id
stringlengths 5
6
| input
stringlengths 3
301
| output
list | meta
null |
|---|---|---|---|
6dun97
|
why aren't more uplifting, good news (the ones that put faith in humanity) shown in journalism?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is not really wanted by the public. Good news, while uplifting is not entertaining to the majority of people. If it is not entertaining then fewer people will buy the newspaper, watch the news broadcast, or click the internet link. The journalists simply do more business and therefore make more money focusing on the things that are bad news. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they don't sell. \n\nEditors want their medium (website, newspaper, TV channel) to gain as much range as possible, you can't do that using good news.\n\nI can't explain the psychological aspects of it, but humans \"enjoy\" bad news, and they enjoy more news and only the latest, juiciest stories.\n\nRemember Panama Papers? It's not fresh and hot anymore, thus nobody reports on it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Longtime communications person w/ a journalism degree and a lot of feeling about this topic.\n\nSpeaking to American journalism specifically, the vast majority of outlets are for-profit (as opposed to non-profit), so they have to try and generate revenue through their reporting to stay afloat. Think NY Times, FOX News, etc. \n\nThere's a saying in reporting: \"If it bleeds, it leads.\" This means that media outlets put all your negative/sensational stories at the front of the broadcast/on the front page because its what peaks people's interest and keeps their attention. In a consumer-driven market, the consumer's interest dictate what outlets report on.\n\nConversely, if the entire country stood up and \"All I want are tella novellas and cooking shows on TV!\" and - here's the important part - ACTED ON IT by not consuming any other kind of media, we'd have nothing by tella novellas and cooking shows on TV by this time next week. So people can bitch and moan about the low quality of reporting, but if they don't act on it, there's no incentive for the outlet to change their reporting style. So its ultimately the consumer's fault.\n\nMeanwhile, you look at non-profit/public reporting outlets, you tend to see much more measured, thoughtful reporting about things that actually matter.\n\nTLDR: In for-profit journalism, the outlets are forced to pursue revenue, which in turn makes them publish stories that people respond to. People like sensational stories, so outlets publish them because there's no motive to publish stories people aren't going to read.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2327581",
"title": "Media bias in the United States",
"section": "Section::::News values.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "A number of writers have tried to explain the decline in journalistic standards. One explanation is the 24-hour news cycle, which faces the necessity of generating news even when no news-worthy events occur. Another is the simple fact that bad news sells more newspapers than good news. A third possible factor is the market for \"news\" that reinforces the prejudices of a target audience. \"In a 2010 paper, Mr. Gentzkow and Jesse M. Shapiro, a frequent collaborator and fellow professor at Chicago Booth, found that ideological slants in newspaper coverage typically resulted from what the audience wanted to read in the media they sought out, rather than from the newspaper owners' biases.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18932",
"title": "Media bias",
"section": "Section::::Other influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 1086,
"text": "The apparent bias of media is not always specifically political in nature. The news media tend to appeal to a specific audience, which means that stories that affect a large number of people on a global scale often receive less coverage in some markets than local stories, such as a public school shooting, a celebrity wedding, a plane crash, a \"missing white woman\", or similarly glamorous or shocking stories. For example, the deaths of millions of people in an ethnic conflict in Africa might be afforded scant mention in American media, while the shooting of five people in a high school is analyzed in depth. Bias is also known to exist in sports broadcasting; in the United States, broadcasters tend to favor teams on the East Coast, teams in major markets, older and more established teams and leagues, teams based in their respective country (in international sport) and teams that include high-profile celebrity athletes. The reason for these types of bias is a function of what the public wants to watch and/or what producers and publishers believe the public wants to watch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505170",
"title": "News values",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary perspectives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1141,
"text": "An evolutionary psychology explanation for why negative news have a higher news value than positive news starts with the empirical observation that the human perceptive system and lower level brain functions have difficulty distinguishing between media stimuli and real stimuli. These lower level brain mechanisms which function on a subconscious level make basic evaluations of perceptive stimuli, focus attention on important stimuli, and start basic emotional reactions. Research has also found that the brain differentiates between negative and positive stimuli and reacts quicker and more automatically to negative stimuli which are also better remembered. This likely has evolutionary explanations with it often being important to quickly focus attention on, evaluate, and quickly respond to threats. While the reaction to a strong negative stimulus is to avoid, a moderately negative stimulus instead causes curiosity and further examination. Negative media news is argued to fall into the latter category which explains their popularity. Lifelike audiovisual media are argued to have particularly strong effects compared to reading.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7580342",
"title": "Politico-media complex",
"section": "Section::::Print.:Struggles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "In addition to economic struggles and readership decline, newsprint has also struggled with losing readers' trust. Surveys have found that people tend to trust newspapers less than other news media, in part because they believe that newspaper journalists are \"isolated and out of touch\" and motivated by commercial interests. Most people believe their local and national news television stations more than their local and national newspapers. The only news medium that people trust less than newspapers is print magazines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20781999",
"title": "News",
"section": "Section::::News values.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "Some commentators on news values have argued that journalists' training in news values \"itself\" represents a systemic bias of the news. The norm of objectivity leads journalists to gravitate towards certain types of acts and exclude others. A journalist can be sure of objectivity in reporting that an official or public figure has made a certain statement. This is one reason why so much news reporting is devoted to official statements. This lemma dates back to the early history of public news reporting, as exemplified by an English printer who on 12 March 1624 published news from Brussels in the form of letters, with the prefacing comment: \"Now because you shall not say, that either out of my owne conceit I misliked a phrase, or presumptuously tooke upon me to reforme any thing amisse, I will truly set you downe their owne words.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5043744",
"title": "Peace journalism",
"section": "Section::::Response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "\"If educated to understand the difference between including scattered oppositional facts, and challenging a dominant frame, journalists might be better equipped to construct news that makes equally salient—equally accessible to the average, inattentive, and marginally informed audience—two or more interpretations of problems.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50100",
"title": "Journalist",
"section": "Section::::Roles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Journalism has developed a variety of ethics and standards. While objectivity and a lack of bias are of primary concern and importance, more liberal types of journalism, such as advocacy journalism and activism, intentionally adopt a non-objective viewpoint. This has become more prevalent with the advent of social media and blogs, as well as other platforms that are used to manipulate or sway social and political opinions and policies. These platforms often project extreme bias, as \"sources\" are not always held accountable or considered necessary in order to produce a written, televised, or otherwise \"published\" end product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20q388
|
How did Hezbollah go from a small militia to such an impressive paramilitary force?
|
[
{
"answer": "Quick answer: Support from Iran via Syria and stong social presence. More detail:\n\n* Hezbollah military men get trained in Iran. They also get weapons from Iran through Syria. Lots of weapon and artillery. They know the country and the villages and the inner streets so they are very well positioned to fight off any attack. \n\n* Hezbollah men will fight to the death because it is a cause they are born and raised to believe in, unlike regular soldiers. Plus if they die, other than the prestige, they become martyrs and their wives and children are taken care of financially by the party. \n\n* In addition, they created themselves as champions of the Shia sect. Shia in Lebanon were the underdog and completely neglected by the government,they had virtually no representation. So Hizbollah provided them with a voice, not to mention all the charity and rebuilding work, so Hizbollah had a major popular base.\n \n* Hizbollah's leader, Nasrallah, is a seriously intelligent and charismatic man, he has a large appeal in the country even among some of the Christians.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "- The first thing is that Hezbollah emerged essentially in fertile ground. Lebanon had been experiencing civil conflict for a while before Hezbollah appeared on the scene, so they weren't just some random guys getting together, they could draw on a degree of experience.\n\n- Reinforcing this, Hezbollah received training in Iran and from cadres from the Islamic Republican Guard Corps, which is to this day well regarded for its skill for irregular warfare etc. As a side note, a question I wouldn't mind being answered is just how the IRGC got to be so good at its job. AFAIK it didn't really have an Iranian pre-cursor, and while it might have picked up some knowledge from what remained of SAVAK etc. this would seem strange at the IRGC was set up essentially as a counter to the 'old regime' (specifically the army), which would make their precursor being the Shah's secret police seem odd. Anyhow, I digress.\n\n- Part of it was also an evolutionary pressure thing - Hezbollah had to be good to survive. It emerged in an area under Israeli occupation, and to add to the pressure it found itself in conflict with other Lebanese paramilitary groups like Amal (another Shia group) in the War of the Camps. It might be notable that Hezbollah sided with the PLO in that conflict - perhaps Hezbollah received assistance (training, funding etc.) early in the piece from Palestinian militant groups?\n\n- In terms of finance, Hezbollah was receiving support from Iran, Syria, Lebanon's large Shia population and also the Lebanese diaspora. And no, it isn't just drug money. Hezbollah's economic portfolio is pretty diverse and not all of it is illegal either, they have their own [construction companies](_URL_0_) for example.\n\nAs to how it got to be stronger than the Lebanese army, part of that isn't why Hezbollah is strong, and more about why the Lebanese army was weak. The army had been deliberately kept weak by Lebanese governments for fear it would be used by one ethnic group or another to seize power or whatever. Then with the onset of civil war and successive invasions, occupations etc. the army was hurt badly. Even if the government had had a change of heart and wanted to build up the military, this would have been difficult, since the economic base of Lebanon had been badly hurt by the civil war and occupation. So post occupation, you find an army still trying to find its feet while Hezbollah is now 'free', a leaner and meaner force that wasn't necessarily short of heavy weaponry due to its foreign backers.\n\n*Editted for typos... I hope I got them all this time",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52552320",
"title": "Lebanese Resistance Brigades",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "The militia is described as an \"operational auxiliary\" or subsidiary of Hezbollah. Group members fight under the Hezbollah flag and command structure in combat, but are at least nominally separate in peacetime. They also receive intelligence from Hezbollah.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36092415",
"title": "Lebanese Resistance Regiments",
"section": "Section::::Creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "At its zenith, the militia had 14,000 troops. Amal fought a long campaign against Palestinian refugees during the Lebanese Civil War (called the War of the Camps). After the War of the Camps, Amal fought a bloody battle against rival Shi'a group Hezbollah for control of Beirut, which provoked Syrian military intervention. Hezbollah itself was formed by religious members of Amal who had left after Nabih Berri's assumption of full control and the subsequent resignation of most of Amal's earliest senior members.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7635103",
"title": "Hezbollah military activities",
"section": "Section::::Armed strength.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Hezbollah has not revealed its armed strength. It has been estimated by Mustafa Alani, security director at the Dubai-based Gulf Research Centre, that Hezbollah's military force is made up of about 1,000 full-time Hezbollah members, along with a further 6,000-10,000 volunteers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1517643",
"title": "Amal Movement",
"section": "Section::::Amal Movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "At its zenith, the militia had 14,000 troops. Amal fought a long campaign against Palestinian refugees during the Lebanese Civil War (called the War of the Camps). After the War of the Camps, Amal fought a bloody battle against rival Shi'a group Hezbollah for control of Beirut, which provoked Syrian military intervention. Hezbollah itself was formed by religious members of Amal who had left after Nabih Berri's assumption of full control and the subsequent resignation of most of Amal's earliest members.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13919",
"title": "Hezbollah",
"section": "Section::::Armed strength.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Hezbollah does not reveal its armed strength. Mustafa Alani, security director at the Dubai-based Gulf Research Centre, estimated that Hezbollah's armed wing comprises 1,000 full-time Hezbollah members, along with a further 6,000–10,000 volunteers. According to the Iranian Fars News Agency, Hezbollah has up to 65,000 fighters. It is often described as more militarily powerful than the Lebanese Army. Israeli commander Gui Zur called Hezbollah \"by far the greatest guerrilla group in the world\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36761284",
"title": "Foreign involvement in the Syrian Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Support for the Syrian Ba'athist government.:Hezbollah.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "According to the US, the Assad loyalist militia known as Jaysh al-Sha'bi was created and is maintained by Hezbollah and Iran's Revolutionary Guard, both of whom provide it with money, weapons, training and advice. Also, according to Israeli intelligence sources, Hezbollah is working to forge loyalist government militias into a 100,000-strong irregular army to fight alongside the government's conventional forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6222202",
"title": "Hezbollah armed strength",
"section": "Section::::Military.:Light infantry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 1494,
"text": "In 2006, Hezbollah fighters \"often participated in extended direct firefights with the IDF.\" Hezbollah would generally wait for Israel to enter a village before beginning combat, rather than engage in open territory. Fighters mostly wore Hezbollah uniforms, while a small number wore civilian clothes or IDF uniforms in combat. Hezbollah fighters in the 1990s and 2000s mostly wore M81 woodland and olive drab camo, with fighters recently also wearing multicam. Hezbollah fighters conducted close-range, direct firefights with the IDF, and launched counterattacks with up to a platoon of men. Soldiers displayed tenacity and planned and executed complex ambushes. Close familiarity with their area of operations, widespread civilian support, and strong communication networks bolstered the fighters. Fighters rely on \"superior mobility, fighting morale, and popular support\" to counter Israel's technological advancement. Israeli Brigadier General Gal Hirsch described house-to-house fighting with Hezbollah as \"a full-contact operation. I mean direct fighting between our soldiers face to face.\" In 2006, Hezbollah fighters were overwhelmingly clad in uniforms, and often had equipment used by state militaries like body armor, dog tags, and helmets. Hezbollah is strongest when defending its home territory of southern Lebanon, and had a \"strategic advantage\" here. One of Hezbollah's strongest attributes is its skill in cover and camouflage, which is sometimes described as good as Israel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b6x6m8
|
how do you explain that depak chopra and other woo woo new age pseudo science/medicine is bogus to someone that is deeply invested in them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sounds like it is trying to take advantage of the placebo effect, a real phenomenon. Honestly, people who are deeply invested in these pseudosciences usually will not listen to reason and they will reject any evidence that doesn’t support their belief, much like a person who is delusional with a psychiatric illness. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "299145",
"title": "Deepak Chopra",
"section": "Section::::Ideas and reception.:Approach to health care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Chopra has equated spontaneous remission in cancer to a change in quantum state, corresponding to a jump to \"a new level of consciousness that prohibits the existence of cancer\". Physics professor Robert L. Park has written that physicists \"wince\" at the \"New Age quackery\" in Chopra's cancer theories, and characterizes them as a cruel fiction, since adopting them in place of effective treatment risks compounding the ill effects of the disease with guilt, and might rule out the prospect of getting a genuine cure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "299145",
"title": "Deepak Chopra",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Alternative medicine business.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Chopra's \"Ageless Body, Timeless Mind: The Quantum Alternative to Growing Old\" was published in 1993. The book and his friendship with Michael Jackson gained him an interview on July 12 that year on \"Oprah\". Paul Offit writes that within 24 hours Chopra had sold 137,000 copies of his book and 400,000 by the end of the week. Four days after the interview, the Maharishi National Council of the Age of Enlightenment wrote to TM centers in the United States, instructing them not to promote Chopra, and his name and books were removed from the movement's literature and health centers. Neuroscientist Tony Nader became the movement's new \"Dhanvantari of Heaven and Earth\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "299145",
"title": "Deepak Chopra",
"section": "Section::::Ideas and reception.:Alternative medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 2156,
"text": "He is placed by David Gorski among the \"quacks\", \"cranks\" and \"purveyors of woo\", and described as \"arrogantly obstinate\". \"The New York Times\" in 2013 stated that Deepak Chopra is \"the controversial New Age guru and booster of alternative medicine\". \"Time\" magazine stated that he is \"the poet-prophet of alternative medicine.\" He has become one of the best-known and wealthiest figures in the holistic-health movement. \"The New York Times\" argued that his publishers have used his medical degree on the covers of his books as a way to promote the books and buttress their claims. In 1999 \"Time\" magazine included Chopra in its list of the 20th century's heroes and icons. Cosmo Landesman wrote in 2005 that Chopra was \"hardly a man now, more a lucrative new age brand – the David Beckham of personal/spiritual growth\". For Timothy Caulfield, Chopra is an example of someone using scientific language to promote treatments that are not grounded in science: \"[Chopra] legitimizes these ideas that have no scientific basis at all, and makes them sound scientific. He really is a fountain of meaningless jargon.\" A 2008 \"Time\" magazine article by Ptolemy Tompkins commented that for most of his career Chopra had been a \"magnet for criticism\", and most of it was from the medical and scientific professionals. Opinions ranged from the \"dismissive\" to the \"outright damning\". Chopra's claims for the effectiveness of alternative medicine can, some have argued, lure sick people away from medical treatment. Tompkins however considered Chopra a \"beloved\" individual whose basic messages centered on \"love, health and happiness\" had made him rich because of their popular appeal. English professor George O'Har argues that Chopra exemplifies the need of human beings for meaning and spirit in their lives, and places what he calls Chopra's \"sophistries\" alongside the emotivism of Oprah Winfrey. Paul Kurtz writes that Chopra's \"regnant spirituality\" is reinforced by postmodern criticism of the notion of objectivity in science, while Wendy Kaminer equates Chopra's views with irrational belief systems such as New Thought, Christian Science, and Scientology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6544971",
"title": "Shiv Chopra",
"section": "Section::::Autobiography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 900,
"text": "Shiv Chopra identified his life so completely with his whistleblowing at Health Canada that his autobiography is nearly all about his work protecting Canadians from unsafe products being pushed through approval. In 1974 Chopra sat for an interview for a shift in position at the Bureau of Drugs. He was asked, \"Suppose you are selected for this post, whom would you consider to be your client?\" Chopra replied, \"The public, of course.\" The interviewer replied, \"No, it is the industry.\" Chopra insisted that the mandate of the position was Parliament's \"Food and Drugs Act\" (page 19). Such unabashed subservience of supervisors to corporate influence convinced Chopra that Health Canada was \"Corrupt to the Core\", the title of the autobiography. One aspect of his whistleblowing was flagging obstructions to advancement, which he grieved and sued. The major conflict was approval of unsafe products:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "838783",
"title": "Michael Chopra",
"section": "Section::::Club career.:Kerala Blasters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Reflecting on his stint in first season of Indian Super League, Chopra admitted that ISL turned out to be much more intense and competitive than he had anticipated. He said“I think there were a few things that went wrong; I underestimated the ISL. I thought it was going to be easier than it was, and then I picked up a hamstring injury in pre-season which set me back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "299145",
"title": "Deepak Chopra",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:East Coast years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Chopra's involvement with TM led to a meeting, in 1985, with the leader of the TM movement, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, who asked him to establish an Ayurvedic health center. He left his position at the NEMH. Chopra said that one of the reasons he left was his disenchantment at having to prescribe too many drugs: \"[W]hen all you do is prescribe medication, you start to feel like a legalized drug pusher. That doesn't mean that all prescriptions are useless, but it is true that 80 percent of all drugs prescribed today are of optional or marginal benefit.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1554863",
"title": "Lester Grinspoon",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Promotion attempts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Former colleagues Ming Tsuang and Joseph Coyle have maintained that the denial of Grinspoon's promotion was likely predicated on his perceived neglect of \"original research\" in favor of \"[synthesizing] the work of others.\" However, Coyle has acknowledged that Grinspoon's cannabis research \"could have been an element\" in the decision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
31mij4
|
Do any ancient bibles/scriptures show that Jesus did not resurrect?
|
[
{
"answer": "Honestly, not really. Even in the earliest gospel (Mark), after women enter Jesus' tomb, an angel says\n\n > \"Do not be alarmed; you are looking for Jesus of Nazareth, who was crucified. *He has been raised; he is not here*.\"\n\nAnd the earliest sources that we have -- the epistles of Paul -- are permeated with references to Jesus' resurrection.\n\nThe only thing that's been hypothesized is that the earliest Christians originally did not believe that Jesus underwent *bodily* resurrection, and that they instead believed that his body really did remain dead (wherever it had ended up), and that it was just his spirit that was \"exalted to heaven.\" But, again, this was just hypothetical, and doesn't enjoy wide scholarly support; and the only texts that we have are insistent on resurrection.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "823743",
"title": "Jewish Christian",
"section": "Section::::Early Jewish Christianity.:Beliefs.:Resurrection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "According to the New Testament, some Christians reported that they encountered Jesus after his crucifixion. They argued that he had been resurrected (belief in the resurrection of the dead in the Messianic Age was a core Pharisaic doctrine), and would soon return to usher in the Kingdom of God and fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the resurrection of the dead and the Last Judgment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72345",
"title": "Olivet Discourse",
"section": "Section::::Imminence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Historically, this has been one of the most difficult passages to resolve with a literal interpretation of the text. At face value it would seem to imply that the disciples would still be alive today. Awkward legends arose suggesting that the disciples to whom Jesus was speaking did not die but remain alive, eventually developing into legends like those of the Wandering Jew and Prester John. C. S. Lewis called this \"the most embarrassing verse in the Bible\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2546655",
"title": "Stolen body hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Potential culprits.:The disciples.:Was the resurrection expected?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1104,
"text": "Another apologetical argument is to argue that the disciples had no compelling reason to fabricate a resurrection story because they earnestly believed (at that time) Jesus was not the Messiah after all. According to J.N.D. Anderson in his work, the disciples simply didn't anticipate the resurrection and were surprised by the physical presence of the risen Christ. This is emphasized by the disciples fearful response upon seeing Jesus for the first time after his resurrection: \"...They were startled and frightened, thinking they saw a ghost\" (). They seemingly failed to \"expect\" the resurrection and were either unfamiliar with or discounted prophecies indicating the Messiah would be resurrected. The Gospel of John seems to support this: \"...Finally the other disciple, who had reached the tomb first, also went inside. He saw and believed. They still did not understand from Scripture that Jesus had to rise from the dead...\" (). If the apostles \"did not understand\" these prophecies, they would have no logical purpose in robbing the body of Jesus from his tomb, as there was nothing to prove.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12187943",
"title": "Unknown years of Jesus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "The use of the \"lost years\" in the \"swoon hypothesis\", suggests that Jesus survived his crucifixion and continued his life, instead of what was stated in the New Testament that he ascended into Heaven with two angels. This, and the related view that he avoided crucifixion altogether, has given rise to several speculations about what happened to him in the supposed remaining years of his life, but these are not accepted by mainstream scholars either.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1168010",
"title": "Life of Jesus in the New Testament",
"section": "Section::::Resurrection and Ascension.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "The gospels state that the first day of the week after the crucifixion (typically interpreted as a Sunday), The followers of Jesus encounter him risen from the dead, after his tomb was discovered to be empty. The New Testament does not include an account of the \"moment of resurrection\" and in the Eastern Church icons do not depict that moment, but show the Myrrhbearers, and depict scenes of salvation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "763162",
"title": "Mark 12",
"section": "Section::::The resurrection and marriage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "The belief in the resurrection of the dead was largely a fairly recent innovation in ancient Jewish thought, and Jesus defends the belief against the Sadducees, who consider it to be a false innovation. He quotes God's statement to Moses on Mount Sinai made in the present tense about the patriarchs to show that God states them to be still in existence after their death, and thus that the doctrine of resurrection is present in the scripture from the beginning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "773566",
"title": "Joseph McCabe",
"section": "Section::::Writing career.:Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "In his essays \"The Myth of the Resurrection\" (1925) and \"Did Jesus Ever Live?\" (1926) McCabe wrote that Christianity is a direct representation of older Pagan beliefs. Slain saviors and their resurrection myths were currently known and celebrated across the ancient world before Christianity began. According to McCabe the Gospel accounts of the Resurrection of Jesus contain numerous conflicts, contradictions and errors and are unreliable as they had been fabricated over the years by many different writers. McCabe came to the conclusion that Jesus was an Essenian holy man who was turned into a God over the years by hearsay and oral tradition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
41v1vu
|
if we were to go extinct today, would earth be able to erase any evidence of us completely?
