caerdyf\" (with a final ) from which are derived the modern English \"Cardiff\" (with a final ) and the modern Welsh \"Caerdydd\" (with a final ). Some examples of the anglicisation of place-names are the towns of Denbigh and Tenby, both derived from the Welsh name \"Dinbych\" (\"little fort\"); Pembroke (from \"Penfro\", literally \"land's end\"); Lampeter (from \"Llanbedr\", in full \"Llanbedr Pont Steffan\"); Skenfrith (from \"Ynysgynwraidd\"); and Barmouth (in modern Welsh \"Y Bermo\", but originally \"Aber-mawdd\", meaning \"mouth of the [river] Mawdd(ach))\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "502086",
"title": "List of monarchs of Wessex",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "The names are given in modern English form followed by the names and titles (as far as is known) in contemporary Old English (Anglo-Saxon) and Latin, the prevalent \"official\" languages of the time in England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2e8hak
|
Why did Greek cuirasses and Roman-style plate armor disappear from Western Europe?
|
[
{
"answer": "Follow up question: How did plate armor go from basic infantry armor in the form of Greek cuirasses and grieves to the most expensive and protective armor [like that used by Henry VIII](_URL_0_)?\n\nEdit: Added detail.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "By \"Roman plate\" I assume you mean lorica segmentata, which is what you tend to see a lot of in popular culture. We're not exactly sure which Roman troops used it, or even how the Romans themselves called it, but it was used from 1st - 3rd century AD. Lorica hamata (mail armour) is what most Roman troops wore throughout Roman history. As for why, it's because it is more costly to build and maintain than mail armour. After the crisis of the 3rd century there wasn't enough economic power to sustain it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All \"plates\" are not made equal. Just because the Romans use a type of solid metal armour does not make it immediately similar to late medieval plate, as the technology involved had advanced quite a bit. The invention of the blast furnace in Europe allowed armourers to produce high quality plates cheaper and in a fraction of the time it took to produce a maille shirt. It's economics basically, when the Roman slave factories could no longer produce lorica segmemtata at a profit they fell back on the time consuming lorica hamata. A slave's time is a lot cheaper than a armourers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As others have noted it was mostly a change to large scale use of chain mail (which the romans also used). This has several benefits over plate: It can be easily \"tailored\" to fit different wearers without losing integrity, even by people who don't know how to work a forge, it can make use of relatively low quality iron an still be effective (to make large pieces of strong plate you need relatively pure steel, not just iron), it is excellent at protecting against slashing weapons and missiles, perhaps even better than plate at protecting against stabbing weapons since it doesn't have joints, and it is much lighter.\n\nThe main reason the high middle ages turned to solid, largely steel plate, was because of improvements in missile technology most notably the bodkin arrow and the crossbow. These were designed to pierce mail, so if you were going to war and could afford it you now wanted solid steel plate to stop some peasant from killing you with an arrow you as you charge.\n\nAdditionally, technology did develop over the course of the period in question say 0-1600AD, such as the blast furnace, bloomery furnaces for iron tools, which made steel more accessible and mines more productive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was less continuity between Greco-Roman arming traditions and the Medieval period than there was between Germanic and later Carolingian arms and Medieval Christendom. \n\n Late Roman armies mostly used chainmail, as well as their Germanic successors. \n\nThe early middle ages was dominated by chain mail, and plate armor didn't become common until after the high middle ages- around the 14th century. Complete plate- covered joints and the like- wasn't even a thing until the late 1400's. \n\n[Timeline of the development of Western armor from 650-17th century.](_URL_1_) \n\nPlate armor developed because of advances in metal shaping technology and novel weapons developments- particularly more devastating missile fire (longbows could pierce chainmail in the 1300s, steel-string crossbows in the 1400's+, and finally gunpowder). Hand-to-hand combat also changed, with short swords meant for thrusting ([an extreme example](_URL_0_)) eventually becoming the norm by the late medieval period (two handed swords remained but were developed for specialized uses in pike combat). Rapiers and other piercing swords became more common, though some larger cutting swords made a comeback in the 17th century. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "231125",
"title": "Cataphract",
"section": "Section::::Later history and usage in the early Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 908,
"text": "As Western European metalwork became increasingly sophisticated, the traditional image of the cataphract's awe-inspiring might and presence quickly evaporated. From the 15th century and onwards, chain mail, lamellar armor, and scale armor seemed to fall out of favour with Eastern noble cavalrymen as elaborate and robust plate cuirasses arrived from the West; this, in combination with the advent of early firearms, cannon and gunpowder, rendered the relatively thin and flexible armor of cataphracts obsolete. Despite these advances, the Byzantine army, often unable to afford newer equipment \"en masse\", was left ill-equipped and forced to rely on its increasingly archaic military technology. The cataphract finally passed into the pages of history with the Fall of Constantinople on 29 May 1453, when the last nation to refer to its cavalrymen as cataphracts fell (see Decline of the Byzantine Empire).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "493913",
"title": "Plate armour",
"section": "Section::::Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Partial plate armour, which protected the chest and the lower limbs, was used by the ancient Greeks (muscle cuirass) and Romans (lorica segmentata), but it fell into disuse after the collapse of the Roman Empire because of the cost and work involved in producing a piece of metal plate or cuirass. Parthian and Sassanian heavy cavalry known as Clibanarii used cuirasses and small, overlapping plates in the manner of the manica for the protection of arms and legs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "493913",
"title": "Plate armour",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "The use of plate armour declined in the 17th century, but it remained common both among the nobility and for the cuirassiers throughout the European wars of religion. After 1650, plate armour was mostly reduced to the simple breastplate (cuirass) worn by cuirassiers. This was due to the development of the flintlock musket, which could penetrate armour at a considerable distance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "493913",
"title": "Plate armour",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Plate armour is a historical type of personal body armour made from iron or steel plates, culminating in the iconic suit of armour entirely encasing the wearer. While there are early predecessors such as the Roman-era lorica segmentata, full plate armour developed in Europe during the Late Middle Ages, especially in the context of the Hundred Years' War, from the coat of plates worn over mail suits during the 13th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4384295",
"title": "Gousset",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "By the early fifteenth century the use of gousset was generally restricted to joints such as the hip, neck, armpits, and elbows. It declined in Italian white armour as improvements in armor design covered these areas with plate. Gousset was nearly absent from white armor by 1450, but remained in German Gothic plate armour throughout most of the century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26221135",
"title": "Imperial Roman army",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Armour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 233,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 233,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "\"Lorica segmentata\": Modern tests have shown that this \"lorica\" provided better protection to weapon-blows and missile-strikes than the other types of metal armour commonly used by Roman troops, mail (\"hamata\") or scale (\"squamata\"), being virtually impenetrable by ancient weapons. However, historical re-enactors have found replicas of the \"lorica\" uncomfortable due to chafing and could only wear them for relatively short periods. It was also more expensive to manufacture and difficult to maintain due to its complex design of separate laminated strips held together by braces and hooks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1334113",
"title": "Body armor",
"section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.:Plate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Early plate in Italy, and elsewhere in the 13th to 15th centuries were made of iron. Iron armor could be carburized or case hardened to give a surface of harder steel. Plate armor became cheaper than mail by the 15th century as it required much less labor and labor had become much more expensive after the Black Death, though it did require larger furnaces to produce larger blooms. Mail continued to be used to protect those joints which could not be adequately protected by plate, such as the armpit, crook of the elbow and groin. Another advantage of plate was that a lance rest could be fitted to the breast plate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3q8pqs
|
how to government officials get away with proposing/enforcing laws with the argument "because of my religious belief."
|
[
{
"answer": "The 1st Amendment prohibits the US government from establishing a State religion that people must be a part of and it prohibits the government from hindering people from practicing their religion. \n\nFor those who are religious that religion is the foundation that their ethical and moral codes are built. When our elected representatives vote on and draft potential laws they use their ethical and moral codes when doing so. That means that their personal religion will influence how they vote and for the government to attempt to prevent that would be violating the 1st amendment rights of that representative. \n\nThey cannot make a law \"because _____ religious text or doctrine says murder is wrong\" but they can make a law \"because my religion tells me that murder is wrong I think it is a big enough threat to society to make a secular law also forbidding it\". ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm going to assume you're referring to the United States, since it's so common here...\n\n/u/cdb03b is correct on why there is no law prohibiting this.\nHowever by the very same 1st Amendment other government officials are more than free to come out and say something against it. It would be pretty reasonable to say something like, \"Okay, your religion says this thing is bad, but are there any other points you can make on this issue that don't just pull back to your own personal beliefs and interpretations of your religious texts?\".\n\nThe reason we haven't heard anything like that is because it would be absolute political suicide. In the U.S. there's really just one main citation for religious beliefs in politics; Christianity. In 2014 a Gallup poll (_URL_0_) found that 75% of Americans are Christian. When that large a group of your populace agrees with your basic belief system, and may want to be able to cite their faith themselves, then you're not going to see a lot of push-back. This goes for any mainstream media outlet as well as most figureheads and famous people\n\nIn the case of lawmakers you have an even bigger incentive to not say something when a colleague invokes their religious beliefs in relation to lawmaking. The lawmaker who spoke out against the other's religious justification would gain almost instant publicity thanks to the 24 hour news stations. There would be big headlines about the \"War on Christianity\" and many of their colleagues would begin to shy away from them for fear of their re-election chances being harmed through association. On social media there would be large groups formed denouncing the \"Christian hating\" lawmaker both for his religious intolerance and, especially, for violating the 1st amendment rights of the religious lawmaker (despite the fact that the 1st amendment is irrelevant in the case of two individuals). On top of that, many of their colleagues may even feel personally attacked by proxy, since they may perceive this as being directly damaging to their faith.\n\nSo now you've spoken out against using religion to justify the laws of your country, you've attempted to demand true reasons instead of blind appeals to an authority that not everyone accepts, and what has been gained? You've become a national news story, there's selective soundbites of you on every major social media outlet making you sound stupid, no one even remembers what the issue being discussed was from before, you're probably getting at least a few death threats (because that's just a normal thing for things like this now), this issue that you cared enough about to speak up about will be ignored in favor of your hatred for religion in every news appearance, your previously almost certain re-election is in danger, and even with all this you're probably a practicing member of the religion that everyone is accusing you of attacking.\n\nTL;DR The conditions in the United States created by the 24-hour news cycle, social media, and general combativeness make the idea of such a thing a losing proposition.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They don't get away with it. Courts overturn laws and actions that are unconstitutional. It can be a slow process, and that can be sped up, but there's no way to prevent unconstitutional actions from happening. If censors did exist, they'd be chosen by the same people making the laws.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16719436",
"title": "Freedom of religion in Guyana",
"section": "Section::::Status of religious freedom.:Legal/policy framework.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "The law protects the right of individuals to choose and change their religion and to interpret their religious beliefs for themselves. Members of all religious groups worshiped freely. There is no state or otherwise dominant religion, and the Government practiced no form of religious favoritism or discrimination except for public schools, where Christianity is the only religion practice, school children are ask to recite Christian prayers throughout the day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16144811",
"title": "Freedom of religion in Laos",
"section": "Section::::Status of religious freedom.:Legal and policy framework.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Both the Constitution and Decree 92 assert that religious practice should serve national interests by promoting development and education and instructing believers to be good citizens. The Government presumed both a right and a duty to oversee religious practice at all levels to ensure religious practice fills these roles in society. In effect this has led the Government to intervene in the activities of minority religious groups, particularly Protestants, on the grounds that their practices did not promote national interests or demonstrated disloyalty to the Government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5186050",
"title": "America: Freedom to Fascism",
"section": "Section::::Inaccuracies, distortions, and misrepresentations.:First Amendment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "\"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30831726",
"title": "Congress Shall Make No Law...",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "\"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16141868",
"title": "Freedom of religion in Burkina Faso",
"section": "Section::::Status of religious freedom.:Legal and policy framework.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "The Constitution and laws protect the right of individuals to choose and change their religion and provide the right to practice the religion of one's choice. The Government observes and enforces these provisions. The country is a secular state. Islam, Christianity, and traditional indigenous religious beliefs were practiced freely without government interference. There is no official state religion, and the Government neither subsidized nor favored any particular religion. The practice of a particular religion was not known to confer any advantage or disadvantage in the political arena, the civil service, the military, or the private sector.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63317",
"title": "Christian right",
"section": "Section::::Views.:Separation of church and state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "Thus, Christian right leaders have argued that the Establishment Clause does not prohibit the display of religion in the public sphere. Leaders therefore believe that public institutions should be allowed, or even required, to display the Ten Commandments. This interpretation has been repeatedly rejected by the courts, which have found that such displays violate the Establishment Clause. Public officials though are prohibited from using their authority in which the primary effect is \"advancing or prohibiting religion\", according to the Lemon Supreme Court test, and there cannot be an \"excessive entanglement with religion\" and the government. Some, such as Bryan Fischer of the American Family Association, argue that the First Amendment, which specifically restricts Congress, applies only to the Congress and not the states. This position rejects the incorporation of the Bill of Rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13025741",
"title": "Religion in Bhutan",
"section": "Section::::Freedom and regulation of religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "The law provides for freedom of religion; the religious institutions and personalities have a duty \"to promote the spiritual heritage of the country while also ensuring that religion remains separate from politics\" and that religious institutions and personalities remain \"above politics.\" Reflecting the government's stated purpose of preserving individuals' religious and cultural values, the above prohibitive clauses in the Constitution have been interpreted to apply to proselytism and to prohibit religious personalities from voting, respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
kv5sj
|
Can you experience time faster than it actually passes?
|
[
{
"answer": "What you're talking about does not require relativity or time dilation at all. It's merely the [Doppler effect](_URL_0_). If you walked toward a metronome playing at 100 bpm, you would hear the beats slightly faster than 100 bpm. \n\nThe effect is of order v/*c*, where v is your velocity relative to the stationary metronome, and *c* is the speed of sound. *i.e.*, the effect is small if you're not going near the speed of sound. Smaller still if you're using vision (light) to count the beats of the metronome. (The speed of light is much greater than the speed of sound.) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "i've always thought it would be interesting to read a sci-fi story about aliens who experience time at a different rate than we do. either they move really fast or really slow compared to us. for example, we experience time at a rate of 1sec/sec, but they would experience time at a rate of .5sec/sec or 2sec/sec.\n\ncould make for some interesting storylines.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What you're talking about does not require relativity or time dilation at all. It's merely the [Doppler effect](_URL_0_). If you walked toward a metronome playing at 100 bpm, you would hear the beats slightly faster than 100 bpm. \n\nThe effect is of order v/*c*, where v is your velocity relative to the stationary metronome, and *c* is the speed of sound. *i.e.*, the effect is small if you're not going near the speed of sound. Smaller still if you're using vision (light) to count the beats of the metronome. (The speed of light is much greater than the speed of sound.) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "i've always thought it would be interesting to read a sci-fi story about aliens who experience time at a different rate than we do. either they move really fast or really slow compared to us. for example, we experience time at a rate of 1sec/sec, but they would experience time at a rate of .5sec/sec or 2sec/sec.\n\ncould make for some interesting storylines.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "188521",
"title": "Alice in Wonderland syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The person affected by Alice in Wonderland syndrome may also lose a sense of time, a problem similar to the lack of spatial perspective. Time seems to pass very slowly, akin to an LSD experience. The lack of time and space perspective also leads to a distorted sense of velocity. For example, one could be inching along ever so slowly in reality, yet it would seem as if one were sprinting uncontrollably along a moving walkway, leading to severe, overwhelming disorientation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1031430",
"title": "Tachypsychia",
"section": "Section::::Time dilation.:Fear and intense events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 966,
"text": "Possibly related to the oddball effect, research suggests that time seems to slow down for a person during intense events—such as a car accident, a robbery, a chase, skydiving or bungee jumping, a potential predator threat or an intimacy with sexual partner (which would elicit sexual excitement, which in turn release adrenaline), where they're capable of complex thoughts in what would normally be the blink of an eye caused by Fight-or-flight response. This reported slowing in temporal perception may have been evolutionary advantageous because it may have enhanced one's ability to intelligibly make quick decisions in moments that were of critical importance to our survival. However, even though observers commonly report that time seems to have moved in slow motion during these events, it is unclear whether this is a function of increased time resolution during the event, or instead an illusion created by the remembering of an emotionally salient event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6069126",
"title": "Time perception",
"section": "Section::::Types of temporal illusions.:Effects of emotional states.:Fear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "Possibly related to the oddball effect, research suggests that time seems to slow down for a person during dangerous events (such as a car accident, a robbery, or when a person perceives a potential predator or mate), or when a person skydives or bungee jumps, where they're capable of complex thoughts in what would normally be the blink of an eye (See Fight-or-flight response). This reported slowing in temporal perception may have been evolutionarily advantageous because it may have enhanced one's ability to intelligibly make quick decisions in moments that were of critical importance to our survival. However, even though observers commonly report that time seems to have moved in slow motion during these events, it is unclear whether this is a function of increased time resolution during the event, or instead an illusion created by the remembering of an emotionally salient event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14843",
"title": "Interstellar travel",
"section": "Section::::Proposed methods.:Fast missions.:Time dilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Relativistic time dilation allows a traveler to experience time more slowly, the closer his speed is to the speed of light. This apparent slowing becomes noticeable when velocities above 80% of the speed of light are attained. Clocks aboard an interstellar ship would run slower than Earth clocks, so if a ship's engines were capable of continuously generating around 1 g of acceleration (which is comfortable for humans), the ship could reach almost anywhere in the galaxy and return to Earth within 40 years ship-time (see diagram). Upon return, there would be a difference between the time elapsed on the astronaut's ship and the time elapsed on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "296644",
"title": "Diaspora (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Polis time, delta, and perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Nothing compels citizens to experience time at such a high rate; they can equally choose to \"rush\", meaning to experience consciousness at a speed slower than the maximum the polis hardware can maintain. Citizens could therefore experience consciousness at the same speed as a human flesher would, or slower, or even freeze their conscious state for a set time or until a previously determined event occurs. Citizens in Lokhande Polis have opted to experience consciousness so slowly that they can witness continental drift and geological erosion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27646607",
"title": "Oddball paradigm",
"section": "Section::::Other uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "The perception of time seems to be modulated by our recent experiences. Humans typically overestimate the perceived duration of the initial event in a stream of identical events. Initial studies suggested that this oddball-induced “subjective time dilation” expanded the perceived duration of oddball stimuli by 30–50% but subsequent research has reported more modest expansion of around 10% or less, and the direction of the effect, whether the viewer perceives an increase or a decrease in duration, also seems to be dependent upon the stimulus used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297839",
"title": "Time dilation",
"section": "Section::::Velocity time dilation.:Reciprocity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Common sense would dictate that, if the passage of time has slowed for a moving object, said object would observe the external world's time to be correspondingly sped up. Counterintuitively, special relativity predicts the opposite. When two observers are in motion relative to each other, each will measure the other's clock slowing down, in concordance with them being moving relative to the observer's frame of reference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8drzz7
|
Why is Rhode Island a state?
|
[
{
"answer": "The United States isn’t a country divided into states; it’s a country formed when states joined together. So your question is a bit like asking why Luxembourg wasn’t simply slotted in with Germany or Belgium. Who would do the lumping together?\n\nRoger Williams and others who had been banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony for religious reasons in the 1630s took up residence on coastal land controlled by local Indian tribes, and got an English royal charter for a new colony. More than a century later, the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations was one of the colonies who broke away from Great Britain and then joined together to form a new nation.\n\nYou can read the royal charters on p. 106 of *Boundaries of the United States and the Several States,* a US Geological Survey book [available as a PDF here.](_URL_0_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25410",
"title": "Rhode Island",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Rhode Island (), officially the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the United States. It is the smallest state in area, the seventh least populous, and the second most densely populated. Rhode Island is bordered by Connecticut to the west, Massachusetts to the north and east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the south via Rhode Island Sound and Block Island Sound. It also shares a small maritime border with New York. Providence is the state capital and most populous city in Rhode Island.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25410",
"title": "Rhode Island",
"section": "Section::::Origin of the name.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Despite its name, most of Rhode Island is located on the mainland of the United States. Its official name is \"State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations\", which is derived from the merger of four Colonial settlements. The settlements of Newport and Portsmouth were situated on what is commonly called Aquidneck Island today, but it was called \"Rhode Island\" in Colonial times. \"Providence Plantation\" was the name of the colony founded by Roger Williams in the area now known as the city of Providence. This was adjoined by the settlement of Warwick; hence the plural Providence Plantations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25410",
"title": "Rhode Island",
"section": "Section::::Geography and climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Rhode Island covers an area of located within the New England region and is bordered on the north and east by Massachusetts, on the west by Connecticut, and on the south by Rhode Island Sound and the Atlantic Ocean. It shares a narrow maritime border with New York State between Block Island and Long Island. The mean elevation of the state is . It is only wide and long, yet the state has a tidal shoreline on Narragansett Bay and the Atlantic Ocean of .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2531423",
"title": "List of municipalities in Rhode Island",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Rhode Island is a state located in the Northeastern United States. According to the 2010 United States Census, Rhode Island is the 8th least populous state with inhabitants and the smallest by land area spanning of land.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24949460",
"title": "Administrative divisions of Rhode Island",
"section": "Section::::Cities and towns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "The primary political subdivisions of Rhode Island are its cities and towns. New England towns are conceptually similar to civil townships in that the entire territory of the state is completely covered by them. However, they differ primarily in that New England towns have broad home rule and have powers comparable to those that a city in other states would normally have. In addition, cities and towns in Rhode Island also perform functions commonly assigned to counties in other states. Rhode Island state law does not distinguish between a city and a town. Cities are simply municipalities that acquired their charter through a special act of the Rhode Island General Assembly. Any municipality (whether a city or a town) is free to adopt whatever form of government they choose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6846519",
"title": "Rhode Island's congressional districts",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Rhode Island is divided into 2 congressional districts, each represented by a member of the United States House of Representatives. It is the least populous state in the nation to have more than one congressional district. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25410",
"title": "Rhode Island",
"section": "Section::::Geography and climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Rhode Island is nicknamed the Ocean State and has a number of oceanfront beaches. It is mostly flat with no real mountains, and the state's highest natural point is Jerimoth Hill, above sea level. The state has two distinct natural regions. Eastern Rhode Island contains the lowlands of the Narragansett Bay, while Western Rhode Island forms part of the New England upland. Rhode Island's forests are part of the Northeastern coastal forests ecoregion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1hg1g8
|
Basques in North American prior to Columbus?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's possible but there is little evidence. Some argue that John Cabot discovered Newfoundland in 1497 and lured the Basques there, while other believe Basques were there well before that time. What we do know is that by 1534 ,when Jacques Cartier claimed the land and named it Canada, hundred of Basque fishermen were already working the surrounding waters. As for your following questions, sure its possible but that's nothing more than speculation since we have little evidence of such an occurrence (to my limited knowledge at least).\n\nSource: *Atlantic* by Simon Winchester (282-285)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am almost done reading his book \"The Basque History of the World\" in which he discuses it in a bit more detail.\nFlavored_crayons is right in that there is little evidence but after having read Kurlanksy I have come away with the impression that they did: in the book (which I encourage you to read if you enjoyed \"Cod\") he explains how the Basque were the first major whalers in Europe - this was due to the fact that only did there used to be many whales off the Bay of Biscay but because of the unique trade tariffs in the Basque land that allowed them to import to the rest of Europe without having to pay Spain taxes for the importations.\nBack to North America though; the Basque's had contact with the Vikings and were known to make trips across the sea to the Faeroe Islands as early as 875 - this was a 1,500 mile journey and this tied in with the fact that they provided so much whale material to Europe (which would have needed extensive fishing locations) leads to deductive arguments about how they were there before or around the same time as the Vikings.\nKurlanksy also notes that \"numerous reports claim that Cabot and other early explorers arrived in North America [and] encountered native tribesman who spoke Basque.\"pp 58 - 59\n\nAll of this is without concrete evidence and more sources should be looked into but you should definitely read this book!\n\nI am continually surprised at the influence on the world that this small, and very old (the most ancient language still spoken in Europe today) people have had on the world.\n\nSource: *The Basque History of the World* by Mark Kurlansky (43 - 64)\nThe Gernika chapter is depressing as hell but I really enjoyed reading the book while I was in Bilbao the past week.\n\nEdit: weird that I came across this post as I was using the book to keep my hot laptop off me.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1903533",
"title": "Basque diaspora",
"section": "Section::::North America.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "There has been a Basque presence in the Americas from the age of Columbus. Basques under the crown of Castile were among the explorers, priests and Conquistadors of the Spanish Empire. Placenames like Durango, Colorado, Trepassey, Biscayne Cove and Biscayne Bay remember their foundations. Basques began to come to English-speaking America during the 1848 California Gold Rush. The first wave of Basques were already part of the diaspora who were living in Chile and Argentina and came when they heard word of the discovery of gold. When the gold rush did not pan out for most Basque immigrants, the majority turned to ranching and sheep-herding in California's Central Valley, and later in northern Nevada and southern Idaho. Many more Basques arrived from the Basque Country upon hearing of the success of their comrades in America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46850350",
"title": "Spanish Americans",
"section": "Section::::Immigration waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "Basques stood out in the exploration of the Americas, both as soldiers and members of the crews that sailed for the Spanish. Prominent in the civil service and colonial administration, they were accustomed to overseas travel and residence. Another reason for their emigration besides the restrictive inheritance laws in the Basque Country, was the devastation from the Napoleonic Wars in the first half of the nineteenth century, which was followed by defeats in the two Carlist civil wars. (For more information about the Basque, and immigrants to the United States from this region, please see the article Basque Americans.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8459224",
"title": "History of the Basques",
"section": "Section::::Modern period.:Self-government status and accommodation.:Masters of the ocean.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Many Basques found in the Castilian-Spanish Empire an opportunity to promote their social position and venture to America to make a living and sometimes amass a little fortune that spurred the foundation of the present-day baserris. Basques serving under the Spanish flag became renowned sailors, and many of them were among the first Europeans to reach America. For example, Christopher Columbus's first expedition to the \"New World\" was partially manned by Basques, the Santa Maria vessel was made in Basque shipyards, and the owner, Juan de la Cosa, may have been a Basque.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5488261",
"title": "Basque Argentines",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Basque settlement in Argentina took place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries when many immigrants arrived in Argentina from the Basque Country. Basque people had already played a large part in the conquest and development of Argentina as a Spanish colony and in its independence, including Juan de Garay, the founder of the capital Buenos Aires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4660",
"title": "Basques",
"section": "Section::::Basque diaspora.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Large numbers of Basques have left the Basque Country to settle in the rest of Spain, France or other parts of the world in different historical periods, often for economic or political reasons. Historically the Basques abroad were often employed in shepherding and ranching and by maritime fisheries and merchants. Millions of Basque descendants (see Basque American and Basque Canadian) live in North America (the United States; Canada, mainly in the provinces of Newfoundland and Quebec), Latin America (in all 23 countries), South Africa, and Australia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50229635",
"title": "Basque Colombians",
"section": "Section::::Famous Colombians of Basque descent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Many Basques arrived in Colombia in the 16th, 17th, 18th and 19th century from their homeland in northern Spain and southwestern France (see Basque Country as conquistadors, soldiers, sailors, merchants, priests and labourers. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158687",
"title": "Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories",
"section": "Section::::Claims of European contact.:14th- and 15th-century European contact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "The historical record shows that Basque fishermen were present in Newfoundland and Labrador from at least 1517 onward (therefore predating all recorded European settlements in the region except those of the Norse). The Basques' fishing expeditions led to significant trade and cultural exchanges with Native Americans. A fringe theory suggests that Basque sailors first arrived in North America prior to Columbus' voyages to the New World (some sources suggest the late 14th century as a tentative date) but kept the destination a secret in order to avoid competition over the fishing resources of the North American coasts. There is no historical or archaeological evidence to support this claim.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4fqrfv
|
why mustangs don't need anyone to maintain their hooves, but domesticated horses do?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not a horse expert, but I assume that people make domesticated horses walk where and when a wild one wouldn't.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Their hooves get worn down because they're almost constantly moving. Even when ridden all the time, domestic horses don't travel enough to significantly wear down their hooves because they're still stalled/pastured. In fact, a lot of farriers have taken to studying the shape of mustang hooves in order to find different ways to trim domestic horse hooves in a way that makes them stronger. There's demand for this because shoeing can be very damaging to the feet, though it'll always be necessary for a significant portion of domestic horses who are tender footed or subject to tough terrain/roads. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "648759",
"title": "Mustang",
"section": "Section::::Land use controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 1048,
"text": "The debate as to what degree mustangs and cattle compete for forage is multifaceted. Horses are adapted by evolution to inhabit an ecological niche characterized by poor quality vegetation. Advocates assert that most current mustang herds live in arid areas which cattle cannot fully utilize due to the lack of water sources. Mustangs can cover vast distances to find food and water; advocates assert that horses range 5–10 times as far as cattle to find forage, finding it in more inaccessible areas. In addition, horses are \"hindgut fermenters\", meaning that they digest nutrients by means of the cecum rather than by a multi-chambered stomach. While this means that they extract less energy from a given amount of forage, it also means that they can digest food faster and make up the difference in efficiency by increasing their consumption rate. In practical effect, by eating greater quantities, horses can obtain adequate nutrition from poorer forage than can ruminants such as cattle, and so can survive in areas where cattle will starve. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5433125",
"title": "Horse hoof",
"section": "Section::::Hooves in the natural state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Both wild and feral equid hooves have enormous strength and resilience, allowing any gait on any ground. A common example of the feral horse type is the Mustang. The Mustang is, in part, descended from the Iberian horses brought to the Americas by the Spanish, but most herds also have ancestry from other breeds. Therefore, the famous Mustang hoof strength is in part a result of natural selection and environment. Thus, it is proposed that other domestic breeds could develop similar hooves if raised under similar conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2957741",
"title": "Horse care",
"section": "Section::::Hoof care and shoeing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "All domesticated horses need regular hoof trims, regardless of use. Horses in the wild do not need hoof trims because they travel as much as a day in dry or semi-arid grassland in search of forage, a process that wears their feet naturally. Domestic horses in light use are not subjected to such severe living conditions and hence their feet grow faster than they can be worn down. Without regular trimming, their feet can get too long, eventually splitting, chipping and cracking, which can lead to lameness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13645",
"title": "Horse",
"section": "Section::::Interaction with humans.:Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an estimated 100 million horses, donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas. This number includes around 27 million working animals in Africa alone. Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture, less fossil fuel is used and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of draft animals such as horses. Logging with horses can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5433125",
"title": "Horse hoof",
"section": "Section::::Time-related changes of the hoof.:Hoof changes in the medium term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Self-adapting capabilities of the hooves show their maximal effectiveness in wild equids (but domesticated horses show this too, to a lesser extent), as shown by the perfect soundness of feral horses, such as Mustangs, in a wide variety of environments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "427445",
"title": "Hoof",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "Hooves grow continuously. In nature, wild animals are capable of wearing down the hoof as it continuously grows, but captive domesticated species often must undergo specific hoof care for a healthy, functional hoof. Proper care improves biomechanical efficiency and prevents lameness. If not worn down enough by use, such as in the dairy industry, hooves may need to be trimmed by a farrier. However, too much wear can result in damage of the hooves, and for this reason, horseshoes and oxshoes are used by animals that routinely walk on hard surfaces and carry heavy weight. Within the equine world, the expression, \"no foot, no horse\" emphasizes the importance of hoof health. Lameness, behind infertility and mastitis, is the biggest cause of economic loss to a dairy farmer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57416",
"title": "Przewalski's horse",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Most wild horses today, such as the American mustang or the Australian brumby, are actually feral horses descended from domesticated animals that escaped and adapted to life in the wild. Przewalski's horse has long been considered the only 'true' wild horse extant in the world today, never having been domesticated. However, a 2018 DNA study suggested that modern Przewalski's horses may descend from the domesticated horses of the Botai.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7tq2cf
|
Is there a case in nature in which a species A can breed with species B, which can breed with a species C, but A and C can't breed with each other?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, what you describe exists, they are called [Ring species](_URL_0_). All populations involved in such a ring may be considered the same species since gene flow can still occur between the most distant populations, through the intermediaries. However if the populations in the middle were to be wiped out, the two distant populations could no longer interbreed, so would be considered a different species. These cases do highlight how fluid and somewhat arbitrary any species concept is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11727583",
"title": "Macropod hybrid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Some hybrids between similar species have been achieved by housing males of one species and females of the other together to limit the choice of mate. To create a \"natural\" macropod hybrid, young animals of one species have been transferred to the pouch of another so as to imprint into them the other species. In-vitro fertilization has also been used and the fertilized egg implanted into a female of either species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35299483",
"title": "Tegeticula intermedia",
"section": "Section::::Genetic hybridization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Hybridization is when two different species or genetically different varieties of the same species are able to breed and produce offspring together. The offspring may have limited reproductive capability\".\" \"T. intermedia\" has successfully been able to mate with a similar moth, \"Tegeticula cassandra.\" Both have incredibly similar superficial ovipositor and aedeagus physiology. However, \"T. intermedia\" has not been found to have hybridized with any species with a locule ovipositor. Research suggests that it is thus the similarity in ovipositor that allows two different species to hybridize.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21780446",
"title": "Species",
"section": "Section::::The species problem.:Hybridisation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Natural hybridisation presents a challenge to the concept of a reproductively isolated species, as fertile hybrids permit gene flow between two populations. For example, the carrion crow \"Corvus corone\" and the hooded crow \"Corvus cornix\" appear and are classified as separate species, yet they hybridise freely where their geographical ranges overlap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4826872",
"title": "Hybrid zone",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Some hybrid zones can be seen as presenting a paradox for the biological definition of a species, usually given as \"a population of actually or potentially interbreeding individuals that produce fertile offspring\" under what has become known as the Biological Species Concept. Under this definition, both parental forms could be argued to be the same species if they produce fertile offspring at least some of the time. However, the two parental populations or species often remain identifiably distinct, conforming to an alternative, and presently preferred concept of species as \"taxa that retain their identity despite gene flow\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24884",
"title": "Peppered moth",
"section": "Section::::Polymorphism.:Introduction on forms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "By contrast, different subspecies of the same species can theoretically interbreed with one another and will produce fully fertile and healthy offspring, but in practice do not, as they live in different regions or reproduce in different seasons. Full-fledged species are either unable to produce fertile and healthy offspring, or do not recognize each other's courtship signals, or both.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62404",
"title": "Lovebird",
"section": "Section::::Aviculture.:Pets and bird safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Lovebirds of different species can mate and produce both sterile and fertile hybrid offspring, for example \"Agapornis personatus\" mate with \"Agapornis fischeri\" will produce fertile hybrid offspring. These offspring have behaviors of both parents. It is recommended to only place birds of the same species together, or of the same sex for this reason.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4826872",
"title": "Hybrid zone",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Forms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 883,
"text": "One form of hybrid zone results where one species has undergone allopatric speciation and the two new populations regain contact after a period of geographic isolation. The two populations then mate within an area of contact, producing 'hybrids' which contain a mixture of the alleles distinctive for each population. Thus novel genes flow from either side into the hybrid zone. Genes can also flow back into the distinct populations through interbreeding between hybrids and parental (non-hybrid) individuals (introgression). These processes lead to the formation of a cline between the two pure forms within the hybrid zone. In the centre of such a cline, hybrizymes are commonly found. These are alleles that are normally rare in both species but, probably due to genetic hitchhiking on genes for hybrid fitness, reach high frequencies in the areas where most hybrids are formed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
79hm0x
|
c3, c4, and cam pathways. what is the difference between them, and in what type of plant are they used?
|
[
{
"answer": "C3 converts CO2 into a 3-carbon acid. Most plants use this mechanism, but it works best in wetter areas with moderate temperatures. As temperatures go up, growth is stunted because it becomes less efficient. C4 converts carbon into a 4-carbon acid, and this works in warmer weather with less water. Tropical plants tend to be this.\n\nCAM is something else entirely, where the plant takes in carbon dioxide at night and stores it for the daytime use. Then it seals off when the sun comes up to avoid losing water and photosynthesizes using the stored carbon during the day. Orchids, bromeliads, cacti, cactus form spurges, succulents, and other things without much water will use CAM.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57042156",
"title": "Fractionation of carbon isotopes in oxygenic photosynthesis",
"section": "Section::::In C3 plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "A C3 plant uses C3 carbon fixation, one of the three metabolic photosynthesis pathways which also include C4 and CAM (described below). These plants are called \"C3\" due to the three-carbon compound (3-Phosphoglyceric acid, or 3-PGA) produced by the CO fixation mechanism in these plants. This C3 mechanism is the first step of the Calvin-Benson cycle, which converts CO and RuBP into 3-PGA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4066860",
"title": "Photosynthetic efficiency",
"section": "Section::::C3 vs. C4 and CAM plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "\"C3\" plants use the Calvin cycle to fix carbon. C4 plants use a modified Calvin cycle in which they separate Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (RuBisCO) from atmospheric oxygen, fixing carbon in their mesophyll cells and using oxaloacetate and malate to ferry the fixed carbon to RuBisCO and the rest of the Calvin cycle enzymes isolated in the bundle-sheath cells. The intermediate compounds both contain four carbon atoms, which gives \"C4\". In Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), time isolates functioning RuBisCo (and the other Calvin cycle enzymes) from high oxygen concentrations produced by photosynthesis, in that O is evolved during the day, and allowed to dissipate then, while at night atmospheric CO is taken up and stored as malic or other acids. During the day, CAM plants close stomata and use stored acids as carbon sources for sugar, etc. production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37102865",
"title": "Chemically induced dimerization",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Recently, CID has also been used to create a basic component of biocomputers, logic gates, from genetically manipulated cells. In this application, two independent CID systems, one based on plant proteins and one based on bacterial proteins are expressed in the same cell. Each set of proteins can be induced to dimerize by the addition of a separate chemical. By creating fusion proteins with the dimerizing proteins, membrane bound proteins and proteins that activate cell ruffling an AND gate and OR gate can be created that take chemical dimerizing agents as inputs and returns a ruffled or unruffled state as output.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "719534",
"title": "Carbon fixation",
"section": "Section::::Oxygenic photosynthesis.:CO concentrating mechanisms.:C plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "The large majority of plants are C plants. They are so-called to distinguish them from the CAM and C plants, and because the carboxylation products of the Calvin cycle are 3-carbon compounds. They lack C dicarboxylic acid cycles, and therefore have higher CO compensation points than CAM or C plants. C plants have a carbon isotope signature of −24 to −33‰.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4468576",
"title": "Cre recombinase",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Cre recombinase is a widely used tool in the field of molecular biology. The enzyme's unique and specific recombination system is exploited to manipulate genes and chromosomes in a huge range of research, such as gene knock out or knock in studies. The enzyme's ability to operate efficiently in a wide range of cellular environments (including mammals, plants, bacteria, and yeast) enables the Cre-Lox recombination system to be used in a vast number of organisms, making it a particularly useful tool in scientific research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "719534",
"title": "Carbon fixation",
"section": "Section::::Oxygenic photosynthesis.:CO concentrating mechanisms.:C plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "C plants preface the Calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate CO into one of the 4-carbon compounds, malic acid or aspartic acid. C plants have a distinctive internal leaf anatomy. Tropical grasses, such as sugar cane and maize are C plants, but there are many broadleaf plants that are C. Overall, 7600 species of terrestrial plants use C carbon fixation, representing around 3% of all species. These plants have a carbon isotope signature of −16 to −10 ‰.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5625565",
"title": "Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "PEPCK () is one of three decarboxylation enzymes used in the inorganic carbon concentrating mechanisms of C4 and CAM plants. The others are NADP-malic enzyme and NAD-malic enzyme. In C4 carbon fixation, carbon dioxide is first fixed by combination with phosphoenolpyruvate to form oxaloacetate in the mesophyll. In PEPCK-type C4 plants the oxaloacetate is then converted to aspartate, which travels to the bundle sheath. In the bundle sheath cells, aspartate is converted back to oxaloacetate. PEPCK decarboxylates the bundle sheath oxaloacetate, releasing carbon dioxide, which is then fixed by the enzyme Rubisco.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9pqzkw
|
It is the year 900 in the kingdom of Wessex. What’s for dinner?