|
[
{
"answer": "From the surface, yes. All traces of us will either erode away or be buried. However, we have fossils of single celled organisms that are [3.5 billion years old](_URL_0_). That's a significant fraction of the age of the earth itself. It's at least plausible that we would leave fossils that would last that long, if not until the sun becomes a red giant and erases pretty much all evidence altogether, which wouldn't necessarily be that much longer after that. As far as structures, I think it is plausible some of our materials will persist a good long time, depending on the circumstances of their burial.\n\nTLDR: It seems at least reasonably plausible that there will be evidence of humans as long as the Earth exists.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was a show called Life After People. It showed what the earth would look like if people just disappeared. Each episode went a little farther back in time. Eventually all traces would be gone.\n\nKeep in mind this show started with the premise that we just disappeared. No natural disaster, no war or anything that \"killed\" us. Just \"poof\" we're gone. So no fossilized human remains.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes and no. The things you mention, such as buildings and bridges, would pretty much fade to oblivion. Foundations would probably remain for some things but for the most part, we would simply fade away. However, many of our more forward thinking projects, such as seed banks, would be around for millennia. When we decide that we want something to last, we can do a pretty good job of it. Furthermore, our effects on the planet will live on for the rest of the Earth's lifespan. Trapped in the geology of our planet will be records of our lives here today. Changes in carbon and methane levels, along with traces of elements and isotopes which simply do not exist naturally, will be infused into the planet for all time. To a future civilization, it would be as clear as the words you are reading right now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Naturally occurring uranium is about 99% ^(238)U and 1% ^(235)U. It is enriched to 3-4% ^(235)U content for nuclear reactors, and 90+% for weapons. There is no known means for uranium to be significantly enriched naturally.\n\nTheses uranium isotopes have half lives measuring in the hundreds of millions of years. Even if nothing else man made remained, it would be apparent to any future alien archaeologist coming across enriched uranium that is was not natural.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interestingly the last thing that will probably remain of humanity are the things we left on the moon. Almost no weathering would occur and very little chemistry.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ceramics lasts a long long time. In a million years, when all of the steel and concrete is gone, the surface will be littered with urinals, crappers, and old tubs. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All of our space junk isn't going anywhere. Assuming whoever comes after us looks at the stars in the sky at night they will be able to see satellites and our stuff for quite some time (def not in the billions of years tho)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was a tv series on the History channel a few years back called \"Life After People\". It goes into detail about how long it would take for certain structures to collapse, grass and trees to grow through streets and things like that. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Given a billion or two years however wouldn't all that stuff all that evidence get subdicted through tectonics and melt back into mantle?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is currently up for review whether we should consider the Earth to be in a new epoch. The proposed name is the Anthropocene Epoch (epoch of the humans).\n\nThere is considerable evidence that suggests the Earth has been changed in permanent ways. At least from a geological perspective.\n\nCement and plastics will stay around for a long long time.\n\nHumans have made many pure elements that just don't exist naturally, such as elemental aluminum. \n\nThe amount of nuclear detonations that have occurred have left of dusting of heavy element isotopes across the globe.\n\nSupposedly, we have physically altered 50% of our available landmass.\n\nAlong with some other examples.\n\nHowever pertaining to your question, in a million years there *might* be some very heavy duty structures that might be somewhere. In a billion years? More than likely not. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Check out the 'Life After People' series, it goes in to a lot of detail as to how long various things we've made will last.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nPretty much only the stuff we've carved out of rock outside of earthquake free zones can be considered permanent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some solid Bronze statues might last until the sun expands in 5 Billion years and melts the Earth. Here's a possible scenario: Let's say the human race dies out but our cities aren't destroyed. All over the US there are hundreds of bronze statues in public parks. The statues would sit outside in the sun and the rain for thousands of years and they would be ok. (although acidic bird poop might ruin a lot of them) Most of those statues will be standing on stone bases. Water will get into cracks in the stone and freeze and the cracks would expand. Eventually the bases would crack apart and the statue would fall over. Time would pass and after 100 years the statue might be 100% covered by dirt. Once the statue is underground it could survive indefinitely. Icebergs might grind away a lot of the statues but statues near the equator might be spared. After a few million years, the surviving statues would be encased in layers of protective sediment.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21221594",
"title": "Global catastrophic risk",
"section": "Section::::Classifications.:Global catastrophic vs. existential.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Researchers experience difficulty in studying near human extinction directly, since humanity has never been destroyed before. While this does not mean that it will not be in the future, it does make modelling existential risks difficult, due in part to survivorship bias. However, civilizations vanished rather frequently in human history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6938531",
"title": "Pale Cocoon",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "It has been many years since a group of humans retreated to an artificial colony below the planet's surface. An unspecified ecological disaster has left the surface largely uninhabitable, plagued by apparent pollution, cold from receiving little light and largely absent of signs of life. Much of recorded history before the move has been forgotten, despite the numerous advances in technology. The last remaining information lies in a vast archive of data, much of it in corrupted formats. Determined to recover this precious information, the \"Archive Excavation Department\" works specifically to restore as much of it as possible. Long ago, the Department used to be excited and full of energy. Now, some feel that knowledge of the lost past can bring only sadness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41319561",
"title": "Final Call (album)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Commenting on \"Final Call\", Kitaro said, \"I have always felt we all must respect the providence of the Universe. Unfortunately, through the course of time and the growth of civilization, many living creatures that we now know will become extinct. If we don't alter how we treat each other and our planet Earth, many habitats and portions of this earth may become devastated and eventually disappear.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "633586",
"title": "Ingrid Newkirk",
"section": "Section::::Newkirk's work with PETA.:Public image.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "If you haven't given voluntary human extinction much thought before, the idea of a world with no people in it may seem strange. But, if you give it a chance, I think you might agree that the extinction of Homo Sapiens would mean survival for millions, if not billions, of Earth-dwelling species ... Phasing out the human race will solve every problem on earth, social and environmental. \"Les U. Knight\" (pseudonym),\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1193070",
"title": "List of recently extinct mammals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "One study found that extinction from habitat loss is the hardest to detect, as this might only fragment populations to the point of concealment from humans. Some mammals declared as extinct may very well reappear. For example, a study found that 36% of purported mammalian extinction had been resolved, while the rest either had validity issues (insufficient evidence) or had been rediscovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49417",
"title": "Extinction",
"section": "Section::::Mass extinctions.:Modern extinctions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "According to a 1998 survey of 400 biologists conducted by New York's American Museum of Natural History, nearly 70% believed that the Earth is currently in the early stages of a human-caused mass extinction, known as the Holocene extinction. In that survey, the same proportion of respondents agreed with the prediction that up to 20% of all living populations could become extinct within 30 years (by 2028). A 2014 special edition of \"Science\" declared there is widespread consensus on the issue of human-driven mass species extinctions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "897095",
"title": "Space and survival",
"section": "Section::::Space settlement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Human extinction can be prevented by improving the physical barrier or increasing the mean distance between people and the potential extinction event. For example, pandemics are controlled by placing exposed people in quarantine and evacuating healthy people away. The human lineage of genus \"Homo\" has reduced from several species co-existing on Earth to just one — all others became extinct before the end of the last Ice age. This illustrates that \"Homo sapiens\" is not immune to planetary disaster and that human survival may be better assured through the colonization of space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1mdbyj
|
why do humans feel shame?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a social emotion similar to embarrassment. When you feel shame, it's usually from doing something not socially accepted and whatnot, so you feel a bad emotion to be discouraged from doing it again, as humans are social creatures, and we generally prefer to be accepted by our communities. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interesting question, I do not know but I'll try to guess. \n\nLike most words for emotions there would seem to be more than one meaning to the word, which do not describe the same phenomena. \n\nPerhaps the most common meaning of shame is the feeling of discomfort and lowered self esteem connected with the perceived loss of social status due to a action even event. \n\nHedging that purpose in the context of evolutionary traits can only ever refer to a mechanism which makes the positive impact on trait survival plausible. Id say that the purpose of shame is likely two fold. \n\nShame causes a set of immediately recognizable behaviors, first showing people that you are ashamed(red face, hesitation) then later reducing the attention paid to you(subdued behavior) in your social group for a while. Basically a non verbal my bad followed by a please look over there instead. As such it would seem to serve the purpose of reducing the loss of social status(apology ) despite the inevitable mistakes you will make and events beyond your control and reduce conflicts during your move downwards in the social hierarchy should this be required by the group. As you perceive the group having normalized its interactions with you the shame subsides, until the event is brought to focus by some external event. If this is the case then accepting the shame and bearing the behaviours it causes while remaining in contact with the social group is critical to allow the shame to subside. Hiding away entirely will not let this happen while at the same time ensure that your group relations do not normalize. \n\nSecond shame likely plays a significant part in the feedback mechanism with regards to learning both direct and long term. As a feeling to which we are averse it will negatively affect the probability that we take actions which we find similar to the actions which caused the memory too which the shame is connected.\n\nLearning mechanisms are not perfect and when shame becomes associated with behaviors which would reduce the shame felt it can be come paralyzing since any attempt to learn the behavior which would reduce the shame would be negatively impacted by the shame itself. \n\nTL;DR; \nShame facilitates group cohesion and is part of the way you learn not to do things due to their social impact. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "150497",
"title": "Self-esteem",
"section": "Section::::Development across lifespan.:Shame.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Shame can be a contributor to those with problems of low self-esteem. Feelings of shame usually occur because of a situation where the social self is devalued, such as a socially evaluated poor performance. A poor performance leads to higher responses of psychological states that indicate a threat to the social self namely a decrease in social self-esteem and an increase in shame. This increase in shame can be helped with self-compassion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166035",
"title": "Shame",
"section": "Section::::Self-evaluation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 874,
"text": "When people feel shame, the focus of their evaluation is on the self or identity. Shame is a self-punishing acknowledgment of something gone wrong. It is associated with \"mental undoing\". Studies of shame showed that when ashamed people feel that their entire self is worthless, powerless, and small, they also feel exposed to an audience—real or imagined—that exists purely for the purpose of confirming that the self is worthless. Shame and the sense of self is stigmatized, or treated unfairly, like being overtly rejected by parents in favor of siblings' needs, and is assigned externally by others regardless of one's own experience or awareness. An individual who is in a state of shame will assign the shame internally from being a victim of the environment, and the same is assigned externally, or assigned by others regardless of one's own experience or awareness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166035",
"title": "Shame",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with guilt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "The boundaries between concepts of shame, guilt, and embarrassment are not easily delineated. According to cultural anthropologist Ruth Benedict, shame is a violation of cultural or social values while guilt feelings arise from violations of one's internal values. Thus shame arises when one's 'defects' are exposed to others, and results from the negative evaluation (whether real or imagined) of others; guilt, on the other hand, comes from one's own negative evaluation of oneself, for instance, when one acts contrary to one's values or idea of one's self. Thus, it might be possible to feel ashamed of thought or behavior that no one actually knows about [since one fears their discovery] and conversely, to feel guilty about actions that gain the approval of others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166035",
"title": "Shame",
"section": "Section::::Identification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Nineteenth-century scientist Charles Darwin described shame affect in the physical form of blushing, confusion of mind, downward cast eyes, slack posture, and lowered head; Darwin noted these observations of shame affect in human populations worldwide, as mentioned in his book \"The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals\". Darwin also mentions how the sense of warmth or heat, associated with the vasodilation of the face and skin, can result in an even more sense of shame. More commonly, the act of crying can be associated with shame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166035",
"title": "Shame",
"section": "Section::::The Shame, Guilt and Anger Study.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 977,
"text": "Tangney et al. found that shame is painful, exposing, disapproving, self-directed, and causes forms of defense towards others. These characteristics are extreme, but shame enters a new level when one's behavior becomes avoidant, retaliated, and blaming. In redirecting anger outside the self, shamed individuals may be attempting to regain a sense of agency and control which is so often impaired in the shame experience, so they looked at possibilities of how anger and shame go hand in hand. Once angered, people often feel ashamed of being angry, the experience of shame itself fosters feelings of other-directed anger and hostility, and the acute pain of shame can lead to a sense of ‘humiliated fury' directly toward the self and toward a real or imagined disapproving other. Negative affect fosters feelings of anger and the ‘instigation to aggress'. Thus, from this perspective it may be the pain of shame that accounts for its link with indexes of anger and hostility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166035",
"title": "Shame",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Shame is an unpleasant self-conscious emotion typically associated with a negative evaluation of the self, withdrawal motivations, and feelings of distress, exposure, mistrust, powerlessness, and worthlessness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166035",
"title": "Shame",
"section": "Section::::Four subtypes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1848,
"text": "There are many different reasons that people might feel shame. According to Joseph Burgo, there are four different aspects of shame. He calls these aspects of shame paradigms. In his first subdivision of shame he looks into is unrequited love; which is when you love someone but your partner does not reciprocate, or one is rejected by somebody that they like; this can be mortifying and shaming. Unrequited love can be shown in other ways as well. For example, the way a mother treats her new born baby. An experiment was done where a mother showed her baby love and talked to the baby for a set period of time. She then went a few minutes without talking to the baby. This resulted with the baby making different expressions to get the mother's attention. When the mother stopped giving the baby attention, the baby felt shame. The second type of shame is unwanted exposure. This would take place if you were called out in front of a whole class for doing something wrong or if someone saw you doing something you didn't want them to see. This is what you would normally think of when you hear the word shame. Disappointed expectation would be your third type of shame according to Burgo. This could be not passing a class, having a friendship go wrong, or not getting a big promotion in a job that you thought you would get. The fourth and final type of shame according to Burgo is exclusion which also means being left out. Many people will do anything to just fit in or want to belong in today's society. This happens all the time at school, work, friendships, relationships, everywhere. People will do anything to prove that they belong. Shame causes a lot of stress on people daily, but it also teaches people a lot of lessons. Without having shame people would never be able to learn a lesson and never be able to grow from their mistakes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3t9nev
|
why its carl's jr. on the western half of the u.s and hardee's on the midwestern/some eastern
|
[
{
"answer": "I know that burger king in Australia is called hungry jacks! This is due to naming rights for burger king in Australia. it could be something similar to this",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Carl's and Hardees were originally different restaurant chains. Back in 1997, the parent company of Carl's Jr. bought Hardees and is slowly combining the two restaurants. I expect they will keep the names separate indefinitely, as there's no reason to throw away name recognition.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30874552",
"title": "Carl's Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Company profile.:1970s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "By 1975, there were more than 100 Carl's Jr. locations in Southern California, and the company expanded into the northern part of the state. Carl's Jr. celebrated its success by building its Anaheim corporate headquarters in 1976. The following year, it became the first QSR chain to offer salad bars in all 200 locations. The first out-of-state restaurant opened in Las Vegas in 1979. By the end of the decade, sales exceeded the $100 million mark.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "264058",
"title": "Ray Kroc",
"section": "Section::::Purchasing McDonald's.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "At the closing table, Kroc became annoyed that the brothers would not transfer to him the real estate and rights to the original San Bernardino location. The brothers had told Kroc they were giving the operation, property and all, to the founding employees. In his anger, Kroc later opened a new McDonald's restaurant near the original McDonald's, which had been renamed \"The Big M\" because the brothers had neglected to retain rights to the name. \"The Big M\" closed six years later. It is alleged that as part of the buyout Kroc promised, based on a handshake agreement, to continue the annual 0.5% royalty of the original agreement, but there is no evidence of this beyond a claim by a nephew of the McDonald brothers. Neither of the brothers publicly expressed disappointment over the deal. Speaking to someone about the buyout, Richard McDonald reportedly said that he had no regrets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30874552",
"title": "Carl's Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Company profile.:International.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "As of 2017, CKE (the parent company of Carl's Jr. and Hardee's) has a total of 3,665 franchised or company-operated restaurants in 44 states and 39 foreign countries and U.S. territories. Outside of the U.S., Carls Jr. is currently present in Australia, Belarus, Bolivia, Brazil, Cambodia, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, France, Guatemala, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Panama, Russia, Singapore, Spain, Thailand, Turkey, and Vietnam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48818352",
"title": "Souplantation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "The company has expanded across the American West and Southwest, as well as opened locations in several Southeast states, including 23 restaurants in Florida. All of the restaurants are company-owned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30874552",
"title": "Carl's Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Company profile.:1960s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "By the 1960s, Carl was operating 24 restaurants in Southern California. The company incorporated in 1966 as Carl Karcher Enterprises, Inc., and launched a major expansion of the chain in 1968. The menus were limited for faster service, featuring charbroiled hamburgers, hot dogs, fries, and malts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3170968",
"title": "The Bon-Ton",
"section": "Section::::History.:Operations in 2000s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "In October 2003, The Bon-Ton expanded its reach into Ohio and the lower Midwest with the acquisition of the 69-store Elder-Beerman store chain. Following an attempt to convert to a privately held company, Elder-Beerman was offered more cash for its outstanding stock as part of the buyout. The chain operated as a separate banner until the company's demise in 2018.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30874552",
"title": "Carl's Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Company profile.:1990s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Carl's Jr. chains had struggled to gain success in Arizona and Texas, perhaps diminishing hopes of expansion to other states, though later states like Nevada, Oregon, and Washington proved successful. During the 1990s, Karcher and the board of directors began clashing, often publicly, over marketing and business practices, including the chain's attempt at dual branding with such chains as The Green Burrito and its new advertising campaigns. Karcher was removed as chairman of the company by its board of directors on October 1, 1993. Soon after, the board of directors took a new approach by cutting the menu, lowering prices, and introducing a new marketing campaign which targeted younger urban and suburban males.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6l8v3i
|
how does lying to yourself work?
|
[
{
"answer": "I feel like this is a psychology question, and I am in no way an expert, but maybe this helps:\n\nYour every actions come from your brain, and every decision you make is made after considering your options.\n\nAs you get older and make a lot of similar decisions you get in a habit of reacting the same way to the same actions. There are paths in your brain you \"like\" to take, because you are so well used to them.\n\nIf you treat depression you teach the patients how to get out of their every-day thoughts and finding a different approach to your thoughts and react differently.\n\nIf you tell a lie often enough your brain makes a \"path\" for the lie and all the actions that come from it. They know this isn't the right path, but it is the easiest one to take because it is often used.\nGetting out of that habbit is a lot of work and is in no way easy once the path is big enough",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You don't actually \"lie\" to yourself. You don't say something factually wrong like \"I'm not fat\" and suddenly believe you are not overweight.\n\nWhat you do is delude yourself about things that are less factually certain. You say things like \"I might be overweight, but I am still pretty healthy\". You focus on the evidence for being healthy, like being able to go on long bike rides, and pay less attention to the evidence against, like your high blood pressure. Next time you have to decide between a double cheeseburger and a salad, you comfort yourself with how healthy you are, and get some fries with that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59391614",
"title": "Truth-default theory",
"section": "Section::::Truth-default theory vs. Information manipulation theory.:Cognitive psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "Researchers have looked into individuals cognitive effort when choosing between a lie versus the truth. Lying has been proven more difficult for the brain than telling the truth, they have found that lying increases activity in the brain regions. It takes the brain longer to formulate a deceptive answer than it does a truthful answer when a person is asked to answer questions at a faster speed. Overall, the truth is the first thing that comes to mind for a person in most situations. A humans mind is flexible enough to adapt in certain situations when needing to be deceptive, there are just certain variable and time restraints that arise from it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2894716",
"title": "Pathological lying",
"section": "Section::::Pathological liars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Lying is the act of both knowingly and intentionally or willfully making a false statement. Normal lies are defensive and are told to avoid the consequences of truth telling. They are often white lies that spare another's feelings, reflect a pro-social attitude, and make civilized human contact possible. Pathological lying can be described as a habituation of lying. It is when an individual consistently lies for no personal gain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24499728",
"title": "Psychological manipulation",
"section": "Section::::Theories on successful manipulation.:According to Simon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "BULLET::::- Lying (by commission) : It is hard to tell if somebody is lying at the time they do it, although often the truth may be apparent later when it is too late. One way to minimize the chances of being lied to is to understand that some personality types (particularly psychopaths) are experts at the art of lying and cheating, doing it frequently, and often in subtle ways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229723",
"title": "Lie",
"section": "Section::::Ethics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "In \"Lying\", neuroscientist Sam Harris argues that lying is negative for the liar and the person who's being lied to. To say lies is to deny others access to reality, and often we cannot anticipate how harmful lies can be. The ones we lie to may fail to solve problems they could have solved only on a basis of good information. To lie also harms oneself, makes the liar to distrust the person who's being lied to. Liars generally feel bad for it and sense a loss of sincerity, authenticity, integrity. Harris defends that honesty allows you to have deeper relationships, and to bring all dysfunction in one's life to the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48424083",
"title": "Lying (Harris book)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Lying is a long-form essay book by American author and neuroscience expert Sam Harris. Harris argues that we can radically simplify our lives and improve society by merely telling the truth in situations where others often lie.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59391614",
"title": "Truth-default theory",
"section": "Section::::Truth-default theory vs. Information manipulation theory.:Social psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Social Psychology has explored whether the tenancy to tell the truth prevails. When a lie serves a persons self-interest they might be more prone to lying because it ends in a positive result for them. As noted before, self-interest has been found to be the driving force for people to practice deception. People are most prone to lie after engaging in a depleting task, when they are sleep deprived, and later in the day compared to when they first wake up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229723",
"title": "Lie",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Lying by omission, also known as a continuing misrepresentation or quote mining, occurs when an important fact is left out in order to foster a misconception. Lying by omission includes the failure to correct pre-existing misconceptions. For example, when the seller of a car declares it has been serviced regularly but does not mention that a fault was reported during the last service, the seller lies by omission. It can be compared to dissimulation. An omission is when a person tells most of the truth, but leaves out a few key facts that therefore completely change the story.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3zyrz0
|
what exactly is a bruised bone?
|
[
{
"answer": "A bone bruise, or a bone contusion, is an injury to bone typically caused by trauma that results in [microscopic fractures and the build-up of blood and fluid in the surrounding tissue and bone](_URL_0_). Bone bruises can be very painful but are much less severe than a fracture. While fractures can be seen on x-rays, a bone bruise can only be seen on MRIs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "641156",
"title": "Bruise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1310,
"text": "A bruise, also known as a contusion, is a type of hematoma of tissue, the most common cause being capillaries damaged by trauma, causing localized bleeding that extravasate into the surrounding interstitial tissues. Most bruises are not very deep under the skin so that the bleeding causes a visible discoloration. The bruise then remains visible until the blood is either absorbed by tissues or cleared by immune system action. Bruises, which do not blanch under pressure, can involve capillaries at the level of skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscle, or bone. Bruises are not to be confused with other similar-looking lesions primarily distinguished by their diameter or causation. These lesions include petechia (< 3 mm result from numerous and diverse etiologies such as adverse reactions from medications such as warfarin, straining, asphyxiation, platelet disorders and diseases such as cytomegalovirus), purpura (3 mm to 1 cm, classified as palpable purpura or non-palpable purpura and indicates various pathologic conditions such as thrombocytopenia), and ecchymosis (1 cm caused by blood dissecting through tissue planes and settled in an area remote from the site of trauma or pathology such as periorbital ecchymosis, e.g.,\"raccoon eyes\", arising from a basilar skull fracture or from a neuroblastoma).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "641156",
"title": "Bruise",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Size and shape.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Bruise shapes may correspond directly to the instrument of injury or be modified by additional factors. Bruises often become more prominent as time lapses, resulting in additional size and swelling, and may grow to a large size over the course of the hours after the injury that caused the bruise was inflicted. As stated above, bruising present in a different location than the site of impact is called \"ecchymosis\" and generally occurs when the tissue at the site of injury is loose, allowing blood to travel under the skin to another location due to gravity or other forces, such as in a black eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "641156",
"title": "Bruise",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Bruises often induce pain immediately after the trauma that results in their formation, but small bruises are not normally dangerous alone. Sometimes bruises can be serious, leading to other more life-threatening forms of hematoma, such as when associated with serious injuries, including fractures and more severe internal bleeding. The likelihood and severity of bruising depends on many factors, including type and healthiness of affected tissues. Minor bruises may be easily recognized in people with light skin color by characteristic blue or purple appearance (idiomatically described as \"black and blue\") in the days following the injury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "641156",
"title": "Bruise",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "The presence of bruises may be seen in patients with platelet or coagulation disorders, or those who are being treated with an anticoagulant. Unexplained bruising may be a warning sign of child abuse, domestic abuse, or serious medical problems such as leukemia or meningoccocal infection. Unexplained bruising can also indicate internal bleeding or certain types of cancer. Long-term glucocorticoid therapy can cause easy bruising. Bruising present around the navel (belly button) with severe abdominal pain suggests acute pancreatitis. Connective tissue disorders such as Ehlers-Danlos syndrome may cause relatively easy or spontaneous bruising depending on the severity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "641156",
"title": "Bruise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 883,
"text": "As a type of hematoma, a bruise is always caused by internal bleeding into the interstitial tissues which does not break through the skin, usually initiated by blunt trauma, which causes damage through physical compression and deceleration forces. Trauma sufficient to cause bruising can occur from a wide variety of situations including accidents, falls, and surgeries. Disease states such as insufficient or malfunctioning platelets, other coagulation deficiencies, or vascular disorders, such as venous blockage associated with severe allergies can lead to the formation of purpura which is not to be confused with trauma-related bruising/contusion. If the trauma is sufficient to break the skin and allow blood to escape the interstitial tissues, the injury is not a bruise but bleeding, a different variety of hemorrhage. Such injuries may be accompanied by bruising elsewhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1649200",
"title": "Boxer's fracture",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "As these are colloquial terms, texts and medical dictionaries do not universally agree on precise meanings. Various authorities state that a \"boxer's fracture\" means a break in specifically the second metacarpal bone or third metacarpal bone, with \"bar room fracture\" being specific to the fourth metacarpal bone or fifth metacarpal bone. Though some writers assert that boxer's fracture and bar room fracture are distinct terms representing injuries to different bones, this distinction seems to have been lost and most medical professionals now describe any metacarpal fracture as a \"boxer's fracture\" .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2156468",
"title": "Bone pain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Bone pain (also known medically by several other names) is pain coming from a bone. It occurs as a result of a wide range of diseases and/or physical conditions and may severely impair the quality of life. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2drx86
|
why do people have pairs of chromosomes? what does that do?
|
[
{
"answer": "You get one chromosome from each parent. It increases genetic diversity by giving you one from each parent, rather than just one chromosome from one parent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "312354",
"title": "Homologous chromosome",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:In humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "Humans have a total of 46 chromosomes, but there are only 22 pairs of homologous autosomal chromosomes. The additional 23rd pair is the sex chromosomes, X and Y. If this pair is made up of an X and Y chromosome, then the pair of chromosomes is not homologous because their size and gene content differ greatly. The 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes contain the same genes but code for different traits in their allelic forms since one was inherited from the mother and one from the father. So humans have two homologous chromosome sets in each cell, meaning humans are diploid organisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6438",
"title": "Chromosome",
"section": "Section::::Eukaryotes.:Human chromosomes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1018,
"text": "Chromosomes in humans can be divided into two types: autosomes (body chromosome(s)) and allosome (sex chromosome(s)). Certain genetic traits are linked to a person's sex and are passed on through the sex chromosomes. The autosomes contain the rest of the genetic hereditary information. All act in the same way during cell division. Human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes), giving a total of 46 per cell. In addition to these, human cells have many hundreds of copies of the mitochondrial genome. Sequencing of the human genome has provided a great deal of information about each of the chromosomes. Below is a table compiling statistics for the chromosomes, based on the Sanger Institute's human genome information in the Vertebrate Genome Annotation (VEGA) database. Number of genes is an estimate, as it is in part based on gene predictions. Total chromosome length is an estimate as well, based on the estimated size of unsequenced heterochromatin regions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39413",
"title": "Trisomy",
"section": "Section::::Description and causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Most organisms that reproduce sexually have pairs of chromosomes in each cell, with one chromosome inherited from each parent. In such organisms, a process called meiosis creates cells called gametes (eggs or sperm) that have only one set of chromosomes. The number of chromosomes is different for different species. Humans have 46 chromosomes (i.e. 23 pairs of chromosomes). Human gametes have only 23 chromosomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3402190",
"title": "Chromosome 2",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Humans have only 23 pairs of chromosomes, while all other extant members of Hominidae have 24 pairs. (It is believed that Neanderthals and Denisovans had 23 pairs.) Human chromosome 2 is a result of an end-to-end fusion of two ancestral chromosomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42362699",
"title": "Diploid triploid mosaic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "A regular human carries 23 pairs of chromosomes in his or her cells. Cells containing two pairs of chromosomes are known as diploid cells. Those with diploid triploid mosaicism have some cells which are triploid, meaning that they have three copies of chromosomes, or a total of 69 chromosomes. Triploidy is distinct from trisomy, in which only one chromosome exists in three pairs. A well-known example of trisomy is trisomy 21 or Down syndrome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "607285",
"title": "Haplotype",
"section": "Section::::Y-DNA haplotypes from genealogical DNA tests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "Unlike other chromosomes, Y chromosomes generally do not come in pairs. Every human male (excepting those with XYY syndrome) has only one copy of that chromosome. This means that there is not any chance variation of which copy is inherited, and also (for most of the chromosome) not any shuffling between copies by recombination; so, unlike autosomal haplotypes, there is effectively not any randomisation of the Y-chromosome haplotype between generations. A human male should largely share the same Y chromosome as his father, give or take a few mutations; thus Y chromosomes tend to pass largely intact from father to son,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1916",
"title": "Autosome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "For example, humans have a diploid genome that usually contains 22 pairs of autosomes and one allosome pair (46 chromosomes total). The autosome pairs are labeled with numbers (1–22 in humans) roughly in order of their sizes in base pairs, while allosomes are labelled with their letters. By contrast, the allosome pair consists of two X chromosomes in females or one X and one Y chromosome in males. Unusual combinations of XYY, XXY, XXX, XXXX, XXXXX or XXYY, among other allosome combinations, are known to occur and usually cause developmental abnormalities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1amczl
|
Why does it hail in warm weather?
|
[
{
"answer": "It has to be cold very high up, and windy. Hailstones will rise and fall many times due to the wind, repeatedly picking up a new coating of water, then being carried to a higher, colder layer of air by the wind, where it freezes. The hail stone falls to Earth when the wind isn't strong enough to lift it any more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sleet is just normal rain which freezes prior to hitting the ground. Freezing rain is also just normal rain, but freezes on contact with a surface. Hail on the other hand, is formed by a completely different mechanism. The stones are created deep inside strong updrafts in powerful thunderstorm, very high up in the atmosphere where the air temperature is still below freezing (even if it is 80 degrees on the ground). \n\nFor more on how hailstones form, see [this page](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58991",
"title": "Fog",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Hail fog sometimes occurs in the vicinity of significant hail accumulations due to decreased temperature and increased moisture leading to saturation in a very shallow layer near the surface. It most often occurs when there is a warm, humid layer atop the hail and when wind is light. This ground fog tends to be localized but can be extremely dense and abrupt. It may form shortly after the hail falls; when the hail has had time to cool the air and as it absorbs heat when melting and evaporating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "472583",
"title": "Collingwood, Ontario",
"section": "Section::::Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "In the summer months, there are warm to hot humid conditions with frequent lake breezes to cool things off. Thunderstorms are regular occurrences in the summer and can sometimes be severe enough to cause tornadoes. Temperatures this time of year can range from 11*C to 26*C. The humidity will often make it feel much hotter than the actual temperature and can even make it feel like the mid 40 °C. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14458",
"title": "Hail",
"section": "Section::::Formation.:Factors favoring hail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "Hail is most common within continental interiors of the mid-latitudes, as hail formation is considerably more likely when the freezing level is below the altitude of . Movement of dry air into strong thunderstorms over continents can increase the frequency of hail by promoting evaporational cooling which lowers the freezing level of thunderstorm clouds giving hail a larger volume to grow in. Accordingly, hail is less common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-latitudes because the atmosphere over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater altitude. Hail in the tropics occurs mainly at higher elevations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14946",
"title": "Ice",
"section": "Section::::Natural formation.:In the air.:Hail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 1105,
"text": "Hail forms in strong thunderstorm clouds, particularly those with intense updrafts, high liquid water content, great vertical extent, large water droplets, and where a good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing . Hail-producing clouds are often identifiable by their green coloration. The growth rate is maximized at about , and becomes vanishingly small much below as supercooled water droplets become rare. For this reason, hail is most common within continental interiors of the mid-latitudes, as hail formation is considerably more likely when the freezing level is below the altitude of . Entrainment of dry air into strong thunderstorms over continents can increase the frequency of hail by promoting evaporational cooling which lowers the freezing level of thunderstorm clouds giving hail a larger volume to grow in. Accordingly, hail is actually less common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-latitudes because the atmosphere over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater depth. Hail in the tropics occurs mainly at higher elevations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19379318",
"title": "Dry thunderstorm",
"section": "Section::::Hazards.:Dust storms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Strong winds often develop around dry thunderstorms as the evaporating precipitation causes excessive cooling of the air beneath the storm, which increases its density and thereby its weight relative to the surrounding air. This cool air then descends rapidly and fans out upon impacting the ground, an event often described as a dry microburst. As the gusty winds expand outward from the storm, dry soil and sand are often picked up by the strong winds, creating dust and sand storms known as haboobs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "316532",
"title": "Spring (season)",
"section": "Section::::Natural events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "Unstable spring weather may occur more often when warm air begins to invade from lower latitudes, while cold air is still pushing from the Polar regions. Flooding is also most common in and near mountainous areas during this time of year, because of snow-melt which is accelerated by warm rains. In North America, Tornado Alley is most active at this time of year, especially since the Rocky Mountains prevent the surging hot and cold air masses from spreading eastward, and instead force them into direct conflict. Besides tornadoes, supercell thunderstorms can also produce dangerously large hail and very high winds, for which a severe thunderstorm warning or tornado warning is usually issued. Even more so than in winter, the jet streams play an important role in unstable and severe Northern Hemisphere weather in springtime. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2188689",
"title": "Weather front",
"section": "Section::::Precipitation produced.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Fronts are the principal cause of significant weather. \"Convective precipitation\" (showers, thundershowers, and related unstable weather) is caused by air being lifted and condensing into clouds by the movement of the cold front or cold occlusion under a mass of warmer, moist air. If the temperature differences of the two air masses involved are large and the turbulence is extreme because of wind shear and the presence of a strong jet stream, \"roll clouds\" and tornadoes may occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
m9pmn
|
How are vaccination schedules determined?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's many things going on when deciding on vaccine schedules. From the top of my head, there's \n\n**Maternal antibodies** (The mother will transfer some antibodies to the infant that lasts for a couple of months and might interfere with the vaccine response)\n\n**Risk of side effects** of the vaccine versus severity of the disease should infection occur (It is a common thing for medical personel to delay vaccination of preterm babies - this is often contraproductive since the consequences of e.g. whooping cough is especially severe in preterms)\n\n**When** the disease that is vaccinated against tend to occur.\n\n**Burden to the parents**. Asking the parents to vaccinate their children too often results in a drop in compliance and acceptance, which is a big issue. Therefore multiple vaccinations tend to be pooled at a single point in time that is a good compromise between optimal time periods for the individual vaccines. \n\n**Ease of administration.** Ideally, you want to time the vaccinations so that they come jointly with other routine contacts with the health care, such as follow-up visits after the child is born, school entry and so on. This factor can make schedules in different countries diverge quite a bit. \n\n**Whether the vaccine is good enough** that a single dose give a good protection or if several doses are needed. This touches on your other question regarding booster necessity. Basically, decisions on boostering are based on research on what level of antibody presence is deemed protective, together with trial-and-error clinical trials; you first conduct a clinical trial with a certain schedule set up to the best of your knowledge, and if the vaccine is not quite protective enough you may try and add a booster. In the case of late boosters (e.g. three doses at 3,5 and 12 months of age, and then a 5 year booster), you take into account immunological and epidemiological research regarding the decline of vaccine effectiveness over time. \n\nRegarding the duration between doses, there can be a bigger risk with taking the doses too close in time versus spacing them out more. If taken close enough, the immune system might just ignore the extra provocation that the new vaccine represent, and you won't get any benefit at all from the booster. Waiting a bit longer just mean that you have a longer period of not-quite-optimal protection.\n\n[CDC](_URL_1_) has a nice overview that at least partly talks about what influences various decisions. You might also be interested in reading the english summary on page 36ff of [the swedish report on revision of vaccine schedules](_URL_0_) that was delivered in 2010.\n\nDisclaimer: I'm a statistician that has been working on epidemiological analysis of vaccine schedules of B.Pertussis, not an MD. There's probably several simplifications and mistakes present in the above.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "*I lost my previous comment by closing one tab too many while finding the correct articles - here is the rewrite*\n\nYou ask a lot of questions concerning vaccinations, I will try to answer them from my experience with the Mumps vaccine. Some notes before we get started:\n\n1. No disease is the same, hence no vaccination is the same. Things I will describe here might not be directly applicable to vaccinations in general - others will have to chime in.\n\n2. I have been on the European board that discussed the ethical concerns related to 'mandatory' vaccination, this experience made me somewhat bitter towards (self-proclaimed) experts and health-organizations. More on that later, but your takeaway should be that vaccination is a subject on a slippery slope and so are all related legislations.\n\n**General info**\n--\n\nThe main concept behind vaccinations is that your body is exposed to immunogenic proteins and polysaccharides from the infectant. This allows your bodies T-cells to 'fight' an inactive intruder. And due to the incredible way your immune system works it keeps the 'effective' antibodies around. This is the ideal case - but your body does not keep every type of antibody that ever worked around. Some T-cell counts decrease over time, making you again susceptible to an infection of the same virus. (There also exist the case where viruses mutate and are not recognized anymore, preluding a new T-cell learning bout).\n\nThe advantage of vaccination is that your body will early on be able to identify the infectant and hand it over to the cleaning crew, diminishing the effect of the illness. Being exposed to the same disease multiple times heightens the bodies ability to fight it off. \n\n**The Mumps**\n-\n\nIn case of the Mumps, a pretty mild disease, there has been a lot of research. I can not stress how much research has been done with respect to the vaccine and vaccination strategy. You might find this [1] review article a good stepping stone.\n\nThe short answer to all your questions is that the research data tells us what vaccination schedule is **economically** more effective. This obviously means that a lot of people did not get the 'ideal' schedule or vaccine. \n\nThe rationale for the two-dose schedule - in case of mumps - is to boost declining antibody concentrations, reach those who did not receive the first dose or, in lesser extend, did not respond to it. There is also a psychologic effect, which has a softer scientific edge to it. The fact that all kids at the age of six (or 12 - depending on where you live) have to be vaccinated again against a common enemy, helps build the awareness that is required to maintain a decent coverage. \n\nIn case of mumps there is no medical need to receive your second vaccination - but it also doesn't hurt. \n\nIf memory serves me right the HepA vaccine requires the booster to be applied within one year, because the initial antibody concentrations drop pretty fast in the first 24 months. But after the second vaccination it will last for 20 years.\n\n--\n\nExcellent Mumps review article\n\n[1] A.M. Galazka, \"Mumps and mumps vaccine: a global review\" *Bull World Health Organ* 1999 [PDF link](_URL_0_)\n\nUneasy read\n\n[2] P. Beutels *et al.* \"Economic Evaluation of Vaccination Programmes: A Consensus Statement Focusing on Viral Hepatitis.\", *Pharmacoeconomics* 2002",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I work in rational vaccine design. The above comments from GrynetMolvin, KeScoBo and Blasfemy are excellent summaries.\nUpvotes all round! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's many things going on when deciding on vaccine schedules. From the top of my head, there's \n\n**Maternal antibodies** (The mother will transfer some antibodies to the infant that lasts for a couple of months and might interfere with the vaccine response)\n\n**Risk of side effects** of the vaccine versus severity of the disease should infection occur (It is a common thing for medical personel to delay vaccination of preterm babies - this is often contraproductive since the consequences of e.g. whooping cough is especially severe in preterms)\n\n**When** the disease that is vaccinated against tend to occur.\n\n**Burden to the parents**. Asking the parents to vaccinate their children too often results in a drop in compliance and acceptance, which is a big issue. Therefore multiple vaccinations tend to be pooled at a single point in time that is a good compromise between optimal time periods for the individual vaccines. \n\n**Ease of administration.** Ideally, you want to time the vaccinations so that they come jointly with other routine contacts with the health care, such as follow-up visits after the child is born, school entry and so on. This factor can make schedules in different countries diverge quite a bit. \n\n**Whether the vaccine is good enough** that a single dose give a good protection or if several doses are needed. This touches on your other question regarding booster necessity. Basically, decisions on boostering are based on research on what level of antibody presence is deemed protective, together with trial-and-error clinical trials; you first conduct a clinical trial with a certain schedule set up to the best of your knowledge, and if the vaccine is not quite protective enough you may try and add a booster. In the case of late boosters (e.g. three doses at 3,5 and 12 months of age, and then a 5 year booster), you take into account immunological and epidemiological research regarding the decline of vaccine effectiveness over time. \n\nRegarding the duration between doses, there can be a bigger risk with taking the doses too close in time versus spacing them out more. If taken close enough, the immune system might just ignore the extra provocation that the new vaccine represent, and you won't get any benefit at all from the booster. Waiting a bit longer just mean that you have a longer period of not-quite-optimal protection.\n\n[CDC](_URL_1_) has a nice overview that at least partly talks about what influences various decisions. You might also be interested in reading the english summary on page 36ff of [the swedish report on revision of vaccine schedules](_URL_0_) that was delivered in 2010.\n\nDisclaimer: I'm a statistician that has been working on epidemiological analysis of vaccine schedules of B.Pertussis, not an MD. There's probably several simplifications and mistakes present in the above.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "*I lost my previous comment by closing one tab too many while finding the correct articles - here is the rewrite*\n\nYou ask a lot of questions concerning vaccinations, I will try to answer them from my experience with the Mumps vaccine. Some notes before we get started:\n\n1. No disease is the same, hence no vaccination is the same. Things I will describe here might not be directly applicable to vaccinations in general - others will have to chime in.\n\n2. I have been on the European board that discussed the ethical concerns related to 'mandatory' vaccination, this experience made me somewhat bitter towards (self-proclaimed) experts and health-organizations. More on that later, but your takeaway should be that vaccination is a subject on a slippery slope and so are all related legislations.\n\n**General info**\n--\n\nThe main concept behind vaccinations is that your body is exposed to immunogenic proteins and polysaccharides from the infectant. This allows your bodies T-cells to 'fight' an inactive intruder. And due to the incredible way your immune system works it keeps the 'effective' antibodies around. This is the ideal case - but your body does not keep every type of antibody that ever worked around. Some T-cell counts decrease over time, making you again susceptible to an infection of the same virus. (There also exist the case where viruses mutate and are not recognized anymore, preluding a new T-cell learning bout).\n\nThe advantage of vaccination is that your body will early on be able to identify the infectant and hand it over to the cleaning crew, diminishing the effect of the illness. Being exposed to the same disease multiple times heightens the bodies ability to fight it off. \n\n**The Mumps**\n-\n\nIn case of the Mumps, a pretty mild disease, there has been a lot of research. I can not stress how much research has been done with respect to the vaccine and vaccination strategy. You might find this [1] review article a good stepping stone.\n\nThe short answer to all your questions is that the research data tells us what vaccination schedule is **economically** more effective. This obviously means that a lot of people did not get the 'ideal' schedule or vaccine. \n\nThe rationale for the two-dose schedule - in case of mumps - is to boost declining antibody concentrations, reach those who did not receive the first dose or, in lesser extend, did not respond to it. There is also a psychologic effect, which has a softer scientific edge to it. The fact that all kids at the age of six (or 12 - depending on where you live) have to be vaccinated again against a common enemy, helps build the awareness that is required to maintain a decent coverage. \n\nIn case of mumps there is no medical need to receive your second vaccination - but it also doesn't hurt. \n\nIf memory serves me right the HepA vaccine requires the booster to be applied within one year, because the initial antibody concentrations drop pretty fast in the first 24 months. But after the second vaccination it will last for 20 years.\n\n--\n\nExcellent Mumps review article\n\n[1] A.M. Galazka, \"Mumps and mumps vaccine: a global review\" *Bull World Health Organ* 1999 [PDF link](_URL_0_)\n\nUneasy read\n\n[2] P. Beutels *et al.* \"Economic Evaluation of Vaccination Programmes: A Consensus Statement Focusing on Viral Hepatitis.\", *Pharmacoeconomics* 2002",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I work in rational vaccine design. The above comments from GrynetMolvin, KeScoBo and Blasfemy are excellent summaries.\nUpvotes all round! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45314824",
"title": "Alternative vaccination schedule",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "An alternative vaccination schedule is a vaccination schedule differing from the schedule endorsed by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). These schedules may be either written or \"ad hoc\", and have not been tested for their safety or efficacy. Proponents of such schedules aim to reduce the risk of adverse effects they believe to be caused by vaccine components, such as \"immune system overload\" that is argued to be caused by exposure to multiple antigens. Parents who adopt these schedules tend to do so because they are concerned about the potential risks of vaccination, rather than because they are unaware of the significance of vaccination's benefits. However, use of alternative vaccination schedules is associated with an increased risk of vaccine-preventable disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3344863",
"title": "Childhood immunizations in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "The schedule of childhood immunizations in the United States is given by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The vaccination schedule is broken down by age: birth to six years of age, seven to eighteen, and adults nineteen and older.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3296243",
"title": "Vaccination schedule",
"section": "Section::::Country-specific.:Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "In Germany, a vaccination schedule is developed by the Standing Committee on Vaccination (STIKO), which operates as part of the Robert Koch Institute. The recommendations are generally adopted by the Federal Joint Committee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40646486",
"title": "Medical exclusion of immigrants",
"section": "Section::::Vaccinations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "The vaccination requirement includes the following vaccinations: Mumps, Measles, Rubella, Tetanus, diphtheria, Meningococcal disease, Pneumococcal disease, Haemophilus influenzae type B, Rotavirus, Varicella, Influenza, Hepatitis A and B, Pertussis, and Polio. These requirements are established by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3296243",
"title": "Vaccination schedule",
"section": "Section::::Worldwide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The World Health Organization monitors vaccination schedules across the world, noting what vaccines are included in each country's program, the coverage rates achieved and various auditing measures. The table below shows the types of vaccines given in example countries. The WHO publishes on its website current vaccination schedules for all WHO member states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46559303",
"title": "Non-specific effect of vaccines",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "In these studies, data on childhood vaccinations were typically collected in periodic surveys, and the information on vaccinations, which occurred between successive home visits, was updated at the time of the second visit. The person-time at risk in unvaccinated and vaccinated states was then divided up according to the date of vaccination during the time interval between visits. This method opens up a potential bias, insofar as the updating of person time at risk from unvaccinated to vaccinated is only possible for children who survive to the second follow-up. Those who die between visits typically do not have vaccinations between the first visit and death recorded, and thus they will tend to be allocated as deaths in unvaccinated children – thus incorrectly inflating the mortality rate among unvaccinated children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40646486",
"title": "Medical exclusion of immigrants",
"section": "Section::::Legislative History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "The vaccination requirement was added with the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996. Vaccinations were required for “nine ‘vaccine-preventable diseases’” including: “mumps, measles, rubella, polio, tetanus and diphtheria toxoids, pertussis, influenza type B and hepatitis B”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14wz75
|
Does soap attack or dissolve phospholipid bilayers? (cell membranes and such)
|
[
{
"answer": "It attacks *by* dissolving, so to speak. It doesn't destroy the individual phospholipids, it disrupts the membrane. \n\nEdit: And surfactants form micelles instead of bilayers because they only have one nonpolar tail, unlike phospholipids which have two tails. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since there's already a thread discussing question 1, I'll start one for discussing question 2.\n\nPhospholipids *do* form micelles. \n\nAmphiphilic molecules like phospholipids and soaps are lyotropic liquid crystalline molecules. A liquid crystalline molecule exists in a phase of matter that is intermediate to a solid and a liquid. A lyotropic LC, specifically, has phase behavior that changes as its concentration increases. As a contrast, another major type are thermotropic liquid crystals, which have phase changes based upon temperature. The LCs in your television, for example, are of the thermotropic type. Most biological molecules that have liquid crystalline phase behavior are lyotropic. Phospholipids, lysophospholipids, and cholesterol all have these phase behaviors and are the most well-studied, but in recent years concentration-dependent formation of LC phases has been found in DNA and certain filament-forming proteins. Anyway, I digress.\n\nAs I mentioned, the phase behaviors of soaps and phospholipids are dependent upon concentration. Micelles and bilayers are simply different aspects of this same basic phenomenon. Refer to this image:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nAs you can see in this image, you can construct a phase diagram (much like the phase diagrams that every 1st year chemistry student sees) of the different phase subtypes. Note that the axes are not temperature and pressure but temperature and amphiphile concentration. \n\nBelow a certain concentration -- called the critical micelle concentration or CMC -- amphiphilic molecules are dispersed in solution. This is intuitive but still contrary to what most intro bio and intro chemistry students are taught. Above the CMC for a given temperature, entropy effects drive amphiphilic molecules to aggregate into micelles. As the concentration continues to rise, amphiphilic molecules move through a variety of exotic LC phases before finally forming the lamellar phase at high concentration, relatively speaking. \n\nThis phase diagram will be different for soaps/surfactant which will be different than what you see for phospholipids and different than what you see for cholesterol, etc. \n\nTo the point made by Hmmhowaboutthis, geometry is important but not determinative. Surfactants do still form lamellar phases, and phospholipids do still form micelles; however, the geometry of surfactant molecule tends to stabilize micellar phases and the geometry of phospholipids stabilize lamellar phases.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36061341",
"title": "Surface chemistry of microvasculature",
"section": "Section::::Diffusion.:Surface diffusion of endothelial cells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "The surface charge of endothelial cells at points of diffusivity can determine which type of molecule can diffuse through the capillary walls. If the surface is hydrophilic, it will allow water and charged molecules to pass through. If it is hydrophobic, non-charged and lipophilic molecules will be able to diffuse through. These intermolecular screening forces are also known as Van der Waals forces, which is determined by the Keesom, Debye and London Dispersion forces. The lipid bilayer of an endothelial cell membrane is a hydrophobic surface. The non-polar lipids lead to a very high electrical resistivity, given by:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92512",
"title": "Lipoprotein",
"section": "Section::::Scope.:Plasma lipoproteins particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "The lipoprotein particles have hydrophilic groups of phospholipids, cholesterol, and apoproteins directed outward. Such characteristics make them soluble in the salt water-based blood pool. Triglyceride-fats and cholesteryl esters are carried internally, shielded from the water by the phospholipid monolayer and the apoproteins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31516892",
"title": "Intravenous sodium bicarbonate",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Extravasation of intravenous sodium bicarbonate has been reported to cause chemical cellulitis because of its alkalinity, resulting in tissue necrosis, ulceration and/or sloughing at the site of infiltration. This condition is managed by prompt elevation of the part, warmth and local injection of lidocaine or hyaluronidase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17973",
"title": "Liquid crystal",
"section": "Section::::Liquid-crystal phases.:Lyotropic liquid crystals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "A compound that has two immiscible hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts within the same molecule is called an amphiphilic molecule. Many amphiphilic molecules show lyotropic liquid-crystalline phase sequences depending on the volume balances between the hydrophilic part and hydrophobic part. These structures are formed through the micro-phase segregation of two incompatible components on a nanometer scale. Soap is an everyday example of a lyotropic liquid crystal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3536891",
"title": "Sodium stearate",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Characteristic of soaps, sodium stearate has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts, the carboxylate and the long hydrocarbon chain, respectively. These two chemically different components induce the formation of micelles, which present the hydrophilic heads outwards and their hydrophobic (hydrocarbon) tails inwards, providing a lipophilic environment for hydrophobic compounds.The tail part dissolves the grease (or) dirt and forms the micelle. It is also used in the pharmaceutical industry as a surfactant to aid the solubility of hydrophobic compounds in the production of various mouth foams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31823679",
"title": "Wound bed preparation",
"section": "Section::::Polyhexamethylene biguanide (polyhexanide, PHMB).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Polyhexamethylene biguanide hydrochloride is a fast-acting, broad-spectrum synthetic compound that binds to the cell envelope of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, disrupting the bacterial cell membrane and enabling seepage of ions. PHMB has a long history of use as a contact lens cleanser, mouthwash and more recently in wound care.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "595999",
"title": "Cell envelope",
"section": "Section::::Types of bacterial cell envelopes.:The gram-negative cell wall.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "As a phospholipid bilayer, the lipid portion of the outer membrane is largely impermeable to all charged molecules. However, channels called porins are present in the outer membrane that allow for passive transport of many ions, sugars and amino acids across the outer membrane. These molecules are therefore present in the periplasm, the region between the plasma membrane and outer membrane. The periplasm contains the peptidoglycan layer and many proteins responsible for substrate binding or hydrolysis and reception of extracellular signals. The periplasm is thought to exist as a gel-like state rather than a liquid due to the high concentration of proteins and peptidoglycan found within it. Because of its location between the cytoplasmic and outer membranes, signals received and substrates bound are available to be transported across the cytoplasmic membrane using transport and signalling proteins imbedded there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
lifzy
|
How do Americans get 115V?