|
[
{
"answer": "Who's eating? The average peasant, a petty noble, or the King himself?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So, my answer is actually from Mercia, since it's based on archaeological evidence from the *burh* at Stafford built by Æthelflæd in 914, but cross-border culinary differences in the intervening 15 years are unlikely to have been that noticable.\n\nCentral to the diet for any class is bread. A common feature of both West Saxon and Mercian *burhs* built in rhe late ninth and early tenth centuries are bread ovens. At sites like Wallingford, Stafford and Eddisbury, bread ovens were built as permanent structures near to the settlement ramparts. For the wealthier classes, and perhaps luckier members of the *fyrd* garrison, the bread is likely to have been a loaf of bread made from wheat flour as we might recognise it today. For the lower classes and particularly for labourers, 'bread' is likely to have taken the forms of 'bannocks' made from oat or barley. These are essentially like baked loaves of porridge - oatmeal to an American audience - with a much rougher grind and much more chaff than the wheat bread, but also much more calorie-dense.\n\nMeat was also an important part of the diet, in increasing proportions as one moved up the social scale. Excavations at Stafford have found vast amounts of animal bones dumped in what was a swamp from the *burh*'s butchery district. Compared to under the strict forestry laws which came in after the Norman Conquest of 1066, hunted game was an important part of the supply and constituted up to 30% of the meat diet. The principle meat among the nobility was beef from cattle, although venison and game fowl were also common. Before the Conquest, hunted game was an important if occasional source of meat for the peasantry. Mutton was typically eaten rather than lamb, but this would have been largely as a by-product of the wool trade - a significant part of the Anglo-Saxon economy - rather than sheep raised for meat. Pork would also have been commonplace.\n\nDepending on your location in the country, dairy products, especially cheese, would have also been commonplace as an important source of fat and also of calcium. Near the coasts, fishery was also popular. The keeping of bees was a popular monastic pass-time, so honey would have been available at least in these communities, and possibly used as a payment in kind for peasant labour on monastic land.\n\nThis food would have been accompanied by a variety of root and other vegetables. Cabbage and other leafy greens would have been common in the UK, and sources suggest that nettles - often used to brew medicinal drinks - may also have been eaten. For the lower classes, meals are likely to have taken the form of a pottage or stew, most likely left almost constantly slow-cooking over a hearth and simply topped up when necessary. This had the benefit of not only eking out a more meagre supply of meat and making less choice cuts far more palatable, but was also highly calorific. For the upper classes, meat is likely to have been spit-roasted over a hearth. For all classes, meals are likely to have been washed down with ale, although this was likely to have been both weakier and 'breadier' than our modern ales. For the wealthier and for religious communities, wine is likely to have been a more common feature. Mead, which has entered popular culture as **the** medieval drink of choice, is distilled from honey, and as such is more likely to have been the preserve of monastic communities, although would likely have also been enjoyed by the local elite, and perhaps by wealthier freemen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32836040",
"title": "Social class differences in food consumption",
"section": "Section::::Upper class.:Historical upper-class diets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Western Europe: Since the year 1066 English royalty ate lavishly. During the Victorian era, formal meals consisted of twelve or thirteen courses; informal meals of five or six courses. A single breakfast might have consisted of soup, roast turkey or pork with potatoes or rice, two vegetable side dishes, citrus ice, fresh rolls with butter, jams or jellies and sweet pickles, fancy cake and preserved fruit, coffee, hot punch and water. The regular food system was large breakfasts, small lunches followed by afternoon tea, and late suppers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71691",
"title": "Dinner",
"section": "Section::::Time of day.:Historical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "Reflecting the typical custom of the 17th century, Louis XIV dined at noon, with a supper at 10pm. But in Europe, dinner began to move later in the day during the 1700s, due to developments in work practices, lighting, financial status, and cultural changes. The fashionable hour for dinner continued to be incrementally postponed during the 18th century, to two and three in the afternoon, and in 1765 King George III dined at 4pm, though his infant sons had theirs with their governess at 2pm, leaving time to visit the queen as she dressed for dinner with the king. But in France Marie Antoinette, when still Dauphine of France in 1770, wrote that when at the Château de Choisy the court still dined at 2pm, with a supper after the theatre at around 10pm, before bed at 1 or 1.30am. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157965",
"title": "Belvoir Castle",
"section": "Section::::History.:Fourth castle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "Whilst visiting Belvoir castle in the 1840s, Anna, Duchess of Bedford, found that the normal time for dinner was between 7:00 and 8:30 p.m. An extra meal called luncheon had been created to fill the midday gap between breakfast and dinner, but as this new meal was very light, the long afternoon with no refreshment at all left people feeling hungry. She found a light meal of tea (usually Darjeeling) and cakes or sandwiches was the perfect balance. The Duchess found taking an afternoon snack to be such a perfect refreshment that she soon began inviting her friends to join her. Afternoon tea quickly became an established and convivial repast in many middle and upper class households.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13855",
"title": "Halloween",
"section": "Section::::History.:Gaelic and Welsh influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "Samhain () was the first and most important of the four quarter days in the medieval Gaelic calendar and was celebrated on 31 October – 1 November in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. A kindred festival was held at the same time of year by the Brittonic Celts, called Calan Gaeaf in Wales, Kalan Gwav in Cornwall and Kalan Goañv in Brittany; a name meaning \"first day of winter\". For the Celts, the day ended and began at sunset; thus the festival began on the evening before 7 November by modern reckoning (the half point between equinox and solstice). Samhain and Calan Gaeaf are mentioned in some of the earliest Irish and Welsh literature. The names have been used by historians to refer to Celtic Halloween customs up until the 19th century, and are still the Gaelic and Welsh names for Halloween.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50460",
"title": "Winchester College",
"section": "Section::::Domum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "A \"Domum Dinner\" is held at the end of the summer term for leavers. It was formerly restricted to those former scholars of Winchester who were also scholars of New College, and distinguished guests. Until the reforms of the 19th century, there were three successive Election Dinners held during Election Week, culminating in a Domum Ball. Originally these festivities occurred around Whitsun, as suggested by references to early summer such as \"See the year, the meadow, smiling\" and \"Now the swallow seeks her dwelling\" in the song. When Election Week was moved to the end of the summer term (June or July) the Domum celebrations were moved with it, though the Whitsun references remained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18589377",
"title": "Lunch",
"section": "Section::::Around the world.:Oceania.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "In Australia, a light meal eaten in the period between 10:30am and noon is considered brunch; an actual lunch will be eaten between 12 and 2PM. While usually consisting of fruit or a cereal product, a typical Australian brunch may include other foods as well such as burgers, sandwiches, other light food items, and hot dishes. Sometimes a meal during the late afternoon is referred to as \"afternoon tea\", a meal in which food portions are usually significantly smaller than at lunch, sometimes consisting of nothing more than coffee or other beverages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19337173",
"title": "Tea (meal)",
"section": "Section::::Afternoon tea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 888,
"text": "Afternoon tea is a light meal typically eaten between 3.30 pm and 5 pm. Observance of the custom originated amongst the wealthy social classes in England in the 1840s. Her Grace Anna Maria, Duchess of Bedford, is widely credited as transforming afternoon tea in England into a late-afternoon meal whilst visiting Belvoir Castle in Leicestershire. By the end of the nineteenth century, afternoon tea developed to its current form and was observed by both the upper and middle classes. It had become ubiquitous, even in the isolated village in the fictionalised memoir \"Lark Rise to Candleford\", where a cottager lays out what she calls a \"visitor's tea\" for their landlady: \"the table was laid… there were the best tea things with a fat pink rose on the side of each cup; hearts of lettuce, thin bread and butter, and the crisp little cakes that had been baked in readiness that morning.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2pidww
|
Was the Southern Defensive War really that crucial to the South's early wins?
|
[
{
"answer": "I disagree entirely. While the Confederacy won an early initial victory at Manassas/Bull Run, the overall picture for the South for much of late 1861 and 1862 (the period in which the South stood on the strategic defensive) was incredibly gloomy. Let's run through the list of disasters briefly. November 7 1861: the US Navy seizes Port Royal, South Carolina, thus driving a wedge between Charleston and Savannah. January 19, 1862: the Confederate army in eastern Kentucky is routed at Mill Springs, opening the way for a Union invasion of Tennessee. February 6: Fort Henry falls to US Grant, opening the Tennessee River to the Union. February 16: Fort Donelson is surrendered, opening the Cumberland to Union troops and gunboats. April 6: the combined western Confederate army fails to break Grant's army at Shiloh, and with the arrival of Don Carlos Buell's forces, are forced to withdraw, making the fall of Corinth inevitable. Finally, McClellan, despite his flaws, comes within a few miles of Richmond before being driven away by an inferior, but very aggressively commanded Confederate Army of Northern Virginia.\n\nIt is true that a period of Confederate superiority followed *in the east*. But even for the year or so that the Army of Northern Virginia was dominant, the Confederacy continued to collapse steadily in the west.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "863",
"title": "American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Union victory and aftermath.:Results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 206,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 206,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Scholars have debated what the effects of the war were on political and economic power in the South. The prevailing view is that the southern planter elite retained its powerful position in the South. However, a 2017 study challenges this, noting that while some Southern elites retained their economic status, the turmoil of the 1860s created greater opportunities for economic mobility in the South than in the North.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "161323",
"title": "Military history of the United States",
"section": "Section::::American Civil War (1861–1865).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "As the fighting between the two capitals stalled, the North found more success in campaigns elsewhere, using rivers, railroads, and the seas to help move and supply their larger forces, putting a stranglehold on the South—the Anaconda Plan. The war spilled across the continent, and even to the high seas. After four years of appallingly bloody conflict, with more casualties than all other U.S. wars combined, the North's larger population and industrial might slowly ground the South down. The resources and economy of the South were ruined, while the North's factories and economy prospered filling government wartime contracts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "752072",
"title": "History of the United States (1849–1865)",
"section": "Section::::Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 1438,
"text": "Each side had its relative strengths and weaknesses. The North had a larger population and a far larger industrial base and transportation system. It would be a defensive war for the South and an offensive one for the North, and the South could count on its huge geography, and an unhealthy climate, to prevent an invasion. In order for the North to emerge victorious, it would have to conquer and occupy the Confederate States of America. The South, on the other hand, only had to keep the North at bay until the Northern public lost the will to fight. The Confederacy adopted a military strategy designed to hold their territory together, gain worldwide recognition, and inflict so much punishment on invaders that the North would grow weary of the war and negotiate a peace treaty that would recognize the independence of the CSA. The only point of seizing Washington, or invading the North (besides plunder) was to shock Yankees into realizing they could not win. The Confederacy moved its capital from a safe location in Montgomery, Alabama, to the more cosmopolitan city of Richmond, Virginia, only 100 miles from the enemy capital in Washington. Richmond was heavily exposed, and at the end of a long supply line; much of the Confederacy's manpower was dedicated to its defense. The North had far greater potential advantages, but it would take a year or two to mobilize them for warfare. Meanwhile, everyone expected a short war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6527799",
"title": "Missouri in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Early military actions, 1861–1862.:Ironclad Navy and Riverine Campaigns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "The riverine strategy put the Confederacy on the defensive in the west for the rest of the war, and effectively ended meaningful Confederate efforts to recapture Missouri. The defeat of the Confederate army under Earl Van Dorn, Benjamin McCulloch, and Price in northwestern Arkansas at the Battle of Pea Ridge further discouraged the Confederate leadership as to the wisdom, or possibility, of occupying Missouri. Subsequent Confederate military action in the state would be limited to a few large raids (notably Shelby's Raid of 1863 and Price's Raid of 1864), and partial endorsement of the activities of Missouri guerrillas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "454963",
"title": "Southern strategy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 962,
"text": "The \"Southern Strategy\" refers primarily to \"top down\" narratives of the political realignment of the South which suggest that Republican leaders consciously appealed to many white Southerners' racial grievances in order to gain their support. This top-down narrative of the Southern Strategy is generally believed to be the primary force that transformed Southern politics following the civil rights era. This view has been questioned by historians such as Matthew Lassiter, Kevin M. Kruse and Joseph Crespino, who have presented an alternative, \"bottom up\" narrative, which Lassiter has called the \"suburban strategy\". This narrative recognizes the centrality of racial backlash to the political realignment of the South, but suggests that this backlash took the form of a defense of \"de facto\" segregation in the suburbs rather than overt resistance to racial integration and that the story of this backlash is a national rather than a strictly Southern one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2296094",
"title": "Field artillery in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::History and organization.:Confederate artillery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 1345,
"text": "The South was at a relative disadvantage to the North for deployment of artillery. The industrial North had far greater capacity for manufacturing weapons, and the Union blockade of Southern ports prevented many foreign arms from reaching the Southern armies. The Confederacy had to rely to a significant extent on captured Union artillery pieces (either on the battlefield or by capturing armories, such as Harpers Ferry); it is estimated that two-thirds of all Confederate field artillery was captured from the Union. The Confederate cannons built in the South often suffered from the shortage of quality metals and shoddy workmanship. Another disadvantage was the quality of ammunition as the fuses needed for detonating shells and cases were frequently inaccurate, causing premature or delayed explosions. All that, coupled with the Union gunners' initial competence and experience gained as the war progressed, led Southern forces to dread assaults on Northern positions backed up by artillery. A Southern officer observed, \"The combination of Yankee artillery with Rebel infantry would make an army that could be beaten by no one.\" Union artillery was used on the Army of Northern Virginia to devastating effect on a number of occasions, particularly during the Seven Days Battles (particularly the Battle of Malvern Hill) and Gettysburg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "593326",
"title": "Anaconda Plan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "In the early days of the Civil War, Winfield Scott's proposed strategy for the war against the South had two prominent features: first, all ports in the seceding states were to be rigorously blockaded; second, a strong column of perhaps 80,000 men should use the Mississippi River as a highway to thrust completely through the Confederacy. A spearhead, a relatively small amphibious force of army troops transported by boats and supported by gunboats, should advance rapidly, capturing the Confederate positions down the river in sequence. They would be followed by a more traditional army, marching behind them to secure the victories. The culminating battle would be for the forts below New Orleans; when they fell, the river would be in Federal hands from its source to its mouth, and the rebellion would be cut in two.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qzxbs
|
food tax, why in a restaurant but not a store?
|
[
{
"answer": "Likely because buying food at a store is basically a necessity of life, especially if you can't afford to eat out every meal.\n\nEating at a restaurant is basically a privilege, not a necessity, so it makes more sense to tax that, than to tax basic food. \n\nUp here in Canada, our national tax (GST) applies at all stores, but not on basic food items like milk & bread etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Taxing food can be considered what is called a regressive tax. Generally, taxation works best when it is progressive, meaning those who have more means are taxed higher. The revenues generated by the government is higher as a result, thereby giving the government more money to invest in infrastructure or offer services to the public. A regressive tax is when the poor is taxed higher per dollar earned, and it ends up harming their living standards. If food purchased at the store is taxed, it could mean going without for individuals with very little means. Whereas, going out to eat is a luxury, and the tax can be afforded by those participating in this activity.\n\nedit: grammar",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30534778",
"title": "Sales and use taxes in California",
"section": "Section::::Exemptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "In grocery stores, unprepared food items are not taxed but vitamins and all other items are. Ready-to-eat hot foods, whether sold by supermarkets or other vendors, are taxed. Restaurant bills are taxed. As an exception, hot beverages and bakery items are tax-exempt if and only if they are for take-out and are not sold with any other hot food. If consumed on the seller's premises, such items are taxed like restaurant meals. All other food is exempt from sales tax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8314839",
"title": "Optimal tax",
"section": "Section::::Income taxes.:Sales tax.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "The incidence of sales taxes on commodities also results in distortion if say food prepared in restaurants is taxed but supermarket-bought food prepared at home is not taxed at purchase. If a taxpayer needs to buy food at fast food restaurants because he/she is not wealthy enough to purchase extra leisure time (by working less) he/she pays the tax although a more prosperous person who enjoys playing at being a home chef is taxed more lightly. This differential taxation of commodities may cause inefficiency (by discouraging work in the market in favor of work in the household).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2502077",
"title": "Sales taxes in the United States",
"section": "Section::::By jurisdiction.:Pennsylvania.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 197,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 197,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Food, most clothing, and footwear are among the items most frequently exempted. However, taxed food items include soft drinks and powdered mixes, sports drinks, hot beverages, hot prepared foods, sandwiches, and salad bar meals, unless these items are purchased with food stamps. Additionally, catering and delivery fees are taxed if the food itself is taxed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2502077",
"title": "Sales taxes in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Taxable items.:Taxable sales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The place and manner of sale may affect whether a sale of particular goods is taxable. Many states tax food for consumption on premises but not food sold for off premises consumption. The use to which goods are put may also affect whether the sale is subject to tax. Goods used as ingredients in manufacturing may avoid tax, where the same goods used as supplies may not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35275011",
"title": "Pasty tax",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "Under long-standing VAT legislation, sale of most foods bought to eat or cook at home is zero-rated for VAT, meaning that no tax is charged. By contrast, meals bought and consumed in a restaurant, and hot take-away food or drink, are charged at a standard 20% tax rate. At the boundary between these two classes, there has been a history of legal challenges around food which is baked for sale, and is sold while still hot. If food could be claimed to be hot only incidentally, it could be zero-rated - this would apply to freshly baked bread, but also pies, pasties and similar items. This legislation stated:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "991420",
"title": "Ad valorem tax",
"section": "Section::::Sales tax.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "Ideally, a sales tax is fair, has a high compliance rate, is difficult to avoid, is charged every time an item is sold retail, and is simple to calculate and simple to collect. A conventional or retail sales tax attempts to achieve this by charging the tax only on the final end user, unlike a gross receipts tax levied on the intermediate business which purchases materials for production or ordinary operating expenses prior to delivering a service or product to the marketplace. This prevents so-called tax \"cascading\" or \"pyramiding,\" in which an item is taxed more than once as it makes its way from production to final retail sale. There are several types of sales taxes: seller or vendor taxes, consumer excise taxes, retail transaction taxes, or value-added taxes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3060112",
"title": "Greggs",
"section": "Section::::Marketing.:Pasty tax.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "In March 2012, Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne proposed to simplify the taxing of takeaway food. In the United Kingdom, most food intended to be cooked and eaten at home is zero rated, meaning that businesses do not have to charge their customers the standard VAT on those products. Much of Greggs food falls under this exception, with the food being left to cool on a shelf after preparation rather than being kept hot or reheated upon purchase by customers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21gxec
|
Why do atoms "want" to form covalent bonds?
|
[
{
"answer": "When someone tells you atoms or molecules \"want\" to do something it is almost always code for \"would be in a lower energy state\" if they did that. Saying that two atoms want to form a covalent bond just means that the state in which the two atoms are bonded is lower in energy than the one in which they are not.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59444",
"title": "Energy level",
"section": "Section::::Molecules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1094,
"text": "Chemical bonds between atoms in a molecule form because they make the situation more stable for the involved atoms, which generally means the sum energy level for the involved atoms in the molecule is lower than if the atoms were not so bonded. As separate atoms approach each other to covalently bond, their orbitals affect each other's energy levels to form bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals. The energy level of the bonding orbitals is lower, and the energy level of the antibonding orbitals is higher. For the bond in the molecule to be stable, the covalent bonding electrons occupy the lower energy bonding orbital, which may be signified by such symbols as σ or π depending on the situation. Corresponding anti-bonding orbitals can be signified by adding an asterisk to get σ* or π* orbitals. A non-bonding orbital in a molecule is an orbital with electrons in outer shells which do not participate in bonding and its energy level is the same as that of the constituent atom. Such orbitals can be designated as n orbitals. The electrons in an n orbital are typically lone pairs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21347411",
"title": "Chemical compound",
"section": "Section::::Bonding and forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "A covalent bond, also known as a molecular bond, involves the sharing of electrons between two atoms. Primarily, this type of bond occurs between elements that fall close to each other on the periodic table of elements, yet it is observed between some metals and nonmetals. This is due to the mechanism of this type of bond. Elements that fall close to each other on the periodic table tend to have similar electronegativities, which means they have a similar affinity for electrons. Since neither element has a stronger affinity to donate or gain electrons, it causes the elements to share electrons so both elements have a more stable octet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5993",
"title": "Chemical bond",
"section": "Section::::Overview of main types of chemical bonds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 869,
"text": "In the simplest view of a covalent bond, one or more electrons (often a pair of electrons) are drawn into the space between the two atomic nuclei. Energy is released by bond formation. This is not as a reduction in potential energy, because the attraction of the two electrons to the two protons is offset by the electron-electron and proton-proton repulsions. Instead, the release of energy (and hence stability of the bond) arises from the reduction in kinetic energy due to the electrons being in a more spatially distributed (i.e. longer de Broglie wavelength) orbital compared with each electron being confined closer to its respective nucleus. These bonds exist between two particular identifiable atoms and have a direction in space, allowing them to be shown as single connecting lines between atoms in drawings, or modeled as sticks between spheres in models.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5993",
"title": "Chemical bond",
"section": "Section::::Strong chemical bonds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Strong chemical bonds are the \"intramolecular\" forces that hold atoms together in molecules. A strong chemical bond is formed from the transfer or sharing of electrons between atomic centers and relies on the electrostatic attraction between the protons in nuclei and the electrons in the orbitals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5180",
"title": "Chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Modern principles.:Bonding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "In a covalent bond, one or more pairs of valence electrons are shared by two atoms: the resulting electrically neutral group of bonded atoms is termed a molecule. Atoms will share valence electrons in such a way as to create a noble gas electron configuration (eight electrons in their outermost shell) for each atom. Atoms that tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence shell are said to follow the octet rule. However, some elements like hydrogen and lithium need only two electrons in their outermost shell to attain this stable configuration; these atoms are said to follow the \"duet rule\", and in this way they are reaching the electron configuration of the noble gas helium, which has two electrons in its outer shell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5180",
"title": "Chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Modern principles.:Bonding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "A chemical bond can be a covalent bond, an ionic bond, a hydrogen bond or just because of Van der Waals force. Each of these kinds of bonds is ascribed to some potential. These potentials create the interactions which hold atoms together in molecules or crystals. In many simple compounds, valence bond theory, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model (VSEPR), and the concept of oxidation number can be used to explain molecular structure and composition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6176600",
"title": "Intramolecular force",
"section": "Section::::Bond formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "Bonds are formed by atoms so that they are able to achieve a lower energy state. Free atoms will have more energy than a bonded atom. This is because some energy is released during bond formation, allowing the entire system to achieve a lower energy state. The bond length, or the minimum separating distance between two atoms participating in bond formation, is determined by their repulsive and attractive forces along the internuclear direction. As the two atoms get closer and closer, the positively charged nuclei repel, creating a force that attempts to push the atoms apart. As the two atoms get further apart, attractive forces work to pull them back together. Thus an equilibrium bond length is achieved and is a good measure of bond stability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xcn2h
|
Ignoring the difficulty of capturing a comet or adjusting its orbit: If we could arrange for a comet to strike Mars, what would the effect be? Could we terraform Mars by hitting it with a cubic mile of water?
|
[
{
"answer": "I posted earlier from my phone, but couldn't find a source. So I deleted it and reposted.\n\nBasically, you don't need to use a comet. You *can*, but it's probably not the only way to do so.\n\nAccording to Michio Kaku's book [Physics of the Future](_URL_0_), you could drop a few nuclear devices on the ice cap and it might have enough of an effect.\n\nOtherwise, if you wanted to do it without the radiation (although since it'd take a long time anyway, the radiation is probably not *that* big of a deal...), you could use a kinetic impactor or comet to achieve much the same effect. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another book to add to your reading list is \"Mining the Oort\" by Frederick Pohl. Features this as a major plot driver.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The smart thing to do would be not to smash a comet into Mars directly, but to aerobrake one in Mars' atmosphere. The temperature of atmospheric entry would be enough to not only break up & melt the comet, but also split the water molecules into their constituent oxygen & hydrogen. \n\nIf you planned the comet's entry into the atmosphere *just so*, you'd be able to control how much of the O & H got liberated, or re-combined back into water after the fact. So you'd get to choose the proportions of oxygen, hydrogen & water you introduced. \n\nOxygen is obviously very handy! The hydrogen would be so much lighter than the rest of the atmospheric gases that it would rise to the atmosphere's upper layers, and get preferentially stripped away, protecting the more valuable oxygen & water vapour.\n\nHowever, it would a good hundred comets to so much as double the mass of Mars' atmosphere. So you're better off grabbing a Kuiper Belt Object.\n\nEven then, the real issue with terraforming Mars is a lack of nitrogen. You ideally want some sort of inert gas to make up the bulk of the atmosphere. Too much oxygen, and everything is flammable. too much carbon dioxide and people can't survive. Nitrogen is also vital to plant (and therefore animal) life on earth, in the form of the nitrogen cycle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Crashing huge chucks of ice into Mars was also part of the terraforming recipe in Kim Stanley Robinsons Mars trilogy. It has occured to me that adjusting the orbit of a comet to crash it into a planet could be easier than doing the same thing with an asteroid. If a number of large flat mirrors could be put into solar orbit and pointed with some super sensitive gyroscopes, we could use solar energy to heat up certain parts of the comet. The resulting offgassing would act in a manner similar to tiny rockets attached to the comet. Over a period of a year this might be able to make enough of an alteration to it's orbit to either crash it directly into Mars or get it into a suitable elliptical orbit to hit Mars in the next few decades. The nice thing about this system is that the mirrors could be reused for multiple comets over the duration of their lifetime.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Deflecting an astroid to hit a planet is really not very difficult. [Phil Plait has a TED talk explaining how to do the reverse - cause a asteroid to *miss* a planet, but it's the same idea.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the things that people often neglect when discussing the terraforming of Mars is that Mars has little if any magnetic field due to a \"frozen\" core. This is probably why the Martian atmosphere is so tenuous. Without a magnetic field to protect the planet from the solar wind, any atmosphere will inevitably be blown off over time.\n\nSo it's more than just a matter of finding a way to give Mars an atmosphere, we'd have to find a way to get it's iron core spinning again. Good luck with that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Comets must hit Mars on occasion naturally, so there has to be more to terraforming than simply dropping one comet on Mars. Maybe a bunch of comets all at once? You'd have to get nitrogen from somewhere too, although my understanding is that comets can also contain a fair amount of ammonia ices.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38394037",
"title": "C/2013 A1",
"section": "Section::::Encounter with Mars.:Predicted effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "In 2013 it was thought possible that Comet Siding Spring would create a meteor shower on Mars or be a threat to the spacecraft in Mars orbit. Studies in 2014 showed the threat to orbiting spacecraft to be minimal. The greatest threat would be about 100 minutes after closest approach. Mars passed about from the comet's orbit around 20:10 UT.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38394037",
"title": "C/2013 A1",
"section": "Section::::Encounter with Mars.:Predicted effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "The main body of the comet's tail was projected to miss Mars by some 10 Mars diameters. As a result, only higher-than-average-velocity meteoroid dust, ejected earlier in the approach of the comet, allow for impacts on Mars, its moons, and orbiting spacecraft. Dust particles ejected from the nucleus of the comet, at more than double the expected velocity when the comet was 3 AU from the Sun, could reach Mars approximately 43 to 130 min after the closest approach of the comet. There is a possibility for millimeter- to centimeter-size particles released more than 13 AU from the Sun, however, this is considered unlikely, although massive ejections from farther out have been deduced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1374669",
"title": "Silverpit crater",
"section": "Section::::Multiple Impact Hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "The collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994 proved that gravitational interactions can fragment a comet, giving rise to many impacts over a period of a few days if the comet fragments should collide with a planet. Comets frequently undergo gravitational interactions with the gas giants, and similar disruptions and collisions are very likely to have occurred in the past.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48469754",
"title": "List of Mars orbiters",
"section": "Section::::History.:Fatefter achieving orbit, functional or not, Mars orbiters have been predicted to remain in orbit for a certain amount of time..\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Besides decaying to Mars, a collision with a moon or other spacecraft is also a possibility. In March 2017, \"MAVEN\" had to change its orbit to avoid colliding with Phobos, and with an increasing number of spacecraft at Mars this risk increases. The \"Mars Global Surveyor\" is still being tracked, although it is no longer functioning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "391434",
"title": "Impact winter",
"section": "Section::::Possibility of impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "In addition there are over 300 short period comets which pass near larger planets, such as Saturn and Jupiter, which can change the trajectory and could potentially put them into an Earth-crossing orbit. This could happen for long period comets also but the chance is highest for short period comets. The chance of these directly impacting Earth is far lower than a near-Earth object (NEO) impact. Victor Clube and Bill Napier support a controversial theory that a short period comet in an Earth crossing orbit doesn't need to impact to be hazardous, as it could disintegrate and cause a dust veil with possibilities of a \"nuclear winter\" scenario with long term global cooling lasting for thousands of years (which they consider to be similar in probability to a 1 km impact).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "996910",
"title": "Hyperbolic trajectory",
"section": "Section::::Parameters describing a hyperbolic trajectory.:Impact parameter and the distance of closest approach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "So if a comet approaching Earth (effective radius ~6400 km) with a velocity of 12.5 km/s (the approximate minimum approach speed of a body coming from the outer Solar System) is to avoid a collision with Earth, the impact parameter will need to be at least 8600 km, or 34% more than the Earth's radius. A body approaching Jupiter (radius 70000 km) from the outer Solar System with a speed of 5.5 km/h, will need the impact parameter to be at least 770,000 km or 11 times Jupiter radius to avoid collision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56101350",
"title": "CAESAR (spacecraft)",
"section": "Section::::Sample return.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The spacecraft would not land on the comet, but would momentarily contact the surface with its TAG (Touch-And-Go) robotic arm, as will be done by \"OSIRIS-REx\" on an asteroid, including raising the solar arrays into a Y-shaped configuration to minimize the chance of dust accumulation during contact and provide more ground clearance. The sampler mechanism on the arm would produce a burst of nitrogen gas to blow regolith particles into the sampler head located at the end of the arm. \"CAESAR\" would collect between of regolith from the comet. The maximum pebble size would be . The system has enough compressed nitrogen gas for three samplings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a6hsgr
|
why do men get a weird feeling in their penis when they see an injury or cut
|
[
{
"answer": "Ummm no we don't? You should go see a doctor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4218003",
"title": "Groin attack",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "While less often depicted in media, a strike to the groin can cause pain for female victims too. The skin of the vulva and the clitoris are highly sensitive, making laceration injuries especially painful. In extreme cases, nerve damage can occur to the clitoris.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46895003",
"title": "Sexuality after spinal cord injury",
"section": "Section::::Sexual function.:Psychogenic and reflexogenic responses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1391,
"text": "The body's physical arousal response (vaginal lubrication and engorgement of the clitoris in women and erection in men) occurs due to two separate pathways which normally work together: psychogenic and reflex. Arousal due to fantasies, visual input, or other mental stimulation is a psychogenic sexual experience, and arousal resulting from physical contact to the genital area is reflexogenic. In psychogenic arousal, messages travel from the brain via the spinal cord to the nerves in the genital area. The psychogenic pathway is served by the spinal cord at levels T11–L2. Thus people injured above the level of the T11 vertebra do not usually experience psychogenic erection or vaginal lubrication, but those with an injury below T12 can. Even without these physical responses, people with SCI often feel aroused, just as uninjured people do. The ability to feel the sensation of a pinprick and light touch in the dermatomes for T11–L2 predicts how well the ability to have psychogenic arousal is preserved in both sexes. Input from the psychogenic pathway is sympathetic, and most of the time it sends inhibitory signals that prevent the physical arousal response; in response to sexual stimulation, excitatory signals are increased and inhibition is reduced. Removing the inhibition that is normally present allows the spinal reflexes that trigger the arousal response to take effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5491859",
"title": "Attraction to disability",
"section": "Section::::Explanations.:Sexological.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "BULLET::::7. \"The missing phallus\": When exposed to the nude female body, some men are fascinated by the fact that \"the penis is missing\", and there is an alternative and sexual organ (in fact, one reminiscent of a wound) in its place. This feeling of surprise may become a part of sexual attraction. The sight of a missing limb may evoke a similar feeling. Similar to 6 above, this explanation was proposed by Dr Anne Hooper in 1978;\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49179394",
"title": "Phallophobia",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 2003,
"text": "Sigmund Freud has footnoted the possibility that this fear may be derived from a lack of ingenuity allowing one to ornamentally distance the copulatory organs from the excretory organs. Such a condition can affect both men and women. For others, symptoms include what characterizes a panic attack. It does not necessarily have to be induced by an uncovered penis, but may also result from seeing the manbulging outline or curvature of the penis, perhaps through clothes consisting of thin fabric. In more extreme cases it has been likened to the fight or flight response ingrained within the human body wherein an individual ceases to be intimate with their male partner and is unable to visit mixed gender establishments where people are likely to wear more revealing clothing, such as a gym, beach, cinema or livingrooms with a switched on monitor. The fear can recur through any of the senses including accidental touch, sight, hearing the word penis or thinking about an erection. The phobia may have developed from a condition such as dyspareunia, a trauma (usually sexual) that occurred during childhood, but can also have a fortuitous origin. In literature covering human sexuality, it is used as an adjective only to negatively allude to penetrative sex acts. Men who have the phobia may try to avoid wearing sweatpants and other light fabrics, especially in public. Some analysts have purported that the condition may be inherited or may be a combination of genetic inheritance and life experiences. For men with the condition, one of the byproducts is difficulty consummating with a partner due to a sense of vulnerability. This vulnerability may have developed during childhood because they grew up being told by their parents that sex and its physiological functions were evil, sinful and dirty, but were subsequently unable to detach such shameful feelings nor reverse it upon reaching adulthood, even when romantic initiatives were subsequently approved of or encouraged by their parents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7428996",
"title": "Vulvar cancer",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Typically, a lesion presents in the form of a lump or ulcer on the labia majora and may be associated with itching, irritation, local bleeding or discharge, in addition to pain with urination or pain during sexual intercourse. The labia minora, clitoris, perineum and mons are less commonly involved. Due to modesty or embarrassment, people may put off seeing a doctor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5069414",
"title": "Genital herpes",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Other common symptoms include pain, itching, and burning. Less frequent, yet still common, symptoms include discharge from the penis or vagina, fever, headache, muscle pain (myalgia), swollen and enlarged lymph nodes and malaise. Women often experience additional symptoms that include painful urination (dysuria) and cervicitis. Herpetic proctitis (inflammation of the anus and rectum) is common for individuals participating in anal intercourse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46895003",
"title": "Sexuality after spinal cord injury",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Considerations for sexual activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Another consideration is loss of sensation, which puts people at risk for wounds such as pressure sores and injuries that could become worse before being noticed. Friction from sexual activity may damage the skin, so it is necessary after sex to inspect areas that could have been hurt, particularly the buttocks and genital area. People who already have pressure sores must take care not to make the wounds worse. Irritation to the genitals increases risk for vaginal infections, which get worse if they go unnoticed. Women who do not get sufficient vaginal lubrication on their own can use a commercially available personal lubricant to decrease friction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1kl9op
|
How did the Seven Years War begin?