|
[
{
"answer": "most of us do get 240V to the home, as a single phase- but that phase is \"split\" - the transformer that supplies the house is center-tapped, that center is pinned to ground, so there's effectively a +120 and a -120. obviously not really positive and negative since it's a/c, but they're 180° out of phase. so some circuits get one polarity, some get the other, and if we need the full 240 (like for an air conditioner or the stove, etc) we use both.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You sound fairly knowledgeable for power in europe, so I can make this quick.\n\n > Is it transformed down from 230V at some point? Is the 3-phase voltage different?\n\nThat is the 3 phase voltage. Utilities will deliver 240V, 3 phase, at the transformer. Once inside a structure, the wiring will center tap resulting in 2 120V lines.\n\nAppliance designers will design for 115V +/- 10%. Even though 120V is delivered, there will be some line losses.\n\n\n > Is there some other witchcraft going on?\n\nWitchcraft is saved for [frequency changing](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are commercial power hookups that are 480V three-phase. As other posters mention here, most homes have 240V single-phase with a center tapped transformer.\n\nHonestly, though, I've been to europe and seen the wiring there. I very much like the higher voltage, lower current system you have. Your wires to a standard socket are much smaller as a result of this decision.\n\nP = VI.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In North America whether it is 1, 2, or 3 phase, any single phase is generally 120V +/- 5% from neutral (although many equipment manufacturers specify 115V +/- 10% to handle brown-outs better, and some old systems used 110V, but really 110, 115, and 120V all mean the same thing).\n\nIn Europe, the individual phases are 240V from neutral.\n\nFor most power distribution much greater voltages are used, so the difference is determined by the type of step-down transformer used.\n\nMost houses are wired with 2 phases that are 180 degrees out or sync, so in North America you can get 240V (e.g. for stoves) by using both phases. In Europe doing this would give 480V.\n\n3 phases (120 degrees out of sync) are used mostly for industrial applications since 3 phase works very well for driving motors but it is rarely seen in homes. I say rarely because I had a friend with an apartment in a former industrial building who got 2 phases out of a 3 phase circuit. Since these 2 phases were only 120 degrees out of sync the stove only got 208V peak to peak so could produce only 75% of the heat output.\n\nYou can also get phase change converters to go from 1 to 2 or 3 phase power, or shift from 120 degrees out of sync to 180 degrees out of sync.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So how easy/impossible would it be to access 240 in the home without hiring an electrician?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "most of us do get 240V to the home, as a single phase- but that phase is \"split\" - the transformer that supplies the house is center-tapped, that center is pinned to ground, so there's effectively a +120 and a -120. obviously not really positive and negative since it's a/c, but they're 180° out of phase. so some circuits get one polarity, some get the other, and if we need the full 240 (like for an air conditioner or the stove, etc) we use both.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You sound fairly knowledgeable for power in europe, so I can make this quick.\n\n > Is it transformed down from 230V at some point? Is the 3-phase voltage different?\n\nThat is the 3 phase voltage. Utilities will deliver 240V, 3 phase, at the transformer. Once inside a structure, the wiring will center tap resulting in 2 120V lines.\n\nAppliance designers will design for 115V +/- 10%. Even though 120V is delivered, there will be some line losses.\n\n\n > Is there some other witchcraft going on?\n\nWitchcraft is saved for [frequency changing](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are commercial power hookups that are 480V three-phase. As other posters mention here, most homes have 240V single-phase with a center tapped transformer.\n\nHonestly, though, I've been to europe and seen the wiring there. I very much like the higher voltage, lower current system you have. Your wires to a standard socket are much smaller as a result of this decision.\n\nP = VI.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In North America whether it is 1, 2, or 3 phase, any single phase is generally 120V +/- 5% from neutral (although many equipment manufacturers specify 115V +/- 10% to handle brown-outs better, and some old systems used 110V, but really 110, 115, and 120V all mean the same thing).\n\nIn Europe, the individual phases are 240V from neutral.\n\nFor most power distribution much greater voltages are used, so the difference is determined by the type of step-down transformer used.\n\nMost houses are wired with 2 phases that are 180 degrees out or sync, so in North America you can get 240V (e.g. for stoves) by using both phases. In Europe doing this would give 480V.\n\n3 phases (120 degrees out of sync) are used mostly for industrial applications since 3 phase works very well for driving motors but it is rarely seen in homes. I say rarely because I had a friend with an apartment in a former industrial building who got 2 phases out of a 3 phase circuit. Since these 2 phases were only 120 degrees out of sync the stove only got 208V peak to peak so could produce only 75% of the heat output.\n\nYou can also get phase change converters to go from 1 to 2 or 3 phase power, or shift from 120 degrees out of sync to 180 degrees out of sync.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So how easy/impossible would it be to access 240 in the home without hiring an electrician?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5018708",
"title": "Illinois Route 115",
"section": "Section::::Route description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Illinois 115 is a north–south highway from Perdueville to Buckingham; at Buckingham, it turns east but is still marked north–south. South of Kankakee, Illinois 115 turns north again on its way into Kankakee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2434429",
"title": "Missouri Route 115",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Route 115 is a highway in the St. Louis, Missouri area. Its western terminus is at exit 237 of Interstate 70 (I-70) in Berkeley near Lambert-St. Louis International Airport. Route 115's eastern terminus is also at I-70, at exit 248A, in St. Louis, near the McKinley Bridge. The road is locally known as Natural Bridge Road, Natural Bridge Avenue, and Salisbury Street. It is one of two Missouri Highways that has an odd-numbered designation, yet runs in an east–west direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1747744",
"title": "Interstate 14",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "TxDOT is moving forward with designating I-14 along US 190 from Copperas Cove to I-35 in Belton. The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) originally denied approval of TxDOT's request for the number at their May 24, 2016, meeting of the Special Committee on U.S. Route Numbering, their body responsible for approving designations in the United States Numbered Highway System and Interstate Highway System. The FHWA and AASHTO subsequently approved the I-14 designation. The Texas Transportation Commission made the I-14 number official on January 26, 2017. The official signage ceremony was held April 22, 2017 in Killeen, Texas on the Central Texas College campus. More I-14 signs went up over the next few weeks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "903080",
"title": "U.S. Route 150",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "U.S. Route 150 (abbreviated Route 150 or U.S. 150) is a 571-mile (919 km) long northwest-southeast United States highway, signed as east–west. It runs from U.S. Route 6 outside of Moline, Illinois to U.S. Route 25 in Mount Vernon, Kentucky .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "110958",
"title": "Calumet Park, Illinois",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "On May 13, 2010, Mayor Joseph DuPar and the Village Board approved renaming 127th Street as Obama Drive, in honor of the 44th President of the United States. On August 21, 2010, State Senator Emil Jones III read a proclamation of the Illinois Senate in honor of the dedication on the same date. This road became the first Obama Drive in the country and the first road named after President Barack Obama in his home state of Illinois. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89535",
"title": "Interstate 35",
"section": "Section::::Route description.:Minnesota.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "I-35 splits again into I-35W and I-35E in the Minneapolis/Saint Paul, Minnesota area. The mile- and exit-numbering sequence continues along I-35E. At one sharp turn in I-35W near the junction with I-94, drivers are advised to slow to 35 mph (55 km/h) (although many drivers are able to maintain the speed limit of 55 mph (90 km/h)). It is not possible to go from westbound I-94 to northbound I-35W, from southbound I-35W to eastbound I-94, and vice versa, without resorting to surface streets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10899271",
"title": "U.S. Route 14 in Illinois",
"section": "Section::::Route description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Though the name is not used among locals, the entire portion of U.S. 14 in Illinois is given the honorary name Ronald Reagan Highway, which is not to be confused with the Ronald Reagan Memorial Tollway. U.S. 14 in Illinois is in length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e71ssr
|
Why does the trait of skin color mix together into a shade rather than being one or the other, like eye color?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most interesting traits are polygenic - they are controlled by many different genes, not just one or two. \n\nWhen we’re taught introductory genetics, we’re taught inheritance with Mendelian diagrams showing how one dominant/recessive gene set is inherited. Later maybe we’re taught how two or three genes get inherited, and maybe given a few words on co-dominant and more complicated combinations. \n\nThis is all true, and it does apply to a handful of traits - eye color is one of the few (though even there, real life is more complicated than the simplistic versions we’re taught). But more interesting inherited traits, like height and skin color and propensity to heart disease and so on, are influenced by dozens, hundreds, or thousands of genes, all interacting together. \n\nIf you think about the apparently complex inheritance patterns you get with, say, three genes, imagine what happens with a thousand different genes. Everything ends up blending together, and instead of a tidy on/off appearance, you get what looks like a normal distribution of possible outcomes. \n\nHistorically, this polygenic inheritance led to lots of confusion. Darwin never figured out inheritance properly, while Mendel did. Is that because Mendel did the experiments and Darwin didn’t? In fact, Darwin did exactly the right experiments, almost identical to Mendel’s. The difference is that Mendel was lucky, and looked at plants (peas) and traits (wrinkled/smooth, etc) that have simple one-gene two-allele inheritance — the unusual, exceptional situation that allows you to figure out what’s going on. Darwin looked at primroses, where such simple traits are not as obvious. ([Darwin, C. R., 1877 The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species. John Murray, London.](_URL_1_)), and didn’t figure out that he was not seeing blending inheritance. \n\n(I’ve read that there are simple inheritance models in primroses and that Darwin could have spotted them if he’d been primed for it, so Mendel still gets credit for understanding what he was seeing in his model.)\n\nPolygenic inheritance looks like [blending inheritance ](_URL_0_), which was the main explanation for inheritance in Darwin’s time and until Mendel was rediscovered. The difference is that (as Darwin understood) evolution by natural selection can not work with blending inheritance - it needs Mendelian (particulate) inheritance for his theories to work.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38079914",
"title": "Dark skin",
"section": "Section::::Biochemistry and genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Skin colour is a polygenic trait, which means that several different genes are involved in determining a specific phenotype. Many genes work together in complex, additive, and non-additive combinations to determine the skin colour of an individual. The skin colour variations are normally distributed from light to dark, as it is usual for polygenic traits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38041",
"title": "Human skin color",
"section": "Section::::Melanin and genes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "The genetic mechanism behind human skin color is mainly regulated by the enzyme tyrosinase, which creates the color of the skin, eyes, and hair shades. Differences in skin color are also attributed to differences in size and distribution of melanosomes in the skin. Melanocytes produce two types of melanin. The most common form of biological melanin is eumelanin, a brown-black polymer of dihydroxyindole carboxylic acids, and their reduced forms. Most are derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Eumelanin is found in hair, areola, and skin, and the hair colors gray, black, blond, and brown. In humans, it is more abundant in people with dark skin. Pheomelanin, a pink to red hue is found in particularly large quantities in red hair, the lips, nipples, glans of the penis, and vagina.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18193889",
"title": "Color analysis (art)",
"section": "Section::::Foremost publications on seasonal color analysis.:Bernice Kentner, \"Color Me a Season\" (1978).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "Kentner emphasizes that it is skin color rather than hair or eye color that serves as the base from which a color analysis must start. The color of a person's skin determines whether that individual should be classified as a Summer, a Winter, a Spring, or an Autumn. This can cause confusion, because the color of the hair may be the first thing that strikes the observer's eye (particularly if the hair color is dramatic). Thus, \"even though [one palette of] colors work best for [a particular person's] complexion, the individual may look like another Season because of haircoloring...I call this their secondary Season.\" The color of the hair and eyes serve to heighten the appeal of certain color choices for clothing and makeup, and to rule out certain other choices, but all such choices must be made from within the palette that is compatible with the shade of the skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "270445",
"title": "Human hair color",
"section": "Section::::Genetics and biochemistry of hair color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "The two-gene model does not account for all possible shades of brown, blond, or red (for example, platinum blond versus dark blond/light brown), nor does it explain why hair color sometimes darkens as a person ages. Several gene pairs control the light versus dark hair color in a cumulative effect. A person's genotype for a multifactorial trait can interact with the environment to produce varying phenotypes (see quantitative trait locus).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38041",
"title": "Human skin color",
"section": "Section::::Geographic variation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "Approximately 10% of the variance in skin color occurs within regions, and approximately 90% occurs between regions. Because skin color has been under strong selective pressure, similar skin colors can result from convergent adaptation rather than from genetic relatedness; populations with similar pigmentation may be genetically no more similar than other widely separated groups. Furthermore, in some parts of the world where people from different regions have mixed extensively, the connection between skin color and ancestry has substantially weakened. In Brazil, for example, skin color is not closely associated with the percentage of recent African ancestors a person has, as estimated from an analysis of genetic variants differing in frequency among continent groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3315213",
"title": "Sex differences in human physiology",
"section": "Section::::Skin and hair.:Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1272,
"text": "On average, and after the end of puberty, males have darker hair than females and according to most studies they also have darker skin—male skin is also redder, but this is due to greater blood volume rather than melanin). Male eyes are also more likely to be one of the darker eye colors. Conversely, women are lighter-skinned than men in all human populations. The differences in color are mainly caused by higher levels of melanin in the skin, hair and eyes in males. In one study, almost twice as many females as males had red or auburn hair. A higher proportion of females were also found to have blond hair, whereas males were more likely to have black or dark brown hair. Another study found green eyes, which are a result of lower melanin levels, to be much more common in women than in men, at least by a factor of two. However, one more recent study found that while women indeed tend to have a lower frequency of black hair, men on the other hand had a higher frequency of platinum blond hair, blue eyes and lighter skin. According to this one theory the cause for this is a higher frequency of genetic recombination in women than in men, possibly due to sex-linked genes, and as a result women tend to show less phenotypical variation in any given population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38041",
"title": "Human skin color",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "The actual skin color of different humans is affected by many substances, although the single most important substance is the pigment melanin. Melanin is produced within the skin in cells called melanocytes and it is the main determinant of the skin color of darker-skinned humans. The skin color of people with light skin is determined mainly by the bluish-white connective tissue under the dermis and by the hemoglobin circulating in the veins of the dermis. The red color underlying the skin becomes more visible, especially in the face, when, as consequence of physical exercise or the stimulation of the nervous system (anger, fear), arterioles dilate. Color is not entirely uniform across an individual's skin; for example, the skin of the palm and the sole is lighter than most other skin, and this is especially noticeable in darker-skinned people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1unpen
|
how do i perceive myself as a single entity, when i'm actually composed of a group of cells that are each self replicating blocks of life?
|
[
{
"answer": "Saving this, hoping for some kind of super deep answers...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Although you are the composition of many \"moving parts\" so to speak the control center is your brain. This means all these parts report back to your brain and your brain acts as the representative of your body and your \"conscious\" is in your brain. The reason why you perceive yourself as one entity is because, although you are made up of many cells and receive many signals from your body, your brain compiles these and forces you perceive them as a whole, thus creating the illusion that your are one entity.\n\nTL;DR your brain is the control center of your body which controls everything. Therefore you only exist in your brain, and perceive yourself as one. \"You\" are just a brain controlling meat, muscle, and other tissue.\n\nAnalogy: if you are in a car do you see yourself as part of the car? No, just one thing controlling car. The rest of your body is the car and your brain is you in that analogy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is such [/r/showerthoughts](_URL_0_) material. Love it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "imagine if a five year old actually asked you this though ahahaha",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The same way countries see themselves as single entities...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is no such thing as your \"self.\" You believe some \"self\" entity exists because your experience of reality seems to be continuous. So you say, surely there must be some \"thing\" that is continually experiencing reality. \n\nIn fact, each moment you experience reality is discrete, quantum, separate, autonomous, whatever-word-you-wanna-use. This \"thing\" that experiences reality is born, acts, and dies in each of these moments. There is no continuous self that proceeds from one moment to the next. Your self, mind, ego, whatever-word-you-wanna-use is an illusion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You just asked \"what is the nature of consciousness?\" People have been debating and researching that for millenia.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it's funny that people here think they can answer this question in a way that a: everyone can understand and find useful and b: sounds like it's just common knowledge and the questioner is the last person to figure it out. Or maybe he is....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You seem to be asking about consciousness. That's your real question; What is consciousness? How am 'I' conscious when I'm just made up of unconscious cells? \n\nDan Dennett does a great job in this video: _URL_0_ and I also recall a longer hour long one I liked better but can't find at the moment. My takeaway from this is that consciousness is an emergent illusion. Illusion, to me, doesn't mean it doesn't exist, just that it doesn't exist how we think it does, i.e. that it isn't dualism. From Wikipedia: \"Dualism is the position that mental phenomena are, in some respects, non-physical, or that the mind and body are not identical.\" Which to be pretentious, sounds like a pretty stupid idea in the first place. Maybe consciousness is imbued through fairies, or aliens, or little people inside our heads, or god, or something else equally ridiculous. But physics and reality seem more likely.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All of these answers completely miss the point of your question. What you're asking is called The Hard Problem of Consciousness and no one on earth has even the slightest clue as to an answer. \n\nSomehow singular consciousness is an emergent property of modular non conscious units. No one knows how though. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think none of the answers here will satisfy your question, I know that because I have the same question and so do a lot of people. This is famously know as the \"hard problem of consciousness\" and no one really has an answer for it.\n\nIt is easy to say that consciousness is an emergent property of the brain but in my opinion that is just a lazy answer trying to avoid the question by saying it just pops up at some point due to sheer complexity. It's a poor explanation if nothing else. \n\nIf everything in the universe is made of stuff then surely there would be the stuff of thought which is inside our head, but many respected scientist argue this point and say that the universe is made of two different kinds of stuff, the material and the mental. This is kind of an old school view but it has never been proved to be wrong. Personally I don't agree with the latter, but there you go. \n\nIn conclusion, there is no answer to your question as of yet, only speculation. Speculation is good tho and asking questions is the most important thing that will bring us to the answer. \n\nIf you want to learn more, I would suggest reading into philosophy of mind, you will find there many different theories and you may choose the one that sounds best to you since none has been proved or disproved yet. If you're feeling adventurous for a controversial theory, look up Roger Penrose's theory which is called Orchestrated Objective Reductionism or \"Orch OR\" for shorts. It is based on quantum mechanics and a bit of a trip but very interesting and plausible. \n\nI am sorry if this is not so much explain like I'm five but I thought I should post it either way. Cheers. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "**You are the nexus through which all information you consciously perceive passes.**\n\nWhere this point is, in your body, is hard to say. It's not in any of your organs other than your brain. It's not in parts of your brain you can live without. It might not even be a fixed point; it might not even be a local point, but rather a collection of points, networked such that they all believe they share the same name, when they exist in different locations, like the blockchain in a cryptocurrency.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To play devil's advocate...\nWhat if your multitudinous cells and their conglomerate you call a person were producing not just one single mind, but a multitude of minds. You would still be able to ask your original question, no? You would just simply be aware of your one, single mind, and not the others. Then the question would be something like \"Why am I only aware of one mind and not many\"?\nAnd if you were aware of the many minds, would you recognize that fact? Or would you still feel like you were perceiving one single mind? And if so, would that lead you to ask your original question all over again?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Go watch on netflix.. Stephen Hawking's Grand Design: The Meaning of life. \n\nTo think that there are more receptors in our brain than there are known stars in our galaxy = Woooow....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your perception of yourself as a single entity is a flawed perception. This perception began when you incorrectly made a distinction between self and other. There is no self as you have discovered -as your body is composed of other cells and your mind is composed of many different processes and thoughts. Buddhism addresses this confusion and when you understand it you are enlightened. Please read the Diamond and the Surangama sutra to learn more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ants are the closest answer. A single ant is powerful, but nothing compared to a legion of ants. Once several ants are together, they form a group mind, similar, if not exactly like, the cells of our body.\n\nWho's to say we experience ourselves as single, individual entities? It could be our cells working together to form ideas with the help of electrical currents.\n\nHave you ever shared a special connection with someone? It can be otherwordly. Since we're all made of the same substances, this makes it more so.\n\nEventually, these self replicating blocks of life end their replication and we die.\n\nTruth being, I don't know.\n\nGreat question and philosophical debate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interestingly one of the main aims of Buddhism is to free yourself from this notion, to realize it is merely an illusion. What you view as \"yourself\" is an illusion, the whole universe is one. You're nothing and at the same time you're an undefinable small part of everything. Everything in the universe, including you, is in a constant flux. The cells and particles that make up you are not the same from one instance to the next.\n\nA bit of further reading for anyone who's interested: [The Buddhist Concept of Impermanence](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My bio teacher explained something similar. I'm cells you have a nucleus and organelles. The nucleus is the \"brain\" of the cell, it tells what all the parts of the cell to do. But the nucleus tells the cell how to do basic functions, it doesn't have feelings and can't really control itself, once all your cells are together you use your brain to control your body, I guess because the cells cannot think for themselves and decide what to do, your cells aren't thought of as an individual being. Once all these cells are brought together to form you, you control movement, and you can choose to do things and make choices. So you are one being.\n\nSorry if it's confusing, it's 2 am here and I can't sleep, I'm also on my phone! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In short, it's because some sets of matter are disorganized and some sets of matter are what we'd call \"integrated systems\" or to use an esoteric term, \"holons.\" \n\nA \"holon\" is something that is both a whole and a part of another whole. You are a holon, as you are a whole person, yet a part of your culture. Your cells are holons because they are whole cells, yet also a part of you. Your arm is not a \"holon\" because it is not a whole thing nor a single part of you. It is many parts, and by itself is not a whole organism.\n\nIt has been suggested that all holons have consciousness because of the nature of their integration as holistic systems. most people think of this as pure bullshit -- an atom can't be conscious, a cell can't be conscious -- but to me, I can't perceive of any other place consciousness could come from other than being made of its parts. the fabric of empty space becomes holon-particles which then become holon-atoms which become holon-cells which evolve into many-celled life which has consciousness.\n\nThis would mean that consciousness is actually not located in your individual self, but in the fabric of the universe, and that it merely takes a shape and form as yourself through integration of parts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "OP can you share some of whatever you're taking?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've always thought of myself as a byproduct of layered control structures.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it's based on the emergent behaviour of a complex system. Each cell does it's own thing, but everything is tweaked by evolution so that the resulting system is very functional. In other words, your behaviour defines your sense of self-identity, not the other way around. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "And then, how do you perceive yourself as a single entity when there is no self and reality is an illusion?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's an amazing book on exactly this subject, Thomas Metzinger's The Ego Tunnel. 1-2 Philosophy-Science combo punch exploring both logical reasoning and experiential phenomena (like lucid dreaming/out-of-body experiences) to explain why we experience life as just one \"I\".\n\nAdvance warning - concludes that there is no such thing as a self. Prepare for long, dark nights.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25309878",
"title": "The Human Use of Human Beings",
"section": "Section::::Forms and patterns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1032,
"text": "The individuality of a being is a certain intricate form, not an enduring substance. In order to understand an organism, it must be thought of as a pattern which maintains itself through homeostasis – life continues by maintaining an internal balance of various factors such as temperature and molecular structure. While the material substances that compose a living being may be constantly replaced by nearly identical ones, an organism continues functioning with the same identity as long as the pattern is kept sufficiently intact. Since patterns can be transmitted, modified, or duplicated, they are therefore a kind of information. Based on this, Wiener suggests it should be theoretically possible to transmit the entirety of a living person as a message (which is practically indistinguishable from the concept of physical teleportation) – although he admits that the obstacles to such a process would be great, because of the enormous amount of information embodied in a person, and the difficulty of reading or writing it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15401889",
"title": "Hunter: The Vigil",
"section": "Section::::Organizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Cells occasionally discover one another and band together for strength and mutual support. When multiple cells get together in a region, the organization often acquires an independent identity, a group structure known as a compact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2530148",
"title": "Wetware computer",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Cells as a Model of Wetware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1231,
"text": "Cells in many ways can be seen as their own form of naturally occurring wetware, similar to the concept that the human brain is the preexisting model system for complex wetware. In his book \"Wetware: A Computer in Every Living Cell\" (2009) Dennis Bray explains his theory that cells, which are the most basic form of life, are just a highly complex computational structure, like a computer. To simplify one of his arguments a cell can be seen as a type of computer, utilizing its own structured architecture. In this architecture, much like a traditional computer many smaller components operate in tandem to receive input, process the information, and compute an output. In an overly simplified, and non-technical analysis cellular function can be broken into the following components. Information and instructions for execution are stored as DNA in the cell, RNA acts as a source for distinctly encoded input which processed by ribosomes and other transcription factors to access and process the DNA and to output a protein. Bray's argument in favor of viewing cells and cellular structures as models of natural computational devices is important when considering the more applied theories of wetware in relation to biorobotics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2244632",
"title": "Cell group",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "The term \"cell group\" is derived from biology: the cell is the basic unit of life in a body. In a metaphorical sense, just as a body is made up of many cells that give it life, the cell church is made of cell groups that give it life. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50460577",
"title": "Evolutionary theory of the self",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Organisms that are highly complex execute the function of telling self from other with the brain and the immune system. To fulfill the function of recognizing self from other, the brain uses past experiences and genetic inheritance (e.g. survival, reproduction). The self is defined by these functions that distinguish an organisms from other organisms, which allow them to act as one whole entity in social and physical environments. Simply put, the theory revolves around the idea that the brain constitutes the self, which represents itself in a variety of internal states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14894552",
"title": "Self-preservation",
"section": "Section::::Group self preservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "When scaled in the opposite direction, Hughes-Jones makes the argument that \"social groups that fight each other are self‐sustaining, self‐replicating wholes containing interdependent parts\" indicating that the group as a whole can have self-preservation with the individuals acting as the cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "347543",
"title": "Critique of Pure Reason",
"section": "Section::::I. Transcendental Doctrine of Elements.:Transcendental Logic.:Second Division: Transcendental Dialectic.:The paralogisms of pure reason.:The soul is a person.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 1439,
"text": "In order to have coherent thoughts, I must have an \"I\" that is not changing and that thinks the changing thoughts. Yet we cannot prove that there is a permanent soul or an undying \"I\" that constitutes my person. I only know that I am one person during the time that I am conscious. As a subject who observes my own experiences, I attribute a certain identity to myself, but, to another observing subject, I am an object of his experience. He may attribute a different persisting identity to me. In the third paralogism, the \"I\" is a self-conscious person in a time continuum, which is the same as saying that personal identity is the result of an immaterial soul. The third paralogism mistakes the \"I\", as unit of apperception being the same all the time, with the everlasting soul. According to Kant, the thought of \"I\" accompanies every personal thought and it is this that gives the illusion of a permanent I. However, the permanence of \"I\" in the unity of apperception is not the permanence of substance. For Kant, permanence is a schema, the conceptual means of bringing intuitions under a category. The paralogism confuses the permanence of an object seen from without with the permanence of the \"I\" in a unity of apperception seen from within. From the oneness of the apperceptive \"I\" nothing may be deduced. The \"I\" itself shall always remain unknown. The only ground for knowledge is the intuition, the basis of sense experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lyc0u
|
What were the attitudes of the labour movements in New Zealand and Australia towards the indigenous populations?
|
[
{
"answer": "This question is made for /u/w2red and /u/Algernon_Asimov but I can answer for one union in particular... \n\nThe North Australian Workers’ Union (AWU) founded in the Northern Territory in around 1911.. Their history is covered in this doctoral thesis by Bernie Brian\n_URL_0_\n\nTo quote from there:\n > For the most part the union movement was not interested in the plight of Aboriginal workers except for when they competed with ‘white’ union members for jobs. The only exception to this was when members of the Communist Party were leading the union in the period immediately after the Second World War.\n\nThis however puts it a little mildly, the AWU clashed frequently with the administration of the NT, with several rounds of strikes, and eventually succeeded in getting the administrator (Gilruth) removed in what is now known as the Darwin Rebellion, this also led to the Territory getting direct representation in federal parliament...\n\nOne of the many issues they clashed on, was that Gilruth was employing Chinese and Aboriginal labour in state hotels, and occasionally paying equal wages to them, which outraged the AWU. As Brian puts it:\n > many members of the NAWU and its predecessors were aggressive proponents of the racist white Australia policy and callously disregarded the plight of Aboriginal workers.\n\nOther social relations in Darwin at the time in most sources are were typified as\n\n > a leading member of the Communist Party, remembers the \nmain past-time in Darwin as drinking, gambling and ‘chasing gins’ (slang term for \nAboriginal women).\n\nThis changes post-war, and Jack McGuinness was head of the union for a while, did quite a lot for indigenous rights, as did many other unions Australia wide...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "162852",
"title": "Culture of New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Class in New Zealand.:The 'classless society'.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 968,
"text": "New Zealand's claims to be a classless society were dealt a fatal blow in the 1980s and 1990s by the economic reforms of the fourth Labour government and its successor, the fourth National government. A cultural shift also took place due to the economic and social impact of international capital, commerce and advertising. New Zealanders were exposed to a previously unknown array of consumer goods and franchises. Aided by overseas programming, commercial radio and TV stations enjoyed rapid growth. Local manufacturing suffered from cheap imports, with many jobs lost. These reforms led to a dramatic increase in the gap between the richest and poorest New Zealanders, and an increase in the numbers living in poverty. Recent appreciation of real estate values increased the wealth of a generation of landowners while making housing unaffordable for many. Some are concerned that a New Zealand property bubble may burst, potentially wiping out considerable wealth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9604194",
"title": "Third Labour Government of New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Defeat.:Social factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 164,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 164,
"end_character": 1173,
"text": "Labour's progressive social and cultural policies, which encouraged biculturalism and the growth of Māori culture, may have caused a backlash amongst working class Pakeha, who had traditionally supported Labour. The cancellation of the proposed Springbok Tour was particularly unpopular. Many disliked and distrusted what Kirk's government was doing, but found Muldoon's style and message strongly appealing. This shift, along with the appeal the government's policies had for many middle class intellectuals, helped to change the culture of both parties, in Labour's case permanently. Under Muldoon, National had much more working class support than previously or since. The third Labour government's policies attracted a large university-educated liberal contingent to Labour, transforming the party from its working class, trade union roots. This shift in party culture explains how the fourth Labour government's policies differed so dramatically from those of its predecessors. As a result of this change, Kirk was to be the second to last Labour leader (the last being Mike Moore) to come from a working class and union background rather than be university-educated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12438539",
"title": "Public housing in Australia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Public Housing 1890s to 1970s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1154,
"text": "The Australian Labour Movement laid the blame for the poor social conditions of the 1930s in the capital cities squarely at the feet of the private landlords as well as the State and Commonwealth banks, which were popularly understood to also have played a critical role in the 1890s economic crash. From the political right, there was slowly amounting pressure to reclaim the slum sites (often formed in seaside areas in Australian capital cities) for more economically productive activities. At the same time, proponents of the emerging town planning movement in Australia began actively arguing for State and national government involvement in developing town plans as a means of slum eradication. Inspired by the garden city movement in the United Kingdom, it was thought that the rationalization of urban development via town planning could not only improve the urban environment, but also social behavior. In the case of Victoria, Methodist social reformer Frederick Oswald Barnett during this period was particularly influential in creating wider popular concern (as well as voyeuristic interest) in the awful condition of the slums in Melbourne.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162852",
"title": "Culture of New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Attitudes.:Social conservatism and progressiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "New Zealand social policy has tended to oscillate between social progressiveness and conservatism. Social reforms pioneered by New Zealand include women's suffrage, the welfare state, and respect for indigenous peoples (through the Treaty of Waitangi and the Waitangi Tribunal). Having led the (non-communist) world in economic regulation from the 1930s, in the 1980s and 1990s the reforms of the Labour Government led the world in economic de-regulation. New Zealand was the first country to have an openly transgender mayor, and later member of parliament, Georgina Beyer. Same-sex marriage has been legal in New Zealand since 19 August 2013.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10103300",
"title": "Social class in New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Rogernomics and inequality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "New Zealand's claims to be a classless society were seriously undermined in the 1980s and 1990s by the economic reforms of the fourth Labour government and its successor, the fourth National government. The reforms (sometimes called \"Rogernomics\") made by these governments severely weakened the power of unions, removed a lot of protection from workers, cut social welfare benefits and made state housing less affordable. After these reforms, the gap between rich and poor New Zealanders was increased dramatically, with the incomes of the richest 10% of New Zealanders advancing while the other 90% stayed largely static. In addition the number of New Zealanders living in poverty is much higher than in the 1970s. In an article entitled \"Countries with the Biggest Gaps Between Rich and Poor\", BusinessWeek ranked New Zealand at 6th in the world:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40635234",
"title": "History of the Australian Labor Party",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1023,
"text": "Historically, Labor and its affiliated unions were strong opponents of non-British immigration, expressed as the White Australia policy which barred all non-European migration to Australia. Besides the 19th century pseudo-scientific theories about \"racial purity\", the main labour concern was the fear of economic competition from immigrants prepared to accept low-wage, views which were shared by the vast majority of Australians and all major political parties. In practice the labour movement opposed all migration, on the grounds that immigrants competed with Australian workers and drove down wages. This objection continued until after World War II, when the Chifley Government launched a major immigration program. The party's opposition to non-European immigration did not change until after the retirement of Arthur Calwell as leader in 1967. Subsequently, Labor has become an advocate of multiculturalism, although some of its trade union base and some of its members continued to oppose high immigration levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1116264",
"title": "Australian labour movement",
"section": "Section::::World War II and after.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "The post war years saw the Australian labour movement support Indigenous Australians in their fight for human rights, cultural rights and native title, through supporting the 1946 Pilbara strike, The Gurindji Strike at Wave Hill in the Northern Territory, equal pay for aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders, and support for the Noonkanbah people in their land rights dispute with the Western Australian Government over mining companies disturbing sacred sites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7c3bth
|
Why do many people take sniper kill counts for granted? Can we really trust any of the offical numbers, some as high as 4-500? How reliable are the figures?
|
[
{
"answer": "Follow up question.\n\nWasn't the only way to \"confirm\" a kill to collect the dog tags? I highly doubt that snipers collected dog tags, especially when their targets would usually be surrounded by soldiers?\n\nEdit: had a little dig around online and found that some snipers in WW2 would claim a hit (bullet hitting target) as a kill. When in reality it could be non-fatal. This must surely mess up the numbers right? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Why do so many military historians take the numbers for granted?\n\nSo the question is... do they? Now, to be sure, *popular histories* like those kinds of numbers. Take for instance the aforementioned Simo's profile on \"[_URL_1_](_URL_0_)\", which, as an aside, also manages to only go 2 for 3 of actual photos of the man, the third being a common misattribution, but while his exploits might be the main fact your average internet denizen knows in regards to the Winter War, a quick check of several books on the Winter War which I'd consider to be at least a decent level in their approach turned up only one which makes mention of him, and presents a cautious approach to his 'kill count'. Gordon F. Sander states \"the reported number would eventually rise to as high as 505\", which reads as doubly hedged, in my opinion, and in any case the larger point is that you just generally won't find more serious histories caring too much about *individual* snipers. It falls into the coverage of popular histories, which, when checking, for instance, \"The Winter War 1939-40\" from Osprey Publishing, not only makes a number of mentions of the man throughout, but even credits him with 542 *confirmed* kills, which is doubly an error, since that includes his (likely inflated) confirmed number plus unconfirmed! So anyways, my point here is that while you might read uncritical acceptance of these numbers from Simo, I would venture - admittedly not taking a *super* in-depth survey of the literature - that this is more common with works which are less academic in their approach.\n\nNow, as to the broader topic at hand, I'm going to briefly touch on why, yes, you shouldn't trust these numbers! I'll focus specifically on the Soviets, simply because it is both the angle I'm best suited to handle, and also the cult of 'Sniperism' was far and away most developed there during World War II, and I don't think it is a stretch to say the Soviet snipers of WWII were the most singularly notable collection of the 20th century. In simplest terms, the Soviets were crazy for snipers. Even before the war, they put a good deal of effort into training and deploying them, and they, as you allude to, saw great value in them as propaganda tools. For those familiar with the film \"Enemy at the Gates\" it is a fairly loose dramatization of one of the most famous from the war, Vasily Zaitsev, and while it plays quite loose with the facts, in all fairness, much of the source material it draws upon does as well. The sniper duel with \"Major Konings\" which forms a central part of the film is taken right from Zaitsev's memoirs, yet any attempts to actually corroborate the account has been met with failure. \n\nThis is only a single example, but endemic of the entire propaganda machine which operated around the cult of the Sniper in the Soviet Union. With numerous 'sniper heroes' lauded and credited with kills of several hundred, I would again question the premise of the question though, at least when approaching those improbable heights allegedly achieved by figures like Zaitsev of Pavlichenko. From my own readings - popular and academic - I find that it is more common than not that those who discuss 'Sniperism' include the caveat that these numbers need to be approached for what they are, propaganda, or at the very least present them as less than certain even if dispensing with a paragraph on their speciousness. Certainly there is little doubt that they are *generally* reflective of the success of those individuals, but few accept that they are specifically reflective of an accurate accounting of confirmed kills. There really isn't any way to ascertain the true numbers, as those records were simply not left behind, and the snipers themselves at the very least bowed to the needs of the state and went along with the 'official tallies', even if they knew the real numbers. And of course, they *did* likely had a fair idea of that number, going about tallying their confirmed (A confirmed kill, according to Zaitsev's memoirs, required the signature of a witness on the report, but doesn't seem to have required physical confirmation) and unconfirmed kills and reporting them, but it just wasn't for public consumption, or posterity. Interestingly, the Soviets on at least one occasion inflated *German* kill counts too. It is alleged that Pavlichenko recovered documents off a sniper following a duel that she bested him in, which showed over 400 confirmed kills - but all against British and French early in the war. There is no corroboration beyond the Soviet's claim though, almost certainly intended to inflate the prowess of their own sniper.\n\nI think it is also important to add one small caveat there as well, namely that you don't see it thus suggested that these snipers simply *weren't good*. Those who found themselves at the forefront of Soviet propaganda - \"She has killed 309 Fascists, what have you done?\" - most certainly were talented and accomplished marksmen and -women, and their successes were inflated, but there is no reason whatsoever to believe they were created out of thin air. Certainly German accounts, especially of urban combat in areas like Stalingrad, recalled the threat fearfully. But the short of it is, you are absolutely on the money to suspect that \"*it seems to me that inflating these numbers was something people would do for propaganda services*\", as there is no doubt that, at least in the case of the Soviet sniper movement, this was very much the case.\n\nNow, as for other countries, I can't speak too much to, say, how reliable American kill counts are regarded (in WWII or otherwise), so I'll leave that to others, but for the Soviets, hopefully this provides you a bit more information to confirm your existing gut feelings on the matter.\n\nSources consulted (by which I mean, in some cases, literally just checking to see what phrase is used to describe sniper kill counts):\n\n* The Sniper at War by Mike Haskew\n* Notes of a Russian Sniper by Vassili Zaitsev\n* Soviet Women on the Frontline in the Second World War by Roger D. Marwick\n* The Stalingrad Cauldron by Frank Ellis\n* Victory at Stalingrad by Geoffrey Roberts\n* Winter Storm: The Battle for Stalingrad and the Operation to Rescue 6th Army by Hans Wijers\n\n* The Winter War: Russia's Invasion of Finland by Robert Edwards\n* The Winter War 1939-40 by Vesa Nenye & Peter Munter & Toni Wirtanen\n* War of the White Death: Finland Against the Soviet Union 1939-1940 by Bair Irincheev\n* The Soviet Invasion of Finland: 1939-1940 by Carl van Dyke\n* The Hundred Day Winter War: Finland's Gallant Stand Against the Soviet Army by Gordon F. Sander\n* A Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish Winter War of 1939-40 by William R. Trotter\n* Finland and World War II: 1939-1944 by John H. Wourinen",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27232111",
"title": "Longest recorded sniper kills",
"section": "Section::::Confirmed kills or greater.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "This list is not exhaustive, as such data is generally not tracked nor managed under any official procedure. For example, the Canadian Army 2002 sniper team that saw two soldiers (Arron Perry/2,310 m and Rob Furlong/2,430 m) set consecutive new records, also made a number of kills at that are not counted here. The list also shows that, in some cases, an armed force command may choose to withhold the name of the sniper for security reasons. The United Nations Security Forces, such as in the Balkans, also had one U.S. sniper (name withheld) attributed with a shot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28123",
"title": "Sniper",
"section": "Section::::Irregular and asymmetric warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Snipers are less likely to be treated mercifully than non-snipers if captured by the enemy. The rationale for this is that ordinary soldiers shoot at each other at 'equal opportunity' whilst snipers take their time in tracking and killing individual targets in a methodical fashion with a relatively low risk of retaliation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2963",
"title": "Assassination",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Modern methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "A sniper with a precision rifle is often used in fictional assassinations. However, certain pragmatic difficulties attend long-range shooting, including finding a hidden shooting position with a clear line-of-sight, detailed advance knowledge of the intended victim's travel plans, the ability to identify the target at long range, and the ability to score a first-round lethal hit at long range, usually measured in hundreds of meters. A dedicated sniper rifle is also expensive, often costing thousands of dollars because of the high level of precision machining and hand-finishing required to achieve extreme accuracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28123",
"title": "Sniper",
"section": "Section::::Training.:Accuracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "A sniper must have the ability to accurately estimate the various factors that influence a bullet's trajectory and point of impact such as: range to the target, wind direction, wind velocity, altitude and elevation of the sniper and the target and ambient temperature. Mistakes in estimation compound over distance and can decrease lethality or cause a shot to miss completely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2346678",
"title": "List of ongoing armed conflicts",
"section": "Section::::List guidelines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "BULLET::::- Fatality totals may be underestimated or unavailable due to a lack of information. A figure with a plus sign indicates that at least that many people have died (e.g. 455+ indicates that at least 455 people have died) – the actual toll could be higher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34271398",
"title": "Chris Kyle",
"section": "Section::::Military career.:Military sniper.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The Navy credits me with more kills as a sniper than any other American service member, past or present. I guess that's true. They go back and forth on what the number is. One week, it's 160 (the 'official' number as of this writing, for what that's worth), then it's way higher, then it's somewhere in between. If you want a number, ask the Navy—you may even get the truth if you catch them on the right day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "410610",
"title": "Simo Häyhä",
"section": "Section::::Winter War service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "All of Häyhä's kills were accomplished in fewer than 100 days, an average of five per day at a time of year with very few daylight hours. A sniper's kill-count was based on the sniper himself, with the confirmation of his comrades, and only those who were killed for certain are considered. No count was taken when several snipers shot at the same target. The number of men killed by the group leader was not counted, which was estimated to be more than 200, according to some sources. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2a7kf3
|
how do seasons work around the world? is it summer everywhere, or is it just summer on a part of the world?