|
[
{
"answer": "In 1740, a new king came to power in Prussia, Frederick the Great. His predecessor built a large, well-organized army, and Frederick immediately used it to defeat Austria in the War of the Austrian Succession from 1740-1748. By doing so, Prussia became a great power in Europe, attracting the suspicions of other nations such as France and Russia. In 1756, Austria's queen, Maria Theresa, used diplomacy to unite France and Russia against Prussia. England naturally joined in against France, her biggest rival. The immediate cause of the war was a French assault of a British base in Minorica. Prussia quickly took to the offensive, and the war continued from there. \n\nIn North America, the war began in 1754 as a result of land disputes between New France and the Thirteen Colonies over the fertile Ohio Country. France had long standing claims over the area, but pioneers in the British colonies kept moving west, settling in any land they could get their hands on. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19039354",
"title": "Seven Years' War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "The Seven Years' War was a global conflict fought between 1756 and 1763. It involved every European great power of the time and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, South Asia, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions: one was led by the Kingdom of Great Britain and included the Kingdom of Prussia, the Kingdom of Portugal, the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg, and other small German states; while the other was led by the Kingdom of France and included the Austrian-led Holy Roman Empire, the Russian Empire (until 1762), the Kingdom of Spain, and the Swedish Empire. Meanwhile, in India, some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire, with the support of the French, tried to crush a British attempt to conquer Bengal. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43473",
"title": "Wars of Scottish Independence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "The First War (1296–1328) began with the English invasion of Scotland in 1296, and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton in 1328. The Second War (1332–1357) began with the English-supported invasion by Edward Balliol and the 'Disinherited' in 1332, and ended in 1357 with the signing of the Treaty of Berwick. The wars were part of a great crisis for Scotland and the period became one of the most defining times in its history. At the end of both wars, Scotland retained its status as an independent state. The wars were important for other reasons, such as the emergence of the longbow as a key weapon in medieval warfare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5083082",
"title": "French–Habsburg rivalry",
"section": "Section::::Nine Years' War 1688–1697.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "The \"Nine Years' War\" 1688–1697, often called the War of the Grand Alliance or the War of the League of Augsburg – was a conflict between Louis XIV of France and a European coalition of Austria, the Holy Roman Empire, the Dutch Republic, Spain, England and Savoy. It was fought in Europe and the surrounding seas, North America and in India. It is sometimes considered the first global war. The conflict encompassed the Williamite war in Ireland and Jacobite risings in Scotland, where William III and James II struggled for control of England and Ireland, and a campaign in colonial North America between French and English settlers and their respective Indigenous allies, today called King William's War by Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "224589",
"title": "Nine Years' War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "The Nine Years' War (1688–97), often called the War of the Grand Alliance or the War of the League of Augsburg, was a conflict between Louis XIV of France and a European coalition of the Holy Roman Empire (led by Austria), the Dutch Republic, Spain, England and Savoy. It was fought in Europe and the surrounding seas, North America and in India. It is sometimes considered the first global war. The conflict encompassed the Williamite war in Ireland and Jacobite risings in Scotland, where William III and James II struggled for control of England and Ireland, and a campaign in colonial North America between French and English settlers and their respective Indigenous allies, today called King William's War by Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1106307",
"title": "George Croghan",
"section": "Section::::Seven Years' War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) in North America, or French and Indian War as this front was known in the colonies, unofficially began in 1754 with the Battle of Jumonville Glen and effectively ended in 1760 with the British capture of Montreal. French forces occupied the Ohio Country and expelled or arrested British fur traders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19038039",
"title": "Hundred Years' War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "The Hundred Years' War was a series of conflicts waged from 1337 to 1453 by the House of Plantagenet, rulers of the Kingdom of England, against the French House of Valois, over the right to rule the Kingdom of France. Each side drew many allies into the war. It was one of the most notable conflicts of the Middle Ages, in which five generations of kings from two rival dynasties fought for the throne of the largest kingdom in Western Europe. The war marked both the height of chivalry and its subsequent decline, and the development of strong national identities in both countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158019",
"title": "Kingdom of Great Britain",
"section": "Section::::Age of George III, 1760–1820.:Victory in the Seven Years' War, 1756–1763.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1913,
"text": "The Seven Years' War, which began in 1756, was the first war waged on a global scale and saw British involvement in Europe, India, North America, the Caribbean, the Philippines, and coastal Africa. The results were highly favorable for Britain, and a major disaster for France. Key decisions were largely in the hands of William Pitt the Elder. The war started poorly. Britain lost the island of Minorca in 1756, and suffered a series of defeats in North America. After years of setbacks and mediocre results, British luck turned in the \"miracle year\" (\"Annus Mirabilis\") of 1759. The British had entered the year anxious about a French invasion, but by the end of the year, they were victorious in all theatres. In the Americas, they captured Fort Ticonderoga (Carillon), drove the French out of the Ohio Country, captured Quebec City in Canada as a result of the decisive Battle of the Plains of Abraham, and captured the rich sugar island of Guadeloupe in the West Indies. In India, the John Company repulsed French forces besieging Madras. In Europe, British troops partook in a decisive Allied victory at the Battle of Minden. The victory over the French navy at the Battle of Lagos and the decisive Battle of Quiberon Bay ended threats of a French invasion, and confirmed Britain's reputation as the world's foremost naval power. The Treaty of Paris of 1763 marked the high point of the First British Empire. France's future in North America ended, as New France (Quebec) came under British control. In India, the third Carnatic War had left France still in control of several small enclaves, but with military restrictions and an obligation to support the British client states, effectively leaving the future of India to Great Britain. The British victory over France in the Seven Years' War therefore left Great Britain as the world's dominant colonial power, with a bitter France thirsting for revenge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2d9s3j
|
let's say, everything in the universe (not the atoms!!) get's 10 times bigger. would it effect anything?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you were 10 times bigger you would weigh 1,000 times more, so you and most everything else would be crushed under its own weight.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interesting question. I feel like the biggest issue would be the change in gravity. If the radius of the Earth went up by 10 and its density stayed the same, its volume (and therefore its mass) would increase by a factor of 1000. The acceleration due to gravity is proportional to the object's mass, so gravity would be pulling with 1000 times the acceleration.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12229567",
"title": "Westinghouse Sign",
"section": "Section::::Combinations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Such a number may be incomprehensibly huge. If the Big Bang is reckoned to have occurred 13.8 billion years ago, there have been \"only\" about 4.35 x 10 seconds since the birth of the universe. It is estimated that the Earth is made up of roughly 5.5 x 10 atoms; the number of atoms in the Milky Way Galaxy is approximately 5 x 10, and the number of atoms in the \"universe\" is estimated to be 3.5 x 10.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1403047",
"title": "Justice Legion Alpha",
"section": "Section::::Members.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Atom: The Atom of the 853rd century is a scientist who was the only survivor of a universe that was suddenly consumed by this one. Instead of simply shrinking himself like other Atoms, he has the power to divide his mass into duplicates of himself, spreading the same amount of matter across increasing numbers of ever-smaller Atoms. When they reach atomic scale, the Atoms can arrange themselves into a wide variety of molecular configurations—becoming anything from a lump of gold to a cloud of gas. His home planet is presumably Jupiter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1450561",
"title": "Creationist cosmologies",
"section": "Section::::Form.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "The universe has no edge; it is not known whether it is finite or infinite, but we can only observe a finite amount of it (the observable universe). It has no centre: the Big Bang should not be visualised as an explosion outwards from a central point, but as an equal expansion at all points within itself. This expansion still continues: a useful analogy for the shape of the universe is therefore the surface of an expanding balloon, on which every point is moving away from every other point (but bearing in mind that the universe has at least three dimensions, while the skin of the balloon has only two). Creationist cosmologies have no single position on these questions, but there seems to be a bias towards a universe which is curved rather than flat, bounded rather than unbounded, and finite rather than infinite. Most strikingly, there seems to be a common hypothesis that the universe has a centre and the Earth is at or near it (Galactocentrism): \"A creationist cosmology requires a finite universe that is most likely spherically symmetric about our galaxy .\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12010723",
"title": "Raëlian beliefs and practices",
"section": "Section::::Beliefs.:Structure of the Universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "Raël says that, \"Everything is in everything.\" Inside the atoms of living things, he says, are living things made of atoms which themselves have living things made of atoms, and so on, to the infinitely small. The universe itself is contained in an atom inside of another universe, and so on, to the infinitely large. Because of the difference of mass, the activity of life inside a living thing's atoms would undergo many millennia before enough time passes for that living thing to take a single step. Raëlians believe the universe is infinite and thus lacks a center. Because of this, one could not imagine where an ethereal soul would go, due the universe's infinite nature. They believe that infinity exists in time as well as in space, for all levels of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4116",
"title": "Big Bang",
"section": "Section::::Misconceptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "\"The Big Bang was \"small\"\": It is misleading to visualize the Big Bang by comparing its size to everyday objects. When the size of the universe at Big Bang is described, it refers to the size of the observable universe, and not the entire universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1118171",
"title": "Flatness problem",
"section": "Section::::Current value of Ω.:Implication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 979,
"text": "This tiny value is the crux of the flatness problem. If the initial density of the universe could take any value, it would seem extremely surprising to find it so 'finely tuned' to the critical value formula_9. Indeed, a very small departure of Ω from 1 in the early universe would have been magnified during billions of years of expansion to create a current density very far from critical. In the case of an overdensity this would lead to a universe so dense it would cease expanding and collapse into a Big Crunch (an opposite to the Big Bang in which all matter and energy falls back into an extremely dense state) in a few years or less; in the case of an underdensity it would expand so quickly and become so sparse it would soon seem essentially empty, and gravity would not be strong enough by comparison to cause matter to collapse and form galaxies. In either case the universe would contain no complex structures such as galaxies, stars, planets and any form of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48323994",
"title": "Grethe Meyer",
"section": "Section::::1997 Danish Design Award Acceptance Speech.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "When we consider the universe which is continually expanding and evolving, and we try to understand—of course in vain—how infinitely great it is, we know that each of us can’t even be perceived as a tiny little dot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1brczo
|
[Chemistry] Are there reactions that aren't endothermic or exothermic?
|
[
{
"answer": "The H-O bond that is broken turns H2O into a OH-.\n\nThe H-O bond that is formed (in autoionization) turns H2O into H3O+.\n\nThe bond-breaking and bond-forming reactions are nonequivalent, as the products side (hydronium and hydroxide) and reactants side (water) are nonequivalent.\n\ndeltaG is defined as 0 at chemical equilibrium. Not sure if that answers your question.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Answering the first question:\n\nNo, I don't think there are reactions that are neither endothermic or exothermic. A reactant passes through an activation barrier (activation energy, or a \"transition state\" by one theory) when going from one thermodynamic point (reactant) to another (product). Both the product and the reactant have specific free energies (\"delta g thingy\").\n\nChemistry uses \"endothermic\" or \"exothermic\" if the difference in free energy is positive or negative respectively. I think that there are reactions that have values close to 0, but it doesn't make sense if the value IS 0 since there is no difference in thermodynamic end-points. It would be as if the reactant passed through an activation energy barrier to become itself, again.\n\nNote, when a SYSTEM is at equilibrium, the net change in free energy is 0. My response is about one forward reaction without considering the reverse.\n\nEdit: Aaaaand superjerry said essentially the same thing.....oh well, I'll keep the post up, anyway!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I do not believe that any reactions exist which are neither endothermic nor exothermic. By nature, most chemical reactions occur because the reactants involved are looking for a way to achieve a lower energy state and thus become more stable (hence why there are seemingly so many exothermic reactions).\n\nGranted, at equilibrium a reaction will neither produce nor consume heat, but this is because the rate of the forwards and reverse reactions are the same, and not because the reaction is neither exothermic nor endothermic. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5180",
"title": "Chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Modern principles.:Energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "A reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse. A reaction is said to be exothermic if the reaction releases heat to the surroundings; in the case of endothermic reactions, the reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6271",
"title": "Chemical reaction",
"section": "Section::::Thermodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "Reactions can be exothermic, where ΔH is negative and energy is released. Typical examples of exothermic reactions are precipitation and crystallization, in which ordered solids are formed from disordered gaseous or liquid phases. In contrast, in endothermic reactions, heat is consumed from the environment. This can occur by increasing the entropy of the system, often through the formation of gaseous reaction products, which have high entropy. Since the entropy increases with temperature, many endothermic reactions preferably take place at high temperatures. On the contrary, many exothermic reactions such as crystallization occur at low temperatures. Changes in temperature can sometimes reverse the sign of the enthalpy of a reaction, as for the carbon monoxide reduction of molybdenum dioxide:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10356",
"title": "Endothermic process",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Endothermic (and exothermic) analysis only accounts for the enthalpy change (∆H) of a reaction. The full energy analysis of a reaction is the Gibbs free energy (∆G), which includes an entropy (∆S) and temperature term in addition to the enthalpy. A reaction will be a spontaneous process at a certain temperature if the products have a lower Gibbs free energy (an exergonic reaction) even if the enthalpy of the products is higher. Entropy and enthalpy are different terms, so the change in entropic energy can overcome an opposite change in enthalpic energy and make an endothermic reaction favorable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10201",
"title": "Exothermic process",
"section": "Section::::Contrast between thermodynamic and biological terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Because of historical accident, students encounter a source of possible confusion between the terminology of physics and biology. Whereas the thermodynamic terms \"exothermic\" and \"endothermic\" respectively refer to processes that give out heat energy and processes that absorb heat energy, in biology the sense is effectively inverted. The metabolic terms \"ectothermic\" and \"endothermic\" respectively refer to organisms that rely largely on external heat to achieve a full working temperature, and to organisms that produce heat from within as a major factor in controlling their bodily temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378645",
"title": "Endotherm",
"section": "Section::::Contrast between thermodynamic and biological terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Because of historical accident, students encounter a source of possible confusion between the terminology of physics and biology. Whereas the thermodynamic terms \"exothermic\" and \"endothermic\" respectively refer to processes that give out heat energy and processes that absorb heat energy, in biology the sense is effectively inverted. The metabolic terms \"ectotherm\" and \"endotherm\" respectively refer to organisms that rely largely on external heat to achieve a full working temperature, and to organisms that produce heat from within as a major factor in controlling their body temperatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1418",
"title": "Absolute zero",
"section": "Section::::Thermodynamics near absolute zero.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "thus, as \"T\" decreases, Δ\"G\" and Δ\"H\" approach each other (so long as Δ\"S\" is bounded). Experimentally, it is found that all spontaneous processes (including chemical reactions) result in a decrease in \"G\" as they proceed toward equilibrium. If Δ\"S\" and/or \"T\" are small, the condition Δ\"G\" < 0 may imply that Δ\"H\" < 0, which would indicate an exothermic reaction. However, this is not required; endothermic reactions can proceed spontaneously if the \"T\"Δ\"S\" term is large enough.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10274",
"title": "Enthalpy",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Heat of reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "For an exothermic reaction at constant pressure, the system's change in enthalpy equals the energy released in the reaction, including the energy retained in the system and lost through expansion against its surroundings. In a similar manner, for an endothermic reaction, the system's change in enthalpy is equal to the energy \"absorbed\" in the reaction, including the energy \"lost by\" the system and \"gained\" from compression from its surroundings. If Δ\"H\" is positive, the reaction is endothermic, that is heat is absorbed by the system due to the products of the reaction having a greater enthalpy than the reactants. On the other hand, if Δ\"H\" is negative, the reaction is exothermic, that is the overall decrease in enthalpy is achieved by the generation of heat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vgcti
|
Where are we on fusion power? How clean would it be? How long can we see fusion power in grid?
|
[
{
"answer": "We cannot sustain fusion without enormous energy usage. We cannot produce any energy from fusion yet.\n\nIt will probably be a long time before it's used for commercial power production.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "NIF has yet to reach ignition. That is to gain more power from the fuel than was used to generate the laser pulse. If NIF cannot reach this mark, it would represent an awesome laser experiment and materials shock wave physics testing platform but would not be suitable for a power source. Even if ignition were to be achieved, there are several significant challenges yet to overcome.\n\nThe fuel will need to be mass produced, we are talking about many thousands for sustained energy production. These capsules have to be manufactured to a very high precision and will be fired at a rate of ~80/s.\n\nEnergy will need to be captured from the chamber and converted into useful energy (i.e. electricity). This process will be relatively inefficient, due to Carnot efficiency limit, which in practice requires a significantly greater amount of energy to be produces before the power required by the laser shot is repaid.\n\nThe materials in the chamber will experience significantly hostile environments, a high rate, high radiation, high (and non constant) temperature profile makes the materials selection problem tricky. In practice we do not have much experience in this area of materials science (except in the Nuclear Weapons Programs) and therefore producing a commercially viable system, that is cost efficient to run, will require a fair bit more work.\n\nWhile there are a few other problems I could list that imply that Fusion is a fair way off, let me be very clear, without Nuclear Fusion we are unlikely to support a growing population which is developing at a very fast rate. Nuclear Fission (and other alternative fuel strategies) will not cover the gap in the longer term. Without a stable energy source, that is easy to manage, we will have to realise a world where scarce resources continue to hamper our development. This may not affect you significantly in your lifetime, but I suspect it will affect the children who have been born today and will live until the end of this century.\n\nIn terms of realisable goals, I think that NIF is worth pursuing but I suspect that tokamak based designs are far more realisable as a commercial product. We are building the ITER reactor at present, which won't be a suitable power source but will let us iron out many of the bugs to design the first generation of DEMOnstration reactors that will realise commercial fusion power.\n\n\ntl:dl Ignition - i.e. power in = power out, is still a fair way off with NIF. Even with ignition, we need to sort out how to commercialise such a device which includes looking at energy capture and materials design problems that have yet to be tackled properly. I think that fusion is vital for our planet and that tokamak based designs are more realistic as a first go for commercial viability.\n\np.s. I'm very sorry that there aren't more references, I'm not at work so I can't go and hunt down a few papers.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20766780",
"title": "Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid",
"section": "Section::::Hybrid concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "This is a key concept in the hybrid concept, known as \"fission multiplication\". For every fusion event, several fission events may occur, each of which gives off much more energy than the original fusion, about 11 times. This greatly increases the total power output of the reactor. This has been suggested as a way to produce practical fusion reactors in spite of the fact that no fusion reactor has yet reached break-even, by multiplying the power output using cheap fuel or waste. However, a number of studies have repeatedly demonstrated that this only becomes practical when the overall reactor is very large, 2 to 3 GWt, which makes it expensive to build.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22233981",
"title": "IGNITOR",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "The goal to produce meaningful fusion reactors in a reasonable time leads to pursuing the achievement of ignition conditions in the near term in order to understand the plasma physical regimes needed for a net power producing reactor. In addition, an objective other than ignition that can be envisioned for the relatively near term is that of high flux neutron sources for material testing involving compact, high density fusion machines. This has been one of the incentives that have led the Ignitor Project to adopt magnesium diboride (MgB) superconducting cables in the machine design, a first in fusion research. Accordingly, the largest coils (about 5 m diameter) of the machine will be made entirely of MgB cables.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57934418",
"title": "Direct Fusion Drive",
"section": "Section::::Projected performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Analyses predict that the Direct Fusion Drive would produce between 5-10 Newtons thrust per each MW of generated fusion power, with a specific impulse (I) of about 10,000 seconds and 200 kW available as electrical power. Approximately 35% of the fusion power goes to thrust, 30% to electric power, 25% lost to heat, and 10% is recirculated for the RF heating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36952575",
"title": "Plasma-facing material",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Currently, fusion reactor research focuses on improving efficiency and reliability in heat generation and capture and on raising the rate of transfer. Generating electricity from heat is beyond the scope of current research, due to existing efficient heat-transfer cycles, such as heating water to operate steam turbines that drive electrical generators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1096102",
"title": "Z Pulsed Power Facility",
"section": "Section::::Z-Pinch Inertial Fusion Energy program.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "The Sandia Laboratories Z-IFE project aims to solve the practical difficulties in harnessing fusion power. Major problems include producing energy in a single Z-pinch shot, and quickly reloading the reactor after each shot. By their early estimates, an implosion of a fuel capsule every 10 seconds could economically produce 300 MW of fusion energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22151",
"title": "Nuclear reactor",
"section": "Section::::Reactor types.:Classifications.:By type of nuclear reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "In principle, fusion power could be produced by nuclear fusion of elements such as the deuterium isotope of hydrogen. While an ongoing rich research topic since at least the 1940s, no self-sustaining fusion reactor for power generation has ever been built.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55017",
"title": "Fusion power",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Fusion power is a proposed form of power generation that would generate electricity by using heat from nuclear fusion reactions. In a fusion process, two lighter atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, while releasing energy. Devices designed to harness this energy are known as \"fusion reactors\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bxys1w
|
Why did Republicans become so conservative so suddenly in the 1920s?
|
[
{
"answer": "/u/Samuel_Gompers has your number. He previously answered:\n\n* [Can someone address a brief history of Democrats vs Republicans, specifically the change in Dems from the early 1900s being against civil rights to a more progressive party in the 50/60s leading much social change in the U.S.](_URL_0_)\n\n* [Why was there such a huge shift in the core viewpoints of the Republican Party in the past 100 years?](_URL_1_)\n\nI hope you find those answers helpful, but an answer related to conditions in the decade specified would be welcome.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2298740",
"title": "Conservatism in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Electoral politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "In the United States, the Republican Party has been the party of conservatism since the 1890s, although there was a strong Eastern liberal wing. Since 1964, the conservatives largely took control. Meanwhile, the conservative wing of the Democratic Party, based in the South and strongly opposed to Civil Rights, grew weaker. The most dramatic realignment took place within the White South, which moved from 3–1 Democratic to 3–1 Republican between 1960 and 2000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5043544",
"title": "Democratic Party (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Ideology.:Conservatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Many conservative Southern Democrats defected to the Republican Party, beginning with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the general leftward shift of the party. Strom Thurmond of South Carolina, Billy Tauzin of Louisiana, Kent Hance and Ralph Hall of Texas and Richard Shelby of Alabama are examples of this. The influx of conservative Democrats into the Republican Party is often cited as a reason for the Republican Party's shift further to the right during the late 20th century as well as the shift of its base from the Northeast and Midwest to the South.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33042104",
"title": "Betty Andujar",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "The rise of the Republican Party since the late 20th century was the result of two forces: the civil rights movement having gained passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which authorized the federal government to enforce constitutional rights of minority voters and resulted in black voters registering to vote in considerable number, and the shift of white conservative voters into the Republican Party after decades of affiliation with the Democratic Party. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1169970",
"title": "Party switching in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:The 19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1157,
"text": "The United States experienced another period of political realignment in the 1850s. The Whigs collapsed as a national party due to sectional tensions regarding slavery. The Republican Party and the American Party both sought to succeed the Whigs as the main opposition to the Democratic Party, and the Republicans eventually became the most popular party in the Northern United States. The Republicans absorbed many Northern Whigs, as well as some anti-slavery Democrats and much of the Free Soil Party. Notable Whigs who joined the Republican Party include Abraham Lincoln and William Seward, while notable Democrats who joined the Republican Party include Hannibal Hamlin and Galusha A. Grow. Many Southern Whigs became Democrats, though some formed the Constitutional Union Party to contest the 1860 presidential election. After the American Civil War, the Republican Party generally dominated the North while the Democratic Party dominated the South. Republicans dissatisfied with President Ulysses S. Grant formed the Liberal Republican Party for the 1872 presidential election, and many of these Liberal Republicans later joined the Democratic Party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63876",
"title": "History of the United States",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:Close of the 20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 236,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 236,
"end_character": 1157,
"text": "The Republican Party expanded its base throughout the South after 1968 (excepting 1976), largely due to its strength among socially conservative white Evangelical Protestants and traditionalist Roman Catholics, added to its traditional strength in the business community and suburbs. As white Democrats in the South lost dominance of the Democratic Party in the 1990s, the region took on the two-party apparatus which characterized most of the nation. The Republican Party's central leader by 1980 was Ronald Reagan, whose conservative policies called for reduced government spending and regulation, lower taxes, and a strong anti-Soviet foreign policy. His iconic status in the party persists into the 21st century, as practically all Republican Party leaders acknowledge his stature. Social scientists Theodore Caplow et al. argue, \"The Republican party, nationally, moved from right-center toward the center in 1940s and 1950s, then moved right again in the 1970s and 1980s.\" They add: \"The Democratic party, nationally, moved from left-center toward the center in the 1940s and 1950s, then moved further toward the right-center in the 1970s and 1980s.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32070",
"title": "Republican Party (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Positions.:Immigration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "In the period 1850–1870, the Republican Party was more opposed to immigration than Democrats, in part because the Republican Party relied on the support of anti-Catholic and anti-immigrant parties, such as the Know-Nothings, at the time. In the decades following the Civil War, the Republican Party grew more supportive of immigration, as it represented manufacturers in the Northeast (who wanted additional labor) whereas the Democratic Party came to be seen as the party of labor (which wanted fewer laborers to compete with). Starting in the 1970s, the parties switched places again, as the Democrats grew more supportive of immigration than Republicans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2608856",
"title": "Politics of the Southern United States",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:The South becomes Republican.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Many white southerners switched to the Republican Party, some for reasons unrelated to race. The majority of white southerners shared conservative positions on taxes, moral values and national security. The Democratic Party had increasingly liberal positions rejected by these voters. In addition, the younger generations, who were politically conservative but wealthier and less attached to the Democratic Party, replaced the older generations who remained loyal to the party. The shift to the Republican Party took place slowly and gradually over almost a century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6c439w
|
why does ctrl+alt+del'ing into task manager sometimes unfreeze frozen applications in windows?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most likely it doesn't. Unless freeze is somehow fixed by changing window focus, pressing ctrl+alt+del doesn't affect the program in anyway.\n\nProbably application just wasn't completely frozen or suck in forever loop. Windows shows application being frozen if it doesn't handle events in certain time. Some applications do potentially long taking tasks in main thread that handles the events. Eg. if you open a huge image, the application might appear frozen until it finishes the loading.\n\nUsually these kind of temporal freezes are caused by slow IO. Well made applications use separate thread for these tasks so the main thread handling events isn't blocked and application doesn't appear frozen. But not all IO tasks are moved to separate thread just because they are so small that they don't normally cause any meaningful pause and threading is hard and can cause other problems.\n\nSometimes even small IO tasks take unexpectedly long: small file on network drive + physical drive on power saving mode + network problems and suddently loading a single 1kB file takes multiple seconds.\n\nFreeze can also be caused by bugs in program that in some conditions cause logic to go loop that doesn't end or takes seconds to complete.\n\nTL;DR: Application wasn't in unrecoverable state and something just took longer than it should have and Windows just though the program was frozen. Application starting to work after pressing ctrl+alt+del was just a coincidence",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The question seems to have been answered, so here's a tip: Ctrl + Shift + Esc will open task manager directly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56428964",
"title": "Client-Side Decoration",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Because the window controls are being rendered by the application process, if the application freezes the controls will often become unresponsive too. This can make it more confusing when trying to close unresponsive applications as the display server has to detect this. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1844451",
"title": "Freeze (software engineering)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "BULLET::::- A (complete) feature freeze, in which all work on adding new features is suspended, shifting the effort towards fixing bugs and improving the user experience. The addition of new features may have a disruptive effect on other parts of the program, due both to the introduction of new, untested source code or resources and to interactions with other features; thus, a feature freeze helps improve the program's stability.br For example: \"user interface feature freeze\" means no more features will be permitted to the user interface portion of the code; bugs can still be fixed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36522251",
"title": "CRIU",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Checkpoint/Restore In Userspace (CRIU) (pronounced \"kree-oo\", ), is a software tool for the Linux operating system. Using this tool, it is possible to freeze a running application (or part of it) and checkpoint it to persistent storage as a collection of files. One can then use the files to restore and run the application from the point it was frozen at. The distinctive feature of the CRIU project is that it is mainly implemented in user space, rather than in the kernel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144625",
"title": "Graphics Device Interface",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "For example, forcing a frozen process to end using the Task Manager normally makes an \"Are you sure\" alert window appear. With no free GDI, Windows beeps an error and the alert choice does not appear, so the GDI-overflowing processes cannot be terminated (unless the user uses taskkill command).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254562",
"title": "Presentation Manager",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "An important problem was that of the single input queue: a non-responsive application could block the processing of user-interface messages, thus freezing the graphical interface. This problem has been solved in Windows NT, where such an application would just become a dead rectangle on the screen; in later versions it became possible to move or hide it. In OS/2 it was solved in a FixPack, using a timer to determine when an application was not responding to events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1370321",
"title": "Windows Defender",
"section": "Section::::Windows Vista-specific functionality.:Notification of startup programs that run as an administrator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Windows Defender in Windows Vista automatically blocks all startup items that require administrator privileges to run (this is considered suspicious behavior for a startup item). This automatic blocking is related to the User Account Control functionality in Windows Vista, and requires users to manually run each of these startup items each time they log in if they desire the item to run at startup.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20295077",
"title": "Desktop Cleanup Wizard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "The Desktop Cleanup Wizard is a component included with Microsoft's Windows XP operating system. It aims to reduce the clutter in a user's desktop environment by moving unused shortcuts to a separate directory called \"Unused Desktop Shortcuts\". When run it shows a list of shortcuts, and the user can select which shortcuts to move to the \"Unused Desktop Shortcuts\" directory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
25wn7c
|
What factors determine how fast a CPU runs?
|
[
{
"answer": "My expertise lies in embedded systems, not desktop cores, but one big factor for embedded systems is the underlying architecture and instruction set. The instruction set is the most basic list of functions that a computer can operate. These are things like moving a value from position a to b, or multiplying the values of a and b.\n\nA less capable architecture has fewer instructions available, requiring it to emulate more advanced instructions. One good example of this is software emulated floating point math. Hardware driven floating point math can execute hundreds, or thousands, of times faster than software emulated FP operations.\n\nIn a more powerful instruction set, FP math could be performed in just a few clock cycles. In a weaker instruction set, that same operation could take thousands of clock cycles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well there are a bunch of things. We have billions of transistors to utilize to make our CPUs work. Utilizing them in different ways is going to cause variations in how the CPU performs.\n\nHere are a few other things that matter. It's not just hardware that improves performance, it's how well the software can utilize the hardware.\n\n* The code running on the machine itself, and specifically how it was compiled\n* How well the OS is tuned to work with the architecture itself\n* Whether or not each core can issue instructions from multiple threads\n* Whether the CPU is designed to maximize single thread performance or good performance of several threads\n* Cache statistics, such as size, associativity, number of caches, depth of the cache hierarchy, bandwidth to main memory, number of entries in the store buffer, etc\n* TLBs also matter immensely and depend on the results from the previous bullet point\n* Number of ALUs and various other functional units that can have instructions issued to them.\n* Reorder buffer size, and physical register file size\n* The interconnection network between cores, but this is again how well the program uses the CPU effectively.\n* The accuracy of the CPUs branch predictor, and it's misprediction penalty.\n\nAs you can see, there are a lot of things that can affect CPU performance. This is just a random list off of the top of my head, and I'll probably come back and add more later.\n\nAll of this however is well beyond what the average user ever sees. The relationships between these subsystems in a CPU are complex, and that's why even experts rely on results from benchmarks to see how things operate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5218",
"title": "Central processing unit",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The \"performance\" or \"speed\" of a processor depends on, among many other factors, the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz) and the instructions per clock (IPC), which together are the factors for the instructions per second (IPS) that the CPU can perform.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "228385",
"title": "Clock rate",
"section": "Section::::Comparing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 943,
"text": "The clock rate of a CPU is most useful for providing comparisons between CPUs in the same family. The clock rate is only one of several factors that can influence performance when comparing processors in different families. For example, an IBM PC with an Intel 80486 CPU running at 50 MHz will be about twice as fast (internally only) as one with the same CPU and memory running at 25 MHz, while the same will not be true for MIPS R4000 running at the same clock rate as the two are different processors that implement different architectures and microarchitectures. Further, a \"cumulative clock rate\" measure is sometimes assumed by taking the total cores and multiplying by the total clock rate (e.g. dual core 2.8 GHz being considered processor cumulative 5.6 GHz). There are many other factors to consider when comparing the performance of CPUs, like the width of the CPU's data bus, the latency of the memory, and the cache architecture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52046252",
"title": "Cache performance measurement and metric",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "The performance of a computer system depends on the performance of all its individual units which include different execution units like integer, branch and floating point, I/O units, bus, caches and memory systems. The gap between the speed of the processor and the speed of the main memory is growing exponentially. Up until 2001–05, CPU speed as measured in its clock frequency grew annually by 55%, whereas the memory speed only grew by 7% annually. This problem is known as the memory wall. The motivation behind creating a structure like cache and its hierarchy was to bridge this speed gap and overcome the memory wall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23685094",
"title": "List of unusual units of measurement",
"section": "Section::::Computer and information science.:BogoMips.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 218,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 218,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "A measure to determine the CPU speed. It was invented by Linus Torvalds and is nowadays present on every Linux operating system. However, it is not a meaningful measure to assess the actual CPU performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25652303",
"title": "Computer architecture",
"section": "Section::::Design goals.:Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Many people used to measure a computer's speed by the clock rate (usually in MHz or GHz). This refers to the cycles per second of the main clock of the CPU. However, this metric is somewhat misleading, as a machine with a higher clock rate may not necessarily have greater performance. As a result, manufacturers have moved away from clock speed as a measure of performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7593",
"title": "Calculator",
"section": "Section::::Internal workings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Clock rate of a processor chip refers to the frequency at which the central processing unit (CPU) is running. It is used as an indicator of the processor's speed, and is measured in \"clock cycles per second\" or the SI unit hertz (Hz). For basic calculators, the speed can vary from a few hundred hertz to the kilohertz range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165228",
"title": "Pentium 4",
"section": "Section::::Microarchitecture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "The two classical metrics of CPU performance are IPC (instructions per cycle) and clock speed. While IPC is difficult to quantify due to dependence on the benchmark application's instruction mix, clock speed is a simple measurement yielding a single absolute number. Unsophisticated buyers would simply consider the processor with the highest clock speed to be the best product, and the Pentium 4 had the fastest clock speed. Because AMD's processors had slower clock speeds, it countered Intel's marketing advantage with the \"megahertz myth\" campaign. AMD product marketing used a \"PR-rating\" system, which assigned a merit value based on relative performance to a baseline machine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1txr05
|
At what point is a system considered random as opposed to just too complex to predict? Is there any difference?
|
[
{
"answer": "in science, we use 'random' to describe effects that aren't determined by the parameters of the models used to describe whatever phenomenon we're looking at. often you have an idea that you *could* parameterize those effects, but it's not worth the trouble because they're very small and average to zero. for example, there's 'random noise' in the retina produced by the isomerization-by-heat of photopigments (that ideally are being isomerized by visible light). in theory you could predict most of those isomerizations by precisely characterizing the dynamic distribution of heat in the retina, but they're marginal enough that they can generally be ignored (or just characterized by a summary statistic rather than by a mechanism). so at that level, we would characterize the retinal response as a random system only because we can't (or don't care to) fully specify the system, although theoretically we *could*.\n\non the other hand, at the very lowest physical levels, you have probabilistic randomness, which cannot be parameterized. so, the light falling on the retina has an average intensity, but the incidence of photons *per photon* is probabilistic (following a Poisson distribution). this makes incidence of a photon a random event, and beyond knowing all the optical parameters and the parameters of the summary distribution, you can't predict exactly when or whether a photon will pass by a certain photoreceptor. this kind of thing is why quantum randomness is in sometimes characterized as 'truly random' - the system can never be *fully* specified.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nThe double pendulum system is a solid example of something that is considered \"too complex to predict\" but not at all random.\n\nThe equation that governs the motion of a double pendulum system are very simple. But tiny pertubations in initial conditions yield wildly different movements.\n\nSo while it is perfectly modeled mathematically, it's actual motions cannot be predicted.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "510738",
"title": "Representativeness heuristic",
"section": "Section::::Determinants of representativeness.:Randomness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Irregularity and local representativeness affect judgments of randomness. Things that do not appear to have any logical sequence are regarded as representative of randomness and thus more likely to occur. For example, THTHTH as a series of coin tosses would not be considered representative of randomly generated coin tosses as it is too well ordered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19288053",
"title": "Sortition",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.:Chance misrepresentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Because it introduces randomness in determining outcomes, there is always the statistical possibility that sortition may put into power an individual or group that do not represent the views of the population from which they were drawn. This argument is mentioned by Isocrates in his essay \"Areopagiticus\" (section 23):\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6295",
"title": "Chaos theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Small differences in initial conditions, such as those due to rounding errors in numerical computation, yield widely diverging outcomes for such dynamical systems, rendering long-term prediction of their behavior impossible in general. This happens even though these systems are deterministic, meaning that their future behavior is fully determined by their initial conditions, with no random elements involved. In other words, the deterministic nature of these systems does not make them predictable. This behavior is known as deterministic chaos, or simply chaos. The theory was summarized by Edward Lorenz as:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18137",
"title": "Logistic map",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics of the map.:Chaos and the logistic map.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Unpredictability is not randomness, but in some circumstances looks very much like it. Hence, and fortunately, even if we know very little about the initial state of the logistic map (or some other chaotic system), we can still say something about the distribution of states arbitrarily far into the future, and use this knowledge to inform decisions based on the state of the system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19196523",
"title": "Randomness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Randomness is the lack of pattern or predictability in events. A random sequence of events, symbols or steps has no order and does not follow an intelligible pattern or combination. Individual random events are by definition unpredictable, but in many cases the frequency of different outcomes over a large number of events (or \"trials\") is predictable. For example, when throwing two dice, the outcome of any particular roll is unpredictable, but a sum of 7 will occur twice as often as 4. In this view, randomness is a measure of uncertainty of an outcome, rather than haphazardness, and applies to concepts of chance, probability, and information entropy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "416005",
"title": "Indeterminism",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Quantum mechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "At one time, it was assumed in the physical sciences that if the behavior observed in a system cannot be predicted, the problem is due to lack of fine-grained information, so that a sufficiently detailed investigation would eventually result in a deterministic theory (\"If you knew exactly all the forces acting on the dice, you would be able to predict which number comes up\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58379",
"title": "Arcadia (play)",
"section": "Section::::Contextual information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "John Fleming, in his book \"Stoppard's Theatre: Finding Order amid Chaos\", makes a similar observation. \"Deterministic chaos\", he writes, \"deals with systems of unpredictable determinism. ... [T]he uncertainty does not result in pure randomness, but rather in complex patterns. Traditionally, scientists expected dynamic systems to settle into stable, predictable behavior.\" But as systems respond to variations in input, they become more random or chaotic. \"Surprisingly, within these random states, windows of order reappear. [...] There is order in chaos — an unpredictable order, but a determined order nonetheless, and not merely random behavior.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
blw1ns
|
What happens when you superimpose two coherent, out-of-phase beams of light?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is basically a [Michelson interferometer](_URL_0_). The semi-transparent mirror is semi-transparent in both directions. Destructive interference on the path to the right will mean that no energy goes that way: instead, there will be a beam with constructive interference going *downward* from M on your diagram.\n\n E\n |\n |\n E----M . . . . . no beam\n ||\n ||\n ||\n beam",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There’s a different phase shift involved at the two outputs that you need to take into consideration. You can’t assume that the outputs will be the same in the two directions. ([This link](_URL_0_) covers more of the math.)\n\nSo you’ll have destructive interference at one output and constructive interference at the other, in this scenario.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1859847",
"title": "Atomic coherence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1067,
"text": "If a coherent, narrow bandwidth laser is applied to a two-level system, the wave function will undergo Rabi flopping (Rabi oscillation) between the ground and excited states. At some point in time the system will undergo spontaneous decay and its wave function will collapse to the ground-state wave function. From there on, a new Rabi oscillation will start until the next spontaneous decay. Each spontaneous decay essentially changes the phase of the Rabi oscillation. If instead of single two-level system there is a large collection of identical two-level systems (like a lot of the same species atoms), then all of them will begin Rabi oscillation at the same time, and therefore all of them will be in phase with each other. But due to the spontaneous decay different atoms will collapse to their ground-state at different (and random) times and start a new Rabi oscillation. For this reason fewer and fewer atoms will be in-phase as time passes by. This is called \"decoherence\" (meaning individual systems, e.g. atoms, are no longer coherent with each other).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4432469",
"title": "Interference lithography",
"section": "Section::::Beam splitter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Coherent light must be split into two or more beams prior to being recombined in order to achieve interference. Typical methods for beam splitting are Lloyd´s mirrors, prisms and diffraction gratings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17556",
"title": "Laser",
"section": "Section::::Laser physics.:Gain medium and cavity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1088,
"text": "If the gain (amplification) in the medium is larger than the resonator losses, then the power of the recirculating light can rise exponentially. But each stimulated emission event returns an atom from its excited state to the ground state, reducing the gain of the medium. With increasing beam power the net gain (gain minus loss) reduces to unity and the gain medium is said to be saturated. In a continuous wave (CW) laser, the balance of pump power against gain saturation and cavity losses produces an equilibrium value of the laser power inside the cavity; this equilibrium determines the operating point of the laser. If the applied pump power is too small, the gain will never be sufficient to overcome the cavity losses, and laser light will not be produced. The minimum pump power needed to begin laser action is called the \"lasing threshold\". The gain medium will amplify any photons passing through it, regardless of direction; but only the photons in a spatial mode supported by the resonator will pass more than once through the medium and receive substantial amplification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8603",
"title": "Diffraction",
"section": "Section::::Coherence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "If waves are emitted from an extended source, this can lead to incoherence in the transversal direction. When looking at a cross section of a beam of light, the length over which the phase is correlated is called the transverse coherence length. In the case of Young's double slit experiment, this would mean that if the transverse coherence length is smaller than the spacing between the two slits, the resulting pattern on a screen would look like two single slit diffraction patterns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "582263",
"title": "Michelson interferometer",
"section": "Section::::Configuration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "If a lossless beamsplitter is employed, then one can show that optical energy is conserved. At every point on the interference pattern, the power that is \"not\" directed to the detector at \"E\" is rather present in a beam (not shown) returning in the direction of the source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172333",
"title": "Dispersion (optics)",
"section": "Section::::Group and phase velocity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1557,
"text": "The result of GVD, whether negative or positive, is ultimately temporal spreading of the pulse. This makes dispersion management extremely important in optical communications systems based on optical fiber, since if dispersion is too high, a group of pulses representing a bit-stream will spread in time and merge, rendering the bit-stream unintelligible. This limits the length of fiber that a signal can be sent down without regeneration. One possible answer to this problem is to send signals down the optical fibre at a wavelength where the GVD is zero (e.g., around 1.3–1.5 μm in silica fibres), so pulses at this wavelength suffer minimal spreading from dispersion. In practice, however, this approach causes more problems than it solves because zero GVD unacceptably amplifies other nonlinear effects (such as four wave mixing). Another possible option is to use soliton pulses in the regime of negative dispersion, a form of optical pulse which uses a nonlinear optical effect to self-maintain its shape. Solitons have the practical problem, however, that they require a certain power level to be maintained in the pulse for the nonlinear effect to be of the correct strength. Instead, the solution that is currently used in practice is to perform dispersion compensation, typically by matching the fiber with another fiber of opposite-sign dispersion so that the dispersion effects cancel; such compensation is ultimately limited by nonlinear effects such as self-phase modulation, which interact with dispersion to make it very difficult to undo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234654",
"title": "Collimated beam",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "A collimated beam of light or other electromagnetic radiation has parallel rays, and therefore will spread minimally as it propagates. A perfectly collimated light beam, with no divergence, would not disperse with distance. Such a beam cannot be created, due to diffraction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6xvter
|
If someone were to die today because of an accident involving an unexploded WW2 bomb, would they be added to the list of WW2 casualties?
|
[
{
"answer": "I am not a historian and I've never posted here before. Please let me know if I've done anything wrong mods. \n\nLet's start with who is considered a causality. That alone doesn't have an easy answer and is considered a controversial subject. Groups like the US Military, UNICEF, and [WHO](_URL_4_) all have their own definitions. Then to make things more confusing further distinctions are made like 'civilian casualties' and 'casualties of war'. [This is one of the reasons you'll see different estimates for the same wars.](_URL_3_) (p. 16) \n\n[I am not able to properly source this but it seems UNICEF counts after the war deaths as civilian casualties, like in the case of landmines](_URL_2_). According to wiki (I know!) \"3. Those dying, whether during or after a war, from indirect effects of war such as disease, malnutrition and lawlessness, and who would not have been expected to die at such rates from such causes in the absence of the war;\" are included in their counts. I only include this because the numbers UNICEF releases don't make sense unless they are counting indirect after the war causes. \n\n\n[The nato definition for casualty is as follows:\n ](_URL_5_)\n > In relation to personnel, any person\n > who is lost to his organization by\n > reason of having been declared\n > dead, wounded, diseased, detained,\n > captured or missing.\n > Related terms: battle casualty; died\n > of wounds received in action; killed\n > in action; non-battle casualty;\n > wounded in action.\n\nThe definition for non-battle casualty is (same source): \n > non-battle casualty / perte hors\n > combat\n > A person who is not a battle\n > casualty, but who is lost to his\n > organization by reason of disease\n > or injury, including persons dying\n > from disease or injury, or by\n > reason of being missing where\n > the absence does not appear to\n > be voluntary or due to enemy\n > action or to being interned.\n > Related terms: battle casualty;\n > casualty; died of wounds received\n > in action; killed in action;\n > wounded in action.\n > 01 Sep 2003\n\nThere is an in-depth paper discussing the increase of civilian casualties of war [from a professor at the University of Oxford and it seemingly includes civilians killed by landmines after the war as casualties](_URL_0_). \n\nThe definitive answer seems to be that they can be, but most organizations do not include after battle casualties unless their injuries were sustained during the war. From the definitions I read it seems that social type groups include them ([as evidenced with mines casualties which is a large problem even today](_URL_1_)) and government groups do not include them. \n\nEdits: Added more sources.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It might be hard to give a singular answer to this question, since even now different sources have varying definitions of what they consider a casualty of war and what they attribute the death to.\n\nOne source in which such deaths might be counted towards the WW2 death toll is \"Wars and Population\" by Boris Urlanis.\nIn it the author classifies bombing deaths as not only those inflicted directly by an explosion, but also deaths from homelessness caused by bombings *even past the surrender of Germany* through causes such as disease (but not hunger).\nHowever, in the book only deaths that have a statistically significant impact on the population are discussed as examples and since none such death is described and classified in it, a clear answer cannot be given in relation to this source.\n\nAs an aside the insurer \"Techniker Krankenkasse\" in Germany classifies the deaths of bomb squad members while disarming unexploded ordnance as work accidents. By their own definitions the death of unrelated personnel through such unexploded ordnance would also be classified as an accident. While this holds no historical significance, it is important in practice, which can sometimes influence sources being written today.\n\n**Edit**: I'm leaving my post up, but by now there are better and more in-depth answers in this thread, so refer to those instead.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So I considered taking a stab at this question last evening, and while there are a few comments which do strike in the direction of an answer, I think that a META answer is also in order here. \n\nFirst, and perhaps most important, there is no \"list of WW2 casualties\", at least in the sense of an official, agreed upon one. In fact, only a few countries can even provide more than generalized estimates of the number of their citizens killed in the conflict. [Here is a table from John Ellis' \"Statistical Survey\" book on the War](_URL_0_), and you'll notice everything is in nice, round numbers. So my point here is that if the recent bomb in Frankfurt went off and killed someone, Ellis isn't going to be going back to edit the next edition of his book from 2,050,000 civilian casualties to 2,050,001 civilian casualties in Germany. And of course, the estimates themselves vary, so you won't always see agreement on some statistics across various works, depending on what method a given historian uses, and/or what primary sources they give more weight to.\n\nSecondly though, is the fact that there isn't going to be an Official *Universal* Definition of who gets to be a casualty and who doesn't. These statistics are originating from a wide variety of persons, groups, and governmental organizations, and while there will be a general consensus on the main points (i.e. someone killed in action is definitely a casualty), *there is no world law* preventing Dr. John Smith from writing a book in which he includes deaths from exploded ordnance decades later as part of the total casualty numbers. That doesn't mean that other works need to agree with him though. I have not, nor am I capable of, doing a survey of every work on World War II which touches on tabulating casualty numbers so while I suspect Dr. Smith is in the minority, I couldn't say quite how much he is, although it is likely safe to say he is in a small one, as no works come to mind which make a point of arguing for it.\n\nSo finally, the closest thing we're going to see to an *answer* is less about how historians will judge the deaths in terms of \"how many died in World War II\" and instead how the death is treated in practical terms. If someone is killed or injured by unexploded ordnance, how does their insurance policy classify the death or injury, for instance, assuming it includes any sort of provision that touches on armed conflict. In all honesty I can't say, but that is a question for a lawyer, or perhaps an underwriter, not an historian. Likewise, presuming the government has any sort of compensations which were tied to war deaths or injuries, it would be a matter of what their written policy is on that matter, which will vary country-to-country. There may be other practical considerations that I'm missing, but again, that isn't a question for an historian, as it has little bearing on casualties *as an aspect of historical study*. It is a question for someone who is versed in the German *Sozialgesetzbuch* or another appropriate law/program/group/etc in which practical effects are relevant, so again, a lawyer or a government official (and likewise for France, Belgium, Poland, etc. and so on). They might be able to give some semblance of an answer, but for an historian, there is no \"official rules\" on this, so it is a matter of opinion and argumentation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would like to add to what /U/Georgy_K_Zhukov mentioned in his post to expand and look at modern unexploded ordinance, and used the following sources for my points:\n\n[Legacies of War](_URL_0_)\n\n[Washington Post long read](_URL_1_)\n\n*Aftermath: The Remnants of War: From Landmines to Chemical Warfare--The Devastating Effects of Modern Combat* by Donovan Webster\n\nAfter the first explosive ordinance was used during the American Civil War, there have been casualties amongst farmers, children, bomb disposal experts, and other unfortunate victims of these 'iron harvests'. It appears from the reading and research I have done that these victims are not counted as victims of the conflict the ordinance was utilised in, rather, they treated as modern victims of the ordinance outside of the realms of a specific conflict.\n\nTwo major examples of this, the Vietnam war and World War I (which I linked to in my sources), show that despite major efforts to clean up the battlefields, these are still millions of shells left in the ground waiting to be 'harvested', and that the legal liability for that ordinance has passed from the belligerent force who discharged or placed the shell/mine, into the hands of the government who controls the land. As /U/Georgy_K_Zhukov points out, there are issues such as indemnity and legal liability for the death/mutilation of the victims of the ordinance, and as such insurers are highly unlikely to insure an individual if the risk of an accident happening is high, which is where government/foreign aid steps in to ensure that the victims of explosions are compensated.\n\nAll of that brings me back to your point, which is that it appears to me through the research that while technically those deaths are directly related to the conflict in which the original belligerent utilised the weapon, unless there is a concerted effort by historians to reclassify the victims as part of the original conflict, those victims are treated as victims of an act of god, separate and unique from the original war.\n\nTo expand on the point about how historians measure war victims, there is nothing stopping a historian reviewing the death/injury figures in 200/300 years time and correlating the deaths from unexploded ordinance as part of the original war. /U/Georgy_K_Zhukov's point about the round figures stands, and while it is unlikely you will ever see an explicit figure, you could theoretically see a war memorial to the long tail victims of WW2, Vietnam, or Iraq who died decades and even centuries after the initial war being commemorated. This would boil down to a matter of scholarly insight, political will, and societal understanding, as it would probably happen after a shift in the perception of war and historigraphy. An example of this is how [animals in war](_URL_2_) were commemorated with a stature in London in 2013; the nature of sacrifice and the victims of war shifted as British culture changed, and memorial stands as an example of a deeper understanding of war.\n\nUltimately, I would argue your question is possibly 50 or 100 years too early, and that when the last ordinance is removed from the effected cities we may see a cultural shift that sees the modern victims of the original conflicts as victims of the original war.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13081110",
"title": "Dreis-Brück",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "On 23 August 1945, shortly after the Second World War had ended, the war claimed three more victims locally. Three youths, Helmut Keul, Ernst Josef Probst and Werner Ullrich, went to the Dreis munitions depot to undertake the disarming of the weapons there, left over from the war. Their efforts resulted in a tremendous explosion that killed all three of them. A memorial cross now stands near the site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19339179",
"title": "Land mine contamination in Bosnia and Herzegovina",
"section": "Section::::Land mine casualties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "From 1992 through 2008 5,005 people were killed or injured by land mines or unexploded munitions. Wartime casualties stood at 3,339 killed and injured. Peacetime casualties, from 1996 through 2008 number 1,666 of which 486 persons were fatalities. From 1996 to 2017, more than 1,750 people were injured, at least 612 of them fatalities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "689479",
"title": "Bly, Oregon",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Bly is also the site of the only fatalities of World War II in the U.S. due to an enemy balloon bomb attack. On May 5, 1945, a Japanese balloon bomb exploded as it was being pulled from the woods by curious picnickers. Killed in the explosion were: Elsie Mitchell, 26, wife of minister Archie E. Mitchell; Edward Engen, 13; Richard Patzke, 14; Jay Gifford, 13; Sherman Shoemaker, 11; and Joan Patzke, 13. Rev. Mitchell heard the explosion and discovered the bodies. The victims' families were compensated by the government. A memorial was erected at what today is called the Mitchell Recreation Area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49706442",
"title": "Eddystone explosion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "On April 10, 1917, four days after the United States declared war on Germany, an explosion at the Eddystone Ammunition Corporation's artillery shell plant in Eddystone, Pennsylvania, killed 139 people. The majority were women and girls who worked in the loading room, loading shells with black powder. 55 of the victims could not be identified and were buried in a mass grave. Hundreds more were injured. The victims were arguably among the first American casualties of World War I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9025785",
"title": "Sadovnicheskaya Street",
"section": "Section::::Modern times.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "In 1967, a five-story house at the corner of Sadovnicheskaya and Garden ring (No.77) was destroyed by explosion. No reliable sources exist to the number of killed or the nature of a blast (either a gas pipe leak or WWII ammunition). The site stood vacant until 2006. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "289419",
"title": "Firestorm",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear weapons in comparison to conventional weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1594,
"text": "It may seem counterintuitive that the same amount of fire damage caused by a nuclear weapon could have instead been produced by smaller total yield of thousands of incendiary bombs; however, World War II experience supports this assertion. For example, although not a perfect clone of the city of Hiroshima in 1945, in the conventional bombing of Dresden, the combined Royal Air Force (RAF) and United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) dropped a total of 3441.3 tons (approximately 3.4 kilotons) of ordnance (about half of which was incendiary bombs) on the night of 13–14 February 1945, and this resulted in \"more than\" of the city being destroyed by fire and firestorm effects according to one authoritative source, or approximately by another. In total about 4.5 kilotons of conventional ordnance was dropped on the city over a number of months during 1945 and this resulted in approximately of the city being destroyed by blast and fire effects. During the \"Operation MeetingHouse\" firebombing of Tokyo on 9–10 March 1945, 279 of the 334 B-29s dropped 1,665 tons of incendiary and high-explosive bombs on the city, resulting in the destruction of over 10,000 acres of buildings — , a quarter of the city. In contrast to these raids, when a single 16-kiloton nuclear bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, of the city was destroyed by blast, fire, and firestorm effects. Similarly, Major Cortez F. Enloe, a surgeon in the USAAF who worked with the United States Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS), said that the 21-kiloton nuclear bomb dropped on Nagasaki did not do as much fire damage as the extended \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22759753",
"title": "Archie E. Mitchell",
"section": "Section::::Balloon bomb tragedy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Killed in the explosion were Elsie Mitchell, 26, and the five children: Sherman Shoemaker, 11, Jay Gifford, 13, Edward Engen, 13, Joan Patzke, 13, and Dick Patzke, 14. They were the first and only American civilians to be killed by a balloon bomb on United States soil during World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cn27gr
|
the passage of time
|
[
{
"answer": "I think you think antimatter is something other than it is.\n\nAntimatter is exactly the same as regular matter, but with opposite charge. If our entire universe was switched from matter to antimatter, everything would be *exactly* the same when observed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's a lot to unpack here. First, antimatter has nothing to do with the possibility time travel. Anti-particles are the same as their normal counterparts but with opposite charge (so a antiproton has a negative charge because a proton has a positive charge). That's it. All of their other properties are the same. \n\nAs for the rest, I honestly don't know how to answer that because I have no idea what you're even talking about.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30012",
"title": "Time",
"section": "Section::::Time travel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Time travel is the concept of moving backwards or forwards to different points in time, in a manner analogous to moving through space, and different from the normal \"flow\" of time to an earthbound observer. In this view, all points in time (including future times) \"persist\" in some way. Time travel has been a plot device in fiction since the 19th century. Travelling backwards in time has never been verified, presents many theoretical problems, and may be an impossibility. Any technological device, whether fictional or hypothetical, that is used to achieve time travel is known as a time machine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42598658",
"title": "Problem of time",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "In theoretical physics, the problem of time is a conceptual conflict between general relativity and quantum mechanics in that quantum mechanics regards the flow of time as universal and absolute, whereas general relativity regards the flow of time as malleable and relative. This problem raises the question of what time really is in a physical sense and whether it is truly a real, distinct phenomenon. It also involves the related question of why time seems to flow in a single direction, despite the fact that no known physical laws seem to require a single direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37708243",
"title": "Tim Maudlin",
"section": "Section::::Philosophical work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1386,
"text": "I believe that it is a fundamental, irreducible fact about the spatio-temporal structure of the world that time passes. [...] The passage of time is an intrinsic asymmetry in the temporal structure of the world, an asymmetry that has no spatial counterpart.[...] Still, going from Mars to Earth is not the same as going from Earth to Mars. The difference, if you will, is how these sequences of states are oriented with respect to the passage of time. [...] The belief that time passes, in this sense, has no bearing on the question of the 'reality' of the past or of the future. I believe that the past is real: there are facts about what happened in the past that are independent of the present state of the world and independent of all knowledge or beliefs about the past. I similarly believe that there is (i.e. will be) a single unique future. I know what it would be to believe that the past is unreal (i.e. nothing ever happened, everything was just created \"ex nihilo\") and to believe that the future is unreal (i.e. all will end, I will not exist tomorrow, I have no future). I do not believe these things, and would act very differently if I did. Insofar as belief in the reality of the past and the future constitutes a belief in a 'block universe', I believe in a block universe. But I also believe that time passes, and see no contradiction or tension between these views.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31591",
"title": "Time travel",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.:Ontological paradox.:Self-consistency principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1097,
"text": "The philosopher Kelley L. Ross argues in \"Time Travel Paradoxes\" that in a scenario involving a physical object whose world-line or history forms a closed loop in time there can be a violation of the second law of thermodynamics. Ross uses \"Somewhere in Time\" as an example of such an ontological paradox, where a watch is given to a person, and 60 years later the same watch is brought back in time and given to the same character. Ross states that entropy of the watch will increase, and the watch carried back in time will be more worn with each repetition of its history. The second law of thermodynamics is understood by modern physicists to be a statistical law, so decreasing entropy or non-increasing entropy are not impossible, just improbable. Additionally, entropy statistically increases in systems which are isolated, so non-isolated systems, such as an object, that interact with the outside world, can become less worn and decrease in entropy, and it's possible for an object whose world-line forms a closed loop to be always in the same condition in the same point of its history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "163103",
"title": "Future",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "In physics, time is the fourth dimension. Physicists argue that spacetime can be understood as a sort of stretchy fabric that bends due to forces such as gravity. In classical physics the future is just a half of the timeline, which is the same for all observers. In special relativity the flow of time is relative to the observer's frame of reference. The faster an observer is traveling away from a reference object, the slower that object seems to move through time. Hence, the future is not an objective notion anymore. A more modern notion is absolute future, or the future light cone. While a person can move backward or forwards in the three spatial dimensions, many physicists argue you are only able to move forward in time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30012",
"title": "Time",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.:Time as \"unreal\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "J.M.E. McTaggart's 1908 \"The Unreality of Time\" argues that, since every event has the characteristic of being both present and not present (i.e., future or past), that time is a self-contradictory idea (see also The flow of time).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67227",
"title": "A Brief History of Time",
"section": "Section::::Summary.:Chapter 9: The Arrow of Time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "In this chapter Hawking talks about why \"real time\" as humans observe and experience it (in contrast to the \"imaginary time\" in the laws of science) seems to have a certain direction, notably from the past towards the future. The things that give time this property are the arrows of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ctbmr
|
do good quality tires improve gas mileage?
|
[
{
"answer": "proper tire inflation will have more of an impact than tire \"quality\"....\n\nbut you shouldnt buy quality tires for the MPG.....you should buy quality tires because that is the only thing responsible for stopping your 2 ton death trap.....\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "534382",
"title": "Honda Civic Hybrid",
"section": "Section::::First generation (2003–2005).:Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Fuel efficiency is further improved by six percent by utilizing: a new front air dam and rear spoiler, along with revised underbody panels, reducing the drag coefficient from 0.30 to 0.28; replacing traditional power steering with electrical power result as reduction in parasitic losses and special lower rolling resistance tires. The Dunlop tires improve ride quality and reduce road noise compared with other hybrids like Insight and Prius. When compared with Insight, a wider tire improves stability at highway speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4904656",
"title": "Permeation",
"section": "Section::::Permeation in everyday life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "BULLET::::- Tires: Air pressure in tires should decrease as slowly as possible. A good tire is one that allows the least amount of gas to escape. Permeation will occur over time with the tires, so it is best to know the permeability of the material that will make up the tire with the desired gas to make the most efficient tires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23921540",
"title": "Tun Abdul Razak Research Centre",
"section": "Section::::After de-colonisation and Malaysian independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "The centre also worked on the performance of tyre retread compounds, showing that natural rubber-rich tyres could perform nearly as well as synthetic tyres in durability, but were more fuel efficient as they had lower rolling resistance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3539154",
"title": "Low rolling resistance tire",
"section": "Section::::Fuel consumption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "A 2003 California Energy Commission (CEC) preliminary study estimated that adoption of low-rolling resistance tires could save 1.5–4.5% of all gasoline consumption, but that current data were also insufficient to compare safety and other characteristics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11944078",
"title": "Efficient energy use",
"section": "Section::::Transportation.:Automobiles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "More advanced tires, with decreased tire to road friction and rolling resistance, can save gasoline. Fuel economy can be improved by up to 3.3% by keeping tires inflated to the correct pressure. Replacing a clogged air filter can improve a cars fuel consumption by as much as 10 percent on older vehicles. On newer vehicles (1980s and up) with fuel-injected, computer-controlled engines, a clogged air filter has no effect on mpg but replacing it may improve acceleration by 6-11 percent. Aerodynamics also aid in efficiency of a vehicle. The design of a car impacts the amount of gas needed to move it through air. Aerodynamics involves the air around the car, which can affect the efficiency of the energy expended. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4282953",
"title": "Retread",
"section": "Section::::Environmental Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Retread tires in service lower the volume of raw materials required for the manufacturing of a new tire. This includes a pronounced reduction in the use of oil. In fact, the US EPA estimated a greater than 70% savings in oil used for a retread as compared to a new tire. This also means significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3684992",
"title": "Tire-pressure monitoring system",
"section": "Section::::Benefits of TPMS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Improved safety: Under-inflated tires lead to tread separation and tire failure, resulting in 40,000 accidents, 33,000 injuries and over 650 deaths per year. Further, tires properly inflated add greater stability, handling and braking efficiencies and provide greater safety for the driver, the vehicle, the loads and others on the road.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
233x4d
|
how come when i have to pee, i can sometimes postpone it for a pretty long time, and sometimes my bladder can't even hold it in for a couple of minutes.
|
[
{
"answer": "How come after I drink a bunch and of beer and jack off or bang.. Usually the former, I can pee like every 5 mins and it's uncomfortable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It will vary with how much food and drink you've had. Think of your bladder like a balloon. It will expand as it fills up with urine. If your bladder is full, it will take up a certain amount of space in your abdominal cavity. Suppose you eat and drink a large amount. As things digest and pass down to your intestines, your bladder has also been expanding and taking up space. It may take a couple hours before your bladder needs to be relieved. But after you pee, the balloon is empty. Now all the other stuff in your gut takes up that space and puts pressure on your bladder, preventing it from fully expanding. You'll feel a similar pressure to pee, but much less urine will come out.\n\nThe mystery of \"breaking the seal\" when drinking is compounded by the fact that alcohol is a diuretic. Your kidneys are working overtime but your bladder's capacity gets constricted after the first piss. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can I add a second question to this? Why is it that when you want to take a sh*t and it gets you on the street you can fairly hold it but the need to do it rapidly increases as you get closer to the toilet? I can't think of the many times I have been able to postpone it for hours but those last metres and seconds seem to be miles and hours!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26804277",
"title": "Overflow incontinence",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "If an incontinence is due to overflow incontinence, in which the bladder never empties completely, or if the bladder cannot empty because of poor muscle tone, past surgery, or spinal cord injury, a catheter may be used to empty the bladder. A catheter is a tube that can be inserted through the urethra into the bladder to drain urine. Catheters may be used once in a while or on a constant basis, in which case the tube connects to a bag that is attached to the leg. If a long-term (or indwelling) catheter is used, urinary tract infections may occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1099226",
"title": "Urinary retention",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 972,
"text": "Urinary retention is characterised by poor urinary stream with intermittent flow, straining, a sense of incomplete voiding, and hesitancy (a delay between trying to urinate and the flow actually beginning). As the bladder remains full, it may lead to incontinence, nocturia (need to urinate at night), and high frequency. Acute retention, causing complete anuria, is a medical emergency, as the bladder can stretch to an enormous size, and possibly tear if not dealt with quickly. If the bladder distends enough, it becomes painful. In such a case, there may be suprapubic constant, dull, pain. The increase in bladder pressure can also prevent urine from entering the ureters or even cause urine to pass back up the ureters and get into the kidneys, causing hydronephrosis, and possibly pyonephrosis, kidney failure, and sepsis. A person should go straight to an emergency department or A&E service as soon as possible if unable to urinate with a painfully full bladder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4141588",
"title": "Post-void dribbling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Post-void dribbling occurs when urine remaining in the urethra after voiding the bladder slowly leaks out after urination. A common and usually benign complaint, it may be a symptom of urethral diverticulum, prostatitis and other medical problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159421",
"title": "Urination",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and physiology.:Physiology.:Voluntary control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "The bladder can be made to contract by voluntary facilitation of the spinal voiding reflex when it contains only a few milliliters of urine. Voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles aids the expulsion of urine by increasing the pressure applied to the urinary bladder wall, but voiding can be initiated without straining even when the bladder is nearly empty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "331556",
"title": "Enuresis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Diurnal enuresis.:An overactive bladder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Muscles surrounding the urethra (the tube that takes urine away from the bladder) have the job of keeping the passage closed, preventing urine from passing out of the body. If the bladder contracts strongly and without warning, the muscles surrounding the urethra may not be able to keep urine from passing. This often happens as a consequence of urinary tract infection and is more common in girls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38098048",
"title": "Functional incontinence",
"section": "Section::::Non-medical causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "If a suitable place to urinate does not become available, the person may reach a stage where they are no longer able to refrain from urination and involuntary voiding of the bladder may take place. Instances of this sort will often result in full emptying of the bladder, but are likely to be one-off or rare occurrences. Excessive alcohol consumption can also cause episodes of incontinence in otherwise healthy adults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51670195",
"title": "Soupeur",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:First meaning: bread soaked in urine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "There existed a practical alternative where a public urinal is stopped in order to wait for it to fill. Then a person would enter it and submerge his penis into the urine of previous users. This was alternatively called dipping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
27i88a
|
if being attractive is an important aspect of sexual attraction, why hasn't natural selection turned us all into super models?
|
[
{
"answer": "Fashion and what is attractive changes with time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because not everyone is attracted to the same thing.\n\nSource: check out the \"most watched\" categories on porn sites. Half of the shit will probably disgust you, but other people find it amazing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because even if average people can't get laid by super hot people they can still get laid by less attractive people. You take what you can get.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For most of human history, attraction didn't have a heck of a lot to do with mating.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would guess for most of history people lived in small communities and just mated with whoever else happened to be in that community, around their age. No TV or internet so you weren't really aware how much less attractive your mate was when considered with the rest of the world.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In comparison to even a couple hundred years ago, we are generally super models. We are taller, freer from birth defects, ethnically interesting, overall healthy, generally able to spend time and resources on our hygiene and appearance. \n\nThe bar just keeps rising. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you seen photos of people from like 100 years ago? There are some ugly mugs memorialized out there. \n\nEdit: spelling",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ugly people will still mate with ugly people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How do you know it hasn't? How do you know the human race isn't 20%, or 50% \"prettier\" in average than how we would be if sexual attraction played no role?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " Long story short:\n\n\nThere are too many \"Branches\" to the selection tree, I.E. there are so many variations as to what people think are \"attractive\" that you wouldn't see a change in biological traits for centuries if at all. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Attraction is different to different people. \"Beauty is in the eye of the beholder\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What we consider attractive changes.\n\nYears ago rounder more heavy people where considered the ideal of beauty (just look at [older artwork](_URL_0_)). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its not necessarily the case that two attractive people will have attractive children. Think of it this way, while a father may have features that are attractive on a male and a mother may have attractive features on a female, that doesn't mean that those features will be attractive if they are inherited by a child of the opposite sex. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It has! Sort of!\n\nThere has been [research](_URL_0_) recently into attractiveness that has found that \"average\" is attractive. That is, people with \"average\" attributes (in terms of measurable things like distance between the eyes, length of the nose, etc), are widely perceived as attractive.\n\nWe need to make a caveat, though, because super models are not at all \"average\". In fact, they are chosen for this reason, to stand out and make an impression. So no, evolution hasn't turned us all into super models, but evolution *has* made us *on average* quite attractive!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People didn't have much choice who to mate with even 100 years ago, let alone on evolutionary time scales. Think back before cars or bikes or any kind of fast travel. Most people lived in small communities and had very few options. Ugly or not you'll probably reproduce. Also, what is attractive now wasn't necessarily attractive a long time ago.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "standard of beauty change radically due to culture. the obvious example is that fat used to be attractive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because what one person finds attractive might not be the same as what the next person finds attractive... Not everyone finds \"Supermodels\" attractive, most are too unhealthy ribcage showing thin...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Rich people can be ugly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because ugly people fuck and create ugly children. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. \n2. DNA copying routines occasionally make mistakes, which has positives and negatives. Good for the species as a whole, though. \n3. Nutrition at an early age plays a role in development ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One word: Alcohol",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Getting pregnant is something the 'super model type' tends to avoid. \n\n It's a lot of work to regain a perfect physique after a pregnancy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You think ugly people don't want to have sex too??",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are ugly people who mate with ugly people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. Not everyone has the same definition for beauty.\n\nAnother point to keep in mind is that natural selection is not based on sexual ATTRACTION, but is instead based on sexual SUCCESS. I've been attracted to plenty of women but have not been sexually successful with all of them.\n\nSpeaking of attraction vs success, we also have to consider the \"take what you can get\" mentality. People will lower their standards based on their perception of themselves. Although I wasn't thrilled with the movie overall (and never read the book), I love the quote from The Perks of Being a Wallflower that goes \"We accept the love we think we deserve.\"\n\nAll these factors and more will play a role in keeping the subjective trait of \"beauty\" quite varied for some time to come. But it isn't because natural selection isn't working, it's simply because of how people perceive themselves and how society helps influence those perceptions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "**Human beings are just really sexy chimps.**",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because 'I'm horny and you're good enough' counts too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The way I see it is this:\n\nSuper models are typically seen as \"more attractive that the average person.\" If everyone ended up looking like supermodels, or at least, what we view to be \"attractive supermodels,\" then most people would not really be able to compare the differences. Imagine that out of a scale of 1-10, everyone was an 8.5 or higher (to our standards right now). In a world where everyone looks like a model, people we would normally view as an 8.5 now, could be like a 5 or a 6 in that world",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ethics. We're not Sparta. We don't kill our perceived inferior stock because we hold the value that every human life is precious/has something to contribute to society. \n\nCapitalism. The more insecure you are, the more shit you buy that you don't need. There's no incentive for society to work towards everyone being healthy and beautiful; If everyone was gorgeous and confident, they would buy less things to make themselves feel better/prettier. People buy more clothes, makeup, and drugs when they're miserable.\n\nSubjective beauty. Not everyone finds the same things to be beautiful and this causes us to argue over what is beautiful... it's going to be an issue until we've 100% conformed to each other. \n\nTLDR; Murdering [your idea of] ugly people is wrong and there's no financial incentive to establish a healthy society. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Natural selection due to sexual preference requires hundreds of years to become apparent. The idea of a modern day 'super model' physique is a recent phenomenon made apparent by the media. In the 18th century and earlier, attractiveness was beholden in those much heavier than the average 'attractive' person now (fat was attributed to wealth, which made it 'beautiful'). It could be concluded that the opinion of attractive has changed rapidly enough that natural selection cannot act quick enough to maintain a standard.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The problem is that, given a healthy body, *everyone* can be attractive. However, what evolution doesn't consider is the fact that we don't live in caves anymore. Food is easy to find, but our body doesn't really tell us to stop eating because we were designed to store as much calories as we could, since food was difficult to get. This makes us fat. My main point however is how our mind developed. Now, I don't believe that \"beauty is in the eyes of the beholder\" but we're kinda close. We learned that certain smells/features/behaviours are not attractive because our society is based upon different ideas. Try to think back to the Iron Ager: there were no perfume there nor razors, everyone smelled like pig, but they still got laid, because they had no idea what a perfume is. We do, and since we like it we've built and entire mindset around it. Nowadays, if you don't clean yourself, you stink. There are pleny of answers to your question but they have already been told, I just wanted to add something els ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "because society dictates what is deemed \"attractive\" ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not everybody is attracted to super models.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ever see someone ugly by a bonfire, or candlelight?\n\nDo you also have perfect vision unaided?\n\nThat was what we were dealing with up until a few centuries ago.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "beauty is in the eye of the beholder, so unattractive people find mates and have kids too and think they are beautiful. plus, have you ever seen a good looking family with one ugliest kid, it happens. sometimes someone you might consider ugly could look good with a change of hairstyle, good skin care and a wardrobe change.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People tend to subconsciously become attracted to people that are more on their \"level\" per say in terms of sexual attractiveness. In other words, ugly people will take what they can get.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because there's someone out there for everybody man :D No matter how ugly you may think you are, someone, somewhere, would fuck you",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is this a default subreddit now? Because wow has it gone to shit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have no source for this, and it's just a thought, but perhaps we *are* a lot better looking than we were, but as the standard rises so does people's expectations. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Supposing that everybody who has ever mated was attractive, how would we recognize ourselves as \"supermodels?\" \n\nWe will always point out differences in each other (unless this turns into 1984 or that episode of the twilight zone, \"Number 12 Looks Just Like You\"). \n\nWho knows, we may even have a case of \"Eye of the Beholder\" on our hands. \n\nHow do we define \"beautiful,\" or \"attractive\"? To me, these words mean scoring \"above average\" or better from the standpoint of appearance. Well, mankind may have been doing this since the beginning (that is, selecting those which we find \"attractive\"), and we just don't recognize it because, as times change, so do our perceptions. What was considered grounds for being \"attractive\" 100 years ago may be \"ugly\" to us now, but we don't realize it because our perception of beauty has evolved as much as we have.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "definition of attractive varies faster than evolution could ever catch up. see what was considered attractive mere 50 years ago compared to now.\n\nplus, being not perfectly attractive doesn't prevent people from having children.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Who's to say natural selection HASN'T turned us all into super models, but over time, we got used to everyone being sexy and raised our insanely high standards even more? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We are supposed to breed kids fast. The more, the better. Quantity > quality.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When looking for someone to bear and raise children whilst within a hostile environment, beauty, all of a sudden, becomes a forgotten luxury. Attractiveness, of course, is an important trait that would attempt to float to the top of the gene pool. However, it's not the only important trait as it can be deemed unimportant fairly quickly.\n\nThere's also money, security, health, sustainability, responsibility, strength, etc... And who knows how many more, it's all circumstantial. \n\nSimple version: Which man has more of a chance of protecting me from ravenous beasts, the studly looking man or the slightly less attractive man who is super strong? Or conversely: which woman has more of a chance performing her fair share, the beautiful maiden, or the down n dirty girl who gets the job done? \n\nIt's not that these qualities are exclusive, but it's an example at the least.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because ugly people still fuck. They ruin it for us beautifull people. Fucking inconsiderate cunts. We should do something about it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interesting the number of men who comment on wealth in this discussion. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Who says we aren't?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One thing that has not been mentioned so far, is the theory that different genes give attractiveness to the two genders. So a very attractive woman mating with a very attractive man would not necessarily give rise to the most attractive kid, because the hyperfemale and hypermale characteristics cancel out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because there's beautiful people like Angelina Jolie + Brad Pitt who decide to adopt.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Attractiveness is perceived relative to the population. \n\nSuppose that nature pushed us to be more attractive. You would still see variation in looks, so you would still be asking the same question. \n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you seen pics from the 1800s? Compared to them, we ARE super models.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because attractive people dont have too much of a competitive advantage. Ugly people still reproduce and dont just die out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Natural selection takes a long, long time, and humanity has only been around for give or take 50,000 years. And plus we have gotten a shitload more \"attractive\" in that time given a normal evolutionary scale.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Never heard the phrase \"beauty is in the eye of the beholder\" attractiveness is subjective.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because ugly people need love too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't think anyone mentioned here that what people consider as \"attractive\" changes over time. In order for activeness to have meaning is has to be relative to something we consider unattractive, sort of how rich people are considered rich relative to poor people. It's us humans competing for something and beauty is subjective and decided culturally.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is considered \"attractive\" is a personnel preference, so I assume it's borderline impossible to evolve 1 attractive person using 1 million peoples opinions. \n\nThough, I guess you could argue we have evolved into what we generally consider to be attractive, because most Woman tend to have a curvy body, which most Men consider attractive, same goes for Men, I don't know what most Women are attracted to, but I assume most Men have the ability to look attractive. It seems like we're all born with the tools to be \"attractive\" we just don't all take advantage of that, allot of us eat shit, and don't exercise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For a trait to dominate a species there has to be selective pressure for survival, being average looking does not lessen your chance to survive and proliferate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Being \"Attractive\" is a purely subjective thing. For example, almost every day, on r/ladyboners they post pictures of Chris Pine. I think he is a forehead with a face, and therefore, not attractive. Women say they want a hot guy, but end up with the fat slob who can make them laugh. It's not always about physical appearance with humans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I dont know what you say but i am a freaking super model...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For females, 70% of being hot is being thin and wearing make up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Humans ARE already super model status. If we weren't you'd see super ugly asymmetrical people everywhere. (Symmetry is a key factor for beauty)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "attractive females will still fuck money over looks. let the feminist riots begin..",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ever been drunk?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Different standards of attractiveness is one of many reasons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Being unattractive doesn't stop people from having sex. It's like gravity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You should have seen us 100,000 years ago... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the ugly people continue to breed with ugly people. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You could blame government assistance for giving the poor, ugly people money to survive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So really we need to keep ugly people from fucking.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Albert Einstein and Marilyn Monroe were seated together at a table. \"Hey Albert,\" said Marilyn. \"Imagine if we had a baby and it had my looks and your brains-it could do anything it wanted.\" \"Yes, my dear,\" replied Einstein. \"But what if it has my looks and your brains?\"\n\n-- Attributed to Groucho Marx or George Bernard Shaw",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It has, your standards just keep rising. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Evolutionary Biologist here: Lots of points to be made - \n\n1) Some people are saying that the ugly will still have kids with other ugly people, or that tastes vary. This is true, but ugliness is definitely a real, objective thing, and is definitely a marker of reduced fitness. selection *will* act against it....\n\n2) In fact it already has, ugliness conferring traits, deformities are rare. , there will always be ugly people because ugliness is an evolved reaction. It says \"this person has a poor genetic/developmental background, don't reproduce with them\". It's a moving target - if humanity became much more attractive over night, we'd all re-calibrate. But this will never happen because...\n\n3)The human genome, like all genomes, is the site of a constant battle between mutation and selection. Every time you copy it, errors are introduced. Those errors can only be eliminated by selection (much of it at the level of sperm cells and eggs). Even if your parents had literally perfect genomes, you'd have hundreds of new mutations. Where those mutations happened to fall will dictate, amongst other things, how ugly your are.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because there are people (like me) who have low (or no) standards and will have sex with anyone if given the opportunity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is such a varying standard of beauty across cultures, that what we might perceive as beautiful may be interpreted by someone else as hideous. There are groups in Africa that think stretching ones neck with metal rings makes a person beautiful. Another factor to consider is how much we as a species have interbred with other people from around the world, producing children with a menagerie of features that come from a variety of different cultures, which inevitably leads to some unlikely combinations of features that sometimes look good, and other times look terrible. And finally, two amazing looking people can just have an ugly kid. Recessive genes can be a real bitch sometimes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sexual selection allows us to choose which changes the parameters of natural selection. No longer do the fittest survive, but those who have the purdies do",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Speak for yourself OP",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Go back and look at some old pictures or look at most paintings from the past. We ARE supermodels in comparison. \n\nMona Lisa was the bomb.