|
[
{
"answer": "When it is summer in the northern hemisphere, it is winter in the southern hemisphere. When it is hot in the US, it is cold in Australia. When the days are long in the US, they are short in Australia. This is due to the tilted axis of the earth, resulting in the different hemispheres getting different amounts of sunlight as we travel around the sun.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24873453",
"title": "Season",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "A season is a division of the year marked by changes in weather, ecology, and amount of daylight. On Earth, seasons result from Earth's orbit around the Sun and Earth's axial tilt relative to the ecliptic plane. In temperate and polar regions, the seasons are marked by changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface, variations of which may cause animals to undergo hibernation or to migrate, and plants to be dormant. Various cultures define the number and nature of seasons based on regional variations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20611356",
"title": "Equator",
"section": "Section::::Equatorial seasons and climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Seasons result from the tilt of the Earth's axis compared to the plane of its revolution around the Sun. Throughout the year the northern and southern hemispheres are alternately turned either toward or away from the sun depending on Earth's position in its orbit. The hemisphere turned toward the sun receives more sunlight and is in summer, while the other hemisphere receives less sun and is in winter (see solstice).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23475338",
"title": "The Four Seasons (Poussin)",
"section": "Section::::Themes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "The \"Seasons\" are a continuation of Poussin's mythological landscapes, depicting the power and grandeur of nature, \"benign in Spring, rich in Summer, sombre yet fruitful in Autumn, and cruel in Winter.\" The series also represents successive times of the day: early morning for Spring, midday for Summer, evening for Autumn and a moonlit night for Winter. For both stoic philosophers and for early Christians the seasons represented the harmony of nature; but for Christians the seasons, often depicted personified surrounding the Good Shepherd, and the succession of night and day also symbolized the death and resurrection of Christ and the salvation of man (1 Clement 9: 4-18, 11: 16-20 ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "316532",
"title": "Spring (season)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Spring and \"springtime\" refer to the season, and also to ideas of rebirth, rejuvenation, renewal, resurrection and regrowth. Subtropical and tropical areas have climates better described in terms of other seasons, e.g. dry or wet, monsoonal or cyclonic. Cultures may have local names for seasons which have little equivalence to the terms originating in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24873453",
"title": "Season",
"section": "Section::::Non-calendar-based reckoning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Ecologically speaking, a season is a period of the year in which only certain types of floral and animal events happen (e.g.: flowers bloom—spring; hedgehogs hibernate—winter). So, if we can observe a change in daily floral/animal events, the season is changing. In this sense, ecological seasons are defined in absolute terms, unlike calendar-based methods in which the seasons are relative. If specific conditions associated with a particular ecological season don't normally occur in a particular region, then that area cannot be said to experience that season on a regular basis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "321956",
"title": "List of common misconceptions",
"section": "Section::::Science and technology.:Astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "BULLET::::- Seasons are not caused by the Earth being closer to the Sun in the summer than in the winter, but by the Earth's 23.4-degree axial tilt. Each Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun in its respective summer (July in the Northern Hemisphere and January in the Southern Hemisphere), resulting in longer days and more direct sunlight, with the opposite being true in the winter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11890785",
"title": "Summer solstice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Since prehistory, the summer solstice has been seen as a significant time of year in many cultures, and has been marked by festivals and rituals. Traditionally, in many temperate regions (especially Europe), the summer solstice is seen as the middle of summer and referred to as \"midsummer\". Today, however, in some countries and calendars it is seen as the beginning of summer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e7wad4
|
how can we recall memories and imagine scenarios and see them visually, while also seeing and observing the current environment?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your brain does lots of things simultaneously, if it didn't your heart would stop when you needed to take a breath, or when you thought about a math problem. \n\nNeedless to say, the thing you're seeing in actuality is based on stimulus coming from your optic nerve. That path only takes inputs from your eye (normally) whereas the input from your imagined scenarios is coming from elsewhere in the brain. They may have some overlap in terms of where they are processed in the brain (giving you the sense you are \"seeing\" a memory), but that portion of the brain is pretty good at doing things simultaneously.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "because while the sensations might *feel* similar, both being visual, your imagination and your eyesight are not directly connected. Your brain doesn't have to stop processing what you're seeing in order to visualize something, and what you're visualizing doesn't make you start hallucinating.\n\nIn a similar sense how your inner monoloug doesn't prevent you speaking, imagining sounds doesn't make it harder to hear the outside world, and imagining what something disgusting smells like doesn't make you vomit. \n\nWhile the functions are similar, your imagination and your sensory inputs are processed differently in your brain, even if there is some overlap in where they get processed at different stages.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've always been able to render things over my current environmental input. It's not real, I know it's not real, but I can place a virtual thing anywhere I want. I write software and I do the same thing with my software before I write it. Helps a lot with designing things before you write them. Takes a lot of energy though. \n\nThose organically rendered VR objects are recalled from the part of our brain that reconstructs objects based on visual input. Your brain is like a giant AVR machine. Amazing! The objects you perceive as they are perceived by you are rendered or constructed by your brain in real time!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8297063",
"title": "Spatial view cells",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "Spatial view cells are used by primates for storing an episodic memory that helps with remembering where a particular object was in the environment. Imaging studies have shown that the hippocampus plays an important role in spatial navigation and episodic memories. Also, spatial view cells enable them to recall locations of objects even if they are not physically present in the environment. The neurons associated with remembering the location and object are often found in the primate hippocampus. These spatial view cells do not only recall specific locations, but they also remember distances between other landmarks around the place in order to gain a better understanding of where the places are spatially.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1215674",
"title": "Visual memory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "Visual memory describes the relationship between perceptual processing and the encoding, storage and retrieval of the resulting neural representations. Visual memory occurs over a broad time range spanning from eye movements to years in order to visually navigate to a previously visited location. Visual memory is a form of memory which preserves some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. We are able to place in memory visual information which resembles objects, places, animals or people in a mental image. The experience of visual memory is also referred to as the mind's eye through which we can retrieve from our memory a mental image of original objects, places, animals or people. Visual memory is one of several cognitive systems, which are all interconnected parts that combine to form the human memory. Types of palinopsia, the persistence or recurrence of a visual image after the stimulus has been removed, is a dysfunction of visual memory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1717129",
"title": "Explicit memory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "People use explicit memory throughout the day, such as remembering the time of an appointment or recollecting an event from years ago. Explicit memory involves conscious recollection, compared with implicit memory which is an unconscious, unintentional form of memory. Remembering a specific driving lesson is an example of explicit memory, while improved driving skill as a result of the lesson is an example of implicit memory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4718632",
"title": "Mental representation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "Mental representations (or mental imagery) enable representing things that have never been experienced as well as things that do not exist. Think of yourself traveling to a place you have never visited before, or having a third arm. These things have either never happened or are impossible and do not exist, yet our brain and mental imagery allows us to imagine them. Although visual imagery is more likely to be recalled, mental imagery may involve representations in any of the sensory modalities, such as hearing, smell, or taste. Stephen Kosslyn proposes that images are used to help solve certain types of problems. We are able to visualize the objects in question and mentally represent the images to solve it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5626",
"title": "Cognitive science",
"section": "Section::::Scope.:Memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Cognitive scientists study memory just as psychologists do, but tend to focus more on how memory bears on cognitive processes, and the interrelationship between cognition and memory. One example of this could be, what mental processes does a person go through to retrieve a long-lost memory? Or, what differentiates between the cognitive process of recognition (seeing hints of something before remembering it, or memory in context) and recall (retrieving a memory, as in \"fill-in-the-blank\")?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1008632",
"title": "Baddeley's model of working memory",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Visuo-spatial working memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1044,
"text": "However, visuo-spatial short-term memory can retain visual and/or spatial information over brief periods of time. When this memory is in use, individuals are able to momentarily create and revisit a mental image that can be manipulated in complex or difficult tasks of spatial orientation.There are some who have disparities in the areas of the brain that allow for this to happen from different types of brain damage. There can also be a misunderstanding here in the differences between transient memories such as the visual sensory memory. A transient memory is merely a fleeting type of sensory memory. Therefore, as the visual sensory memory is a type of sensory memory, there is a store for the information, but the store last for only a second or so. A common effect of the visual sensory memory is that individuals may remember seeing things that weren't really there or not remembering particular things that were in their line of sight. The memory is only momentary, and if it isn't attended to within a matter of seconds, it is gone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8297063",
"title": "Spatial view cells",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "In real world applications, monkeys remember where they saw ripe fruit with the aid of spatial view cells. Humans use spatial view cells when they try to recall where they may have seen a person or where they left their keys. Primates' highly developed visual and eye movement control systems enables them to explore and remember information about what's present at places in the environment without having to physically visit those places. These sorts of memories would be useful for spatial navigation in which the primates visualize everything in an allocentric, or worldly manner that allows them to convey directions to others without physically going through the entire route. These cells are used by primates in regular day-to-day lives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
15da30
|
It seems like every modern President of the US was a golfer. Were there any who weren't?
|
[
{
"answer": "Teddy Roosevelt, Hoover, Truman and Carter were the only US presidents not to play golf since McKinley, who introduced it to the White House. [Source](_URL_1_)\n\n[FDR considered himself a golfer even though he was physically unable to play.](_URL_0_) I'll leave it up to you whether or not to include him in the list.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "IIRC Kennedy was a 2 handicap (very good) can't speak as to the worst (I've heard Obama is shit from people that played with him)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2068185",
"title": "Harry Easterly",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Harry Watkey Easterly Jr. (1922-2005) served as president of the United States Golf Association, one of the World's two ruling bodies of Golf (the other being the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews), in 1976 and 1977 and later as its first Executive Director.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7892076",
"title": "Charles Coe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Charles Robert Coe (October 26, 1923 – May 16, 2001) was an American amateur golfer who is considered by many to be one of the greatest American amateurs in history. A two-time U.S. Amateur winner, Coe never turned professional either because, as he stated in 1998, \"When I was growing up, golf was a gentleman's game,\" or because his wife said, \"if I thought I was going to raise three children out of a suitcase, I was crazy\". He had a successful career in the oil business.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "938526",
"title": "Francis Ouimet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Francis DeSales Ouimet (May 8, 1893 – September 2, 1967) was an American amateur golfer who is frequently referred to as the \"father of amateur golf\" in the United States. He won the U.S. Open in 1913 and was the first non-Briton elected Captain of the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews. He was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 1974.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34566440",
"title": "February 1975",
"section": "Section::::February 26, 1975 (Wednesday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "BULLET::::- Gerald Ford became the first incumbent U.S. President to play in a PGA golf tournament, as an amateur in a pro-am event, the Jackie Gleason-Inverrary Classic. A crowd of 41,720 (largest for a single day on a PGA Tour event) watched as the President shot 100 on 18 holes, in partnership with Jack Nicklaus, Jackie Gleason, Bob Hope and New York businessman Elliot Kahn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "405860",
"title": "Gary Player",
"section": "Section::::Regular PGA Tour career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "Player is one of the most successful golfers in history, ranking third (behind Roberto de Vicenzo and Sam Snead) in total professional wins, with at least 164, and tied for fourth in major championship victories with nine. Along with Arnold Palmer and Jack Nicklaus he is often referred to as one of \"The Big Three\" golfers of his era – from the late 1950s through the late 1970s – when golf boomed in the United States and around the world and was greatly encouraged by expanded television coverage. Along with Gene Sarazen, Ben Hogan, Jack Nicklaus, and Tiger Woods, he is one of only five players to win golf’s \"career Grand Slam\". He completed the Grand Slam in 1965 at the age of twenty-nine. Player was the second multiple majors winner from South Africa, following Bobby Locke, then was followed by Ernie Els, and Retief Goosen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1510466",
"title": "United States Amateur Championship (golf)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1034,
"text": "Many of the leading figures in the history of golf have been U.S. Amateur Champion, including Bobby Jones five times, Jerome Travers four times, Jack Nicklaus twice and Tiger Woods three times (all consecutive; the only player to win three in a row). Woods' first win, as an 18-year-old in 1994, made him the youngest winner of the event, breaking the previous record of 19 years 5 months set by Robert A. Gardner in 1909. In 2008, New Zealander Danny Lee became the youngest ever winner, only to be eclipsed by 17-year-old An Byeong-hun the following year. Before the professional game became dominant, the event was regarded as one of the majors. This is no longer the case, but the champion still receives an automatic invitation to play in all of the majors except the PGA Championship. In addition, the runner-up also receives an invitation to play in the Masters and the U.S. Open. However, the golfers must maintain their amateur status at the time the events are held (unless they qualify for the tournaments by other means).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21766227",
"title": "Seminole Golf Club",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "Throughout its history, the club has long been known as a golf club for the corporate elite. In 1947, the club's members included Joseph P. Kennedy, Henry Ford II, Jack Chrysler, Paul Mellon, Phillip Armour, John Pillsbury and Robert Vanderbilt. The club has also hosted kings and presidents: President Dwight D. Eisenhower was an honorary member, Presidents Gerald Ford and John F. Kennedy played it often; and the Duke of Windsor was a member. Henry Picard, winner of the 1938 Masters Tournament, was the professional at Seminole for 26 years and Ben Hogan spent a significant amount of time here playing and practicing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3pjj2g
|
Is there a timeline of the history of women's rights in ancient Greece between the 5th and 1st century BC?
|
[
{
"answer": "Is this a homework question? It says in our [rules](_URL_1_):\nOur users aren't here to do your homework for you, but they might be willing to help. Remember: AskHistorians helps those who help themselves. Don't just give us your essay/assignment topic and ask us for ideas. Do some research of your own, then come to us with questions about what you've learned. This is explained further [in this [META] thread](_URL_0_). \nYou can also consider asking the helpful people at /r/HomeworkHelp.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "145439",
"title": "Women's rights",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient history.:Greece.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Although most women lacked political and equal rights in the city states of ancient Greece, they enjoyed a certain freedom of movement until the Archaic age. Records also exist of women in ancient Delphi, Gortyn, Thessaly, Megara and Sparta owning land, the most prestigious form of private property at the time. However, after the Archaic age, legislators began to enact laws enforcing gender segregation, resulting in decreased rights for women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39659735",
"title": "Women in Greece",
"section": "Section::::Women in ancient Greece.:Social, legal and political status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Although mostly women lacked political and equal rights in ancient Greece, they enjoyed a certain freedom of movement until the Archaic age. Records also exist of women in ancient Delphi, Gortyn, Thessaly, Megara and Sparta owning land, the most prestigious form of private property at the time. However, after the Archaic age, women's status got worse, and laws on gender segregation were implemented.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7250739",
"title": "Areopagite constitution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1116,
"text": "The Areopagite constitution is the modern name for a period in ancient Athens described by Aristotle in his Constitution of the Athenians. According to that work, the Athenian political scene was dominated, between the ostracism of Themistocles in the late 470s BC and the reforms of Ephialtes in 462 BC, by the Areopagus, a traditional court composed of former archons. Modern scholars have debated the existence of this phenomenon, with some concluding that Aristotle and his contemporaries invented it to explain Ephialtes' need to limit the Areopagus' powers, and arguing that the lack of concrete measures establishing the Areopagus' dominance shows that the Areopagite constitution is \"palpably unhistorical\". Other scholars, such as Donald Kagan, have countered that no concrete measures were necessary, as the Areopagus' dominance was established not through actual changes in the laws but through the prestige of its leading members. Aristotle specifically cites the Areopagites' distribution of money to the public as the citizen body prepared to abandon Athens in the face of the advancing Persian army. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2117675",
"title": "The First Sex",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.:Pre-Christian Women in the Celtic-Ionian World.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Gould Davis claimed that Greek women possessed rights that are presently denied by the Catholic, Orthodox, and conservative Protestant churches, such as the rights to abortion and divorce. She cited many well-known historians to support these claims. She also argued that women participated in almost all aspects of ancient Greek and Roman society, including government, learning and sport. In the following chapter, \"The Celts\", she argued that similar rights prevailed until the collapse of the Roman Empire, for a matrilineal system of monarchical descent, and for Celtic women being the major preservers of learning during the early Middle Ages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31718194",
"title": "Women in Classical Athens",
"section": "Section::::Historiography.:Approaches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "Until the 1980s, scholars of women in classical Athens were primarily interested in the status of women and how they were viewed by men. Early feminist scholarship aimed to assert that women were significant in ancient history and to demonstrate how they had been oppressed. Early scholars held that Athenian women had an \"ignoble\" place, but in 1925 this position was challenged by Arnold Wycombe Gomme. According to Gomme, women had high social status despite their limited legal rights; his view has reinforced that position ever since. Pomeroy attributes the variety of viewpoints to the types of evidence prioritised by scholars, with those arguing for the high status of Athenian women predominantly citing tragedy and those arguing against it emphasising oratory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39659735",
"title": "Women in Greece",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "During the past decades, the position of women in Greek society has changed dramatically. Efharis Petridou was the first female lawyer in Greece; in 1925 she joined the Athens Bar Association. In 1955, women were first allowed to become judges in Greece.In 1983, a new family law was passed, which provided for gender equality in marriage, and abolished dowry and provided for equal rights for \"illegitimate\" children. Adultery was also decriminalised in 1983. The new family law provided for civil marriage and liberalised the divorce law. In 2006, Greece enacted Law 3500/2006 -\"For combating domestic violence\"- which criminalised domestic violence, including marital rape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1354653",
"title": "Legal rights of women in history",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "The legal rights of women refers to the social and human rights of women. One of the first women's rights declarations was the \"Declaration of Sentiments\". The dependent position of women in early law is proved by the evidence of most ancient systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1dfxzd
|
Why can i not see the exhaust from a bus, but i can see its shadow
|
[
{
"answer": "The reason is really because the light casting the shadow is collimated. I.E. it is all coming from the same direction. However, when you are simply looking at the exhaust, light is coming from multiple directions, so it hides the distortion. If you look closely, the exhaust will still blur whatever it is in front of still.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The refractory index of the exhaust is markedly different to the surrounding air. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its a [shadowgraph](_URL_0_) caused by the difference in index of refraction between the hot exhaust and cold air.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32723215",
"title": "Trolleybuses in Pyongyang",
"section": "Section::::New Rolling Stock.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "“I mean for example the tailgate lights they aren’t electronic, they are just reflectors, like the sort of reflectors they have on bicycle wheels, so that’s on the back on the bus. Very simple lighting. They are not air-conditioned, you always see them driving around with the windows open,” Rowan Beard from Young Pioneer Tours told \"NK News\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58666308",
"title": "Rail Paybus FP1",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modifications in service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "During the 1950s, some of the buses were fitted with visors above the windscreens to reduce glare when travelling into the sun, but it is not clear which units had this modification. It is uncertain whether No.1 was one of the buses which received this addition; there are no photos showing it, there is no evidence of such a fitting, and it is not fitted now.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30706",
"title": "The Great Divorce",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "The ascending bus breaks out of the rain clouds into a clear, pre-dawn sky, and as it rises its occupants bodies change from being normal and solid into being transparent, faint, and vapor-like. When it reaches its destination the passengers on the bus – including the narrator – are gradually revealed to be ghosts. Although the country they disembark into is the most beautiful they have ever seen, every feature of the landscape, including streams of water and blades of grass, is unyieldingly solid compared to themselves: It causes them immense pain to walk on the grass, whose blades pierce their shadowy feet, and even a single leaf is far too heavy for any to lift.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1571082",
"title": "Catbus",
"section": "Section::::Character description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "A window stretches to become a door when a person would like to board it to travel. With its multiple caterpillar-like legs, it runs, flies, bounces, and hops across forests and lakes to reach its destination, making whole rice fields sway in its wake. Its eyes shine a yellow light brightly like headlamps to guide it. Mice with glowing eyes suspended next to its destination sign on its back and from its rear serve as tail lights. The Catbus is seemingly able to take its passengers to any destination they desire, even if the passenger (or the bus itself) lacks the knowledge how to get there; as is the case when Satsuki needed to find her sister, Mei.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9255018",
"title": "Automat (painting)",
"section": "Section::::The window.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "By way of comparison, in \"Automat\" the window dominates the painting, and yet \"allows nothing of the street, or whatever else is outside, to be seen.\" The complete blackness outside is a departure both from Hopper's usual techniques, and from realism, since a New York street at night is full of light from cars and street lamps. This complete emptiness allows the reflections from the interior to stand out more dramatically, and intensifies the viewer's focus upon the woman.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58011700",
"title": "Dodge Charger III",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "The exhaust exited through rectangular outlets under the rear lights, at the center of the car. The windshield was very steeply raked, and the hood had inlet vents. The deck had a small access door at the extreme rear. Headlights are hidden.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8611350",
"title": "Gillig Phantom",
"section": "Section::::Model overview.:Transit bus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "During its production, the exterior of the Phantom saw little change; an exception was the modernization of its destination sign (switching from a rollsign to an LED display). Dual or quad headlights were offered (with the latter becoming the most common on transit buses). While a mandatory design feature on the Phantom School Bus, a rear window was a rare option for transit/suburban Phantoms; Monterey-Salinas Transit and King County Metro are the only two transit authorities known to have ordered Phantoms with a rear window. On transit/suburban versions, several window configurations were offered; fixed side windows were a rarely ordered option.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
127dj3
|
How dangerous are dog bites?
|
[
{
"answer": "It depends on the severity and how it is treated. \nAs a veterinarian, I get bit often. Most of them heal fine with soap and water, but one started to cause intense pain and swelling that spread through my entire finger after 24hours. Without antibiotics, there is a real chance I would have lost my finger, or worse.\n\nAn elderly client of mine broke up a fight between his chihuahuas with his hands. Apparently, the bite wounds were not all that extrnsive, but he didn't get treatment, an infection started which eventually went systemic and killed him. \n\nIn short, if you are asking this because you've been bit, go get treatment. And see if you can find out the dog's rabies vaccine status. \n\nAs for the bacteria becoming resistant from one bite to the next, I'm calling bullshit on that unless there is some sort of odd circumstance you can elaborate on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24807696",
"title": "Fatal dog attacks in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Published Studies.:2000 study by CDC, HSUS & AVMA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "The study defined dog attacks as \"a human death caused by trauma from a dog bite\". Excluded from the study were deaths by disease caused by dog bites, strangulation on a scarf or leash pulled by a dog, heart attacks or traffic accident, and falling injury or fire ant bites from being pushed down by a dog. The study also excluded four deaths by trauma from dog bites by police dogs or guard dogs employed by the government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61110658",
"title": "Fatal dog attacks",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "Fatal dog attacks are rare when compared to other causes of death, however they represent the extreme result of dog bite incidents, which do occur quite frequently. The study of fatal dog attacks can lead to prevention techniques which can help to reduce all dog bite injuries, not only fatalities. Since dog bites are a very high percentage of emergency room visits, it's worth investigating how to reduce those numbers. Dog bites and attacks can result in pain, bruising, wounds, bleeding, soft tissue injury, broken bones, loss of limbs, scalping, disfigurement, life-threatening injuries, and death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24807696",
"title": "Fatal dog attacks in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Fatal dog attacks in the United States are rare, although non-fatal dog bites are not unusual. Typically, between 30 and 50 people in the US die from dog bites each year, and the number of deaths from dog attacks appear to be increasing. Around 4.5 million Americans are bitten by dogs every year, resulting in the hospitalization of 6,000 to 13,000 people each year in the United States (2005). Dog bites can cause pain, injury, infection, and even death. About 1 in 5 dog bites requires medical attention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59230608",
"title": "Dogsbite.org",
"section": "Section::::Activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Currently there is no uniform reporting requirement in the United States for dog bites, attacks, injuries or fatalities. Using media reports and fact-checking to gather information for their statistics, DogsBite.org documents and publishes accounts of each fatality caused by dog attacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2139688",
"title": "Dobermann",
"section": "Section::::Aggression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, between 1979 and 1998, the Doberman Pinscher was involved in attacks on humans resulting in fatalities less frequently than several other dog breeds such as German Shepherd Dogs, Rottweilers, Husky-type dogs, wolf-dog hybrids and Alaskan Malamutes. According to this Center for Disease Control and Prevention study, one of the most important factors contributing to dog bites is the level of responsibility exercised by dog owners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53874996",
"title": "Dog bite prevention",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "In addition to causing pain, injury, or nerve damage, almost one out of five bites becomes infected, placing the bite victim at risk for illness or death. Those who work and live around dogs should be aware of the risk and take precautions. Rabies is a particular risk associated with dog bites. In the United States between 16,000–39,000 people come in contact with potentially rabid dogs and other animals and receive rabies pre- and postexposure prophylaxis against the rabies virus each year. Because anyone who is bitten by an unvaccinated dog is at risk of getting rabies, local animal control agencies or police are sometimes able to capture the animal and determine whether or not it is infected with rabies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3304092",
"title": "Dog bite",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "There is considerable debate on whether or not certain breeds of dogs are inherently more prone to commit attacks causing serious injury (i.e., so driven by instinct and breeding that, under certain circumstances, they are exceedingly likely to attempt or commit dangerous attacks). Regardless of the breed of the dog, it is recognized that the risk of dangerous dog attacks can be greatly increased by human actions (such as neglect or fight training) or inactions (as carelessness in confinement and control).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
643h6z
|
Iceland was one of the poorer countries in Europe 1980. How did it grow so quickly after that to become so wealthy today?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would like to preface this post by saying that I am not an economist and nor do I specialize in economic history. I am, however, somewhat acquainted with the economic development of Iceland as well as the historiography of this phenemenon due to being an Icelandic historian.\n\nIt is true that Iceland endured some economic hardships during the 1980s. This includes both catch failures for cod and capelin as well as massive inflation. Indeed, inflation rose to heights of more than 100% during 1983 and consistently stayed above 50% from 1980 to 1983. Government responded by devaluing the currency multiple times in a bid to boost the exports of the main economic sector - the fishing industry. Obviously, such measures were incredibly unpopular with the average worker whose purchasing power simultaneously decreased. This period of economic development can best be described as a time of monetary policy failures. Price levels fluctuated wildly and inflation was a chronic ill. The króna declined by almost 600% against the US dollar from 1980 to 1986.\n\nThis was followed by a short time of economic expansion from 1985 to 1988. This was mostly due to an increase in fishing catches as well as a boost in exports. However, this economic prosperity proved to be shortlived as fishing catches (mainly cod) failed again in 1988. During the late 1980s the Icelandic economy can best be described as stagnant. Although inflation fell, unemployment rose at the same time and Iceland's competitive position in the global economy detoriorated. In 1990, however, the cornerstone towards economic stability is sometimes said to have been laid when government managed to strike a tripartite deal with employers as well as labour unions. This deal is generally referred to as 'The National Agreement' (Þjóðarsáttin) and is considered a notable economic achievement for a few reasons. Firstly, the vicious cycle of wage increases followed by price level increases (and inflation) was ended. The labour unions agreed to relatively modest wage increases over the next few years in exchange for more stable price levels - which was made possible thanks to a fixed exchange rate of the króna. Secondly, this is one of the few instances in Icelandic history where collective bargaining of the government and labour movement was possible. Historically speaking, this inability to strike collective bargains has mainly been explained in terms of a very left-wing labour movement in conjunction with mainly right-wing goverments. In 1988, however, a left-wing government had been formed which facilitated this deal. Lastly, the National Accord of 1990 is generally seen as a prerequisite to the economic changes that Iceland underwent during the 1990s. These changes include economic liberalization, privatization of state-owned banks and utility companies as well as Iceland's membership of the EEA which was approved in 1992. Taxes were lowered and a period of economic prosperity began. However, these changes are also seen by many as a major cause of the 2008 Icelandic financial crisis wherein the entire financial system of Iceland collapsed spectacularly.\n\nI would also like to add that although Iceland struggled economically during the 1980s it can hardly be classified as a poor country. Indeed, if we look at indicators such as GDP per capita we can see that Iceland was on par, if not ahead, of most Western European states during this time. For instance, Iceland's GDP per capita was $12,057 in 1984, compared with West Germany's $9,277 and France's $9,432. It is important to state that Iceland's economy is extremely volatile and most recessions are deeper and more frequent than in other European states. This is due to a number of factors. Firstly, because of the small size of the Icelandic economy as well as its unvaried nature and heavy emphasis on fish exports. Secondly, there are natural factors to consider, such as the weather and natural disasters (like volcanic eruptions and perhaps even avalanches). Thirdly and lastly, we can name the very pro-cylical economic and monetary policies of successive Icelandic governments which generally excerbated these crises with massive devaluations of the currency. Iceland can thus truly be called an economy of instability.\n\n**Sources:**\n\nÁrni H. Kristjánsson. *Þjóðarsáttin 1990: Forsagan og goðsögnin*. BA-thesis. University of Iceland, 2008.\n\nGuðmundur Jónsson and Magnús S. Magnússon, ed. *Icelandic historical statistics*. Reykjavík: Statistics Iceland, 1997.\n\nPalle S. Andersen and and Már Guðmundsson. *Inflation and Disinflation in Iceland*. Reykjavík: Central Bank of Iceland, 1998.\n\nSigurður Snævarr. *Haglýsing Íslands*. Reykjavík: Heimskringla, 1993.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14531",
"title": "Iceland",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture. Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity and Iceland became one of the wealthiest and most developed nations in the world. In 1994, it became a part of the European Economic Area, which further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14531",
"title": "Iceland",
"section": "Section::::History.:1944–present: Republic of Iceland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Iceland joined the European Economic Area in 1994, after which the economy was greatly diversified and liberalised. International economic relations increased further after 2001, when Iceland's newly deregulated banks began to raise massive amounts of external debt, contributing to a 32% increase in Iceland's gross national income between 2002 and 2007.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14531",
"title": "Iceland",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "Until the 20th century, Iceland was a fairly poor country. Currently, it remains one of the most developed countries in the world. Strong economic growth had led Iceland to be ranked first in the United Nations' Human Development Index report for 2007/2008, although in 2011 its HDI rating had fallen to 14th place as a result of the economic crisis. Nevertheless, according to the Economist Intelligence Index of 2011, Iceland has the 2nd highest quality of life in the world. Based on the Gini coefficient, Iceland also has one of the lowest rates of income inequality in the world, and when adjusted for inequality, its HDI ranking is 6th. Iceland's unemployment rate has declined consistently since the crisis, with 4.8% of the labour force being unemployed , compared to 6% in 2011 and 8.1% in 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19685804",
"title": "2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis",
"section": "Section::::Crisis resolution.:Aftermath (2012–2013).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "By mid-2012 Iceland was regarded as one of Europe's recovery success stories. It has had two years of economic growth. Unemployment was down to 6.3% and Iceland was attracting immigrants to fill jobs. Currency devaluation effectively reduced wages by 50% making exports more competitive and imports more expensive. Ten-year government bonds were issued below 6%, lower than some of the PIIGS nations in the EU (Portugal, Italy, Ireland, Greece, and Spain). Tryggvi Thor Herbertsson, a member of parliament, noted that adjustments via currency devaluations are less painful than government labor policies and negotiations. Nevertheless, while EU fervor has cooled the government continued to pursue membership.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25618370",
"title": "Economic history of Iceland",
"section": "Section::::18th to 20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "Iceland had among the lowest GDP per capita in Western Europe at the start of the 20th century. According to one assessment by Central Bank of Iceland economists, Post-World War II economic growth has been both significantly higher and more volatile than in other OECD countries. The average annual growth rate of GDP from 1945 to 2007 was about 4%. Studies have shown that the Icelandic business cycle has been largely independent of the business cycle in other industrialised countries. This can be explained by the natural resource-based export sector and external supply shocks. However, the volatility of growth declined markedly towards the end of the century, which may be attributed to the rising share of the services sector, diversifi cation of exports, more solid economic policies, and increased participation in the global economy.According to Reuters, Iceland has had \"over 20 financial crises since 1875\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35531391",
"title": "Economic liberalization in the post–World War II era",
"section": "Section::::Post-1970s economic liberalism.:Scandinavia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Iceland began implementing neoliberal economic policies beginning in the late 1980s. As measured by the Economic Freedom of the World, it had the 53rd \"freest economy\" in 1975 and it was one of the poorest countries in Europe. In 2004, it had the 9th freest economy and it was one of the richest. However, by 2009, the country was facing severe financial problems, a consequence that a number of observers have attributed to Iceland's extensive deregulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64578",
"title": "History of Iceland",
"section": "Section::::Iceland under Norwegian and Danish kings (1262–1944).:The Great Depression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "Icelandic post-World War I prosperity came to an end with the outbreak of the Great Depression, a severe worldwide economic crash. The depression hit Iceland hard as the value of exports plummeted. The total value of Icelandic exports fell from 74 million kronur in 1929 to 48 million kronur in 1932, and did not rise again to the pre-1930 level until after 1939. Government interference in the economy increased: \"Imports were regulated, trade with foreign currency was monopolized by state-owned banks, and loan capital was largely distributed by state-regulated funds\". The outbreak of the Spanish Civil War cut Iceland's exports of saltfish by half, and the depression lasted in Iceland until the outbreak of World War II, when prices for fish exports soared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17v8kv
|
putin's government in russia and the quality of democracy that exists there.