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The quick and easy answer is that our evaluation of what is physically attractive moves in line with out change in attractiveness.\n\nThink of it like intelligence. If we all got smarter and smarter, we'd all get A's in school, right? Except that assumes the evaluation stays fixed. We take the variation of scores across the population of students and set the highest as A and lowest fringe as F. \n\nIn that context, we'll never be more attractive; we'll always (as a population) be average attractiveness. This occurs because attractiveness functions as a *differentiator*. The feelings of attraction are all about reading signals that the other person is of \"higher quality\" of what is out there for mates, meaning where they fit on the variations of the population. If we were all of similar appearance quality (meaning proxy indicators for potential reproductive success) there'd be no differentiation. If there's no differentiation, there is no selective pressure to evaluate based on appearance. If there is no selective pressure to evaluate based on appearance, there is no pressure to *be* more physically attractive. So the concept of us all becoming supermodels is self-defeating; sexual selection can't get us there.\n\nAlso, physical attractiveness isn't the *only* driver of mate choice, particularly for females of a species. They have to be more discriminating because of their greater investment in reproduction, but the discrimination is on things that maximize their reproductive success like providing them with extra calories, resources, protection, etc., while pregnant and nursing, and protection of the offspring. So resource acquisition (wealth), strength, social status, family commitment, etc., are all attractors in addition to the purely physical appearance. Males, on the other hand, maximize their reproductive success either by impregnating many more females (lower discrimination) or by committing to a younger, fertile, parasite-free female with no other kids. Male judgment of beauty tends to follow proxies of these things: young appearance, flush (blood flow showing fertility), engorged red lips (hi-jacking our attraction for the other set of lips), and so forth. Things like ability to acquire resources and social status aren't as important for male reproductive success, so don't tend to be as big drivers. But for females, there are many more drivers of attraction.\n\nFinally, you also have to consider that our modern appearance is not just a factor of \"attractiveness\" genes. For example, our love of high-sugar and high-fat foods came from a time of scarcity; craving those things would have given us a reproductive advantage in acquiring and storing calories. And, those with a tendency to easily store calories might have had an advantage. In modern times of abundance, these tend to make us fat, slow, and diabetic. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The flaw with this argument is that what makes a man's face attractive is very different to what makes a woman's face attractive. \n\nLet's imagine a gorgeous couple. The male has a strong and imposing square jaw and rugged features. These include an overhanging brow that make his eyes look all the more intense and give him the classic brooding looks of a 50's film star. The woman has delicate features. In short, they both fit our stereotypes of what features are attractive for a male and female. \n\nThey decide to have children. Their first child is a girl. \n\nShe inherits most of her father's dominant features. Have you ever seen a beautiful woman with a strong and imposing square jaw and an overhanging brow? It happens, but generally a broad jaw looks more appealing on a man as it's considered a masculine feature.\n\nYou can imagine the reverse, too. A guy with a delicate button nose and bow mouth. (Probably easier to get away with than the reverse.) \n\nI'm sure you can think of many real life examples where the children of celebrities have inherited the features of their opposite sex parent..\n\nBeautiful parents provide no guarantee of supermodel offspring. And so what? Variety is the spice of life!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It sort of has... Have you seen what beautiful women looked like a couple hundred years ago? Apparently Mona Lisa was a real looker. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lots of good responses, but I'd like to point out also that attractiveness as it relates to facial structure / prettiness has a lot to do with what faces you have encountered thus far is life. Your brain averages out these features in all the faces it has \"decoded\" and pretty becomes the most average. There are certainly other factors like the ratio of distances between facial elements and bilateral symmetry but this averaging plays a big role. In that sense, and many others, attractiveness evolves over time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Now you know damn well we can't live in a world of pretty people. Or else we would all just be jealous of each other and stab each other in the back...more",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Jesus gave us wine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "a lot of the comments provided are all akin to Darwin's theory of Evolution. Attraction is based on an constantly evolving and diverging scale. In a famine a mate that has more body fat would be more attractive. When food is plentiful some other quality would become the new driving force for attraction(Money for instance). To go even beyond attraction being a deciding factor for reproduction. You must think of attraction being based upon the level of Fitness for your environment. A good example of this can be seen in diseases that are genetically transferred. One would think that the genetic diseases would just inherently be bread out. Yet they are still present, this is because at some point having the disease was beneficial to your fitness/survival in your environment. A simple example of this is Sickle-Cell anemia, not a favorable condition in developed countries. Yet, in countries where malaria is rampant Sickle Cell helps prevent you from the affects of Malaria. There are many more variants to this, Ashkenazi Jews have a multiple variance of genetic diseases that have had similar +/-, just as Sickle Cell. So, all in all your fitness/attraction level is all based on your surrounding environment and how you successful you are within it. In our short lives compared to the over all existence of Homo sapiens. We have lived in a commercially driven, Wealth orientated society. We have ben groomed to believe that attraction is the driving force behind reproduction. Sadly this is our environment, and we are now reproducing based on what our environment is perceived to be. A photo shopped commercial, if we can agree on that. Then we would just be now breeding based on attraction. This would not be enough time in terms of evolution to have a population of just supermodel people.\nSorry for grammatical and poor writing.\nTLDR; attraction is based on environmental fitness. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Speak for yourself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Maybe we all are supermodels compared to people from hundreds of thousands of years ago...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Evolution makes women more attractive](_URL_0_)\n\nWomen are evolving to be more attractive. There are other factors that are more important to mate selection of males, though. Strength, for example.\n\nBut there are also environmental factors that effect attractiveness. So you could have very attractive genes, but getting sick or injured while developing can make you less attractive. \n\nBut on average, the more attractive women have better access to higher quality mates, so they reproduce more effectively - and the race has grown more attractive, at least on the female side. \n\nI mean, have you even *seen* pictures of people from the 1890's?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If any of us travelled back 10,000+ years we would look like supermodels to the people there. So your loaded question assumes something that isn't really true. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Watch Idiocracy, it'll clear a lot of things up in the first 5 minutes, then enjoy the rest of the hilarious movie.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you *seen* what dudes will fuck?\n\nThat is the meanest thought I'll have today. \n\nStill, though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "if you've seen the jeremy kyle show before, you would know that disgustingly repulsive people still have children together",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm no scientist, but another contributing factor is the fact that pretty women will put up with ugly men if they are great providers. A phenomenon that still exists today. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Alcohol and faulty condoms play a role.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. We often fall in love and become attracted to people who aren't necessarily beautiful to others, but they have other attributes. Even if the parents are \"conventionally attractive\" there is likely still DNA from ugly ancestors in the mix.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Look at Bruce Willis' daughter... attractiveness isn't a gene thing",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because people like your Dad still rape fat chicks like your mom.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Money and power. Ugly rich men banging supermodels.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because society's standard of beauty changes over time, and individual definitions of attractiveness vary greatly. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you ever go to Oxford, MS you'll notice a plethora of really gorgeous white people (there are gorgeous black people too, but thats not the point here). It really is a unique area. There is a higher percentage per capita of petite beautiful blonde women and large muscly men-folk. \n\nFrom what I understand, many decades ago, Oxford was the preeminent spot to go if you wanted to pursue pageantry (Ms. America, etc). There were world-renowned trainers there and such. \n\nAnyway, after many many years of beautiful people flocking there for that and a lot of them settling down there and having kids, there is a legitimately distinctness to the city where a large number of the people are really really pretty. \n\nThey're still a bunch of racists though. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sexual selection has probably paid a big part of how humans now look. It's just that what's attractive changes by era and by culture. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "everyone has their own perspective on beauty",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If everyone is a super model, then nobody is a super model",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We ARE all supermodels, you should see how ugly the ones are that have been removed due to natural selection.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Stupid people breed more. And are usually significantly less attractive. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Evolution and survival is 100% about reproductive success. If you are a non-human animal and you lost the genetic lottery, you have a low chance at reproductive success because of the reliance on physical features. \n\nFor humans, this is still true, but there are other factors that go into reproductive success. \n\nHumans obviously have a unique and complex social structure. Other species only have tiny samples of the incredible magnitude of rules, norms, and behaviors expressed by humans. \n\nOur ability to reason on an advanced level has allowed us to internally score our reproductive success based on our interactions with others. Each factor gives us a weighted score, which is combined. The weights change with age. \n\n- Physical attraction. Tall, dark muscular. Tall, big tits, big ass. Symmetrical facial features. Physically healthy. These factors score higher than asymmetry, lack of height, and being overweight.\n\n- Social competency. How is this person in social circles? Are they the alpha dog? Are they a passive beta dog? Are they somewhere in between? \n\n- Intelligence. Despite the number of dumb people breeding, I still think that perceived intelligence is a large factor.\n\n- Ability to care for family. The obvious indicator of this is money, but there are other factors like having a big family (especially if money is hard to come by).\n\n\nSo in this equation - if you were to plot it out, you'd see some autocorrelation:\n\n- Some people get hired to well paying jobs because they're physically attractive and socially competent\n- Some people are socially competent because they're incredibly physically attractive\n- etc\n\nAs we age, the score weights shift. A young person will weigh Physical attractiveness higher than ability to care for family. A 35 year old woman might adjust these weights as she's almost at the end of her peak years to give birth. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We look better then apes. I'd say we did pretty good. It's all relative.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because humans destroyed their natural selection long ago. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Please define attractiveness? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think everyone's perception of beauty is different. Gisele Bundchen is a supermodel that a lot of people do not find attractive. Survival is and always will be the main priority when it comes to natural selection. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The concept of what is attractive changes from time to time, and culture to culture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Compared to a chimpanzee, every human is massively attractive... to humans.\n\nThe fact that there's still variation is an important part of evolution: the mutation part. If everyone had the same genetic makeup evolution would stop.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure that we haven't. Let me 'splain...\n\nWe have undoubtedly become taller on average as well as faster and stronger as measured by records in international competition going down to the high school level. Additionally, we have eliminated or greatly reduced or have treatments for some of the most disfiguring diseases like elephantiasis and small pox. I would also be willing to bet--though I have no proof that things like facial symmetry and incidence of coming close to the golden ratio have become more common over the last several thousand years.\n\nSo, in short...maybe in a way we have.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One word ... Tequila",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How do you know we aren't all supermodels compared to people 10,000 years ago?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll actually explain like you're five:\n\nA penis will get inserted into a vaginga. Literally all the time no matter what.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't find super models attractive. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Having a lot of money trumps over being attractive.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because beauty is subjective and what's considered attractive is constantly changing so it's kind of impossible for natural selection to accommodate that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you rated everyone on a scale of 1-10 you would find most people couple with individuals within 1-2 points of themselves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Attractiveness comes in different forms.....physical beauty isnt everything. I've dated several gorgeous guys only to find out they are really stupid, self absorbed or a complete bore to be around. I grow up a little, meet someone who isnt model material, but he makes me laugh treats me like I'm a prince, and so much more....he's so much more attractive to me than any of the other hot guys I've dated. Our 13 years of bliss being together has proved that!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "because ugly people get laid too",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Two wrongs don't make a right? \n\nTwo fuglies don't make a super model. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because uglies fuck uglies",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "965390",
"title": "Matching hypothesis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Successful couples of differing physical attractiveness may be together due to other matching variables that compensate for the difference in attractiveness. For instance, some men with wealth and status desire younger, more attractive women. Some women are more likely to overlook physical attractiveness for men who possess wealth and status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36283978",
"title": "Lookism",
"section": "Section::::Empirical support.:Ethics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Nancy Etcoff, author of Survival of the Prettiest, argues that human preference for attractiveness is rooted in evolutionary instinct and that trying to prevent it from influencing people would be \"telling them to stop enjoying food or sex or novelty or love\" and thus argues that \"being beautiful and being prized for it is not a social evil.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229719",
"title": "Popularity",
"section": "Section::::Interpersonal causes.:Attractiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Attractiveness, specifically physical attractiveness, has been shown to have very profound effects on popularity. People who are physically attractive are more likely to be thought of as possessing positive traits. People who are attractive are expected to perform better on tasks and are more likely to be trusted. Additionally, they are judged to possess many other positive traits such as mental health, intelligence, social awareness, and dominance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56463431",
"title": "Social rank theory",
"section": "Section::::Social ranking behavior.:Hedonistic interactions.:Mate selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Social dominance by means of attractiveness has been shown to be essential in determining reproductive success. For instance, it is not strength and aggression, but attractiveness that forms the basis of human mate selection. Human females tend to be drawn towards mates who are able to protect and invest in children. Thus, for women, attractiveness is associated with status. On the other hand, human males are often drawn towards biologically health mates which is manifested by natural beauty and youth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2232181",
"title": "Psychological adaptation",
"section": "Section::::Psychological adaptation in males.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Human males have developed psychological adaptations, which make them attractive to the opposite sex in order to increase their reproductive success. Evolutionarily, it pays for a male to be polygynous – \"to have a number of female partners at once\" – because it means he can create more offspring at once, as they don't have to invest any time in carrying a foetus. Examples of some of these other adaptations include strategies to entice females, strategies to retain a partner and the desire for short-term relationships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1720640",
"title": "Molecular ecology",
"section": "Section::::Mate choice hypotheses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "The Good Genes Hypothesis, also referred to as the sexy son hypothesis, suggests that the females will choose a male that produce an offspring that will have increased fitness advantages and genetic viability. Therefore, the mates that are more 'attractive\" are more likely to be chosen for mating and pass on their genes to the next generation. In species which exhibit polyandry the females will search out for the most suitable males and re-mate until they have found the best sperm to fertilize their eggs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35599585",
"title": "Warranting theory",
"section": "Section::::Existing research.:Others-generated warrants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "Walther et al. (2009) found that when asked to make judgments of attractiveness, results were strongly in line with predictions made by warranting theory. Walther et al. (2009) explain the discrepancies in results between the two experiments by posing that perhaps more is going on when making judgments of internal versus external characteristics. It is possible that friend's judgments about personality are deemed less accurate than ones made by the person his or herself. This is likely due to the assumption that a person would know his or herself best, and may still perform activities associated with another temperament while still claiming to be the opposite; for example, a true introvert may still elect\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4hdbhv
|
Is it possible to 'write' in Cuneiform?
|
[
{
"answer": "Keep in mind that cuneiform, as a script, is not identified with any single language or language family, but was rather adapted via Sumerian origins to write a collection of Mesopotamian languages, some of which belong to extinct families and none of which are related to Sumerian itself. Which is to say, familiarity with Sumerian offers precisely nothing whatsoever toward the comprehension of any other language written using cuneiform script. In the same way that our ability to decipher Linear B as a script, via Greek, offers nothing to our comprehension of syllabic Linear A (whose language appears to be non-Indo-European, but is otherwise a mystery). \n \nThis being the case, the answer to this question is *entirely* dependent on which language is being spoken of. Akkadian is very well understood, as it offers an extremely large and well-studied corpus, and belongs to an otherwise well-understood language family (Semitic). Elamite is poorly understood by comparison, as it is, like Sumerian, a language isolate, but lacks Sumerian's central importance to the study of human language history. \n \nSo can we write *new* documents in these languages, *analogous to the documents which have survived in them, from the ancient period?* Yes! But therein lies the caveat. Eblaite accounting ledgers may give scholars a good understanding of Eblaite names for various commodities, and means of enumerating values. But they do not instruct one in how to say \"How is your mother doing these days?\" A 1000 word historical record may tell us a great deal about how events can be described in the past tense third person indicative, but provide us not a single second person inflection or phrase in the imperative mood. The genre of a text frequently dictates what it can teach us and what it cannot, leaving inflectional paradigms a messy, incomplete patchwork. And ancient corpora are seldom diverse in their genre content. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13139552",
"title": "Old Assyrian Empire",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Language.:Writing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Cuneiform script is one of the earliest systems of writing distinguished by its wedge-shaped marks on clay tablets, made by means of a blunt reed for a stylus. Emerging in Sumer c. 3500 BC, cuneiform writing began as a system of pictograms. Around 3000 BC, the pictorial representations became simplified and more abstract as the number of characters in use grew smaller. The original Sumerian script was adapted for the writing of the Akkadian, Assyrian, and Hittite languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39705288",
"title": "Eduba",
"section": "Section::::Scribal curriculum at Nippur.:Elementary education.:First stage: writing techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Another list designed to teach students the basics of cuneiform writing is known as TU-TA-TI. In this list, which students wrote out sets of signs grouped according to their initial sounds. Each cuneiform sign represents a syllable (unlike the English alphabet, where each letter represents a sound), thus, for example, the sequence “tu-ta-ti” consists of three signs. The signs within each set in the list were ordered by their vowel sounds: -u followed by –a followed by –i . Each sign in the set was first written on its own line, and then all three signs were written together on a fourth line. Thus the first 8 lines of TU-TA-TI are: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "606821",
"title": "Assyriology",
"section": "Section::::History.:Decipherment of cuneiform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "From 1850 onwards, there was a growing suspicion that the Semite inhabitants of Babylon and Assyria were not the inventors of cuneiform system of writing, and that they had instead borrowed it from some other language and culture. In 1850, Edward Hincks published a paper suggesting that cuneiform was instead invented by some non-Semitic people who had preceded the Semites in Babylon. In 1853, Rawlinson came to similar conclusions, and the Class III inscriptions were recognized as being written in this more Ancient language, a language which was then called \"Akkadian\" or \"Scythian\" but which is now known to be Sumerian. This was the first indication to modern scholarship that this older culture and people, the Sumerians, existed at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2085",
"title": "Assyria",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 166,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 166,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "Emerging in Sumer c. 3500 BC, cuneiform writing began as a system of pictograms. Around 3000 BC, the pictorial representations became simplified and more abstract as the number of characters in use grew smaller. The original Sumerian script was adapted for the writing of the Akkadian, Assyrian, and Hittite languages. The Kültepe texts, which were written in Old Assyrian, had Hittite loanwords and names, which constitute the oldest record of any language of the Indo-European language family. Most of the archaeological evidence is typical of Anatolia rather than of Assyria, but the use of both cuneiform and the dialect is the best indication of Assyrian presence. From 1700 BC and onward, the Sumerian language was preserved by the ancient Babylonians and Assyrians only as a liturgical and classical language for religious, artistic and scholarly purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3276555",
"title": "History of communication",
"section": "Section::::Writing.:Early scripts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Finally, cuneiform writing became a general purpose writing system for logograms, syllables, and numbers. By the 26th century BC, this script had been adapted to another Mesopotamian language, Akkadian, and from there to others such as Hurrian, and Hittite. Scripts similar in appearance to this writing system include those for Ugaritic and Old Persian.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40358940",
"title": "Aš (cuneiform)",
"section": "Section::::Usage in the Amarna letters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The most common use of cuneiform \"aš\" in the [[Amarna letters]] is for the spelling of \"šapāru\", for \"to send\", \"to send in writing\". Besides the usage for \"šapāru\" in [[Amarna letter EA 362|EA 362]] (pictured), it is also used to spell \"šapāru\" in [[Amarna letter EA 34|EA 34]], titled \"The Pharaoh's reproach Answered\",\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "266350",
"title": "Assyrian people",
"section": "Section::::History.:Pre-Christian history.:Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Emerging in Sumer c. 3500 BC, cuneiform writing began as a system of pictograms. Around 3000 BC, the pictorial representations became simplified and more abstract as the number of characters in use grew smaller. The original Sumerian script was adapted for the writing of the Akkadian (Babylonian and Assyrian) and Hittite languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
66ajc0
|
how come headphones/earphones can sometimes break in such a way that when you listen to audio, the background noise is audible but all the voices are completely mute?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you look on most headphone plugs, there are rings. Some have 2, if they have a microphone there will be 3 or more. Inside the headphone jack, there are corresponding metal nipples, one transmits sound from the left and right, etc. When one of those rings or nipples gets damaged you get unpredictable sound.\n\nLife pro tip, don't wrap your headphones around your device while they are still plugged in, that's a one way ticket to device failure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "269193",
"title": "Noise-cancelling headphones",
"section": "Section::::Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "To cancel the lower-frequency portions of the noise, noise-cancelling headphones use active noise control. They incorporate a microphone that measures ambient sound, generate a waveform that is the exact negative of the ambient sound, and mix it with any audio signal the listener desires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191884",
"title": "Headphones",
"section": "Section::::Ambient noise reduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "Active noise-cancelling headphones use a microphone, amplifier, and speaker to pick up, amplify, and play ambient noise in phase-reversed form; this to some extent cancels out unwanted noise from the environment without affecting the desired sound source, which is not picked up and reversed by the microphone. They require a power source, usually a battery, to drive their circuitry. Active noise cancelling headphones can attenuate ambient noise by 20 dB or more, but the active circuitry is mainly effective on constant sounds and at lower frequencies, rather than sharp sounds and voices. Some noise cancelling headphones are designed mainly to reduce low-frequency engine and travel noise in aircraft, trains, and automobiles, and are less effective in environments with other types of noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1046687",
"title": "Equal-loudness contour",
"section": "Section::::Side versus frontal presentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1027,
"text": "Equal-loudness curves derived using headphones are valid only for the special case of what is called \"side-presentation\", which is not how we normally hear. Real-life sounds arrive as planar wavefronts, if from a reasonably distant source. If the source of sound is directly in front of the listener, then both ears receive equal intensity, but at frequencies above about 1 kHz the sound that enters the ear canal is partially reduced by the masking effect of the head, and also highly dependent on reflection off the pinna (outer ear). Off-centre sounds result in increased head masking at one ear, and subtle changes in the effect of the pinna, especially at the other ear. This combined effect of head-masking and pinna reflection is quantified in a set of curves in three-dimensional space referred to as head-related transfer functions (HRTFs). Frontal presentation is now regarded as preferable when deriving equal-loudness contours, and the latest ISO standard is specifically based on frontal and central presentation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44731820",
"title": "AudioQuest",
"section": "Section::::Effects of cable quality on analog audio quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Electrostatic and piezoelectric noise can also become an issue in exotic headphone systems, if the headphones have a relatively high input impedance compared to traditional speakers which have a nominal impedance of 8 Ohms. This is where a careful choice of insulating materials can make a difference. This type of noise is often perceived as snap, crackle and pop when mechanically manipulating or handling the headphone cord. It is often hard to tell, without actual measurements if the source of this noise is electronic or mechanical in nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191884",
"title": "Headphones",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Ear-fitting headphones.:In-ear headphones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "The outer shells of in-ear headphones are made up of a variety of materials, such as plastic, aluminum, ceramic and other metal alloys. Because in-ear headphones engage the ear canal, they can be prone to sliding out, and they block out much environmental noise. Lack of sound from the environment can be a problem when sound is a necessary cue for safety or other reasons, as when walking, driving, or riding near or in vehicular traffic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "744997",
"title": "Electronic voice phenomenon",
"section": "Section::::Explanations and origins.:Natural explanations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "There are a number of simple scientific explanations that can account for why some listeners to the static on audio devices may believe they hear voices, including radio interference and the tendency of the human brain to recognize patterns in random stimuli. Some recordings may be hoaxes created by frauds or pranksters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37774663",
"title": "Autonomous sensory meridian response",
"section": "Section::::Media.:Binaural recording.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Listening to a binaural recording through headphones simulates the binaural hearing by which people listen to live sounds. For the listener, this experience is characterized by two perceptions. Firstly, the listener perceives being in close proximity to the performers and location of the sound source. Secondly, the listener perceives what is often reported as a three-dimensional sound. This means the listener can perceive both the position and distance of the source of sound relative to them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4c7ui8
|
Did the Roman Empire have its own Urban Legends, and if so what were they?
|
[
{
"answer": "The term \"urban legend\" was created to describe modern, traditional stories to be believed. Legends have always fallen into several groups, but the genre hangs together as stories that are generally intended to be believed. Not all of the stories are traditional (even if they employ traditional beliefs). \n\nFor example, if I tell someone, \"you wouldn't believe what I saw last night. It was really weird and I think it was... [fill in the blank with an entity that is regarded as possible by modern standards - including, an angel, a ghost, an extraterrestrial].\" That story may not be repeated so it ends with that. It is what the great folklore theoretician Carl Wilhelm von Sydow (1878-1952) called a \"memorate\" - a personal account that may employ traditional beliefs but does not rise to the level of becoming a traditional story by being repeated. Probably all cultures tells these short forms of stories, so we can imagine the Romans did as well.\n\nOther legends consist of traditional stories and beliefs. In pre-industrial cultures, we generally refer to these as migratory legends. The first to catalogue these stories was the great Norwegian folklorist Reidar Th. Christiansen (1886-1971). These tended to die out with modernization. When folklorists recognized that modern society had legendary-like stories being told over distance and time, they arrived at the term \"urban legend\" in recognition that these stories were modern and they thrived in an urban setting. There is a flaw in the distinction implied by this name since migratory legends could also thrive in a pre-modern urban setting. In fact, the term \"urban legend\" is unfortunate because it implies that \"our\" folklore is different from that of pre-industrial people. \n\nThe only significant difference between an urban legend and the migratory legend is that the former tends to be debunked quickly, so its life is often shortened. Also, some of these legends are dependent on technology, and so when technology changes or becomes general accepted and understood, the urban legend fades. Thus, when I ask my folklore classes if anyone has heard the story of the poodle in the microwave or of the foreign tourist misunderstanding how cruise control works while driving on an LA freeway, students younger than 40 tend to have never heard the stories, while those older remember them very well. These were very popular in their time, but they quickly become obsolete and so they faded away.\n\nWhich gets us to the Roman Empire and the question of migratory legends. These would be what people in the empire would have told to be believed - the counterpart of today's urban legend. Since we have a great many sources from the period, we can recognize many stories that were captured in Roman literature that were repeated until the nineteenth century, and we can glimpse stories that may not have survived but were likely traditional for at least a while even if they did not survive.\n\nFor example, the first-century \"Satyricon\" includes two legends, one involving the supernatural abduction of an infant and the other a man transforming himself into a werewolf. Motifs associated with both stories are recognizable in European folklore collections from the nineteenth century. Other stories appear in primary sources involving Roman-era mythology, and these too (they were stories told generally to be believed) are often echoed in pre-industrial migratory legends.\n\nSo the answer to your question is that people in the Empire did indeed tell stories to be believed that echoed what we know today as urban legends. The traditional European migratory legend typically lasted longer than an urban legend, but it behaved in much the same way. These were entertaining stories that were thrilling to hear and imagine to be true. Skeptics in any century may ruined the fun but the genre continues to thrive.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4176384",
"title": "Pallantium",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "The myth of the city's origin was significant in ancient Roman mythology because Pallantium became one of the cities that was merged later into ancient Rome, thereby tying Rome's origins to the ancient Greek heroes. Other cities in the area were founded by various Italic tribes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25458",
"title": "Rome",
"section": "Section::::History.:Earliest history.:Legend of the founding of Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth. The most familiar of these myths, and perhaps the most famous of all Roman myths, is the story of Romulus and Remus, the twins who were suckled by a she-wolf. They decided to build a city, but after an argument, Romulus killed his brother and the city took his name. According to the Roman annalists, this happened on 21 April 753 BC. This legend had to be reconciled with a dual tradition, set earlier in time, that had the Trojan refugee Aeneas escape to Italy and found the line of Romans through his son Iulus, the namesake of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378612",
"title": "Equites",
"section": "Section::::Regal era (753–509 BC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "According to Roman legend, Rome was founded by its first king, Romulus, in 753 BC. However, archaeological evidence suggests that Rome did not acquire the character of a unified city-state (as opposed to a number of separate hilltop settlements) until ca. 625BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "214954",
"title": "Religion in ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Founding myths and divine destiny.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The Roman mythological tradition is particularly rich in historical myths, or legends, concerning the foundation and rise of the city. These narratives focus on human actors, with only occasional intervention from deities but a pervasive sense of divinely ordered destiny. For Rome's earliest period, history and myth are difficult to distinguish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37353",
"title": "Etruscan civilization",
"section": "Section::::Society.:Cities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "That many Roman cities were formerly Etruscan was well known to all the Roman authors. Some cities were founded by Etruscans in prehistoric times, and bore entirely Etruscan names. Others were colonized by Etruscans who Etruscanized the name, usually Italic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50732483",
"title": "List of cities founded by the Romans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "This is a list of cities and towns founded by the Romans. It lists every city established and built by the ancient Romans to have begun as a colony often for the settlement of citizens or veterans of the legions. Many Roman colonies rose to become important commercial and cultural centers, transportation hubs and capitals of global empires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25458",
"title": "Rome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1546,
"text": "Rome's history spans 28 centuries. While Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The city's early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans, and Sabines. Eventually, the city successively became the capital of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, and is regarded by some as the first ever metropolis. It was first called \"The Eternal City\" (; ) by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the \"Caput Mundi\" (Capital of the World). After the fall of the Western Empire, which marked the beginning of the Middle Ages, Rome slowly fell under the political control of the Papacy, and in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. Beginning with the Renaissance, almost all the popes since Nicholas V (1447–1455) pursued over four hundred years a coherent architectural and urban programme aimed at making the city the artistic and cultural centre of the world. In this way, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, creating masterpieces throughout the city. In 1871, Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, which, in 1946, became the Italian Republic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
47uj27
|
Can an object become a black hole by moving fast enough?
|
[
{
"answer": "No. The easiest way to see why the answer is no is to remember the laws of physics have to work the same in every inertial frame of reference (per special relativity). If the object won't act as a black whole in its stationary frame of reference, the same must be true for any other frame of reference where its speed can be arbitrarily high.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, because the mass of an object does not grow with velocity. There is a term \\gamma * m_0 (m_0 is the mass of the object at rest) that appears in some formulas of special relativity. A few decades ago this term was interpreted as \"relativistic mass\" that increases with increasing velocity of the object.\n\nNowadays this interpretation is dismissed because it does not yield a better understanding of relativistic physics. The term in the formula is correct, but the \"growing relativistic mass\" is not physical in the sense that the object becomes really heavier.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here is my (well-deserved) rant against relativistic mass. (Your answer is buried in there somewhere. The answer is \"no\".)\n\n---\n\nI honestly do not know why many intro texts, courses, and teachers insist on telling students that an object's mass increases as its speed increases. This concept is so incredibly misleading and incorrect, that it's no wonder so many students are confused by it.\n\n & nbsp;\n\nThe concept of relativistic mass is used only in some vain attempt to keep the Newtonian formula for momentum (p = mv) true in relativity as well. That seems like a good idea, for then the formula for total energy would be rather simple also (E = mc^(2)). Beyond those two very specific uses, there is no use for the concept of relativistic mass and you just end up getting a bunch of nonsense.\n\n & nbsp;\n\nFor one, you find that Newton's second law no longer has the nice formula F = ma, and you have to assign different relativistic masses to each direction of the force. That is, in SR, the force is not always parallel to the acceleration, and the \"mass\" appearing in the tangential direction is different from the \"mass\" appearing in the transverse direction. Second, we end up getting rather nonsensical implications, like that which the OP has come across. If mass increases as an object's speed increases, then eventually it should be massive enough to be within its own Schwarzschild radius and become a black hole... but in its own rest frame it's not massive enough. So what's going on? (It's not a black hole.)\n\n & nbsp;\n\nRelativistic mass is really just another name for the energy E. So where does relativistic mass come from anyway? The formula for the momentum of a particle with \"rest mass\" *m* and velocity **v** in SR is **p** = γm**v**, where γ is the Lorentz factor. So to retain the formula **p** = M**v**, we define a new \"relativistic mass\" given by M = γm. But it's actually just much more natural to define a new quantity called the 4-velocity, whose spatial components are γ**v**. The time-component is γc, and the whole thing is U = (γc, γ**v**). The 4-momentum is then P = mU, in analogy with Newtonian physics. The mass of a particle is then *invariant*. All observers agree on the value of *m*.\n\n & nbsp;\n\nRelativistic mass is really just a desperate attempt to hang on to old formulas and concepts from Newtonian physics. An object that is accelerated *does* appear to have increasing inertia, but only if you look at the problem from a Newtonian view. The object's speed cannot exceed *c*. If the object (in its own frame) is accelerating at some constant (proper) acceleration *a*, the outside observer will see the object slowly decelerate to zero acceleration as its speed approaches *c*. So it appears as if the inertia (the *m* appearing in F = ma) is increasing. This is a *terrible* way to analyze that problem. For one, this analysis is based on Newton's second law, yet the relativistic mass is related to the number *m* appearing in the momentum formula p = mv. This is a subtle issue. In Newtonian physics, the \"m\" appearing in F = ma and p = mv are automatically the same number. But if you carry out the above analysis that the accelerating object's inertia is increasing, then you have to give up the notion that the \"inertial mass\" and \"momentum mass\" are actually the same. (Again, the reason is that the force is actually not parallel to the acceleration in general, and to have any hope of consistency, relativistic mass would have to be different in the transverse and parallel directions.) Today, we understand that energy plays that inertial role. The mass doesn't change, but the energy formula has changed in such a way that the object's energy approaches infinity as its speed approaches *c*.\n\n & nbsp;\n\nWhy jump though all those hoops and redefine the concept of mass in such a way that turns out to be woefully inconsistent once you start to analyze more complex problems? It's better just to realize that relativity requires that the universe has a different *geometry* than that of Newtonian physics. The impossibility of an object's speed exceeding *c* has nothing to do with increased inertia, but rather the underlying geometry of the universe. Thus it is more natural to change how we view and define position and velocity, especially once we see that time and space must be unified into spacetime. (Of course, once you go to GR, despite the difficulties in defining mass, it is very immediately obvious that you should not define it in a frame-dependent way. So relativistic mass is super incorrect in GR.)\n\n & nbsp;\n\nDespite Einstein himself discouraging the use of relativistic mass, the concept became very popular. In the late 1980s, several physicists began a bit of a movement against relativistic mass. I was in high school in the early 2000s when I first learned physics, and I have never personally used a text or taken a course that used relativistic mass. (I didn't even realize such a concept existed until halfway through college when I came across an old text on relativity.) So I am guessing that somewhere in the 1990's or maybe even the early 2000s, the majority of physicists had gotten on board with the death to relativistic mass. So today when I read questions like that of the OP, I just cringe and wince. Who the hell is out there still teaching this terrible and outdated concept? Ugh.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You could theoretically produce a black hole by having two objects moving fast enough strike each other, that is to say squeeze into a small enough space the system is smaller than its Schwartzchild limit, but it would require an unfeasibly large amount of energy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1508445",
"title": "Ergosphere",
"section": "Section::::Rotation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "As a black hole rotates, it twists spacetime in the direction of the rotation at a speed that decreases with distance from the event horizon. This process is known as the Lense–Thirring effect or frame-dragging. Because of this dragging effect, an object within the ergosphere cannot appear stationary with respect to an outside observer at a great distance unless that object were to move at faster than the speed of light (an impossibility) with respect to the local spacetime. The speed necessary for such an object to appear stationary decreases at points further out from the event horizon, until at some distance the required speed is that of the speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "456715",
"title": "Kerr metric",
"section": "Section::::Ergosphere and the Penrose process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "A black hole in general is surrounded by a surface, called the event horizon and situated at the Schwarzschild radius for a nonrotating black hole, where the escape velocity is equal to the velocity of light. Within this surface, no observer/particle can maintain itself at a constant radius. It is forced to fall inwards, and so this is sometimes called the \"static limit\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1508445",
"title": "Ergosphere",
"section": "Section::::Radial pull.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Since the ergosphere is outside the event horizon, it is still possible for objects that enter that region with sufficient velocity to escape from the gravitational pull of the black hole. An object can gain energy by entering the black hole's rotation and then escaping from it, thus taking some of the black hole's energy with it (making the maneuver similar to the exploitation of the Oberth effect around \"normal\" space objects).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6146346",
"title": "Magnetospheric eternally collapsing object",
"section": "Section::::Reception of the MECO model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "Mitra's proof that black holes cannot form is based in part on the argument that in order for a black hole to form, the collapsing matter must travel faster than the speed of light with respect to a fixed observer. In 2002; Paulo Crawford and Ismael Tereno cited this as an example of a \"wrong and widespread view\", and explain that in order for a frame of reference to be valid, the observer must be moving along a timelike worldline. At or inside the event horizon of a black hole, it is not possible for such an observer to remain fixed; all observers are drawn toward the black hole. Mitra argues that he has proven that the world-line of an in-falling test particle would tend to be lightlike at the event horizon, independent of the definition of \"velocity\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9223226",
"title": "Gullstrand–Painlevé coordinates",
"section": "Section::::Speeds of light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "BULLET::::- At the event horizon, formula_30 the speed of light shining outward away from the center of black hole is formula_31 It can not escape from the event horizon. Instead, it gets stuck at the event horizon. Since light moves faster than all others, matter can only move inward at the event horizon. Everything inside the event horizon is hidden from the outside world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "207820",
"title": "Compact star",
"section": "Section::::Black holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "As more mass is accumulated, equilibrium against gravitational collapse reaches its breaking point. The star's pressure is insufficient to counterbalance gravity and a catastrophic gravitational collapse occurs in milliseconds. The escape velocity at the surface, already at least 1/3 light speed, quickly reaches the velocity of light. No energy nor matter can escape: a black hole has formed. All light will be trapped within an event horizon, and so a black hole appears truly black, except for the possibility of Hawking radiation. It is presumed that the collapse will continue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26930551",
"title": "Sigma (cosmology)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "They then realised that the black holes must have something to do with a galaxy's formation, so they turned to something they thought was useless: the speed of the stars around the edge of the galaxy. This is sigma, the speed of the stars at the edge of the galaxy supposedly unaffected by the mass of the black hole at the centre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4e7oe6
|
How do languages develop unnecessary complications? Why don't they evolve out of the language?
|
[
{
"answer": "Having agreement features - such as verbs agreeing with their arguments, genders on nouns (and their respective adjectives, determiners, etc) are all redundancy features. Think of them like a safety net. Language is not some perfect system, nor is the world we live in perfect for communication (due to things like background noise, misunderstandings, etc). Having redundancies in language allows for information to be better retained and transmitted. Think of it like this, if you take the two statements \"He is here\" and \"they are here\" but my dog barks during the first word you end up with [BARK] is here vs. [BARK] are here - you retain some information about who is here one person or several. \n \nThe same goes for things like case marking, some languages overtly mark nouns for their role in the sentence such that you don't confuse \"The dog bit the man\" with \"the man bit the dog\" even if the word order gets changed (for whatever reason. \n \nThere are two old r/linguistics threads which go into why languages have gender - found [here](_URL_1_) and [here](_URL_0_) - which is in the same line of thinking. Languages aren't designed to be logical and perfect. But these seemingly \"pointless\" features do make sense. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8329918",
"title": "Critical period hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary explanations.:Hurford’s model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "However, while arguing that language itself is adaptive and \"did not 'just happen'\" (p. 172), Hurford suggests that the critical period is not an adaptation, but rather a constraint on language that emerged due to a lack of selection pressures that reinforce acquiring more than one language. In other words, Hurford explains the existence of a critical period with genetic drift, the idea that when there are no selection pressures on multiple alleles acting on the same trait, one of the alleles will gradually diminish through evolution. Because the simulation reveals no evolutionary advantage of acquiring more than one language, Hurford suggests that the critical period evolved simply as a result of a lack of selection pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39104546",
"title": "Evolutionary psychology of language",
"section": "Section::::Genes and language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1049,
"text": "Research has shown that “genetic constraints” on language evolution could have caused a “specialized” and “species-specific language module. It is through this module that there are many specified “domain-specific linguistic properties,” such as syntax and agreement. Adaptationists believe that language genes “coevolved with human language itself for the purpose of communication.” This view suggests that the genes that are involved with language would only have coevolved in a very stable linguist environment. This shows that language could not have evolved in a rapidly changing environment because that type of environment would not have been stable enough for natural selection. Without natural selection, the genes would not have coevolved with the ability for language, and instead, would have come from “cultural conventions.” The adaptationist belief that genes coevolved with language also suggests that there are no “arbitrary properties of language.” This is because they would have coevolved with language through natural selection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "685190",
"title": "Comparison of C Sharp and Java",
"section": "Section::::Syntax.:Keywords and backward compatibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "As the languages evolved, the language designers for both languages have faced situations where they wanted to extend the languages with new keywords or syntax. New keywords in particular may break existing code at source level, i.e. older code may no longer compile, if presented to a compiler for a later version of the language. Language designers are keen to avoid such regressions. The designers of the two languages have been following different paths when addressing this problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17524",
"title": "Language",
"section": "Section::::Social contexts of use and transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "However, languages differ from biological organisms in that they readily incorporate elements from other languages through the process of diffusion, as speakers of different languages come into contact. Humans also frequently speak more than one language, acquiring their first language or languages as children, or learning new languages as they grow up. Because of the increased language contact in the globalizing world, many small languages are becoming endangered as their speakers shift to other languages that afford the possibility to participate in larger and more influential speech communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "634988",
"title": "Mass comparison",
"section": "Section::::Disputed legacy of the comparative method.:Time limits of the comparative method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "Besides systematic changes, languages are also subject to random mutations (such as borrowings from other languages, irregular inflections, compounding, and abbreviation) that affect one word at a time, or small subsets of words. For example, Spanish \"perro\" (dog), which does not come from Latin, cannot be rule-mapped to its Italian equivalent \"cane\" (the Spanish word \"can\" is the Latin-derived equivalent but is much less used in everyday conversations, being reserved for more formal purposes). As those sporadic changes accumulate, they will increasingly obscure the systematic ones—just as enough dirt and scratches on a photograph will eventually make the face unrecognizable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21312140",
"title": "Quantitative comparative linguistics",
"section": "Section::::Language change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Change happens continually to languages, but not usually at a constant rate, with its cumulative effect producing splits into dialects, languages and language families. It is generally thought that morphology changes slowest and phonology the quickest. As change happens, less and less evidence of the original language remains. Finally there could be loss of any evidence of relatedness. Changes of one type may not affect other types, for example sound changes do not affect cognancy. Unlike biology, it cannot be assumed that languages all have a common origin and establishing relatedness is necessary. In modelling it is often assumed for simplicity that the characters change independently but this may not be the case. Besides borrowing, there can also be semantic shifts and polymorphism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "677",
"title": "Ambiguity",
"section": "Section::::Constructed language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Some languages have been created with the intention of avoiding ambiguity, especially lexical ambiguity. Lojban and Loglan are two related languages which have been created for this, focusing chiefly on syntactic ambiguity as well. The languages can be both spoken and written. These languages are intended to provide a greater technical precision over big natural languages, although historically, such attempts at language improvement have been criticized. Languages composed from many diverse sources contain much ambiguity and inconsistency. The many exceptions to syntax and semantic rules are time-consuming and difficult to learn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
25pd6s
|
What side of the road did traffic drive on in allied occupied France in WWII?
|
[
{
"answer": "They drove on the right, as did the French.\n\nOf course, when a small area was under the total control of the British, practices may have varied—and a convoy of right-hand-drive vehicles proceeding across a bridge might find it easier to judge clearances if they drove on the left.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Practice varied dependent upon the formation. 21st army group's (Anglo-Canadian and polish forces) area of operations had left hand drive, the American sector was right hand. This was due to an inability to agree on which side was the correct side, and was responsible for a significant amount of rage and confusion at all levels during the war.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48836885",
"title": "German fortification of Guernsey",
"section": "Section::::Fortifications.:Roads.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "To eliminate traffic accidents, everyone had to drive and cycle on the right. Furthermore, to avoid confusion over road names, the Germans introduced a colour and number code. Roads going northwest to southeast were yellow; those going northeast to southwest were red. Also, each route was given a number. Many roadside walls received painted arrows and numbers in red or yellow to indicate directions. Lastly, the Germans produced a map, suitably marked, for their soldiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1071889",
"title": "Red Ball Express",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "The Red Ball Express was a famed truck convoy system that supplied Allied forces moving quickly through Europe after breaking out from the D-Day beaches in Normandy in 1944. To expedite cargo shipment to the front, trucks emblazoned with red balls followed a similarly marked route that was closed to civilian traffic. The trucks also had priority on regular roads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20235293",
"title": "A50 motorway (Netherlands)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "The highway was an important and only avenue of advance during Operation Market Garden, and after the fighting along its length between Allied and Wehrmacht forces it was named \"Hell's Highway\" so named because of the effective artillery fire directed at it by the German forces in the area. During the fighting some of the highway south of Eindhoven was jammed with wrecks of vehicles being attacked by up to 200 Luftwaffe bombers requiring bulldozers and blade-equipped tanks to roam the length, pushing them off the surface to keep traffic moving. The wrecks on the soft shoulders of the highway prevented its use by other vehicles, in effect converting the highway into a narrow corridor, and slowing the movement on it to a crawl for the Allied drivers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22317788",
"title": "Highway strip",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "The first highway strips were constructed near the end of World War II in Nazi Germany, where the well developed Reichsautobahn system allowed aircraft to use the motorways. During the Cold War highway strips were systematically built on both sides of the Iron Curtain. In many cases in response to The Six Day War and Operation Focus in 1967, where the Israeli Air Force in a surprise air strike destroyed the majority of its opponents aircraft on the ground and also disabled many of their air bases in just a few hours. Countries that have built highway strips include both West and East Germany, Singapore, North Korea, Taiwan, Sweden, Finland, Bulgaria, Switzerland, Poland, India, Pakistan and Czechoslovakia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50083424",
"title": "Road to the Reich",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Road to the Reich is a 10-minute 1945 Canadian documentary film, directed and produced by Tom Daly for the National Film Board of Canada as part of the wartime \"Canada Carries On\" series. The film documents the Allied forces advances, after the Normandy landings, through France and Belgium during the Second World War. The French version of \"Road to the Reich\" is \"Aux portes du Reich\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "826034",
"title": "Half-track",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II half-track use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "In August 1944, Allied forces liberated Paris, France. The first vehicle to enter the city was an M3 named \"España Cañí\" and driven by Spanish soldiers fighting under the French tricolor. There followed several days of parades in late August. One parade of 25 August 1944 was down the Champs Elysees, with Charles de Gaulle leading throngs of Parisians, and French soldiers driving IH half-tracks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4300784",
"title": "Bundesautobahn 9",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "After World War II, the section from the inner German border to Berlin served as one of four transit access roads through East Germany (GDR) toward West Berlin during the Cold War era. Yellow signs with \"TRANSIT\" in black letters marked the allowed route. Distances were usually given towards \"Berlin - Hauptstadt der DDR\" (\"Berlin - Capital of the GDR\"), i.e. East Berlin. Despite funding from West Germany, road conditions were generally poor. The surface was made up of 1930s concrete slabs rather than blacktop or continuously cast concrete. A section in Thuringia between Schleiz and the Rodaborn rest area even was a cobblestone road, later paved over by the East German authorities until being replaced by concrete in the 1980s. Until the introduction of a new numbering system in 1974, the southern part was known as the West German A 3.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
65e3tl
|
how much of my hunger is based on my regular eating schedule and how much on my body actually needing food?
|
[
{
"answer": "Quite a lot is psychological. I feel hungry if I don't eat at lunchtime when I'm at work, when I usually eat a proper meal. I don't at the same time at weekends when I usually skip food until the evening. So feelings of hunger must be tied in to outside clues as to whether the body expects food.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29265347",
"title": "Food choice",
"section": "Section::::Social influences.:Presence and behavior of others.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "In daily diary studies, individuals have been found to eat from 30 to 40-50 percent more while in the presence of others versus eating alone. In fact, some research has indicated that the rate of intake is best described as a linear function of the number of people present, such that meals eaten with one, four, or seven other people were 33, 69, and 96 percent larger than meals eaten alone, respectively. In addition to these observational findings, there is also experimental evidence for social facilitation effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22180699",
"title": "Diet and obesity",
"section": "Section::::Dietary energy supply.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 917,
"text": "The dietary energy supply is the food available for human consumption, usually expressed in kilocalories per person per day. It gives an overestimate of the total amount of food consumed as it reflects both food consumed and food wasted. The per capita dietary energy supply varies markedly between different regions and countries. It has also changed significantly over time. From the early 1970s to the late 1990s, the average calories available per person per day (the amount of food bought) has increased in all part of the world except Eastern Europe and parts of Africa. The United States had the highest availability with 3654 kilo calories per person in 1996. This increased further in 2002 to 3770. During the late 1990s, Europeans had 3394 kilo calories per person, in the developing areas of Asia there were 2648 kilo calories per person, and in sub-Sahara Africa people had 2176 kilo calories per person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14791055",
"title": "Western pattern diet",
"section": "Section::::Elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "The typical American diet is about 2,200 calories per day, with 50% of calories from carbohydrates, 15% protein, and 35% fat. These macronutrient intakes fall within the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR) for adults identified by the Food and Nutrition Board of the United States Institute of Medicine as \"associated with reduced risk of chronic diseases while providing adequate intakes of essential nutrients,\" which are 45-65% carbohydrate, 10-35% protein, and 20-35% fat as a percentage of total energy. However, the nutritional quality of the specific foods comprising those macronutrients is often poor, as with the \"Western\" pattern discussed above. Complex carbohydrates such as starch are believed to be more healthy than the sugar so frequently consumed in the Standard American Diet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212818",
"title": "Eating",
"section": "Section::::Eating practices among humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "People usually have two or three meals a day. Snacks of smaller amounts may be consumed between meals. Doctors in the UK recommend three meals a day (with between 400–600 kcal per meal), with four to six hours between. Having three well-balanced meals (described as: half of the plate with vegetables, 1/4 protein food as meat, [...] and 1/4 carbohydrates as pasta, rice) will then amount to some 1800–2000 kcal, which is the average requirement for a regular person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202437",
"title": "Meal, Ready-to-Eat",
"section": "Section::::Requirements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Each meal provides about 1,200 calories (5,020.8 kJ). They are intended to be eaten for a maximum of 21 days (the assumption is that logistics units can provide fresh food rations by then), and have a minimum shelf life of three years (depending on storage conditions).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2610779",
"title": "Special Period",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Famine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Nutrition fell from 3,052 calories per day in 1989 to 2,099 calories per day in 1993. Other reports indicate even lower figures, 1,863 calories per day. Some estimated that the very old and children received only 1,450 calories per day. The recommended minimum is 2,100–2,300 calories\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55761001",
"title": "Total Diet Study",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "The Total Diet Study is the US FDA´s ongoing annual assessment of U.S. consumers' average dietary intake of about 800 contaminants and nutrients. To this effort its Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition at College Park, Maryland has been buying, preparing, and analyzing about \"280 kinds of foods and beverages from representative areas of the country, four times a year\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16gx8j
|
If the human population were reduced to one man and one woman, which types of incest would give the race the best chance to survive?
|
[
{
"answer": "On average, you share as much DNA with your siblings as you do with either of your parents. Not sure it would make an difference at all. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This question was asked in a slightly different form in the past two weeks. The question comes down to population genetics and probabilities - how many people are necessary to keep a small population from becoming inbred.\n\nIIRC, the answer given there was ~16 people, where after a generation that large selective choices for mating could reduce or eliminate most problems associated with inbred genetics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54746",
"title": "Incest taboo",
"section": "Section::::Source of the taboo.:Limits to biological evolution of taboo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1096,
"text": "While it is theoretically possible that natural selection may, under certain genetic circumstances, select for individuals that instinctively avoid mating with (close) relatives, biological evolution cannot select for punishing others for incest, since even genetically weakened, inbred individuals are better watchposts against predators than none at all, and weak individuals are useful for the stronger individuals in the group as looking out for predators without being able to seriously compete with the stronger individuals. Punishing both parties in an incestous relation cannot even be beneficial for the genes of individuals punishing a somewhat more distant relative for mating with a closer relative, since punishing the closer relative as well is counterproductive to any function of protecting the closer relative and the health of its offspring (in a context where predation and starvation are significant factors, as opposed to a rich welfare state). Genetic sexual attraction theory is also incompatible with the theory of smell being a significant factor in avoiding inbreeding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52255545",
"title": "Discrimination against intersex people",
"section": "Section::::Right to life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Intersex people face genetic de-selection via pregnancy terminations and preimplantation genetic diagnosis, as well as abandonment, neglect, infanticide and murder due to their sex characteristics. In 2015, the Council of Europe published an Issue Paper on \"Human rights and intersex people\", remarking:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41162624",
"title": "Human mating strategies",
"section": "Section::::Sex differences.:Sexual desire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1399,
"text": "One theory states that because of their lower minimum parental investment, men can achieve greater reproductive success by mating with multiple women than women can achieve by mating with multiple men. Evolutionary psychologists therefore argue that ancestral men who possessed a desire for multiple short-term sex partners, to the extent that they were capable of attracting them, would have left more descendants than men without such a desire. Ancestral women, by contrast, would have maximized reproductive success not by mating with as many men as possible, but by selectively mating with those men who were most able and willing to invest resources in their offspring. Gradually in a bid to compete to get resources from potential men, women have evolved to show extended sexuality. One classic study found that when college students were approached on campus by opposite-sex confederates and asked if they wanted to \"go to bed\" with him/her, 75% of the men said yes while 0% percent of the women said yes. Evidence also indicates that, across cultures, men report a greater openness to casual sex, a larger desired number of sexual partners, and a greater desire to have sex sooner in a relationship. These sex differences have been shown to be reliable across various studies and methodologies. However, there is some controversy as to the scope and interpretation of these sex differences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60162308",
"title": "Eveless",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "In or not long after the year 2525, men survive, but without women. A world conglomerate called Chromocorp has taken control of human reproduction; it is no longer possible for humans to procreate independently. In a remote location, two desperate researchers have dared to resist. The first (Vin Kridakorn) prepares to conduct a radical experimental procedure on the second (Greg Engbrecht), who is, somehow, visibly in the very late stages of pregnancy. Both are very agitated, and the Caesarian section which takes place is a bloody and unpleasant experience for both surgeon and patient (who may die from the procedure). The baby is delivered safely, but joy turns to despair as, it's a boy, and not the girl they had hoped for. The newborn is tossed into a fish tank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4603233",
"title": "Monogenism",
"section": "Section::::Interfertility and biological unity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The interfertility of human races was debated, applying to human speciation arguments advanced already by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon. The criterion of interfertility for a single human species was not universally accepted, being rejected, for example, by Samuel George Morton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26708620",
"title": "Biosocial criminology",
"section": "Section::::Approaches.:Evolutionary psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1193,
"text": "Men can potentially have many children with little effort; women only a few with great effort. One argued consequence of this is that males are more aggressive, and more violently aggressive, than females, since they face higher reproductive competition from their own sex than females. In particular, low-status males may be more likely to remain completely childless. Under such circumstances, it may have been evolutionarily useful to take very high risks and use violent aggression in order to try to increase status and reproductive success rather than become genetically extinct. This may explain why males have higher crime rates than females and why low status and being unmarried is associated with criminality. It may also explain why the degree of income inequality of a society is a better predictor than the absolute income level of the society for male-male homicides; income inequality creates social disparity, while differing average income levels may not do so. Furthermore, competition over females is argued to have been particularly intensive in late adolescence and young adulthood, which is theorized to explain why crime rates are particularly high during this period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1482205",
"title": "Reproductive success",
"section": "Section::::Humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Some research has suggested that historically, women have had a far higher reproductive success rate than men. Dr. Baumeister has suggested that the modern human has twice as many female ancestors as male ancestors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
11frp8
|
autoimmunity
|
[
{
"answer": "Your immune systems attacks your own cells because they think they are foreign. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1175839",
"title": "Lichen sclerosus",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Autoimmunity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Autoimmunity is a process in which the body fails to recognize itself and therefore attacks its own cells and tissue. Specific antibodies have been found in LS. Furthermore, there seems to be a higher prevalence of other autoimmune diseases such as diabetes mellitus type 1, vitiligo and thyroid disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "93842",
"title": "Autoimmunity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Autoimmunity is the system of immune responses of an organism against its own healthy cells and tissues. Any disease that results from such an aberrant immune response is termed an \"autoimmune disease\". Prominent examples include celiac disease, diabetes mellitus type 1, sarcoidosis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Sjögren's syndrome, eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves' disease, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, Addison's disease, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), ankylosing spondylitis, polymyositis (PM), dermatomyositis (DM) and multiple sclerosis (MS). Autoimmune diseases are very often treated with steroids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19468046",
"title": "Autoimmune disease",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Autoimmunity, on the other hand, is the presence of self-reactive immune response (e.g., auto-antibodies, self-reactive T cells), with or without damage or pathology resulting from it. This may be restricted to certain organs (e.g. in autoimmune thyroiditis) or involve a particular tissue in different places (e.g. Goodpasture's disease which may affect the basement membrane in both the lung and the kidney).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17681122",
"title": "Central nervous system disease",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Autoimmune disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "An autoimmune disorder is a condition where in the immune system attacks and destroys healthy body tissue. This is caused by a loss of tolerance to proteins in the body, resulting in immune cells recognising these as 'foreign' and directing an immune response against them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41585434",
"title": "Anti-miRNA oligonucleotides",
"section": "Section::::Disorders/Therapeutics.:Autoimmune Response and Disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Autoimmune disorders are when the body has an immune response to itself, causing an inflammatory reaction to occur within the body. Because autoimmune disorders involve abnormalities in the immune system cells (i.e., B-cells, T-cells). It can be inferred that miRNA are strongly expressed in regions of the body that have to do with the maturation of these T and B lymphocytes, such as in the spleen and lymph nodes. Abnormalities in the miRNA or the function of the miRNA in the post-transcriptional process can result in an increased sensitivity of the lymphocytes. Due to increased sensitivity, these lymphocytes can now target antigens that it could not previously bind, which can allow for these lymphocytes to attack itself, if these antigens happen to naturally occur in cells in the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38238",
"title": "Hepatitis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Autoimmune.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 960,
"text": "Autoimmune hepatitis is a chronic disease caused by an abnormal immune response against liver cells. The disease is thought to have a genetic predisposition as it is associated with certain human leukocyte antigens involved in the immune response. As in other autoimmune diseases, circulating auto-antibodies may be present and are helpful in diagnosis. Auto-antibodies found in patients with autoimmune hepatitis include the sensitive but less specific anti-nuclear antibody (ANA), smooth muscle antibody (SMA), and atypical perinuclear antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (p-ANCA). Other autoantibodies that are less common but more specific to autoimmune hepatitis are the antibodies against liver kidney microsome 1 (LKM1) and soluble liver antigen (SLA). Autoimmune hepatitis can also be triggered by drugs (such as nitrofurantoin, hydralazine, and methyldopa), after liver transplant, or by viruses (such as hepatitis A, Epstein-Barr virus, or measles).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5560406",
"title": "Foam cell",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Autoimmunity occurs when the body starts attacking itself. The link between atherosclerosis and autoimmunity is plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). PDCs contribute to the early stages of the formation of atherosclerotic lesions in the blood vessels by releasing large quantities of type 1 interferons (INF). Stimulation of pDCs leads to an increase of macrophages present in plaques. However, during later stages of lesion progression, pDCs have been shown to have a protective effect by activating T cells and Treg function; leading to disease suppression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1si0v8
|
The Western Way of War: How true is the assertion that the Greeks preferred pitched phalanx battle and despised cavalry, missile troops, and most of all, archers?
|
[
{
"answer": "In respect to cavalry and missile troops, it isn't true.\n\nCavalry had been used to cover the flanks of armies on the battlefield but due to terrain, cavalry wasn't heavily used until Philip II. As for missile troops, slingers and peltasts are commonly used after the Persian Wars to skirmish and soften up the enemy but there is a distaste for archers. Archers don't have a strong tradition in the Greek or Roman armies. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just as a follow-up comment to /u/DonaldFDraper, the \"Western Way of War\" is classically understood to be not related to technology at all (although modern American military scientists continue to insist on technology's inclusion). In the classic sense, it a theory which posits the success of \"western\" cultures on the battlefield relies on an understanding of war which enables killing on a much grander scale than other cultures. \n\nSince the 1950s, modern American military science has started to suggest three elements (technology, willingness to kill (also sanitised as \"destructiveness\"), and \"whole of societal approaches\") are characteristic of the west, although this is disputed in the rest of the world. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "91515",
"title": "Military strategy",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "One of these strategies was shown in the battle between Greek city states and Persia. The Battle of Thermopylae in which the Greek forces were outnumbered stood as a good military strategy. The Greek allied forces ultimately lost the battle, but the training, use of armor, and location allowed them to defeat many Persian troops before losing. In the end, the Greek alliance lost the battle but not the war as a result of that strategy which continued on to the battle of Plataea. The Battle of Plataea in 479 BC resulted in a victory for the Greeks against Persia, which exemplified that military strategy was extremely beneficial to defeating a numerous enemy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20198238",
"title": "First Persian invasion of Greece",
"section": "Section::::Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 1020,
"text": "Militarily, a major lesson for the Greeks was the potential of the hoplite phalanx. This style had developed during internecine warfare amongst the Greeks; since each city-state fought in the same way, the advantages and disadvantages of the hoplite phalanx had not been obvious. Marathon was the first time a phalanx faced more lightly armed troops, and revealed how devastating the hoplites could be in battle. The phalanx formation was still vulnerable to cavalry (the cause of much caution by the Greek forces at the Battle of Plataea), but used in the right circumstances, it was now shown to be a potentially devastating weapon. The Persians seem to have more-or-less disregarded the military lessons of Marathon. The composition of infantry for the second invasion seems to have been the same as during the first, despite the availability of hoplites and other heavy infantry in Persian-ruled lands. Having won battles against hoplites previously, the Persians may simply have regarded Marathon as an aberration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1353452",
"title": "Phalanx",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Battles between two phalanxes usually took place in open, flat plains where it was easier to advance and stay in formation. Rough terrain or hilly regions would have made it difficult to maintain a steady line and would have defeated the purpose of a phalanx. As a result, battles between Greek city-states would not take place in just any location, nor would they be limited to sometimes obvious strategic points. Rather, many times, the two opposing sides would find the most suitable piece of land where the conflict could be settled. Typically, the battle ended with one of the two fighting forces fleeing to safety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3078531",
"title": "Miltiades",
"section": "Section::::Return to Athens.:Battle of Marathon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "One theory for the Greek success in the battle is the lack of Persian cavalry. The theory is that the Persian cavalry left Marathon for an unspecified reason, and that the Greeks moved to take advantage of this by attacking. This theory is based on the absence of any mention of cavalry in Herodotus' account of the battle, and an entry in the Suda dictionary. The entry \"χωρίς ἰππεῖς\" (\"without cavalry\") is explained thus: The cavalry left. When Datis surrendered and was ready for retreat, the Ionians climbed the trees and gave the Athenians the signal that the cavalry had left. And when Miltiades realized that, he attacked and thus won. From there comes the above-mentioned quote, which is used when someone breaks ranks before battle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4806",
"title": "Battle of Marathon",
"section": "Section::::Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Militarily, a major lesson for the Greeks was the potential of the hoplite phalanx. This style had developed during internecine warfare amongst the Greeks; since each city-state fought in the same way, the advantages and disadvantages of the hoplite phalanx had not been obvious. Marathon was the first time a phalanx faced more lightly armed troops, and revealed how effective the hoplites could be in battle. The phalanx formation was still vulnerable to cavalry (the cause of much caution by the Greek forces at the Battle of Plataea), but used in the right circumstances, it was now shown to be a potentially devastating weapon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "298695",
"title": "Ionian Revolt",
"section": "Section::::Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 1112,
"text": "Militarily, it is difficult to draw too many conclusions from the Ionian Revolt, save for what the Greeks and Persians may (or may not) have learnt about each other. Certainly, the Athenians, and Greeks in general, seem to have been impressed by the power of Persian cavalry, with the Greek armies displaying considerable caution during the following campaigns when confronted by the Persian cavalry. Conversely, the Persians seem not to have realised or noticed the potential of the Greek hoplites as heavy infantry. At the Battle of Marathon, in 490 BC, the Persians took little heed of a primarily hoplitic army, resulting in their defeat. Furthermore, despite the possibility of recruiting heavy infantry from their domains, the Persians began the second invasion of Greece without doing so, and again encountered major problems in the face of Greek armies. It is possible that, given the ease of their victories over the Greeks at Ephesus, and similarly armed forces at the battles of the Marsyas River and Labraunda, the Persians simply disregarded the military value of the hoplite phalanx—to their cost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18915414",
"title": "Battle of Kütahya–Eskişehir",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Strategically, the battle was of little importance as the Greeks failed to grasp the opportunity to encircle the retreating Turkish troops. This proved later to be a major strategic error, when the two sides had to meet each other again during the much more fierce Battle of Sakarya which turned the tide in favour of the Turks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
35llio
|
What was Nazi Germany's attitude to the former German Royal Family?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hitler and the Nazis took a very dim view of the German monarchy and were quite hostile to monarchist sentiment and supporters. That being said, he did allow the younger generation of nobles to serve as officers, seeing that they were more open to national socialism than their predecessors and seeing that they were invaluable as officers. Many of Kaiser Wilhelm's sons had children serving in the army, and many royals died in service to the Wehrmacht. But most royals were kicked out of the army as the war went on and Hitler grew increasingly paranoid about a possible monarchist coup. He held Bismarck in quite high esteem, and he saw the Monarch, specifically Kaiser Wilhelm as being the main stumbling block to Germany's success. This quote from Hitler during a meeting in 1941 is quite illuminating:\n\n > The injustice committed by the Kaiser at Bismarck's expense\nfinally recoiled upon him. How could the Kaiser demand\nloyalty from his subjects when he had treated the founder of\nthe Reich with such ingratitude? The shameful thing is that\nthe German people allowed such an injustice to be committed.\nThe generation of 1900 was lost—economically, politically and\nculturally.\n\nHe also spoke critically of the Kaiser's ability to command troops (with no sense of irony):\n\n > Apart from the great victories, like the battle of Tannenberg\nand the battle of the Masurian Marshes, the Imperial High\nCommand proved itself inadequate.\nThe Kaiser put in an appearance on one single occasion,\nbecause he believed that all would go well. During the great\noffensive of 1918, it was trumpeted around that the Kaiser was\ncommanding it in person. The truth was, the Kaiser had no\nnotion of command.\n\nHitler, at a dinner party in May of 1942, again went on a long rant about the Kaiser:\n\n > The behaviour of Wilhelm II in society was unworthy of a\nmonarch. Not only did he consistently ridicule the members of\nhis immediate entourage, but also fired a constant stream of\nironic remarks at his guests for the amusement of the remainder.\nHis bad taste and familiarity with other monarchs—backslapping\nand the like—robbed Germany of much sympathy.\nA monarch must learn that self-restraint and dignity must be\nobserved in everyday life.\nThe example of Wilhelm II shows how one bad monarch can\ndestroy a dynasty. In the same way, those who wish to play\ntheir parts in history must understand that one single bad\ngeneration can cause the ruin of a whole people.\n\nNow Hitler didn't hate monarchy as rule of thumb, indeed there were many German Kaisers and monarchs he respected, but he held dim a view of the Kaiser Wilhelm's monarchy. \n\nHimmler had a different view of the nobility, while Hitler saw them as needlessly decadent and incompetent. Himmler saw their years of selective breeding as being a good thing, assuming it would produce great racial qualities. As a result many young nobles joined the SS. By 1938 a fifth of the top SS officers were nobility. Many like Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski (who played a key role in the suppression of the Warsaw Uprising) found a home in the upper ranks of the SS. \n\nSo moving on from the military, things were not good for monarchists on the home front. In 1934 the Brownshirts and the Gestapo began cracking down on displays in favour of the monarchy. For example private celebrations of the Kaiser's birthday were banned, and celebrations were ruthlessly broken up. Hitler lavished bribes upon old monarchist officers like August Von Mackensen in order to drive them away from Monarchist sentiments. This particular case caused a bit of a ruckus because Von Mackensen wrote to the Kaiser asking if it was okay to accept a gift from Hitler. This show of respect managed to anger both Hitler and the former Kaiser. Finally, with the death of Hindenburg and Hitler's ascension to absolute power, many Monarchist organizations were banned and any hope of a restoration was gone completely.\n\nAmong the monarchists opinion was divided over the Nazis. During the Wiemar years a clear generational gap had emerged. During the Wiemar years many aristocrats had been deprived of their estates and had grown impoverished and had been politically marginalized by the Republic. They longed for the return of the good ole days of the German Empire. To the monarchists the Nazis plans of conquering and colonizing the eastern territories appealed to them and reminded them of their German ancestors who had done the same in Pomerania and Prussia. But to the older monarchists were also familiar with extremist groups. They viewed the Nazis with distrust and saw their fanaticism as being a fatal flaw. The Nazis racial speeches and violent tactics did little to win over the old monarchists. \n\nHowever, the generational gap had created a group of young, radicalized nobles. These nobles, many of whom belonged to the former royal family held much the same views as Hitler with regards to race and foreign policy. Much like Hitler, these young nobles despised the older generation for surrendering in 1918. This group of young nobles supported the Nazis. And the Nazis made great use of these supporters during election time, using them to win votes from conservatives who otherwise would have been put off by the Nazis fanaticism. Prince August Wilhelm of\nPrussia and Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm were both early supporters of Hitler. \n\nSo how did the Kaiser himself react to Nazism? Well he held much the same view that the older generation did. He initially supported the Nazis assuming that they would restore the monarchy, but once the Nazis made it clear that wasn't going to happen, he turned against them. He viewed things such as the night of the long knives, where the Nazis purged many monarchist supporters among others, as \"gangster tactics\" that had no place in Germany. \n\nKaiser Wilhelm in his later years kinda waned between being a supporter of Nazi racial doctrine, and being against it. He would often complain of a Jewish plot against Germany, with Jews manipulating Britain against Germany. But he also opposed the violence of things like the Night of Broken Glass, where Nazi supporters and angry German citizens attacked Jewish shops and synagogues. He said \"What would people have said if I did such a thing?\" \n\nThere was an incident before WWI, where Kaiser Wilhelm's son was given a book, written by a nationalist author named Konstantin von Gebsattel, called \"If I were Kaiser\" which argued for harsh measures against the Jews and the Social Democrats; as well as authoritarian rule by the Kaiser. The author forwarded his ideas to Kaiser Wilhelm's son, a known nationalist. The Kaiser shot down his son's and Gebsattel's ideas as \"Childish\" and \"potentially destabilizing.\" Furthermore Gebsattel was regarded as a \"Weird Enthusiast.\" None the less the Kaiser did read the book \"Foundations of the Nineteenth Century\" by Houston Stewart Chamberlain and looked fondly on its anti-Semitic stereotypes. But the Kaiser never dreamed of actually acting on those ideas, and didn't dream of seriosu restrictions on the Jewish population. \n\nWhen the Nazis took over the Netherlands, Kaiser Wilhelm was given a permanent SS guard and people were forbidden from visiting him to pay respects. Even Hermann Goering, the number 2 man in Nazi Germany, couldn't visit the Kaiser. Which speaks to Hitler's irrational fear of Monarchist sentiment. \n\nEdit:\n\nFor the quotes I drew directly from Hitler's Table Talk and Mein Kampf. For the Nazis smashing of the Monarchist movement I recommend Richard J. Evans' treatment of the Nazi political movement in his book \"The Third Reich in Power.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18306524",
"title": "Prince Wilhelm of Prussia (1906–1940)",
"section": "Section::::Death and reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "His death and the ensuing sympathy of the German public revealed that despite years of Nazi ideologic indoctrination large parts of the German society still were affectionately bound to the former German royal houses. Shortly after Wilhelm's death, a decree known as the \"Prinzenerlaß\", or Prince's Decree, was issued, barring all members of the former German royal houses from service in the \"Wehrmacht\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "763046",
"title": "Frederica of Hanover",
"section": "Section::::Queen consort.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "Queen Frederica was constantly attacked for her German ancestry. Left-wing politicians in Greece repeatedly used the fact that the Kaiser was her grandfather, and that she had brothers who were members of the SS, as propaganda against her. She was also criticized variously as \"very Prussian\" and \"was a Nazi\". When she was in London representing her sick husband at the wedding of his first cousin Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark to King George VI's elder daughter Princess Elizabeth in November 1947, Winston Churchill remarked on the Kaiser being her grandfather. Queen Frederica had replied acknowledging the fact, but reminding him that she was also descended from Queen Victoria, and that her father would be the British king if the country had operated under Salic Law (allowing only males to inherit the crown).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71920",
"title": "House of Orange-Nassau",
"section": "Section::::The Monarchy (since 1815).:A modern monarchy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "A royal marriage policy quarrel occurred starting in 1966 when Juliana's eldest daughter, the future Queen Beatrix, decided to marry Claus von Amsberg, a German diplomat. The marriage of a member of the royal family to a German was quite controversial in the Netherlands, which had suffered under Nazi German occupation in 1940–45. This reluctance to accept a German consort probably was exacerbated by von Amsberg's former membership in the Hitler Youth under the Nazi regime in his native country, and also his following service in the German Wehrmacht. Beatrix needed permission from the government to marry anyone if she wanted to remain heiress to the throne, but after some argument, it was granted. As the years went by, Prince Claus was fully accepted by the Dutch people. In time, he became one of the most popular members of the Dutch monarchy, and his death in 2002 was widely mourned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "612575",
"title": "Titles Deprivation Act 1917",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 883,
"text": "The British Royal Family was closely related to many of the royal and princely families of Germany. In particular, the 1837 accession of Queen Victoria had caused the Kingdom of Hanover, which had been in personal union with the British crown for over a century, to pass to her uncle the Duke of Cumberland and his descendants, who simultaneously retained his British titles and princely rank. Similarly, Queen Victoria married Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, whose German titles passed eventually to the descendants of their youngest son Leopold, Duke of Albany. Thus, during World War I, both Charles Edward, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Ernest Augustus, former Crown Prince of Hanover were British princes and dukes, even while they were also officers in the German Army (as was the latter's son, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick, who also held British princely rank).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50450",
"title": "Wilhelm II, German Emperor",
"section": "Section::::Abdication and flight.:Life in exile.:Views on Nazism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "In the early 1930s, Wilhelm apparently hoped that the successes of the German Nazi Party would stimulate interest in a restoration of the monarchy, with his eldest grandson as the fourth Kaiser. His second wife, Hermine, actively petitioned the Nazi government on her husband's behalf. However, Adolf Hitler, himself a veteran of the First World War, like other leading Nazis, felt nothing but contempt for the man they blamed for Germany's greatest defeat, and the petitions were ignored. Though he played host to Hermann Göring at Doorn on at least one occasion, Wilhelm grew to distrust Hitler. Hearing of the murder of the wife of former Chancellor Schleicher, he said \"We have ceased to live under the rule of law and everyone must be prepared for the possibility that the Nazis will push their way in and put them up against the wall!\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28891892",
"title": "Princess Marie Adelheid of Lippe",
"section": "Section::::A Nazi princess.:Early years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Alarmed by the failure of their class to respond to the troubles occurring in Germany, many younger members of royal families joined the emerging Nazi party and other radical right-wing groups. In the beginning, many of them were women. Like the Hesse family, the Lippe dynasty joined the Nazi party in great numbers (ultimately eighteen members would eventually join). Some German states provided a proportionally higher number of SS officers, including Hesse-Nassau and Lippe, Marie Adelheid's birthplace. As an ardent believer of the party's views, Marie Adelheid developed strong connections to the emerging Nazi regime, and became a leading socialite during that time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31045316",
"title": "Nazism",
"section": "Section::::Position within the political spectrum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was pressured to abdicate the throne and flee into exile amidst an attempted communist revolution in Germany, initially supported the Nazi Party. His four sons, including Prince Eitel Friedrich and Prince Oskar, became members of the Nazi Party in hopes that in exchange for their support, the Nazis would permit the restoration of the monarchy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2zfj9i
|
when someone has their identity stolen, why is their responsibility to fix it and not those of the banks/organizations who allowed the thief to do so?