|
[
{
"answer": "Since you haven't gotten a bite, try posting in /r/askpolitics\n\nYou'll prob get a great answer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, I lived in Russia during Putin's primetime. And in all honesty, 10 years ago he was the best thing that happened in Russia. He made the country great, became a very popular, most people loved him. Then when reaching his maximum term, he declined to rewrite a law (that would let him stick around longer consecutively) and all the country praised it as an honorable act. Then Medvedev took over, and the people seemed to take a liking to him as well...eventually, which seemed to upset Putin. Putin got jealous, over reacted, and made sure he won the next election... and now he's setting dumb policies in place. \n\nSo how is life there now?\nWell, the media always has to be careful of criticizing the govt., the people still get beat up for having even peaceful protests, and there is still a ton of corruption (which will take decades to go away). The mindset of Russian people is what makes the difference. I personally believe it's great that every person in the US has the ability to buy a weapon, but I feel the opposite about the same issue in Russia... God forbid that Russians get access to guns (technically it's fire-powder ban, I believe). Russia is nowhere near developed enough to trust it's people to that extent. The current anti-democracy measure are a bit much, but I think there needs to be a balance between govt control and peoples freedom in the Russian Federation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15774868",
"title": "Sovereign democracy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "Sovereign Democracy in Russia was realised in the form of a dominant-party system which was put into place in 2007 when as a result of the Russian legislative election of 2007 the political party United Russia, headed by president Vladimir Putin, without forming a government, formally became the leading and guiding force in Russian society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12386349",
"title": "Russia under Vladimir Putin",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Russian historian Andranik Migranyan saw the Putin regime as restoring what he viewed as the natural functions of a government after period of the 1990s, when oligopolies expressing only their own narrow interests allegedly ruled Russia. Migranyan said: \"If democracy is the rule by a majority and the protection of the rights and opportunities of a minority, the current political regime can be described as democratic, at least formally. A multiparty political system exists in Russia, while several parties, most of them representing the opposition, have seats in the State Duma\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12386349",
"title": "Russia under Vladimir Putin",
"section": "Section::::Authoritarian bureaucratic state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Russian politician Boris Nemtsov and commentator Kara-Murza define Putinism in Russia as \"a one party system, censorship, a puppet parliament, ending of an independent judiciary, firm centralization of power and finances, and hypertrophied role of special services and bureaucracy, in particular in relation to business\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49462507",
"title": "Putinism",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Single-party bureaucratic state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Russian politician Boris Nemtsov and commentator Kara-Murza define Putinism in Russia as \"a one party system, censorship, a puppet parliament, ending of an independent judiciary, firm centralization of power and finances, and hypertrophied role of special services and bureaucracy, in particular in relation to business\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12386349",
"title": "Russia under Vladimir Putin",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "The political system under Putin has been described as incorporating some elements of economic liberalism, a lack of transparency in governance, cronyism, nepotism and pervasive corruption. This view has been supported by many, but it has also been characterized as \"a systemic and institutionalized form\" by others, notably Boris Nemtsov. Between 1999 and 2008, the Russian economy grew at a steady pace, which some experts attribute to the sharp rouble devaluation of 1998, Boris Yeltsin-era structural reforms, rising oil prices and cheap credit from Western banks. In former Ambassador Michael McFaul's opinion (June 2004), Russia's \"impressive\" short-term economic growth \"came simultaneously with the destruction of free media, threats to civil society and an unmitigated corruption of justice\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12386349",
"title": "Russia under Vladimir Putin",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "In September 2007, American economist Richard W. Rahn called Putinism \"a Russian nationalistic authoritarian form of government that pretends to be a free market democracy\" and which \"owes more of its lineage to fascism than communism\", noting that \"Putinism depended on the Russian economy growing rapidly enough that most people had rising standards of living and, in exchange, were willing to put up with the existing soft repression\". He predicted that \"as Russia's economic fortunes changed, Putinism was likely to become more repressive\". After Rahn's remarks Putin took actions to lessen democracy, promote conservative beliefs and values; and silence opposition to his policies and administration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40845220",
"title": "Domestic policy of Vladimir Putin",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "According to Stephen White, Russia under the presidency of Putin made it clear that it had no intention of establishing a \"second edition\" of the American or British political system, but rather a system that was closer to Russia's own traditions and circumstances. Putin's administration has often been described as a \"sovereign democracy\". First proposed by Vladislav Surkov in February 2006, the term quickly gained currency within Russia and arguably unified various political elites around it. According to its proponents, the government's actions and policies ought above all to enjoy popular support within Russia itself and not be determined from outside the country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
72tjau
|
How much did scientists know about the makeup of other planets in our solar system prior to spectroscopy?
|
[
{
"answer": "Even though I don't have a clue, I'll take a stab at answering, since no one else has. I'm going to take it as sort of a running narrative of how I'm researching it... No particular reason why.\n\n[Wikipedia](_URL_4_) states astronomical spectroscopy dates back to the (rather unhelpful) \"early 1800s\", but states that there were retail devices available by at least 1884. Of course, it also took awhile for spectrographic lines to be made sense of and mapped. To begin with, it informed us more about the nature of light and matter itself, than the planets or sun. So... hopefully 1884 is just as good as any other date.\n\nSo, if we look at a [timeline for astronomy](_URL_0_) and work backwards from 1884... Well, aside from spectroscopy, there's not a whole lot.\n\n* 1846, Neptune is credited to Johann Gottfried Galle, but there's evidence Galileo may have discovered it.\n\n* 1801 an asteroid is discovered by Giuseppe Piazzi and demonstrated by William Herschel.\n\n* 1781 Uranus is discovered by William Herschel (busy guy!).\n\netc.\n\nDoesn't help as much as I thought.... Too vague to properly answer your question. So, we can take a look at what we knew about *specifically Jupiter*. Turns out, the [red spot](_URL_3_) has been observed since 1830, but was observed earlier by individuals. The first time it was described as being \"red\" was in a painting by Donato Ceti in 1711, though (based just on the Wiki description), it may have been artistic license, since the next description as red doesn't come until spectrography. \n\nHow about moons...? Well, aside from the [Galilean moons](_URL_1_), there were a few prior to mid-to-late 1800's. Specifically, 20 prior to 1884 (not counting the actual \"moon\" - that was way early).\n\nSeems we didn't know a lot about the planets. Some idea of color. They had a good handle on the math to calculate basic orbits, but based on wikipedia on the discovery of the moons during the 1800's, they weren't first demonstrated mathematically (though many of the articles are vague on the issue). [Ceres](_URL_2_) is something of an exception, so they did have some basic rules of orbits and such.\n\nHope this helps you get started... I'd dig further, but I'm out of time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39562",
"title": "Geochemistry",
"section": "Section::::Abundance of elements.:Giant planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "Most of our direct information on the composition of the giant planets is from spectroscopy. Since the 1930s, Jupiter was known to contain hydrogen, methane and ammonium. In the 1960s, interferometry greatly increased the resolution and sensitivity of spectral analysis, allowing the identification of a much greater collection of molecules including ethane, acetylene, water and carbon monoxide. However, Earth-based spectroscopy becomes increasingly difficult with more remote planets, since the reflected light of the Sun is much dimmer; and spectroscopic analysis of light from the planets can only be used to detect vibrations of molecules, which are in the infrared frequency range. This constrains the abundances of the elements H, C and N. Two other elements are detected: phosphorus in the gas phosphine (PH) and germanium in germane (GeH). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23253",
"title": "Parallax",
"section": "Section::::Astronomy.:Solar parallax.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Although Aristarchus' results were incorrect due to observational errors, they were based on correct geometric principles of parallax, and became the basis for estimates of the size of the Solar System for almost 2000 years, until the transit of Venus was correctly observed in 1761 and 1769. This method was proposed by Edmond Halley in 1716, although he did not live to see the results. The use of Venus transits was less successful than had been hoped due to the black drop effect, but the resulting estimate, 153 million kilometers, is just 2% above the currently accepted value, 149.6 million kilometers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "400370",
"title": "Aleksander Wolszczan",
"section": "Section::::Scientific career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1266,
"text": "Working with Dale Frail, Wolszczan carried out astronomical observations from the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico that led them to the discovery of the pulsar PSR B1257+12 in 1990. In 1992 they showed that the pulsar was orbited by two planets, whose masses were initially assessed at 3.4 and 2.8 times Earth's mass. The radii of their orbits are 0.36 and 0.47 AU respectively. This was the first confirmed discovery of planets outside the Solar System (as of 6 October 2017, 3,529 such planets were known). Wolszczan announced his findings in 1992 during the Meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Atlanta. Two years later he published the results of his discovery and was chosen by the journal \"Nature\" as the author of one of 15 fundamental discoveries in the field of physics. Despite some initial misgivings by several experts, today his discovery is regarded as fully substantiated. Astronomer Bohdan Paczynski (Princeton University) called it \"the greatest discovery by a Polish astronomer since Copernicus.\" In 1998, \"Astronomy\" magazine included his discovery among The 25 Greatest Astronomical Findings of All Time. At the Arecibo Observatory, Wolszczan also collaborated with Joseph H. Taylor Jr and conducted research on millisecond pulsars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "575749",
"title": "Moons of Saturn",
"section": "Section::::Discovery.:Observations by spacecraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "The study of the outer planets has since been revolutionized by the use of unmanned space probes. The arrival of the \"Voyager\" spacecraft at Saturn in 1980–1981 resulted in the discovery of three additional moons – Atlas, Prometheus and Pandora, bringing the total to 17. In addition, Epimetheus was confirmed as distinct from Janus. In 1990, Pan was discovered in archival \"Voyager\" images.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17720157",
"title": "WASP-15b",
"section": "Section::::Discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Follow-up observations were conducted by a European and American science team at the 1.2 m Leonhard Euler Telescope at La Silla Observatory in Chile, which further raised the possibility of the existence of a planet in WASP-15's orbit; use of the CORALIE spectrograph on the Euler Telescope between March 6, 2008 and July 17, 2008 revealed that the variations in radial velocity measurements were not because of an eclipsing binary star system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2898458",
"title": "New Worlds Mission",
"section": "Section::::Objectives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "BULLET::::3. Planet studies: At this stage, detailed study of individual planets would take place. With a low noise level and a modest signal, spectroscopy and photometry can be performed. Spectroscopy allows scientists to perform chemical analysis of atmospheres and surfaces, which might hold clues to the existence of life elsewhere in the universe. Photometry will show variation in color and intensity as surface features rotate in and out of the field of view, allowing for the detection of oceans, continents, polar caps and clouds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9763",
"title": "Exoplanet",
"section": "Section::::Formation and evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "The planets of the Solar System can only be observed in their current state, but observations of different planetary systems of varying ages allows us to observe planets at different stages of evolution. Available observations range from young proto-planetary disks where planets are still forming to planetary systems of over 10 Gyr old. When planets form in a gaseous protoplanetary disk, they accrete hydrogen/helium envelopes. These envelopes cool and contract over time and, depending on the mass of the planet, some or all of the hydrogen/helium is eventually lost to space. This means that even terrestrial planets may start off with large radii if they form early enough. An example is Kepler-51b which has only about twice the mass of Earth but is almost the size of Saturn which is a hundred times the mass of Earth. Kepler-51b is quite young at a few hundred million years old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
69oj81
|
what keeps a bowling lane from getting warped from thrown balls?
|
[
{
"answer": " Wood lanes are shaved down usually every 2 years. Also the lanes are not 1 continuous piece of wood. There are sections. The front part of the lane (where balls land) are made of a harder wood.\n\n Most lanes today are made of a synthetic material. Also in sections that can be replaced.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also, there are many dents in most lanes from people throwing the ball. They are just hard to see depending on the light. They are minimized by the harder wood at the front, completely sanding the lanes every few years, and putting down a new finish (at my old bowling alley we did this every year). Most league houses don't use real wood anymore, which I understand is easier to repair. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45119909",
"title": "Open bowling",
"section": "Section::::Slides.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "As bowling balls are quite heavy to throw, some alleys provide portable slides from the top of which the ball is pushed down rather than thrown. Use of these slides is often combined with the use of bumpers. These slides are used by children and the disabled to assist their throw. They are also referred to as \"ramps\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20699999",
"title": "Lofting (bowling)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "Lofting (by a bowler) in bowling is throwing a bowling ball more than a short distance down the lane. This is usually done with the bounce pass technique, but can also be done with a straight ball. Lofting is looked down upon by the bowling community and bowling alley employees because of the damage to the ball and lanes. Many bowling alleys that use wood for their lanes will either have signs that tell the bowlers not to loft, or an employee will tell the bowlers not to do so. Lofting the ball before the arrows in some bowling alleys is not against the rules. Some professional bowlers do loft a considerable amount under certain lane conditions. Crankers and other high-rev players may be forced to loft under dry conditions in order to delay the ball's reaction and prevent it from overhooking. Lofting over the gutter is known as \"popping the cap\" and is done when a bowler hooks the whole lane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27716289",
"title": "Kinect Sports",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Sports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Bowling takes place at Neon Lanes. Players are required to reach to their left or right to take up a ball before swinging their arm forwards to bowl, exaggerating the arm motion to add spin if required. Single player, local multiplayer and online multiplayer game modes are available. Bowling mini games include One Bowl Roll, in which the player must clear as many pin setups as possible before running out of chances, and Pin Rush, where the player is challenged to knock over as many pins as possible within a time limit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10460355",
"title": "Strike (bowling)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "In recreational bowling alleys, a strike usually triggers a special animation to be played on the electronic scoring system, depicting bowling pins being knocked down (often in an exaggerated, cartoonish style) and an \"X\" or \"STRIKE!\" appearing on the screen afterwards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3622252",
"title": "Pinsetter",
"section": "Section::::Candlepin pinsetters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "A separate elevator next to the turntable transports the balls to the ball return system, which has a near-vertical ramp that the balls roll down to gain enough momentum to roll through either an above-lane or submerged trough back up the alley, entering the ball return rack next to the approach area where players can grab them. Bowl Mor pinsetters are stocked with 24 to 27 pins, and are deemed substantially more reliable than typical Ten-pin bowling pinsetters. Due to the playing rules of candlepin bowling allowing fallen \"dead wood\" pins to \"remain\" on the lane between each ball's roll, no provision has ever been made for \"spotting cells\" in a candlepin pinsetter's spotting table, simplifying the machines' design. Most parts of the machine are driven by chains – especially the sweep board's drive system, on two L-shaped tracks on either side of the unit – or belts. A Bowl Mor unit weighs approximate , and draws 24 amperes at 110 volts from three-wire 110-220 volt service mains. The ICBA lists the cost of a refurbished Bowl Mor unit at approximately $5000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "678695",
"title": "Pace bowling",
"section": "Section::::Tactics.:Deployment of fielders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "The various techniques of fast bowling lend themselves to three ways of getting the batsman out. They may be bowled or caught LBW either by speed, the yorker or by seam or swing causing the ball to move in toward them, in which case placement of fielders is irrelevant. Swing or seam may be employed to move the ball away from the batsman in which case the ball strikes the outside edge of the bat and may be caught in the slips. A badly-played bouncer will either fly off the outside edge as above or may result in a mistimed shot that can be caught near the boundary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21093108",
"title": "Sport bowling",
"section": "Section::::Lane Friction Topography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Lane conditions are created by cleaning the lane surface and then applying lane oil in a pattern via a lane oiling machine. Lane oil is designed to both protect the surface and influence bowling ball hook. Ball hook is the product of the its surface material (cover stock), balance (core), direction of travel, speed of delivery, and spin (angular momentum). As the ball travels towards the pins it interacts with the lane surface and reacts to friction. As the ball encounters friction its angular momentum is consumed changing its trajectory. In areas of the lane where there is less oil the ball will change direction (hook) and in areas of the lane where there is more oil the ball will not change direction (skid).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xsukw
|
I am looking for a Site which has a database of News Clippings of English Newspapers from 1900-1950??
|
[
{
"answer": "[Proquest Historical Newspapers](_URL_0_) has the Guardian and the Observer. If you are member of a uni, library or other institution with a subscription, it's free.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Try some of [these](_URL_0_). (One of the rare moments in which answering with a Wikipedia link on this subreddit is justified.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The British Archives has some online newspaper collections.\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28244538",
"title": "JISC Digitisation Programme",
"section": "Section::::Phase 2 (2007-2009).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "The British Library has already digitised two separate collections of newspapers: British newspapers 1800-1900 and the Burney collection of British 18th century newspapers. This project added another 1m pages of historical newspapers to the platform\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3312593",
"title": "List of defunct newspapers of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "This is a list of defunct newspapers of the United States. Only notable names among the thousands of such newspapers are listed, primarily major metropolitan dailies which published for ten years or more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4688539",
"title": "History of newspaper publishing",
"section": "Section::::Modern newspapers since 1800.:Italy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "The major newspapers were served by Agenzia Stefani (1853–1945). It was a News agency that collected news and feature items, and distributed them to subscribing newspapers by telegraph or by mail. It had exchange agreements with Reuters in London and Havas in Paris, and provided a steady flow of domestic and international news and features.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33958348",
"title": "British Newspaper Archive",
"section": "Section::::History.:Digitisation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "In May 2010 a ten-year programme of digitization of the newspaper archives with commercial partner DC Thomson subsidiary Brightsolid began. In November 2011, BBC News announced the launch of the British Newspaper Archive, an initiative to facilitate online access to over one million pages of pre-20th century newspapers. The same newspapers from this partnership have also been made available to view on Findmypast and Genes Reunited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33958348",
"title": "British Newspaper Archive",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "The British Library Newspapers section was based in Colindale in North London, until 2013, and is now divided between the St Pancras and Boston Spa sites. The Library has an almost complete collection of British and Irish newspapers since 1840. This is partly because of the legal deposit legislation of 1869, which required newspapers to supply a copy of each edition of a newspaper to the library. London editions of national daily and Sunday newspapers are complete back to 1801. In total the collection consists of 660,000 bound volumes and 370,000 reels of microfilm containing tens of millions of newspapers with 52,000 titles on 45 km of shelves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27642864",
"title": "Trove",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Newspapers.:Australian Newspapers Digitisation Project.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "On 25 July 2008 the \"Australian Newspapers Beta\" service was released to the public as a standalone website and a year later became a fully integrated part of the newly launched Trove. The service contains millions of articles from 1803 onwards, with more content being added regularly. The website was the public face of the Australian Newspapers Digitisation Project, a coordination of major libraries in Australia to convert historic newspapers to text-searchable digital files. The Australian Newspapers website allowed users to search the database of digitised newspapers from 1803 to 1954 which are now in the public domain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13674911",
"title": "Daily Cargo News",
"section": "Section::::History.:\"Lloyd's List\" in Australia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "The stories were transmitted back to \"Lloyd’s List\" in London where the compilation of the newspaper took place by \"Lloyd’s List\" production staff. The completed editorial pages of the newspaper were then transmitted back to Westonprint in Australia where advertisements were manually inserted and production completed before printing and distribution took place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
adhakp
|
is there a reason why all or most ip addresses begin with 192.168..?