|
[
{
"answer": "quick tip, when i trash anything that contains my info, and i dont have a shredder, i just put like 5 liters of water in to the bag, if you want to steal my info, better be prepared to deal with bunch of wet ripped paper in a bag.\n\ngood luck.\n\nif it dries before you get to it, all the better.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a general rule, the bank/organization didn't let the thief steal your identity, you did. The bank didn't give them your info, they got it from something you did. Order online from a sketchy site? That's on you. Pay at a sketchy restaurant? That's on you. Use a tampered ATM? Also you. Bottom line is that unless someone hacks the bank's database to steal your info, they got it from *you,* so it's *your* responsibility to get it fixed. Typically banks will help you out by freezing your accounts when they see suspicious activity, but that's just them doing you a favor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > as far as taking out a mortgage or opening a new bank account, why aren't these institutions held responsible for not verifying one's identity?\n\nIn such situations (which I suspect are *very* rare) the bank *did* verify the person's identity. The identity thief had all of the necessary documents and information to prove that they were you. That is, they provided the same documentation that you yourself would have been asked to give.\n\nSure, you could ask that the bank do a more thorough job, but that comes at a cost. Do you want to have to show a birth certificate and passport just to be able to open a savings account? Some risk is necessary to make the product they're offering convenient enough to be used at all. And if an identity thief manages to get a fake driver's license and social security card, knows the answers to all your security questions, etc. then the bank is just as much of a victim as you are.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a few good answers here already, but I'll delve into one more aspect of it - it's hard to determine liability in these situations. Did the bank lose your information, or did the identity thieves get that information through multiple sources? Was there active negligence on the part of the bank, or did the thieves exploit a bug that the bank was unaware of? If they exploited a bug, is it the bank's fault or the software vendor's fault?\n\nTake the Target breach that took place in late 2013. The thieves hacked into a company responsible for maintaining some A/C units to then gain access to Target's network, from where they attacked the server that pushed updates out to all of the cash register systems. They loaded a custom virus onto those servers which then exploited normal processes and was pushed out to all of the registers, from where they exploited the fraction of a second where the credit card number wasn't encrypted to capture it and send it off to the criminals who wrote the software. Who is at fault for that? Target, who had some very serious effort going in to maintaining information security? The A/C repair vendor, who didn't actually have anything to do with the servers in the first place? You, for shopping at Target and giving up your personal information to them? The software vendor that got exploited on the main server? \n\nThe problem here is also reflected in the prosecution of these crimes as well, in that these crimes are frequent, extremely complex, and usually take place over multiple jurisdictions (local, state, federal, and international). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "180609",
"title": "Identity theft",
"section": "Section::::Indicators of identity theft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "The majority of identity theft victims do not realize that they are a victim until it has negatively impacted their lives. Many people do not find out that their identities have been stolen until they are contacted by financial institutions or discover suspicious activities on their bank accounts. According to an article by Herb Weisbaum, everyone in the US should assume that their personal information has been compromised at one point. It is therefore of great importance to watch out for warning signs that your identity has been compromised. The following are eleven indicators that someone else might be using your identity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "180609",
"title": "Identity theft",
"section": "Section::::Potential outcomes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Victims of identity theft may face years of effort proving to the legal system that they are the true person, leading to emotional strain and financial losses. Most identity theft is perpetrated by a family member of the victim, and some may not be able to obtain new credit cards or open new bank accounts or loans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37429859",
"title": "United States v. Clark",
"section": "Section::::Legal details: identity theft and bank fraud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Identity theft is usually not committed as an end in itself but rather as a means of a facilitating some other crime like financial or real property theft. Identity theft was not a federal crime in the US until 1998 when the Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act became effective. Previously only credit granting agencies who suffered monetary losses were considered victims. With the passing of this act it was the first time that the person whose ID was stolen was viewed as the actual victim.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3076433",
"title": "Ghosting (identity theft)",
"section": "Section::::General description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Typically, identity theft is done for criminal financial gain, with the thief preying upon the credit rating of a living person who is an active member of society. The identity thief retains their own name and place in society while making unlawful use of someone else's more advantageous financial status. The so-called \"identity thief\" is really more interested in exploiting someone else's financial credit rather than acquiring that person's identity. In this sense, it is the creditors, not the person's family and friends, who are the primary victims of this crime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "180609",
"title": "Identity theft",
"section": "Section::::Individual identity protection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 948,
"text": "Identity theft can be partially mitigated by \"not\" identifying oneself unnecessarily (a form of information security control known as risk avoidance). This implies that organizations, IT systems and procedures should not demand excessive amounts of personal information or credentials for identification and authentication. Requiring, storing and processing personal identifiers (such as Social Security number, national identification number, driver's license number, credit card number, etc.) increases the risks of identity theft unless this valuable personal information is adequately secured at all times. Committing personal identifiers to memory is a sound practice that can reduce the risks of a would-be identity thief from obtaining these records. To help in remembering numbers such as social security numbers and credit card numbers, it is helpful to consider using mnemonic techniques or memory aids such as the mnemonic Major System.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41026299",
"title": "Identity theft in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Identity theft involves obtaining somebody else's identifying information and using it for a criminal purpose. Most often that purpose is to commit financial fraud, such as by obtaining loans or credits in the name of the person whose identity has been stolen. Stolen identifying information might also be used for other reasons, such as to obtain identification cards or for purposes of employment by somebody not legally authorized to work in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6775921",
"title": "Mortgage fraud",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Identity theft: Occurs when a person assumes the identity of another and uses that identity to obtain a mortgage without the knowledge or consent of the victim. In these schemes, the thieves disappear without making payments on the mortgage. The schemes are usually not discovered until the lender tries to collect from the victim, who may incur substantial costs trying to prove the theft of his/her identity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ef1dac
|
why do fingernails turn translucently clear and become more flexible when wet?
|
[
{
"answer": "Nails are made of the same stuff as your hair, and rhino horns: a protein called keratin. Keratin can come in lots of sizes and shapes. In your nails, it is like stacks of thin scales one on top of the other (you've probably seen nails that are damaged can flake and peel). The whiteness of your nail tips isn't from the colour of the keratin itself. It's white for the same reason clouds are white even though they're made of transparent water: it reflects light. The reflections happen at the edges of the keratin scales, where there are air gaps. When your nail gets wet, water fills these tiny air gaps and this reduces the amount of light that can get reflected: it can travel straight through and make the nail look transparent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59660",
"title": "Integumentary system",
"section": "Section::::Skin.:Epidermis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "The protein keratin stiffens epidermal tissue to form fingernails. Nails grow from a thin area called the nail matrix at an average of 1 mm per week. The lunula is the crescent-shape area at the base of the nail, lighter in color as it mixes with the matrix cells. Also, the stratum corneum is the top part of the epidermis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "397986",
"title": "Nail (anatomy)",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Effect of nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Protein is a building material for new nails; therefore, low dietary protein intake may cause anemia and the resultant reduced hemoglobin in the blood filling the capillaries of the nail bed reflects varying amounts of light incident on the nail matrix resulting in lighter shades of pink ultimately resulting in white nail beds when the hemoglobin is very low. When hemoglobin is close to 15 or 16 grams, most of the spectrum of light is absorbed and only the pink color is reflected back and the nails look pink.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13787882",
"title": "Nail buffing",
"section": "Section::::Technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Traditionally, a buffing cream and chamois skin have been used. Modern instruments are much more efficient and are similar in appearance to a large rubber eraser, with different sides for different levels of coarseness. As buffing is gentle surface abrasion, it should not be performed too strongly or too often or thinning of the nail may result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35668259",
"title": "Glass nail file",
"section": "Section::::Distinctive features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Mild care: Due to the granular surface the glass nail file doesn't injure fingernails during manicure, grinding them softly and smoothly. With continuous use with such a nail file, the fingernails become stronger and cease to stratify.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2617924",
"title": "Sepiolite",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Sepiolite is opaque and off-white, grey or cream color, breaking with a conchoidal or fine earthy fracture, and occasionally fibrous in texture. Due to the fact it can be readily scratched with the finger nail, its hardness is ranked at about 2 on the Mohs scale. The specific gravity varies from 0.988 to 1.279, but the porosity of the mineral may lead to error. Sepiolite is a hydrous magnesium silicate having the chemical formula MgSiO(OH)·6HO.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35922455",
"title": "Water marble nail",
"section": "Section::::Technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "After the base coat has dried, tape is put around the fingers to gather the excess nail polish after the marbling. One or two drops of colored lacquer are chosen for the design and are added to a cup of clean water. The drops will create a circle on the water surface. The next color is added on top of the circle created by the previous drop. The resulting pattern is ready for application to the nail, but it can still be modified with a stick or toothpick to create different shapes. The nail is dipped into the pattern on the water and kept under water as a Q-tip is used to \"grab\" the remaining polish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20976520",
"title": "Cuttlefish",
"section": "Section::::Communication.:Interspecific communication.:Camouflage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Cuttlefish are also able to change the texture of their skin. The skin contains bands of circular muscle which as they contract, push fluid up. These can be seen as little spikes, bumps, or flat blades. This can help with camouflage when the cuttlefish becomes texturally as well as chromatically similar to objects in its environment such as kelp or rocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ef2ik
|
What specific part of cigarettes are cancerous?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are a lot of carcinogens in cigarettes, with ~60 out of the 2000 - 4000 chemicals being known human carcinogens. The most common known carcinogens in cigarettes are:\n\n- Tar\n- Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g. naphthalene, benzopyrene)\n- Nicotine (this hasn't be confirmed, however there have been associated links between tumor promotion and nicotine)\n- Formaldehyde\n- Nitrosamines\n\nOf course there's a fair few others such as Polonium-210, a radioactive element (low amounts, but still enough to be carcinogenic with frequent usage).\n\nThere are also other chemicals present in cigarette smoke that while might not be directly carcinogenic, could indirectly increases ones chances of cancer due to the cellular damage caused by said chemicals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26912024",
"title": "Adenocarcinoma of the lung",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Risk factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 962,
"text": "This cancer usually is seen peripherally in the lungs, as opposed to small cell lung cancer and squamous cell lung cancer, which both tend to be more centrally located, although it may also occur as central lesions. For unknown reasons, it often arises in relation to peripheral lung scars. The current theory is that the scar probably occurred secondary to the tumor, rather than causing the tumor. The adenocarcinoma has an increased incidence in smokers, and is the most common type of lung cancer seen in non-smokers and women. The peripheral location of adenocarcinoma in the lungs may be due to the use of filters in cigarettes which prevent the larger particles from entering the lung. Deeper inhalation of cigarette smoke results in peripheral lesions that are often the case in adenocarcinomas of the lung. Generally, adenocarcinoma grows more slowly and forms smaller masses than the other subtypes. However, it tends to metastasize at an early stage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32203389",
"title": "Basaloid squamous cell lung carcinoma",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Basaloid carcinomas of the lung - like nearly all recognized variants of lung cancer - are highly associated with tobacco smoking. Basaloid architecture in pulmonary carcinomas has been shown to be particularly prevalent in smokers with heavy exposure, and squamous cell carcinoma has the strongest association with tobacco exposure than any other major cell type of NSCLC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16658662",
"title": "Hypopharyngeal cancer",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Smoking, like lung cancer, can cause hypopharyngeal cancer because it contains carcinogens that alter the DNA or RNA in a dividing cell. These alterations may change a normal DNA sequence to an oncogene, a gene that causes cancer after exposure to a carcinogen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32271726",
"title": "Basaloid large cell carcinoma of the lung",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Basaloid carcinomas of the lung (like nearly all other recognized subtypes of lung cancer) are highly associated with tobacco smoking. Basaloid architecture in pulmonary carcinomas have been shown to be particularly prevalent in smokers with heavy exposure,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6445",
"title": "Carcinogen",
"section": "Section::::In cigarettes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "There is a strong association of smoking with lung cancer; the lifetime risk of developing lung cancer increases significantly in smokers. A large number of known carcinogens are found in cigarette smoke. Potent carcinogens found in cigarette smoke include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH, such as benzo[a]pyrene), Benzene, and Nitrosamine. The tar from cigarette smoke is similar to that of marijuana smoke and contains similar carcinogens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60746750",
"title": "Lung cancer in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.:Smoking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Smoking contributes to 90% of lung cancer diagnosis. This is because cigarette and tobacco smoke contain several known carcinogens that alter and damage DNA sequences affecting its ability to proliferate, undergo apoptosis and DNA repair. Carcinogens include benzene, 2-napthylamine, 4-aminobiphenyl, chromium, cadmium, vinyl chloride, ethylene oxide, arsenic, beryllium, nickel and polnium-210. In addition, nicotine is also an active.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38327",
"title": "Cigarette",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Smokers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 185,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 185,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "The most important chemical compounds causing cancer are those that produce DNA damage since such damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer. Cunningham et al. combined the microgram weight of the compound in the smoke of one cigarette with the known genotoxic effect per microgram to identify the most carcinogenic compounds in cigarette smoke. The seven most important carcinogens in tobacco smoke are shown in the table, along with DNA alterations they cause. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ox28h
|
why is the letter "w" sometimes pronounced like the letter "v" and vice versa, the letter "v" is pronounced like the letter "w" in some non-english languages?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not all languages have the same grammatical constructs as English. Latin didn't have all the letters of modern day english, it was missing the J and W, and had the I and V in their place. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The letter V was originally used in Latin to represent the sound /w/ (The English \"w\" sound). In vulgar Latin, that /w/ sound became the bilabial fricative /β/ between vowels. That sound is similar to a /v/ sound (as in English \"vat\"). Other languages borrowed the Latin alphabet, but they had a /w/ sound that Latin no longer had. So they used the digraph \"VV\" (or \"uu\") to represent that sound. Over time, that digraph began to be written as a ligature, \"W\". So they were using the letter W to represent the sound /w/. In some languages, that /w/ sound evolved into /v/, but they kept using the same letter. That's why German and other languages (I think Slavic languages and maybe a few other Germanic languages) use \"W\" to represent a /v/ sound.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17730",
"title": "Latin",
"section": "Section::::Orthography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "\"W\" was created in the 11th century from \"VV\". It represented in Germanic languages, not Latin, which still uses \"V\" for the purpose. \"J\" was distinguished from the original \"I\" only during the late Middle Ages, as was the letter \"U\" from \"V\". Although some Latin dictionaries use \"J\", it is rarely used for Latin text, as it was not used in classical times, but many other languages use it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "73490",
"title": "Regional handwriting variation",
"section": "Section::::The Latin writing system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "The lowercase letters u and v — These letters have a common origin and were once written according to the location in the word rather than the sound. The v came first; the u originally had a loop extending to the left and was only used to start words. All other locations for either u or v were written with the latter. In Germany (especially southern Germany), Austria and Switzerland, lowercase u is often written with a horizontal stroke or swish over it (\"ŭ\", \"ū\", \"ũ\"), to distinguish it from n.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11884",
"title": "German language",
"section": "Section::::Phonology.:Consonants.:Consonant spellings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 257,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 257,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "BULLET::::- v is pronounced in a limited number of words of Germanic origin, such as , \"bird\", \"from, of\", \"before, in front of\", \"full\" and the prefix . It is also used in loanwords, where it is normally pronounced . This pronunciation is common in words like , , , , , , and English loanwords; however, pronunciation is by some people in some in the very south. The only non-German word in which \"v\" is always pronounced \"f\" is (Eve).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "194335",
"title": "Swedish alphabet",
"section": "Section::::Letters.:Uncommon letters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1139,
"text": "The letter 'W' is rare. Before the 19th century, 'W' was interchangeable with 'V' ('W' was used in Fraktur, 'V' in Antiqua). Official orthographic standards since 1801 use only 'V' for common words. Many family names kept their 'W' despite the change to common words. Foreign words and names bring in uses of 'W', particularly combinations with \"webb\" for (World Wide) Web. Swedish sorting traditionally and officially treated 'V' and 'W' as equivalent, so that users would not have to guess whether the word, or name, they were seeking was spelled with a 'V' or a 'W'. The two letters were often combined in the collating sequence as if they were all 'V' (or all 'W'), until 2006 when the 13th edition of \"Svenska Akademiens ordlista\" (The Swedish Academy's Orthographic Dictionary) declared a change.. By 2006, 'W' had grown in usage because of new loanwords, so 'W' officially became a letter, and the 'V' = 'W' sorting rule was deprecated. Pre-2006 books and software generally use the rule. After the rule was deprecated, some books and software continued to apply it. Visual Studio 2010 documentation shows the rule still in effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "347594",
"title": "Belgian French",
"section": "Section::::Phonology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "BULLET::::- The letter \"w\" is almost always pronounced as , like in English, which also approximates the Flemish \"w\". In France, it is often pronounced , as in German. For example, the word \"wagon\" (train car) is pronounced in France but in Belgium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7286347",
"title": "History of the Latin script",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "The use of the letters I and V for both consonants and vowels proved inconvenient as the Latin alphabet was adapted to Germanic and Romance languages. W originated as a doubled V (VV) used to represent the sound found in Old English as early as the 7th century. It came into common use in the later 11th century, replacing the runic Wynn letter which had been used for the same sound. In the Romance languages, the minuscule form of V was a rounded \"u\"; from this was derived a rounded capital U for the vowel in the 16th century, while a new, pointed minuscule \"v\" was derived from V for the consonant. In the case of I, a word-final swash form, \"j\", came to be used for the consonant, with the un-swashed form restricted to vowel use. Such conventions were erratic for centuries. J was introduced into English for the consonant in the 17th century (it had been rare as a vowel), but it was not universally considered a distinct letter in the alphabetic order until the 19th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6683766",
"title": "Latin script",
"section": "Section::::History.:ISO basic Latin alphabet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "The use of the letters I and V for both consonants and vowels proved inconvenient as the Latin alphabet was adapted to Germanic and Romance languages. W originated as a doubled V (VV) used to represent the sound found in Old English as early as the 7th century. It came into common use in the later 11th century, replacing the runic Wynn letter which had been used for the same sound. In the Romance languages, the minuscule form of V was a rounded \"u\"; from this was derived a rounded capital U for the vowel in the 16th century, while a new, pointed minuscule \"v\" was derived from V for the consonant. In the case of I, a word-final swash form, \"j\", came to be used for the consonant, with the un-swashed form restricted to vowel use. Such conventions were erratic for centuries. J was introduced into English for the consonant in the 17th century (it had been rare as a vowel), but it was not universally considered a distinct letter in the alphabetic order until the 19th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2q1fec
|
If the speed of light changes when it travels through different mediums, does this mean light accelerates when it enter and leaves a medium?
|
[
{
"answer": "The short answer is no, the process of refraction is actually tricky to explain properly, but I will do my best! If we consider the classical picture of light, we have an electromagnetic (EM) wave which consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. As this wave enters a medium (such as glass) the oscillating electric and magnetic fields interact with the atoms that make up the material and cause the electrons within these atoms to oscillate as well. As these electrons oscillate they in turn produce EM waves themselves. \n\nSo now in our system we have our original EM wave from our light source, as well as many more EM waves created via oscillating electrons. All of these individual waves will interfere with each other and produce some total wave which is a superposition of all the contributions from the many EM waves in our system. In general, the result of this superposition is a wave which has a velocity less than the speed of light. However, it is important to note that this is not because any of the individual EM waves are moving slower than the speed of light, but because of relative phase shifts between the waves which leads to a superposition that gives a wave with a speed less than that of light.\n\nTo answer your question specifically, as light moves from one material to another the contributions to this superposition will change which will change the speed of the resultant superimposed wave, however the individual EM waves of light are not themselves accelerating.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1437696",
"title": "Velocity-addition formula",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Fizeau experiment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "When light propagates in a medium, its speed is reduced, in the rest frame of the medium, to , where is the index of refraction of the medium . The speed of light in a medium uniformly moving with speed in the positive -direction as measured in the lab frame is given directly by the velocity addition formulas. For the forward direction (standard configuration, drop index on ) one gets,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25880",
"title": "Refractive index",
"section": "Section::::Relations to other quantities.:Refraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "When light moves from one medium to another, it changes direction, i.e. it is refracted. If it moves from a medium with refractive index \"n\" to one with refractive index \"n\", with an incidence angle to the surface normal of \"θ\", the refraction angle \"θ\" can be calculated from Snell's law:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "282998",
"title": "Prism",
"section": "Section::::How prisms work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1175,
"text": "Light changes speed as it moves from one medium to another (for example, from air into the glass of the prism). This speed change causes the light to be refracted and to enter the new medium at a different angle (Huygens principle). The degree of bending of the light's path depends on the angle that the incident beam of light makes with the surface, and on the ratio between the refractive indices of the two media (Snell's law). The refractive index of many materials (such as glass) varies with the wavelength or color of the light used, a phenomenon known as \"dispersion\". This causes light of different colors to be refracted differently and to leave the prism at different angles, creating an effect similar to a rainbow. This can be used to separate a beam of white light into its constituent spectrum of colors. A similar separation happens with iridescent materials, such as a soap bubble. Prisms will generally disperse light over a much larger frequency bandwidth than diffraction gratings, making them useful for broad-spectrum spectroscopy. Furthermore, prisms do not suffer from complications arising from overlapping spectral orders, which all gratings have.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3850488",
"title": "Slow light",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "When light propagates through a material, it travels slower than the vacuum speed, . This is a change in the phase velocity of the light and is manifested in physical effects such as refraction. This reduction in speed is quantified by the ratio between and the phase velocity. This ratio is called the refractive index of the material. Slow light is a dramatic reduction in the group velocity of light, not the phase velocity. Slow light effects are not due to abnormally large refractive indices, as which will be explained below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25880",
"title": "Refractive index",
"section": "Section::::Relations to other quantities.:Refraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "When light enters a material with higher refractive index, the angle of refraction will be smaller than the angle of incidence and the light will be refracted towards the normal of the surface. The higher the refractive index, the closer to the normal direction the light will travel. When passing into a medium with lower refractive index, the light will instead be refracted away from the normal, towards the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5192839",
"title": "Magneto-optic Kerr effect",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "where formula_3 is the velocity of light through the material, formula_1 is the material permittivity, and formula_5 is the magnetic permeability; and thus the speed of light varies depending on its orientation. This causes fluctuations in the phase of polarized incident light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11736738",
"title": "Fizeau interferometer",
"section": "Section::::Fizeau's ether-drag experiment.:Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "According to the theories prevailing at the time, light traveling through a moving medium would be dragged along by the medium, so the measured speed of the light would be a simple sum of its speed \"through\" the medium plus the speed \"of\" the medium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dv2gjz
|
How did debtors’ prison work?
|
[
{
"answer": "The assumption by the creditors, in having a debtor put into a prison, was that the debtor's friends and family would step forward and pay the debts, that the debtor would somehow find the money somewhere...and that, unless the debtor wasn't put in jail, they would never step forward and do that. It is a pretty bizarre notion to our modern minds, but you have to remember that , for most people England in the 18th - early 19th. c., the world was structured into family units. Farms, businesses, great houses and estates of the nobility were generally all owned by families. If, as a young adult, you learned a trade or simply learned to serve, as an apprentice or a servant, you would move from your family household into another family household. So, the idea that a family would come to the rescue of a debtor in prison was not as far fetched as it seems now.\n\nIt was also easy to get into debt. There was a generally a scarcity of currency, and lots of people would also have a seasonal income, so most merchants ( if not all) would carry purchases on their books- if they approved of you , you'd stop in, buy something, and have it added to your account. Then periodically you'd pay your account ( and there might be some trading, here- like, bringing the merchant a few geese, instead of a few shillings). It was therefore comparatively easy for people to fall into the trap of living beyond their means. Of course, it was readily seen that some fault therefore lay with the merchant, and the merchant might also be more than a little aggressive ( he , too, would likely have debts to pay). With a lawyer he could swear out an affadavit that the debt was owed, that could b presented to the judge, and if the debt was over a certain amount ( 2 pounds, in England) the debtor could be arrested- he would not be asked for records of his own , before he was detained. He might be able to get someone to bail him immediately- accept paying for his debt. But otherwise, he was on the hook. As Samuel Johnson wrote ( in his *Idler* essays)\n\n > The confinement ... of any man in the sloth and darkness of a prison, is a loss to the nation, and no gain to the creditor. For, of the multitudes who are pining in those cells of misery, a very small part is suspected of any fraudulent act by which they retain what belongs to others. The rest are imprisoned by the wantonness of pride, the malignity of revenge, or the acrimony of disappointed expectation\n\nJohnson was imprisoned for debt a couple of times, his friend Oliver Goldsmith as well. It was a common theme in Hogarth's paintings and etchings. [Here](_URL_1_) in the Rake's Progress you can see the Rake finally getting arrested for debt, with an officer of the court standing off and letting the rough-looking bailiffs handle the apprehension. Later, you can [see him in the prison](_URL_0_), with both jailer and a serving boy from a tavern wanting to be paid. Nothing was free in debtor's prison: a criminal had his basic needs met, but not the debtor. Though, interestingly, in England after 1759 the creditor had to put up a very small amount of money for the debtor- basically, so they would not just starve.\n\nHow could you work off your debt? If you were lucky, you might write a play or something that could be sold ( notice that's what the Rake seems to be doing) . Or you might simply beg. Or your wife: just as married men were responsible for the debts of their wives, wives had no immunity from the debts of their husbands. While not being locked up, they could stand outside and appeal to passersby. The debtors ( in England) could not be made to work, however. Of course, if the debtor was well-connected, had wealthy friends, they could pay for much better lodgings for him, more decent food. If the debt was huge, that could be preferable to paying it. But the well-connected would often simply abscond to someplace like France, where the creditors couldn't reach them. The poor had little chance of that.\n\nJerry White: *Mansions of Misery*",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1109998",
"title": "Debtors' prison",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "A debtors' prison is a prison for people who are unable to pay debt. Through the mid 19th century, debtors' prisons (usually similar in form to locked workhouses) were a common way to deal with unpaid debt in places like Western Europe. Destitute persons who were unable to pay a court-ordered judgment would be incarcerated in these prisons until they had worked off their debt via labour or secured outside funds to pay the balance. The product of their labour went towards both the costs of their incarceration and their accrued debt. Increasing access and lenience throughout the history of bankruptcy law have made prison terms for unaggravated indigence illegal over most of the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1109998",
"title": "Debtors' prison",
"section": "Section::::By region.:United States of America.:Modern debtors' prisons (1970–current).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "While the United States no longer has brick and mortar debtors' prisons, or \"gaols for debtors\" of private debts, the term \"debtor's prison\" in modern times sometimes refers to the practice of imprisoning indigent criminal defendants for matters related to either a fine or a fee imposed in criminal judgments. To what extent a debtor will actually be prosecuted varies from state to state. This modern use of the term debtors' prison arguably has its start with precedent rulings in 1970, 1971 and 1983 by the U.S. Supreme Court, and passage of the Bankruptcy Reform Act of 1978.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14876329",
"title": "Marshalsea",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Debt in England.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "Prisoners would often take their families with them, which meant that entire communities sprang up inside the debtors' jails. The community created its own economy, with jailers charging for room, food, drink and furniture, or selling concessions to others, and attorneys charging fees in fruitless efforts to get the debtors out. Prisoners' families, including children, often had to find employment simply to cover the cost of the imprisonment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22041420",
"title": "Tax protester arguments",
"section": "Section::::Denial of tax liability.:Other arguments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "In the United States, debtor's prison was seen as an inhumane practice, and was mostly abolished in the 19th century. Tax protesters argue that prison for tax evasion is just as inhumane, for the same reasons. One owes a bank or a person, while the other owes the government. Some argue for gentler penalties instead of imprisonment, such as fines, community service, wage garnishment, lien on house, taking tax money owed from a bank account, repossession, and foreclosure, much like the penalties of private or bank debt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1109998",
"title": "Debtors' prison",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1225,
"text": "Since the late 20th century, the term \"debtors' prison\" has also sometimes been applied by critics to criminal justice systems in which a court can sentence someone to prison over willfully unpaid criminal fees, usually following the order of a judge. For example, in some jurisdictions within the United States, people can be held in contempt of court and jailed after willful non-payment of child support, garnishments, confiscations, fines, or back taxes. Additionally, though properly served civil duties over private debts in nations such as the United States will merely result in a default judgment being rendered \"in absentia\" if the defendant willfully declines to appear by law, a substantial number of indigent debtors are legally incarcerated for the crime of failing to appear at civil debt proceedings as ordered by a judge. In this case, the crime is not indigence, but disobeying the judge's order to appear before the court. Critics argue that the \"willful\" terminology is subject to individual \"mens rea\" determination by a judge, rather than statute, and that since this presents the potential for judges to incarcerate legitimately indigent individuals, it amounts to a de facto \"debtors' prison\" system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1109998",
"title": "Debtors' prison",
"section": "Section::::By region.:United States of America.:Early debtors' prisons (colonization–1850).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "Debtors' prisons were prevalent throughout the United States up until the mid-1800s. Economic hardships following the War of 1812 with Great Britain helped swell prison populations with simple debtors. This resulted in significant attention being given to plights of the poor and most dependent jailed under the widespread practice, possibly for the first time. Increasing disfavor over debtors' prisons along with the advent and early development of U.S. bankruptcy laws led states to begin restricting imprisonment for most civil debts. At that time growing use of the poorhouse and poor farm were also seen as institutional alternatives for debtors' prisons. The United States ostensibly eliminated the imprisonment of debtors under federal law in 1833\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5216757",
"title": "Letters of horning",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Originally in Scotland, imprisonment for debt was enforceable only in certain cases, but a custom gradually grew up of taking the debtor's oath to pay. If the debtor broke his oath, he became liable to the discipline of the Church. The civil power could step in to aid the ecclesiastical, denouncing the debtor as a rebel, imprisoning his person and confiscating his goods. The method of declaring a person a rebel was by giving three blasts on a horn and publicly proclaiming the fact; hence the expression \"put to the horn\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
44irjv
|
is it even possible to make a perfect circle?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can't actually make any perfect figure of any given dimension.\n\nAt some point of the infinitely small, you'll get smaller than the size of atoms and the way we consider things like boundaries and continuity of a line cease to make sense. They only make sense when looking at them from above, with low and lossy precision, where all measures are approximate.\n\nRational or irrational numbers do not have bearing on this. A Universe where they would is imaginable, but it is not ours.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The inability to make a perfect circle is one of the things Plato points out to support his philosophy of \"the forms.\" We can *imagine* a perfect circle, but it does not exist in the material world. Similarly, though Plato never speaks about this specific example, if you were to kill all the mosquitoes in the world, the *idea* of mosquitoes would still exist. So, Plato says there is a \"world of the forms\" where such ideas reside and that all material existence is a cheap knock-off of the version of that thing in the world of the forms. \n\nI know that wasn't what you asked, but it was somewhat related, so I went ahead and posted it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You will never be able meausure or construct anything with infinite precision. That would require the transfer of an infinite amount of information in a finite time.\n\n Also, most numbers are like pi. And what I mean by that is practically all of them are like pi. You will never see an integer measurement of a distance. If you draw a line, its length will always be like pi--transcendental and probably normal. \n\nPi itself has infinite precision because it is the ratio of two precisely defined ideas, circumference and diameter. Thus we can come up with algorithms to generate arbitrary digits of pi. But when you draw a figure, you are uncharted territory as far as math is concerned and so there is no formula to define your figure (or anything else in your life).\n\nSo you exist in this weird spot where everything you do is defined by infinitely long and seemingly random numbers, but you can only transfer a finite amount of information from one place to another in a finite time. You can draw a line and it's length will automatically be an infinitely long and random string of digits. Now you can never draw a line of that same length ever again. You could copy the line to a finite precision, but that's all.\n\nOf course this is ignoring other physical limitations like plank lengths or how sharp your pencil happens to be. Those limitations ruin the fun, I think. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25754129",
"title": "Theory of forms",
"section": "Section::::Evidence of Forms.:Perfection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "No one has ever seen a perfect circle, nor a perfectly straight line, yet everyone knows what a circle and a straight line are. Plato utilizes the tool-maker's blueprint as evidence that Forms are real:... when a man has discovered the instrument which is naturally adapted to each work, he must express this natural form, and not others which he fancies, in the material ...\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "326182",
"title": "Isoperimetric inequality",
"section": "Section::::The isoperimetric problem in the plane.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Although the circle appears to be an obvious solution to the problem, proving this fact is rather difficult. The first progress toward the solution was made by Swiss geometer Jakob Steiner in 1838, using a geometric method later named \"Steiner symmetrisation\". Steiner showed that if a solution existed, then it must be the circle. Steiner's proof was completed later by several other mathematicians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61229",
"title": "Straightedge and compass construction",
"section": "Section::::Impossible constructions.:Squaring the circle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Squaring the circle has been proven impossible, as it involves generating a transcendental number, that is, . Only certain algebraic numbers can be constructed with ruler and compass alone, namely those constructed from the integers with a finite sequence of operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking square roots. The phrase \"squaring the circle\" is often used to mean \"doing the impossible\" for this reason.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "477925",
"title": "Ensō",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "The circle may be open or closed. In the former case, the circle is incomplete, allowing for movement and development as well as the perfection of all things. Zen practitioners relate the idea to wabi-sabi, the beauty of imperfection. When the circle is closed, it represents perfection, akin to Plato's perfect form (Plato), the reason why the circle was used for centuries in the construction of cosmological models, see Ptolemy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1943069",
"title": "Perfect Circle (novel)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Perfect Circle is a 2004 novel by Sean Stewart. It was nominated for Nebula Award for Best Novel in 2004 and the World Fantasy Award for Best Novel in 2005. It is a contemporary realistic fantasy about an exorcist in Texas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61229",
"title": "Straightedge and compass construction",
"section": "Section::::Impossible constructions.:Squaring the circle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "The most famous of these problems, squaring the circle, otherwise known as the quadrature of the circle, involves constructing a square with the same area as a given circle using only straightedge and compass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201359",
"title": "Squaring the circle",
"section": "Section::::Impossibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "It is possible to construct a square with an area arbitrarily close to that of a given circle. If a rational number is used as an approximation of , then squaring the circle becomes possible, depending on the values chosen. However, this is only an approximation and does not meet the constraints of the ancient rules for solving the problem. Several mathematicians have demonstrated workable procedures based on a variety of approximations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1g9q0s
|
How important was the Carolingian Renaissance?
|
[
{
"answer": "Renaissance is perhaps not the best word to describe that period because our modern connotation of the word involves a general flaring of interest in cultural matters. The Carolingian Renaissance depended wholly upon the \"interest and and driving force of one man, the ruler\" or the Carolingian emperors like Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. However, the movement was not \"provincial\" but rather \"its participants were drawn from every quarter of the Latin West\" which meant that although it was centered in one area it drew from a broad base. Charlemagne wanted to educate people to service and help govern the empire so he encouraged cathedral schools to expand but this also caused the flourishing of intellectual life as well. When it comes to actual products and benefits of the Renaissance there a few. Many Latin manuscripts were copied and stored and scholars attempted to standardize the Bible. A number of histories were written like *History of the Lombards* by Paul the Deacon and *The History of the Sons of Louis the Pious* by Nithard. In art and architecture there was a blending of styles as evidenced by the palace church in Aachen. \n\nThe quotes come from *Europe in the Middle Ages* by Hoyt and the rest is summary.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[We've pointed out before](_URL_0_) that the term \"Dark Ages\" is a gross misrepresentation of the European Middle Ages. There were numerous intellectual and cultural revivals before the \"Renaissance\" with a capital-R. The Carolingian Renaissance is one such revival, which entailed an increase in literacy, a flourishing of poetry, and an expansion of institutions of higher learning.\n\nA good source on this is [_Renaissances Before the Renaissance: Cultural Revivals of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages_](_URL_1_), ed. Warren Treadgold (1984). John Contreni has an essay in that collection specifically about the Carolingian Renaissance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, it was absolutely important, and there were multiple \"renaissances\" during the Middle Ages, depending on how you want to define the term (the other most famous one being the 12th century renaissance [of course, the notion of renaissance is problematic itself, as is the time period we generally call the \"Renaissance\" since it is extremely vague])\n\nMuch like bowies4 said, Charelmagne and the other Carolingian rulers made a real effort to sponsor learning in their courts and promote the spread of cathedral schools. They also instituted a number of reforms with wide ranging effects. For example, the Carolingians developed a [new, easier to read, style of writing](_URL_1_), which was the standard for much of the Middle Ages. They were responsible for enshrining Benedictine Monasticism as the dominant form of religious expression for a huge chunk of the Middle Ages. Carolingian ideas about kingship, about saints, relics, about the state, the monastery, were all hugely influential on Medieval thought. There were also many economic reforms, establishment of currency, that had wide ranging effects on later centuries. There's a lot more. Bartlett's [*Making of Europe*](_URL_0_) is an excellent book that touches on this subject and also gives a wider perspective of the influence of the Carolingians (and more generally the Franks) on the formation of Europe. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Perhaps the most important aspect of the Carolingian \"Renaissance\" is the issue of uniformity. All the individual accomplishments that wedgeomatic, bowies4, and others have touched on were all attempts at creating a single unified way of doing things. After Charlemagne had come to dominate such a disparate area, it became quite clear that each city, province, abbey, etc. had its own way of saying the liturgy, writing, using coinage, etc. Charlemagne gathered together the brightest minds he could and had them work through these. \n\nHandwriting, for example, was radically different in the different centers, so a single common minuscule form was developed which is still largely what we use today. Jerome's Vulgate bible had taken on many idiosyncratic readings and so these were standardized into a common bible. The Latin language itself was standardized and remodeled in terms of spelling and grammar along the lines of ancient grammars, helping to distinguish it from the Latin spoken by the common person (which was approaching what we would call French, Spanish...). Monastic centers had numerous rules and practices they followed and so they picked one rule, the Benedictine Rule, somewhat augmented and adapted, to be used throughout the empire. Churches too had grown up over the centuries with their own ways of saying the mass and performing the sacraments and these were standardized. Coinage was too, I think. It could be argued that the notion of Europe as a single entity is something of the product of these attempts at unification, though I wouldn't want to press these claims too far. \n\nSo the answer is yes, the Carolingian Renaissance was very important, although Renaissance might not be the best term for it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25107428",
"title": "Christianity in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::High Middle Ages (800–1300).:Carolingian Renaissance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "The Carolingian Renaissance was a period of intellectual and cultural revival during the late 8th century and 9th century, mostly during the reigns of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. There was an increase of literature, the arts, architecture, jurisprudence, liturgical and scriptural studies. The period also saw the development of Carolingian minuscule, the ancestor of modern lower-case script, and the standardisation of Latin which had hitherto become varied and irregular (see Medieval Latin). To address the problems of illiteracy among clergy and court scribes, Charlemagne founded schools and attracted the most learned men from all of Europe to his court, such as Theodulf, Paul the Deacon, Angilbert, Paulinus of Aquileia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5180591",
"title": "Saint John Abbey, Müstair",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "The Carolingian Renaissance is deeply in debt to the success of Charlemagne as a king and patron, and the driving force behind what we see here in St John Abbey. Throughout history, art, education and leisure have all only truly thrived in times of peace, although war is often the most important factor for technological change. In the early Middle Ages the constant conflicts between the Frankish Kingdoms hindered the artistic progress previously enjoyed by the Romans when their empire was at its height. Under Charlemagne’s prosperous kingship, the introduction of a new peacetime monastic order began, paving the way for the frescos and architecture seen at Saint John Abbey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22987043",
"title": "Christianity in the 9th century",
"section": "Section::::Carolingian Renaissance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "The Carolingian Renaissance was a period of intellectual and cultural revival during the late 8th and 9th centuries, mostly during the reigns of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. There was an increase of literature, the arts, architecture, jurisprudence, liturgical and scriptural studies. The period also saw the development of Carolingian minuscule, the ancestor of modern lower-case script, and the standardisation of Latin which had hitherto become varied and irregular. To address the problems of illiteracy among clergy and court scribes, Charlemagne founded schools and attracted the most learned men from all of Europe to his court, such as Theodulf, Paul the Deacon, Angilbert, Paulinus of Aquileia, and Alcuin of York.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31792937",
"title": "Medieval renaissances",
"section": "Section::::Carolingian renaissance (8th and 9th centuries).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1673,
"text": "The Carolingian Renaissance was a period of intellectual and cultural revival in the Carolingian Empire occurring from the late eighth century to the ninth century, as the first of three medieval renaissances. It occurred mostly during the reigns of the Carolingian rulers Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. It was supported by the scholars of the Carolingian court, notably Alcuin of York For moral betterment the Carolingian renaissance reached for models drawn from the example of the Christian Roman Empire of the 4th century. During this period there was an increase of literature, writing, the arts, architecture, jurisprudence, liturgical reforms and scriptural studies. Charlemagne's \"Admonitio generalis\" (789) and his \"Epistola de litteris colendis\" served as manifestos. The effects of this cultural revival, however, were largely limited to a small group of court \"literati\": \"it had a spectacular effect on education and culture in Francia, a debatable effect on artistic endeavors, and an immeasurable effect on what mattered most to the Carolingians, the moral regeneration of society,\" John Contreni observes. Beyond their efforts to write better Latin, to copy and preserve patristic and classical texts and to develop a more legible, classicizing script, the Carolingian minuscule that Renaissance humanists took to be Roman and employed as humanist minuscule, from which has developed early modern Italic script, the secular and ecclesiastical leaders of the Carolingian Renaissance for the first time in centuries applied rational ideas to social issues, providing a common language and writing style that allowed for communication across most of Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14117",
"title": "History of Christianity",
"section": "Section::::High Middle Ages (800–1299).:Carolingian Renaissance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "The Carolingian Renaissance was a period of intellectual and cultural revival of literature, arts, and scriptural studies during the late 8th and 9th centuries, mostly during the reigns of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, Frankish rulers. To address the problems of illiteracy among clergy and court scribes, Charlemagne founded schools and attracted the most learned men from all of Europe to his court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "118560",
"title": "Carolingian Renaissance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "The Carolingian Renaissance was the first of three medieval renaissances, a period of cultural activity in the Carolingian Empire. It occurred from the late 8th century to the 9th century, which took inspiration from the Christian Roman Empire of the fourth century. During this period, there was an increase of literature, writing, the arts, architecture, jurisprudence, liturgical reforms, and scriptural studies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "118560",
"title": "Carolingian Renaissance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "The Carolingian Renaissance occurred mostly during the reigns of Carolingian rulers Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. It was supported by the scholars of the Carolingian court, notably Alcuin of York. Charlemagne's \"Admonitio generalis\" (789) and \"Epistola de litteris colendis\" served as manifestos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jh2vw
|
; why does the usa have so many federal crime agencies?
|
[
{
"answer": "The two major US political parties are BOTH a mix of authoritarian and borderline paranoid anti-authoritarian. Sometimes the same person can have both sentiments in their head at the same time.\n\nThis means that a Republican sees a problem (\"dope pushers corrupting our children!\") and want a federal response (War on Drugs! Establish the DEA!). But they think \"National Police issuing a national ID card? First step toward forcing us into socialist reeducation camps!\"\n\nSame thing for the Democrats. \"We need to protect against evil industrialists who secretly pollute! The EPA should have a Criminal Enforcement division.\" But also \"Whoa! Centralized tracking of criminal activity? Fascism!!!1!!!\"\n\nSo there's a tendency to solve each problem ad hoc -- small agencies with limited purview. If it's narrow in scope then it feels more controllable, even if it is horribly inefficient and confusing to the public.\n\nThis pattern also reflects the historically (90+ years ago) small scale of the US government. Agencies started off with mundane missions, and grew into big police agencies as the mission changed. The ATF started off as purely an agency to tax manufacturers, not really aimed at controlling who bought and used their products. The US Marshall Service ran federal court security and policed the territories before they became states (now they hunt fugitives, run Witness Protection, transport federal prisoners). The FBI started off literally as Investigators for the federal prosecutors, to coordinate with state and local police forces (now they also handle terrorism, counterintelligence, bank robbery, kidnapping).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even though there are multiple agencies, most of them (including the FBI, DEA, and ATF) fall under the department of justice, which would probably be more analogous to the Australian agency. There are some exceptions but those are usually due to historical legacy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3434750",
"title": "United States",
"section": "Section::::Law enforcement and crime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 157,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 157,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "Law enforcement in the United States is primarily the responsibility of local police departments and sheriff's offices, with state police providing broader services. The New York Police Department (NYPD) is the largest in the country. Federal agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the U.S. Marshals Service have specialized duties, including protecting civil rights, national security and enforcing U.S. federal courts' rulings and federal laws. At the federal level and in almost every state, a legal system operates on a common law. State courts conduct most criminal trials; federal courts handle certain designated crimes as well as certain appeals from the state criminal courts. Plea bargaining is very common; the vast majority of criminal cases in the country are settled by plea bargain rather than jury trial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22625",
"title": "Organized crime",
"section": "Section::::Historical origins.:Twentieth century.:The locus of power and organized crime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 193,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 193,
"end_character": 1224,
"text": "This rise in cooperation between criminal organizations has meant that law enforcement agencies are increasingly having to work together. The FBI operates an organized crime section from its headquarters in Washington, D.C. and is known to work with other national (e.g., Polizia di Stato, Russian Federal Security Service (FSB), and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police), federal (e.g., Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, Drug Enforcement Administration, United States Marshals Service, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, United States Secret Service, US Diplomatic Security Service, United States Postal Inspection Service, U.S. Customs and Border Protection, United States Border Patrol, and the United States Coast Guard), state (e.g., Massachusetts State Police Special Investigation Unit, New Jersey State Police organized crime unit, Pennsylvania State Police organized crime unit, and the New York State Police Bureau of Criminal Investigation) and city (e.g., New York City Police Department Organized Crime Unit, Philadelphia Police Department Organized crime unit, Chicago Police Organized Crime Unit, and the Los Angeles Police Department Special Operations Division) law enforcement agencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14338564",
"title": "Law enforcement by country",
"section": "Section::::List by country.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 196,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 196,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "In the United States, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and other federal agencies such as the United States Secret Service, US Marshals, United States Park Police, United States Capitol Police, and the United States Pentagon Police are limited to the enforcement of federal laws and usually specialize in certain crimes or duties, but do enforce some state laws. Most crimes constitutionally fall under the jurisdiction of state police or the thousands of local police forces. These include county police or sheriff's departments as well as municipal or city police forces. Many areas also have special agencies such as campus police, railroad police, housing police, or a district or precinct constable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4876283",
"title": "Law enforcement in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Types of police.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Policing in the United States is conducted by \"close to 18,000 federal, state, local and city departments, all with their own rules\". Every state has its own nomenclature for agencies, and their powers, responsibilities and funding vary from state to state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2361410",
"title": "Federal Police of Brazil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "The Federal Police Department is responsible for combating crimes against federal institutions, international drug trafficking, terrorism, cyber-crime, organized crime, public corruption, white-collar crime, money laundering, immigration, border control, airport security and maritime policing. It is subordinate to the Ministry of Justice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5841680",
"title": "Transnational organized crime",
"section": "Section::::Enforcement in the United States.:Enforcement agencies of the United States.:Federal Bureau of Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Law enforcement agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) are employed by nation-states to counteract international organized crime. Serious international crime—such as crimes against humanity—may be investigated by the International Criminal Court, but that Court does not have the power to take suspects into custody, instead relying on the support of law enforcement and military force in relevant countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23627",
"title": "Police",
"section": "Section::::By country.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 167,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 167,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "The United States has a highly decentralized and fragmented system of law enforcement, with over 17,000 state and local law enforcement agencies. These agencies include local police, county law enforcement (often in the form of a sheriff's office, or county police), state police and federal law enforcement agencies. Federal agencies, such as the FBI, only have jurisdiction over federal crimes or those that involve more than one state. Other federal agencies have jurisdiction over a specific type of crime. Examples include the Federal Protective Service, which patrols and protects government buildings; the postal police, which protect postal buildings, vehicles and items; the Park Police, which protect national parks; and Amtrak Police, which patrol Amtrak stations and trains. There are also some government agencies that perform police functions in addition to other duties, such as the Coast Guard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1pbxsm
|
tom bombadil in lotr
|
[
{
"answer": "Tolkien on Tom Bombadil: \"Even in a mythological Age there must be some enigmas, as there always are. Tom Bombadil is one (intentionally).\"\n\nAnd additionally, Tolkien explained that Tom's existence demonstrates that there are entities in the world for whom the war is largely irrelevant or unimportant.\n\nTom isn't an anomaly, some randomly or mistakenly placed character. He is an enigma; a mystery with a subtle or abstract purpose. What \"race\" he happens to be is anyone's guess. But it isn't important.\n\n**Like you're five?** Tom is intentionally a symbol for mystery and untouchable power. He exists to show that not everything matters to the story in the same way. Sometimes we can't always understand every detail.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10703299",
"title": "List of Maximum Ride characters",
"section": "Section::::The Gasman (Gazzy).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1089,
"text": "He, along with Iggy, is skilled at making bombs and has a lot of knowledge about them, as Max states, \"You could lock the Gasman in a padded cell with some dental floss and a bowl of Jell-O, and he'd find a way to make something explode.\" For example, when he and Iggy had to escape from their original house in they created a bomb to distract and, hopefully, rid themselves of the Erasers for the time being. In he and Iggy turned the \"dumb-bots\" into \"popcorn\" at the Flock's safe house by shooting a lightning rod at a crowd of them. They dub this the \"Gaz-Ig-Nart\" technique, using it once more against a nuclear submarine when Dumb-bots attacked it. Gazzy also knows a lot of information about guns, which is briefly shown in when he and the rest of the flock are training at the Navy Base in Hawaii. In \"\", Gazzy is traumatized after nearly allowing Jeb to die after a plane crash. Afterwards, he and Angel join the Doomsday Group as spies for the Flock. At the end of the book, Gazzy has seven minutes to disarm an arsenal of bombs and poison gas in Paris and is mostly successful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62766",
"title": "Tom Bombadil",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Tom Bombadil is spry, with a quick, playful wit. He speaks in a rhyming whimsical way: \"Hey dol! merry dol! ring a dong dillo! Ring a dong! hop along! fal lal the willow! Tom Bom, jolly Tom, Tom Bombadillo!\" He has a jolly, carefree attitude, and little seems to concern him. He sometimes refers to himself in the third person, as if simultaneously weaving his own epic narrative, even as he lives it. In \"The Lord of the Rings\" he twice describes himself in his songs as: \"Bright blue his jacket is, and his boots are yellow.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36924601",
"title": "McPixel",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "McPixel's objective in the game is to defuse bombs or \"save the day\" in 20 seconds each level. There are four chapters in the game, each with three levels and an unlockable level. Each level contains six sequences. Most of the time McPixel defuses bombs in absurd ways, mainly by kicking almost everything in the level. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38142923",
"title": "The Splatters",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "\"The Splatters\" is a physics based puzzle video game that tasks players with using anthropomorphized globs of goo to clear bombs scattered across each level. When the globs of goo break from contact with an obstacle in the level, they split open, spilling colored goo that causes bombs to detonate once they become coated in the goo. Both the globs of goo and the bombs have different colors, and bombs can only be destroyed by goo from globs of the same color. Players have a small number of irregular launches and other methods of changing the game's physics, called \"stunts\", to aid in clearing levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30874322",
"title": "List of Mega Man characters",
"section": "Section::::Mega Man Battle Network characters.:Antagonists.:WWW (World Three).:\"Mega Man Battle Network\" incarnation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 253,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 253,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "BULLET::::- BombMan.EXE - BombMan.EXE (BlasterMan.EXE in the English dub) is a solo NetNavi that works for Lord Wily. He is voiced by Hidenari Ugaki in the Japanese version and by Nick Harrison in the English dub.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16653766",
"title": "Spider-Man (1982 video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "Upon reaching the top of the building, Spidey must then face off against the Goblin, who has planted a \"super bomb\", whose fuse is activated upon defeating a certain number of enemies and/or defusing a certain number of small bombs. Once the fuse is lit, there is a limited time to reach the super bomb before it detonates, claiming one of Spidey's lives. Upon defeating the Goblin (which involves simply avoiding him) and defusing his super bomb, the game starts over at the next level, which may feature faster-moving and/or more instances of the Green Goblin, taller buildings, taller scaffold sections or a quicker-depleting supply of web fluid. The building is also sometimes a different color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2881640",
"title": "Brett Tomko",
"section": "Section::::Major League Baseball.:Los Angeles Dodgers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "On December 21, , he agreed to a two-year contract worth a reported $8.7 million with the Los Angeles Dodgers. He pitched both as a starter and a reliever during his two seasons in Los Angeles. During his time with the Dodgers, Tomko's poor pitching and propensity to give up home runs led to Dodger fans giving him the nickname \"Bombko\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
uyic7
|
What was the first life form that ever came into existence?
|
[
{
"answer": "a self replicating chain of complex chemistry might be the first bit of \"life\".. life history from that deep in time is a bit hazy and we only have educated guesses. \n\nAfter that we expect self replicating cells and later more complex multi-cellular sorts of life. \n\nQuoting star trek and more importantly Q on abiogenesis theories might be misguided. \n\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19179706",
"title": "Abiogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Early geophysical conditions on Earth.:Earliest biological evidence for life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "The earliest life on Earth existed more than 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era when sufficient crust had solidified following the molten Hadean Eon. The earliest physical evidence so far found consists of microfossils in the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt of Northern Quebec, in \"banded iron formation\" rocks at least 3.77 billion and possibly 4.28 billion years old. This finding suggested that there was almost instant development of life after oceans were formed. The structure of the microbes was noted to be similar to bacteria found near hydrothermal vents in the modern era, and provided support for the hypothesis that abiogenesis began near hydrothermal vents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53365898",
"title": "Earliest known life forms",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "The earliest known life forms on Earth are putative fossilized microorganisms found in hydrothermal vent precipitates. The earliest time that life forms first appeared on Earth is unknown. They could have lived earlier than 3.77 billion years ago, possibly as early as 4.28 billion years ago, or nearly 4.5 billion years ago according to some; in any regards, not long after the oceans formed 4.41 billion years ago, and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago. The earliest \"direct\" evidence of life on Earth are microfossils of microorganisms permineralized in 3.465-billion-year-old Australian Apex chert rocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12305127",
"title": "Evolutionary history of life",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "The earliest evidence of life comes from biogenic carbon signatures and stromatolite fossils discovered in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks from western Greenland. In 2015, possible \"remains of biotic life\" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. In March 2017, putative evidence of possibly the oldest forms of life on Earth was reported in the form of fossilized microorganisms discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec, Canada, that may have lived as early as 4.28 billion years ago, not long after the oceans formed 4.4 billion years ago, and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "354588",
"title": "Hydrothermal vent",
"section": "Section::::Biological communities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "In March 2017, researchers reported evidence of possibly the oldest forms of life on Earth. Putative fossilized microorganisms were discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec, Canada, that may have lived as early as 4.280 billion years ago, not long after the oceans formed 4.4 billion years ago, and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2068726",
"title": "History of Earth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era, after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. There are microbial mat fossils such as stromatolites found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in southwestern Greenland as well as \"remains of biotic life\" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, \"If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the universe.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21830",
"title": "Nature",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "The origin of life on Earth is not well understood, but it is known to have occurred at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the hadean or archean eons on a primordial Earth that had a substantially different environment than is found at present. These life forms possessed the basic traits of self-replication and inheritable traits. Once life had appeared, the process of evolution by natural selection resulted in the development of ever-more diverse life forms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23645",
"title": "Precambrian",
"section": "Section::::Life forms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "A specific date for the origin of life has not been determined. Carbon found in 3.8 billion-year-old rocks (Archean eon) from islands off western Greenland may be of organic origin. Well-preserved microscopic fossils of bacteria older than 3.46 billion years have been found in Western Australia. Probable fossils 100 million years older have been found in the same area. However, there is evidence that life could have evolved over 4.280 billion years ago. There is a fairly solid record of bacterial life throughout the remainder (Proterozoic eon) of the Precambrian.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1kw79s
|
why is car insurance complusary and not optional like other insurances?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because by driving a vehicle you're potentially putting other people at risk. If I don't have homeowner's insurance and my house burns down, that sucks for me and my family, but nobody else is really harmed if I can't afford to buy a new house.\n\nBut if I drive my car into a sidewalk full of pedestrians and hurt a bunch of them, they could face all sorts of medical costs, and I would likely be held responsible. If I have no insurance or assets, then I couldn't pay to cover those costs, and those pedestrians would potentially be stuck having to pay them through no fault of their own.\n\nEdit: It's worth noting that I bought my house via a mortgage from a bank. So if my house burned down, the bank would have its investment at risk. That being the case, the terms of the mortgage require me to have homeowners insurance on my house.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "567696",
"title": "Vehicle insurance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Vehicle insurance (also known as car insurance, motor insurance, or auto insurance) is insurance for cars, trucks, motorcycles, and other road vehicles. Its primary use is to provide financial protection against physical damage or bodily injury resulting from traffic collisions and against liability that could also arise from incidents in a vehicle. Vehicle insurance may additionally offer financial protection against theft of the vehicle, and against damage to the vehicle sustained from events other than traffic collisions, such as keying, weather or natural disasters, and damage sustained by colliding with stationary objects. The specific terms of vehicle insurance vary with legal regulations in each region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "567696",
"title": "Vehicle insurance",
"section": "Section::::Repair insurance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Some drivers opt to buy the insurance as a means of protection against costly breakdowns unrelated to an accident. In contrast to more standard and basic coverages such as comprehensive and collision insurance, auto repair insurance does not cover a vehicle when it is damaged in a collision, during a natural disaster or at the hands of vandals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31576870",
"title": "Vehicle insurance in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1231,
"text": "Vehicle insurance, in the United States and elsewhere, is designed to cover risk of financial liability or the loss of a motor vehicle the owner may face if their vehicle is involved in a collision resulting in property or physical damages. Most states require a motor vehicle owner to carry some minimum level of liability insurance. States that do not require the vehicle owner to carry car insurance include Virginia, where an uninsured motor vehicle fee may be paid to the state; New Hampshire, and Mississippi which offers vehicle owners the option to post cash bonds (see below). The privileges and immunities clause of Article IV of the U.S. Constitution protects the rights of citizens in each respective state when traveling to another. A motor vehicle owner typically pays insurers a monthly fee, often called an insurance premium. The insurance premium a motor vehicle owner pays is usually determined by a variety of factors including the type of covered vehicle, the age and gender of any covered drivers, their driving history, and the location where the vehicle is primarily driven and stored. Credit scores are also taken into consideration. Most insurance companies offer premium discounts based on these factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9361554",
"title": "Insurance Information and Enforcement System",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "The Insurance Information and Enforcement System is a system used, in the United States, by many Department of Motor Vehicles agencies to track people who might be driving without automobile insurance. Since many jurisdictions forbid uninsured driving, a system like this is necessary to keep track of any applications and cancellations of policies. The system was created largely because many people try to trick the DMV into thinking they're keeping their car insured by registering a car with a policy and then cancelling the policy soon after to keep the plates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1782965",
"title": "No-fault insurance",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "Proponents of no-fault insurance argue that automobile collisions are inevitable and that at-fault drivers are not necessarily higher risk and should not necessarily be punished; moreover, they note that the presence of liability insurance insulates reckless or negligent drivers from financial disincentives of litigation; also, uninsured motorists are often \"judgment proof\" (i.e., can't and won't end up paying for their liability anyway), so that in regions with high numbers of such uninsured motorists, no-fault systems may make more sense. Furthermore, traditional insurance is regressive because drivers of inexpensive cars are liable for damage to any car, no matter its value, even though they only add a small amount of liability to the pool with their less valuable cars. This issue is fixed under a no-fault regime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "567696",
"title": "Vehicle insurance",
"section": "Section::::Basis of premium charges.:Distance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Some car insurance plans do not differentiate in regard to how much the car is used. There are however low-mileage discounts offered by some insurance providers. Other methods of differentiation would include: over-road distance between the ordinary residence of a subject and their ordinary, daily destinations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31576870",
"title": "Vehicle insurance in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Public policy considerations.:The compulsory insurance debate.:Arguments in favor of compulsory auto insurance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Advocates of compulsory auto insurance rely on the assumption that, at least some of the time, the person at fault in a car accident won't be able to pay for the damage to the other person's car. Because insurance has been mandatory in most states for so long, the data to prove this theory is somewhat sparse. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1g64rh
|
Was Joseph Smith a convicted con-man?
|
[
{
"answer": "Disorderly conduct is a really broad charge in NY, even today, where it's defined as \n\n > A person is guilty of disorderly conduct when, with intent to cause public inconvenience, annoyance or alarm, or recklessly creating a risk thereof:\n\n > 1. He engages in fighting or in violent, tumultuous or threatening behavior; or\n2. He makes unreasonable noise; or\n3. In a public place, he uses abusive or obscene language, or makes an obscene gesture; or\n4. Without lawful authority, he disturbs any lawful assembly or meeting of persons; or\n5. He obstructs vehicular or pedestrian traffic; or\n6. He congregates with other persons in a public place and refuses to comply with a lawful order of the police to disperse; or\n7. He creates a hazardous or physically offensive condition by any act which serves no legitimate purpose.\n\nIt's a bit hard to gather case law from the 1820s, but in that period of time, anything that causes excessive noise (see Conrad v. Williams, 6 Hill 444 (1844)) or causing public strife (see Duffy v. People, 6 Hill 75 (1843), Cowden v. Wright, 24 Wend. 429 (1840)) have been considered as disorderly conduct. With such broad common law examples, it would not be amiss that a lot of people's conduct fell within the prima facie definition. So the mere fact that he has been convicted a disorderly conduct charge doesn't say a whole lot about him. I can't comment as to how it ties into the greater scheme of things during his rise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The following links trace back and use quotes from [Fawn Brodie,](_URL_2_) in her seminal biographical volume focusing on Joseph Smith, *No Man Knows My History.*\n\n* Smith was put on trial for cheating a man named Josiah Stowell in 1826 in South Bainbridge, New York. The result of the trial remains opaque and hard to know for sure.^[1](_URL_4_) It is clear they took statements from the people involved. Smith addresses it in his own history that is part of the LDS canon.^[2](_URL_0_) \n\n* Smith's quasi-banking institution, the [Kirtland Safety Society,](_URL_1_) went bankrupt in 1837. He had a warrant for his arrest, but obsconded 800 miles away into the western frontier of the United States. If he hadn't have left Kirtland in January 1838, he would have faced charges for running an illegal bank.^[4](_URL_3_),[5](_URL_5_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Also, how common was this sort of behavior ('seer stones')?\n\nIt wasn't that uncommon. According to [D. Michael Quinn](_URL_0_) folk magic practices were used for all sorts of things by the people of that era and locale. Besides seer stones the use of dowsing rods has numerous references among early mormonism. There is evidence that leaders would use seer stones and dowsing rods in a ouiji board like fashion.^[1](_URL_1_)\n\nAlso, Smith used a seer stone placed in a hat to translate the golden plates,^[2](_URL_2_)\n claimed as the basis for the Book of Mormon, which were hidden somewhere in the woods. The plates were not usually in the same room, nor placed in the hat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "**TL;DR - We know he practiced glass looking and was brought to trial. We do not know if he was convicted.**\n\n----\n\nHere are the facts as I understand them:\n\n* In 1825, 19 year old Joseph Smith Jr was asked by Josiah Stowell to scry for a lost spanish silver mine via Joseph's seer stone. [Stowell sought out Joseph](_URL_1_) based on his reputation as a scryer and his purported ability to find \"hidden treasures in the bowels of the earth\". \n\n* For a period of one month, Joseph and his father worked for Stowell. No treasure was found. Instead, Stowell was told that the treasure seeped back into the earth or was otherwise hidden by spirits (depending on the account). \n\n* Joseph continued to work for stowell until 1826, when then 20 year old Joseph Smith Jr was brought to court under the charge of \"Glass Looking\".\n\n* Judge Neely oversaw the trial. As this was a misdemeanor, no record of the verdict is available; however, we do have [this bill for services rendered](_URL_4_) from the judge. [Legible version here](_URL_3_). \n\n* The result of that trial is up for debate. Some argue [the mittimus](_URL_5_) is not authentic, while others argue it's [proof of conviction](_URL_0_). \n\n* Historical testimonies tend to fall along religious lines as well. Leading authorities in the fledgling church state that he was acquitted, while those outside claim he was convicted. [Read the testimonies here](_URL_2_)\n\nIn the end, the conviction is the unknown factor; however, Joseph Smith's history and the modern mainstream LDS church agree that Joseph was paid by Stowell for the purpose of scrying treasure he never found. \n\n----\n\n*Edit*: Apologies to the mods for linking to partison sites. The matter of a conviction has just enough unknown to spark intense debates on both sides, and the topic of conviction is mostly irrelevant to those without intrinsic interest in the religious authenticity of the LDS church. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here is a [peer reviewed article](_URL_0_) on the trial. People may try and dismiss it as a BYU journal, but BYU studies is a peer reviewed journal refereed by people in and out of BYU.\n\nOne of the things your link is conveniently not telling you is Joseph never went to a real trail. Such a trial requires a verdict signed by official witnesses which if you look at the documents was *not* the case. This was a pre-trial hearing to see if there was anything to these complaints.\n\nInstead of fraud, Joseph was charged with a misdemeanor called \"glass-looking\" (again, your link won't mention the actual charge nor admit it was only considered a misdemeanor). This is the modern day equivalent of being charged with playing with a Ouija board. \n\nThe judge decided Joseph should just be fined the daily court fee of $2.68 and be on his way, with no need to to face a more formal trial. (Something else your link fails to mention)\n\nOne seriously has to ask themselves, in if the judge felt Joseph was defrauding these people, why not send this to a more formal trial. Why only accuse of \"glass-looking\" and nothing further and just fine the daily court fee and send him on his way? I am pretty sure, if you examine the evidence you will find that's because the judge realized Joseph is really guilty of nothing worse then playing with a Ouija board and so sent him on his way without the need for a more formal trial. You can decide for yourself if this makes Joseph a convicted con-man.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even as an ex-mo, I don't like the phrasing of the question. It doesn't separate two different questions, each which can be answered differently than the other.\n\nJoseph Smith could have been convicted for fraud, but may not have been a con-man, and he may have been a con-man, but was never convicted, or both, or neither.\n\nJoseph Smith was convicted for destroying a printing press as mayor of Nauvoo, Illinois, after which he was killed in jail once the accusations against him by the printing press were brought to light.\n\nWas he a con-man? That's the messier part.\n\nIf you believe that he was commanded by God to do all the things that he claimed God told him to do, and that the world wasn't ready to accept what he had done, then, no, he was not a con-man.\n\nIf you use the evidence that Joseph Smith falsified the existence of Golden Plates to write a story about Jews who built boats and sailed to America and were later turned into Native Americans, despite opposing DNA test results, whose story contains anachronisms such as the inclusion of chapters form the Book of Isaiah which wasn't written until 100 years after these Jews left Jerusalem, along with the translation errors that have since been discovered in the King James Version, as well as the claims of translating papyri written by the hand of Abraham, which were later translated by professional Egyptologists and found to not be about Abraham at all, then, yes, he was a con-man.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Joseph Smith, in 1827, was convicted, at preliminary hearing, of being a disorderly person. Specifically, there was enough evidence of him being a disorderly person and glass-looker for him to be tried in a regular court. Joseph Smith jumped bail, and had the equivalent of an arrest warrant issued for him. He never appeared in the regular court, though, for reasons that are unknown - an off-the record deal with the judge is suggested.\n\n[This is a link to the authoritiative paper on the matter](_URL_0_) by the historian Dan Vogel, who walks the reader through the maze of historical documents and contemporaneous legal procedures.\n\nHere's a bit of the article:\n > ¶5 The court record shows that Smith was arrested and brought before Justice Neely as a result of a warrant issued by Peter G. Bridgman, Josiah Stowell's nephew, who charged Smith with being a \"disorderly person and an Impostor.\" While \"Impostor\" is not a criminal offense, as Gordon A. Madsen has noted,[12] it points to a specific section of the New York statute that describes various kinds of offenses under the definition of \"disorderly persons.\" The section of the statute applicable to Bridgman's charge states: \"All jugglers [deceivers],[13] and all persons pretending to have skill in physiognomy, palmistry, or like crafty science, or pretending to tell fortunes, or to discover where lost goods may be found ... shall be deemed and adjudged disorderly persons.\"[14] This was probably the statute Joseph Knight, Sr., referred to when he said, speaking of Smith's 1830 trial in South Bainbridge, that Smith had been arrested for \"pretending to see under ground\" and that his prosecutors were motivated by \"A little Clause they found in the york Laws against such things.\"[15] John S. Reed, Smith's legal counsel during his 1830 trials, remembered that Smith had been arrested \"for the crime of glass looking and juglin fortune telling and so on which the State of New York was against it and made it a crime and the crime was a fine and imprisonment.\"[16]\n\n > ¶6 Despite Walters's discovery of the Neely and DeZeng bills, the outcome of Smith's pretrial hearing is a matter of continued debate, much of which has centered on the court record's concluding statement, \"And therefore the court find[s] the defendant guilty.\" Mormon writers Gordon A. Madsen and Paul Hedengren have argued similarly, but for different reasons, that the court's judgment was \"a later inclusion\" or \"an afterthought supplied by whoever subsequently handled the notes.\"[17] Madsen points to the record's consistent reference to Smith as \"prisoner\" except for the judgment where he is called \"defendant,\"[18] while Hedengren believes it is inappropriate for pretrial hearings to pronounce judgment.[19] Without the original court record, this theory cannot be verified. However, Neely's use of the term \"guilty\" does not necessarily imply a judgment had been reached in Smith's case, only that Neely had found sufficient evidence against Smith to proceed with a formal trial. Regarding pretrial hearings, the Revised Statutes of the State of New York for 1829, for instance, instructs:\n\n > If it shall appear that an offence has been committed, and that there is probable cause to believe the prisoner to be guilty thereof, the magistrate shall bind by recognizance the prosecutor, and all the material witnesses against such prisoner, to appear and testify at the next court having cognizance of the offence, and in which the prisoner may be indicted.[20]\n¶7 An 1820 Ohio statute is even clearer on this matter:\n\n > Sec. 2. Be it further enacted, That if the judges upon examination find the prisoner guilty of a bailable offence, they shall recognize him or her ... and in case the prisoner fails to give security, he or she shall be remanded to jail, and in all cases where the prisoner is found guilty, it shall be the duty of the judges to recognize the witnesses on the part of the state, to appear at the next court of common pleas ...[21]\n¶8 Thus Neely's use of the term \"guilty\" in the record of his preliminary examination of Smith is consistent with early-19th-century terminology.[22] And although the issues are complicated, there were good reasons to support Neely's finding Smith guilty of \"disorderly conduct\" and binding (or recognizing) him and three material witnesses over to the next Court of Special Sessions.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "636946",
"title": "Joseph Smith III",
"section": "Section::::Teachings on plural marriage.\n",
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"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "Joseph Smith III was an ardent opponent of the practice of plural marriage throughout his life. For most of his career, Smith denied that his father had been involved in the practice and insisted that it had originated with Brigham Young. Smith served many missions to the western United States where he met with and interviewed associates and women claiming to be widows of his father, who attempted to present him with evidence to the contrary. In the end, Smith concluded that he was \"not positive nor sure that [his father] was innocent\" and that if, indeed, the elder Smith had been involved, it was still a false practice. However, many members of Community of Christ, and some of the groups that were formerly associated with it are still not convinced that Joseph Smith III's father did indeed engage in plural marriage, and feel that the evidence that he did so is largely flawed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9622352",
"title": "Dan Vogel",
"section": "Section::::Joseph Smith biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Vogel argues in the biography that Joseph Smith was a pious fraud—that Smith essentially invented his religious claims for what he believed were noble, faith-promoting purposes. Vogel identifies the roots of the pious fraud in the conflict between members of the Smith family, who were divided between the skepticism and universalism of Joseph Smith, Sr., and the more mainstream Protestant faith of Lucy Mack Smith. Vogel interweaves the history of Joseph Smith with interpretation of the Book of Mormon, which is read as springing from the young man's psychology and experiences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54119812",
"title": "Treason laws in the United States",
"section": "Section::::State.:Missouri.:Joseph Smith and others.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Joseph Smith and five others were charged with treason under Missouri law in 1838, spending over five months in prison, but escaped while awaiting trial. Joseph Smith and Hyrum Smith were later charged with \"treason against the government and people of the State of Illinois.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18365966",
"title": "Sarah Marinda Bates Pratt",
"section": "Section::::Seduction Allegations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "In the summer of 1842 the excommunicated Dr. Bennett began to attack Joseph Smith via letters published in Springfield, Illinois. In the letter published 15 July 1842, Bennett included a claim that Sarah Pratt had virtuously rejected Joseph Smith's efforts to make her a spiritual wife while Orson Pratt was in Europe. In reaction to this, Joseph Smith explained that Sarah had participated in an affair with Dr. John C. Bennett, a claim supported by affidavits produced by non-Mormon Sheriff Jacob B. Backenstoes and Sarah's erstwhile landlords, Stephen Goddard and Zeruiah Goddard. At the time, Sarah maintained a public silence regarding the matter. Nancy Rigdon and Pamelia Michael rejected Bennett's accusations involving them. Meanwhile, Martha Brotherton produced a damning affidavit involving Joseph Smith at Bennett's request.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61364186",
"title": "Messiah ben Joseph (LDS Church)",
"section": "Section::::\"Mashiaḥ\" Joseph: true prophet, priest, and king.:Renewal & rebirth in the 'City of Joseph'.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 1304,
"text": "Joseph Smith — a self-professed \"lawful\" heir (an heirship long hidden \"from the world with Christ in God\") to the princely thrones of the house of Judah and the house of Joseph — believing that he had been sent to the earth in its final dispensation, or in \"the fulness of times,\" discovered (as he records in his history) the earth's peoples living in a degenerate, apostate world over which the power of the great Enemy (Satan/Leviathan) had grown monstrously strong. Having in early spring 1820 been given his prophetic calling in vision by God the Father's personal appearance with His Messiah Son (JSH–1), the boy-prophet Joseph (later a recipient of both the lesser and higher priesthoods under the hands of the resurrected John the Baptist and Christ's chief apostles Peter, James and John) went forth into the world, endowed with great authority and power from on high. His divinely decreed mission was to \"restore\" the fullness of God's kingdom with its saving ordinances and primordial doctrines that would bring \"efficacy\" to the Davidic Messiah's redeeming atonement made at the meridian of time, and thus consummate salvation for God's chosen people and for all the world, if they would believe, repent, accept His eternal covenant and everlasting gospel, and endure faithfully to the end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10044663",
"title": "The God Makers II",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Allegations of sorcery and necromancy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Joseph Smith was never “convicted” or even tried on charges of sorcery, crystal ball gazing or fortune telling. In 1826 a written complaint was filed against Smith as a “disorderly person.” This resulted in what is referred to as the “1826 trial” of Joseph Smith. The charge was “glass looking,” in reference to Smith’s use of a stone to assist in the search for treasure during the time that he worked for Josiah Stowell. Contradictory accounts of the trial exist, and the outcome is not specified.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42498289",
"title": "President of the Church (LDS Church)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Succession crisis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "In 1844, in jail awaiting trial for treason charges, Joseph Smith was killed by an armed mob. Hyrum Smith, his presumed successor, was killed in the same incident. Smith had not indisputably established who was next in line as successor to President of the Church. Several claimants to the role of church president emerged during the succession crisis that ensued.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
605o1w
|
how do viruses like hiv transmit through fluids like blood, breast milk, semen, and vaginal secretions?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not sure what you are asking. The viruses are within those secretions, moving there as they do through any sort of tissue. By their presence they are transmitted to whatever encounters those substances.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38238",
"title": "Hepatitis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Infectious.:Viral hepatitis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and hepatitis D are transmitted when blood or mucous membranes are exposed to infected blood and body fluids, such as semen and vaginal secretions. Viral particles have also been found in saliva and breastmilk. However, kissing, sharing utensils, and breastfeeding do not lead to transmission unless these fluids are introduced into open sores or cuts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19019270",
"title": "Sexually transmitted infection",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Viruses in semen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Twenty-seven different viruses have been identified in semen. Information on whether or not transmission occurs or whether the viruses cause disease is uncertain. Some of these microbes are known to be sexually transmitted. Those found in semen are listed by the CDC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19167679",
"title": "Virus",
"section": "Section::::Role in human disease.:Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Horizontal transmission is the most common mechanism of spread of viruses in populations. Transmission can occur when: body fluids are exchanged during sexual activity, e.g., HIV; blood is exchanged by contaminated transfusion or needle sharing, e.g., hepatitis C; exchange of saliva by mouth, e.g., Epstein–Barr virus; contaminated food or water is ingested, e.g., norovirus; aerosols containing virions are inhaled, e.g., influenza virus; and insect vectors such as mosquitoes penetrate the skin of a host, e.g., dengue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43955674",
"title": "Ebola virus epidemic in Sierra Leone",
"section": "Section::::History of Ebola in Sierra Leone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Transmission is believed to be by contact with the blood and body fluids of those infected with the virus, as well as by handling raw bushmeat such as bats and monkeys, which are important sources of protein in West Africa. Infectious body fluids include blood, sweat, semen, breast milk, saliva, tears, feces, urine, vaginal secretions, vomit, and diarrhea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842168",
"title": "Semen",
"section": "Section::::Health.:Disease transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Semen can transmit many sexually transmitted diseases and pathogens, including viruses like HIV and Ebola. Swallowing semen carries no additional risk other than those inherent in fellatio. This includes transmission risk for sexually transmitted diseases such as human papillomavirus (HPV) or herpes, especially for people with bleeding gums, gingivitis or open sores. Viruses in semen survive for a long time once outside the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5069516",
"title": "HIV/AIDS",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "HIV is spread primarily by unprotected sex (including anal and oral sex), contaminated blood transfusions, hypodermic needles, and from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding. Some bodily fluids, such as saliva and tears, do not transmit HIV. Methods of prevention include safe sex, needle exchange programs, treating those who are infected, pre- and post-exposure prophylaxis, and male circumcision. Disease in a baby can often be prevented by giving both the mother and child antiretroviral medication. There is no cure or vaccine; however, antiretroviral treatment can slow the course of the disease and may lead to a near-normal life expectancy. Treatment is recommended as soon as the diagnosis is made. Without treatment, the average survival time after infection is 11 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19019270",
"title": "Sexually transmitted infection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "More than 30 different bacteria, viruses, and parasites can be transmitted through sexual activity. Bacterial STIs include chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. Viral STIs include genital herpes, HIV/AIDS, and genital warts. Parasitic STIs include trichomoniasis. While usually spread by sex, some STIs can be spread by non-sexual contact with donor tissue, blood, breastfeeding, or during childbirth. STI diagnostic tests are usually easily available in the developed world, but this is often not the case in the developing world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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