|
[
{
"answer": "These are internal IP addresses. If you are on a home network, you will have this IP address. Even if you have one computer on a wireless router connected to a modem, you are on a home network.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "192.168.x.x is reserved for [private networks](_URL_0_), i.e. your local network (for your home, office etc.)\n\nIn some places, each device could also be assigned a public IP address (for accessing the internet), or all the devices in the network could share the same public IP address using [NAT](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "192.168.x.x is part of the 'private' range of addresses set aside by the Internet masters (APNIC). Whilst these are valid addresses, they are specificically designed not to be transmitted across the wider Internet. There are actually 3 such sets, (Class A, B and C).\nThese are: \n\nA: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255.\n\nB: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255.\n\nC: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255.\n\nThe Technical term is '[Non Routeable IP addresses](_URL_0_)'\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First you need to understand the difference between public and private IP addresses as well as the term routable. \n\nPrivate IP addresses are used internal to your network and public IPs are used external also known as routable. You may have 50/100/1000s of devices inside of your network they can all share one public IP address via Network Address Translation and the use of port numbers. \n\nIf you google “what is my IP” you’ll see a much different ip address. That is your public IP and it’s how you talk to the world. This is dynamically assigned via your ISP. \n\nThe best way to put it is this, your house has a unique address: 123 Main Street, city State zip code. No where else in the world does that address exist and it’s how UPS knows to find you. Now inside of your house you probably have tons of things that everyone else has. UPS doesn’t need to know where your fridge is to deliver you packages for the fridge just how to get to your house. \n\nThis all exists because there is a limited number of IPv4 address so every routable IP can have thousands of Private IPs behind it. \n\nThere are three private spaces:\n\n10.0.0.0/8\n172.16.0.0/12\n192.168.0.0/16\n\nI’m not 100% sure why most retail devices went with 192 as the IP range. Technically they could have used any of them. In my house I use several different subnets with the use of Vlans.\n\n192.168.98.0/24 vlan 998 management\n192.168.99.0/24 vlan 999 Lab\n192.168.100.0/24 vlan 1000 Home Network\n192.168.101.0/24 vlan 1001 IOT\n192.168.102.0/24 vlan 1002 Media\n192.168.103.0/24 vlan 1003 Cameras\nVlan 1004 retired\n192.168.105.0/24 vlan 1005 Servers\n192.168.106.0/24 vlan 1006 NAS \n\n\nThat’s about the basics of a network. I’ve been a network security engineer for about 10 years.. it’s a really amazing career with lots of jobs and the entry is minimal. Hope that helped. \n\nEdit: also understand most things in Network were developed 20-30 years ago when not many home users had internet. That is why 127.0.0.0 range is reserved.. the thought was we would never run out of IP address.. and it’s why IPv6 is becoming the new standard. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You have a limited view of the IPv4 address space. This is most likely due to the use of the 192.168.0.0/16 address space by consumer routers. \n\nThe entire IPv4 address space is heavily utilized except the highest numbered addresses.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "683274",
"title": "6to4",
"section": "Section::::How 6to4 works.:Address block allocation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "For example, the global IPv4 address has the corresponding 6to4 prefix . This gives a prefix length of 48 bits, which leaves room for a 16-bit subnet field and 64 bit host addresses within the subnets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15318",
"title": "IPv6",
"section": "Section::::Transition mechanisms.:IPv4-mapped IPv6 addresses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Addresses in this group consist of an 80-bit prefix of zeros, the next 16 bits are ones, and the remaining, least-significant 32 bits contain the IPv4 address. For example, ::ffff:192.0.2.128 represents the IPv4 address 192.0.2.128. Another deprecated format for IPv4-compatible IPv6 addresses is ::192.0.2.128.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15318",
"title": "IPv6",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 957,
"text": "Devices on the Internet are assigned a unique IP address for identification and location definition. With the rapid growth of the Internet after commercialization in the 1990s, it became evident that far more addresses would be needed to connect devices than the IPv4 address space had available. By 1998, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) had formalized the successor protocol. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address, theoretically allowing 2, or approximately addresses. The actual number is slightly smaller, as multiple ranges are reserved for special use or completely excluded from use. The total number of possible IPv6 addresses is more than times as many as IPv4, which uses 32-bit addresses and provides approximately 4.3 billion addresses. The two protocols are not designed to be interoperable, complicating the transition to IPv6. However, several IPv6 transition mechanisms have been devised to permit communication between IPv4 and IPv6 hosts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14921",
"title": "IP address",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number. However, because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses, a new version of IP (IPv6), using 128 bits for the IP address, was developed in 1995, and standardized in . In , a final definition of the protocol was published. IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24504672",
"title": "IPv6 address",
"section": "Section::::Address space.:Reserved anycast addresses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "The 128 highest addresses within each subnet prefix are reserved to be used as anycast addresses. These addresses usually have the 57 first bits of the interface identifier set to 1, followed by the 7-bit anycast ID. Prefixes for the network, including subnets, are required to have a length of 64 bits, in which case the universal/local bit must be set to 0 to indicate the address is not globally unique. The address with value 0x7e in the 7 least-significant bits is defined as a mobile IPv6 home agents anycast address. The address with value 0x7f (all bits 1) is reserved and may not be used. No more assignments from this range are made, so values 0x00 through 0x7d are reserved as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38404",
"title": "Classless Inter-Domain Routing",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 898,
"text": "An IP address is interpreted as composed of two parts: a network-identifying prefix followed by a host identifier within that network. In the previous classful network architecture, IP address allocations were based on the bit boundaries of the four octets of an IP address. An address was considered to be the combination of an 8, 16, or 24-bit network prefix along with a 24, 16, or 8-bit host identifier respectively. Thus, the smallest allocation and routing block contained only 256 addresses—too small for most enterprises, and the next larger block contained addresses—too large to be used efficiently even by large organizations. This led to inefficiencies in address use as well as inefficiencies in routing, because it required a large number of allocated class-C networks with individual route announcements, being geographically dispersed with little opportunity for route aggregation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14921",
"title": "IP address",
"section": "Section::::IPv4 addresses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "An IPv4 address has a size of 32 bits, which limits the address space to (2) addresses. Of this number, some addresses are reserved for special purposes such as private networks (~18 million addresses) and multicast addressing (~270 million addresses).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dcea88
|
why are americans so obsessed with halloween?
|
[
{
"answer": "Why not, enjoy the holiday?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because Halloween is fun. The little kiddies dressed up in their costumes out getting candy. The harmless pranks people can play on others. Great movies on T.V. Everything about Halloween is just fun.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Americans Excited about Holiday that Glorifies Eating Candy and Dressing Slutty.\n\n\"Shocking!\", says nobody.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Halloween has become a bit of it's own counterculture in a way. As the Christmas holiday has continued to bloat and start earlier and earlier each year, people respond by opposing it in various ways. Thanks to internet and meme culture being what it is, Halloween itself has started to become overly bloated itself. You'll find that most people who rave about halloween online dont actually do much to celebrate it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Canadian here, we also adore Halloween. It’s fun. It’s a bit of a free pass to show your excited/eager/more youthful exuberance for something as an adult. You get to buy miniature versions of your favourite candies, and rewatch your favourite Halloween movies while keeping an eye for new ones. You get to see kids grinning from ear to ear as they go door to door chanting “trick or treat!” And swoon at the toddlers “twik-o-tweeting” \n\nThere are few tricks nowadays, so it’s actually one of the more wholesome holidays. If you’re an adult there is alcohol costume parties - it’s like returning to childhood + alcohol. If you have kids there are family pumpkin patches (some on wineries, with charcuterie, wine by the glass or bottle) and loads of usually free outdoor kids activities. Ditto with corn mazes on some of the pumpkin patches. Family Halloween parties with old school games like bobbing for apples etc. \n\nAnd candy. Loads of candy, chips, chocolate and cheap toys. It’s just fun.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I’ve grown to hate Christmas because family systems are so broken that sharing kids with all these different sets of parents and grandparents is just a huge burden. Halloween is all mine. Not complicated at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why do you ask this question like it's a bad thing? It's a friggin holiday for fun...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "America is pretty into all it's major holidays (there aren't that many) Halloween is just one of the more social-network friendly ones since there's a large degree of personal flair and diversity in decorating as well as dressing up so it's a high visibility holiday.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We like to party. Add some costumes and candy, hell yeah. I personally love fall , so i stay pumped about the seasons changing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Halloween is a fun holiday, just like so many others, but it gets hyped due to marketing. Just look at all the retailers that can make money selling candy and costumes and decorations and all the massive piles of useless, expensive, shoddy shit. What you're experiencing is the effects of marketing hype. It's like Christmas. Do people enjoy it? Sure. Are people so fucking nuts about it that they demand Christmas shit on the shelves in October? That's a thing, but it's just the retailers trying to capitalize on the market, it's not in response to demand.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a truly simple festivity that is non-religious, non-political, and non-historical. Therefore, the common person can enjoy it without feeling they have to please a particular demographic's beliefs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20445622",
"title": "Geography of Halloween",
"section": "Section::::Australia and New Zealand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "While not traditionally a part of Australian culture, non-religious celebrations of Halloween modeled on North American festivities are growing increasingly popular in Australia, in spite of seasonal differences and the transition from spring to summer. Criticism stems largely from the fact that Halloween has little relevance to Australian culture. It is also considered, by some Australians, to be an unwanted American influence; as although Halloween does have Celtic/European origins, its increasing popularity in Australia is largely as a result of American pop-culture influence. Supporters of the event claim that the critics fail to see that the event is not entirely American, but rather Celtic and is no different to embracing other cultural traditions such as Saint Patrick's Day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20445622",
"title": "Geography of Halloween",
"section": "Section::::Australia and New Zealand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "In New Zealand, as in neighbouring Australia, Halloween is not celebrated to the same extent as in North America, although in recent years the non-religious celebrations have been achieving some popularity especially among young children. Trick-or-treat has become increasingly popular with minors in New Zealand over the years, despite being not a \"British or Kiwi event\" that purely is only influenced by American globalization. Critics of Halloween in New Zealand believe that commercialization of Halloween by the popular store The Warehouse has pushed the popularity of Halloween into an unofficial national holiday.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18985287",
"title": "Culture of the United States",
"section": "Section::::National holidays.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Halloween is thought to have evolved from the ancient Celtic/Gaelic festival of Samhain, which was introduced in the American colonies by Irish settlers. It has become a holiday that is celebrated by children and teens who traditionally dress up in costumes and go door to door trick-or-treating for candy. It also brings about an emphasis on eerie and frightening urban legends and movies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13855",
"title": "Halloween",
"section": "Section::::Around the world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 1451,
"text": "The traditions and importance of Halloween vary greatly among countries that observe it. In Scotland and Ireland, traditional Halloween customs include children dressing up in costume going \"guising\", holding parties, while other practices in Ireland include lighting bonfires, and having firework displays. In Brittany children would play practical jokes by setting candles inside skulls in graveyards to frighten visitors. Mass transatlantic immigration in the 19th century popularized Halloween in North America, and celebration in the United States and Canada has had a significant impact on how the event is observed in other nations. This larger North American influence, particularly in iconic and commercial elements, has extended to places such as Ecuador, Chile, Australia, New Zealand, (most) continental Europe, Japan, and other parts of East Asia. In the Philippines, during Halloween, Filipinos return to their hometowns and purchase candles and flowers, in preparation for the following All Saints Day (\"Araw ng mga Patay\") on 1 November and All Souls Day – though it falls on 2 November, most of them observe it on the day before. In Mexico and Latin American in general, it is referred to as \" Día de Muertos \" which translates in English to \"Day of the dead\". Most of the people from Latin America construct altars in their homes to honor their deceased relatives and they decorate them with flowers and candies and other offerings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13855",
"title": "Halloween",
"section": "Section::::Trick-or-treating and guising.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "American historian and author Ruth Edna Kelley of Massachusetts wrote the first book-length history of Halloween in the US; \"\" (1919), and references souling in the chapter \"Hallowe'en in America\". In her book, Kelley touches on customs that arrived from across the Atlantic; \"Americans have fostered them, and are making this an occasion something like what it must have been in its best days overseas. All Halloween customs in the United States are borrowed directly or adapted from those of other countries\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13855",
"title": "Halloween",
"section": "Section::::Christian religious observances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 1138,
"text": "Some Christians feel concerned about the modern celebration of Halloween because they feel it trivializes – or celebrates – paganism, the occult, or other practices and cultural phenomena deemed incompatible with their beliefs. Father Gabriele Amorth, an exorcist in Rome, has said, \"if English and American children like to dress up as witches and devils on one night of the year that is not a problem. If it is just a game, there is no harm in that.\" In more recent years, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Boston has organized a \"Saint Fest\" on Halloween. Similarly, many contemporary Protestant churches view Halloween as a fun event for children, holding events in their churches where children and their parents can dress up, play games, and get candy for free. To these Christians, Halloween holds no threat to the spiritual lives of children: being taught about death and mortality, and the ways of the Celtic ancestors actually being a valuable life lesson and a part of many of their parishioners' heritage. Christian minister Sam Portaro wrote that Halloween is about using \"humor and ridicule to confront the power of death\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20445622",
"title": "Geography of Halloween",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Halloween is now the United States' second most popular holiday (after Christmas) for decorating; the sale of candy and costumes is also extremely common during the holiday, which is marketed to children and adults alike. The National Confectioners Association (NCA) reported in 2005 that 80% of American adults planned to give out candy to trick-or-treaters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8yr9mc
|
Can you layer sun protection products and is their SP factor cumulative?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can layer but you will only get the higher protection. 15 + 15 does not equal spf 30. \n\nThey’re tested at a rate of coverage that equals about 1/4 teaspoon for the average male face too. It’s a good idea to measure it for a while to be sure you are getting enough. \n\nIt doesn’t last all day, so reapply about every 2 hours or after profuse sweating or swimming or rubbing. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, that's not how it works. SPF stands for sun protection factor, it's a measure of how much uv-b light is blocked by a proper application of the sunscreen. A sunscreen that blocked half of the uv-b rays would have an spf of 2, an spf of 15 means it blocks 93% of uv-b. Ostensibly spf translates to how long you'd need to be in the sun to get a sunburn. If it took 10 minutes to get burnt with no sunscreen (if your are extremely pale, for example) then it should take 150 minutes to get burnt with spf 15 sunscreen on (or 300 with spf 30).\n\nThe reality is that above a certain spf level, about 30 or so, the amount of uv-b received is so low you won't burn at all. However, spf doesn't measure uv-a so a \"50 spf\" sunscreen might still leave you vulnerable.\n\nIt's possible that combining two sunscreens based on different chemicals to give you more total protection, but there's no way to know without testing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5253627",
"title": "Sun protective clothing",
"section": "Section::::UPF rating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 902,
"text": "A relatively new rating designation for sun protective textiles and clothing is UPF (Ultraviolet Protection Factor), which represents the ratio of sunburn-causing UV measured without and with the protection of the fabric. For example, a fabric rated UPF 30 means that, if 30 units of UV fall on the fabric, only 1 unit will pass through to the skin. A UPF 30 fabric that blocks 29 out of 30 units of UV is therefore blocking 96.7%. Unlike SPF (Sun Protection Factor) measurements that traditionally use human sunburn testing, UPF is measured using a laboratory instrument (spectrophotometer or spectroradiometer) and an artificial light source, and then applying a sunburn weighting curve (erythemal action spectrum) across the relevant UV wavelengths. Theoretically, human SPF testing and instrument UPF testing both generate comparable measurements of a product's ability to protect against sunburn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5253627",
"title": "Sun protective clothing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "UPF (Ultraviolet Protection Factor) represents the ratio of sunburn-causing UV without and with the protection of the fabric, similar to SPF (Sun Protection Factor) ratings for sunscreen. While standard summer fabrics have UPF ~6, sun protective clothing typically has UPF ~30, which means that only 1 out of ~30 units of UV will pass through (~3%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "294419",
"title": "Sunscreen",
"section": "Section::::Measurements of protection.:Sun protection factor and labeling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "The ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) is a similar scale developed for rating fabrics for sun protective clothing. According to recent testing by \"Consumer Reports\", UPF ~30+ is typical for protective fabrics, while UPF ~20 is typical for standard summer fabrics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7067473",
"title": "Industrial applications of nanotechnology",
"section": "Section::::Consumer goods.:Cosmetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "One field of application is in sunscreens. The traditional chemical UV protection approach suffers from its poor long-term stability. A sunscreen based on mineral nanoparticles such as titanium oxide offer several advantages. Titanium oxide nanoparticles have a comparable UV protection property as the bulk material, but lose the cosmetically undesirable whitening as the particle size is decreased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "294419",
"title": "Sunscreen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Sunscreens are commonly rated and labeled with a sun protection factor (SPF) that measures the fraction of sunburn-producing UV rays that reach the skin. For example, \"SPF 15\" means that of the burning radiation reaches the skin through the recommended thickness of sunscreen. Other rating systems indicate the degree of protection from non-burning UVA radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5253627",
"title": "Sun protective clothing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "In 1992, the FDA reviewed clothing that was being marketed with claims of sun protection (SPF, % UV blockage, or skin cancer prevention). Only one brand of sun protective clothing, Solumbra, was cleared under medical device regulations. The FDA initially regulated sun protective clothing as a medical device, but later transferred oversight for general sun protective clothing to the FTC. The UPF rating system may eventually be adopted by interested apparel/textile/fabric manufacturers as a \"value added\" program for consumer safety and awareness. Before UPF standards were in place (which directly measure a fabric's ability to block UV radiation), clothing was previously rated using SPF standards (which measure how long a person's skin takes to redden).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31990",
"title": "Ultraviolet",
"section": "Section::::Blockers and absorbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "For clothing, the Ultraviolet Protection Factor (UPF) represents the ratio of sunburn-causing UV without and with the protection of the fabric, similar to SPF (Sun Protection Factor) ratings for sunscreen. Standard summer fabrics have UPF of approximately 6, which means that about 20% of UV will pass through.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7a3oua
|
Which books of the Bible attributed to a single author (ex: first six books of Old Testament to Moses, Luke/Acts to Luke, John/Revelation to John, various letters by Peter and Paul) do scholars agree were really written by the same person?
|
[
{
"answer": "You might want to post this in /r/academicbiblical as well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12543111",
"title": "Development of the Christian biblical canon",
"section": "Section::::Development of the New Testament canon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "Irenaeus (died c. 202) quotes and cites 21 books that would end up as part of the New Testament, but does not use Philemon, Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 3 John and Jude. By the early 3rd century Origen of Alexandria may have been using the same 27 books as in the modern New Testament, though there were still disputes over the canonicity of Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Revelation (see also Antilegomena). Likewise by 200 the Muratorian fragment shows that there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to what is now the New Testament, which included four gospels and argued against objections to them. Thus, while there was plenty of discussion in the Early Church over the New Testament canon, the \"major\" writings were accepted by almost all Christian authorities by the middle of the second century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1056329",
"title": "Authorship of the Johannine works",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "There may have been a single author for the gospel and the three epistles. Tradition attributes all the books to John the Apostle. Most scholars agree that all three letters are written by the same author, although there is debate on who that author is. Although some scholars conclude the author of the epistles was different from that of the gospel, all four works probably originated from the same community, traditionally and plausibly attributed to Ephesus, \"c.\" 90-110, but perhaps, according to some scholars, from Syria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24187075",
"title": "Authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "The Epistle to the Hebrews of the Christian Bible is one of the New Testament books whose canonicity was disputed. Traditionally, Paul the Apostle was thought to be the author. However, since the third century this has been questioned, and the consensus among most modern scholars is that the author is unknown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24314875",
"title": "Historical reliability of the Gospels",
"section": "Section::::Authorship and date.:Synoptic Gospels.:Luke.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "It is generally agreed that the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles were both written by the same author, and they are often referred to as a single work called Luke-Acts. The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book. Both prefaces were addressed to Theophilus, and Acts of the Apostles (1:1–2) says in reference to the Gospel of Luke, \"In my former book, Theophilus, I wrote about all that Jesus began to do and teach until the day He was taken up to heaven, after giving instructions through the Holy Spirit to the apostles He had chosen.\" (NIV) Furthermore, there are linguistic and theological similarities between the two works, suggesting that they have a common author. Both books also contain common interests.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23918155",
"title": "Authorship of Luke–Acts",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "The authorship of the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles, collectively known as Luke–Acts, is an important issue for biblical exegetes who are attempting to produce critical scholarship on the origins of the New Testament. Traditionally, the text is believed to have been written by Luke the companion of Paul (named in Colossians ). However, the earliest manuscripts are anonymous, and the traditional view has been challenged by many modern scholars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13116113",
"title": "Acts of the Apostles (genre)",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Non-canonical acts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "All other books with similar titles or narratives have not been included into the Bible, and belong to the New Testament apocrypha. These acts narratives tend to be later, legendary accounts about the early apostles written in the 2nd and 3rd century CE. The books normally do not claim to be written by apostles, but are anonymous, and thus they are not considered pseudepigrapha and forgeries. Unlike the canonical Book of Acts, they tend to focus on the exploits of individual apostles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19085400",
"title": "Saint Joseph",
"section": "Section::::In the New Testament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "The epistles of Paul are generally regarded as the oldest extant Christian writings. These mention Jesus' mother (without naming her), but do not refer to his father. The Book of Mark, believed to be the first gospel to be written and with a date about two decades after Paul, also does not mention Jesus' father. Joseph first appears in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, both dating from around 80–90 AD. The issue of reconciling the two accounts has been the subject of debate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5fjq51
|
why are some people great at abstract thinking but terrible at algebra which involves it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Math requires abstract thinking to understand why you're supposed to do certain things, but not to literally do them. You need abstract thinking to understand why you can divide two from both sides of 2x=4, but not to do it.\n\nThe people that are good at math before calculus are people that can do well in a system that requires logical and step by step thinking. It isn't really until calc and beyond that you need to understand why you can/cannot do certain things. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "256700",
"title": "Mathematical problem",
"section": "Section::::Abstract problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Abstract mathematical problems arise in all fields of mathematics. While mathematicians usually study them for their own sake, by doing so results may be obtained that find application outside the realm of mathematics. Theoretical physics has historically been, and remains, a rich source of inspiration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18831",
"title": "Mathematics",
"section": "Section::::Fields of mathematics.:Pure mathematics.:Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "By its great generality, abstract algebra can often be applied to seemingly unrelated problems; for instance a number of ancient problems concerning compass and straightedge constructions were finally solved using Galois theory, which involves field theory and group theory. Another example of an algebraic theory is linear algebra, which is the general study of vector spaces, whose elements called vectors have both quantity and direction, and can be used to model (relations between) points in space. This is one example of the phenomenon that the originally unrelated areas of geometry and algebra have very strong interactions in modern mathematics. Combinatorics studies ways of enumerating the number of objects that fit a given structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "352181",
"title": "List of abstract algebra topics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Abstract algebra is the subject area of mathematics that studies algebraic structures, such as groups, rings, fields, modules, vector spaces, and algebras. The phrase abstract algebra was coined at the turn of the 20th century to distinguish this area from what was normally referred to as algebra, the study of the rules for manipulating formulae and algebraic expressions involving unknowns and real or complex numbers, often now called \"elementary algebra\". The distinction is rarely made in more recent writings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4849201",
"title": "Object of the mind",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Mathematics and geometry describe abstract objects that sometimes correspond to familiar shapes, and sometimes do not. Circles, triangles, rectangles, and so forth describe two-dimensional shapes that are often found in the real world. However, mathematical formulas do not describe individual physical circles, triangles, or rectangles. They describe ideal shapes that are objects of the mind. The incredible precision of mathematical expression permits a vast applicability of mental abstractions to real life situations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19616384",
"title": "Abstract algebra",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Because of its generality, abstract algebra is used in many fields of mathematics and science. For instance, algebraic topology uses algebraic objects to study topologies. The Poincaré conjecture, proved in 2003, asserts that the fundamental group of a manifold, which encodes information about connectedness, can be used to determine whether a manifold is a sphere or not. Algebraic number theory studies various number rings that generalize the set of integers. Using tools of algebraic number theory, Andrew Wiles proved Fermat's Last Theorem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "316081",
"title": "Icosian calculus",
"section": "Section::::Informal definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Although the algebra exists as a purely abstract construction, it can be most easily visualised in terms of operations on the edges and vertices of a dodecahedron. Hamilton himself used a flattened dodecahedron as the basis for his instructional game.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54476844",
"title": "Boolean algebra",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Two-valued logic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Algebra being a fundamental tool in any area amenable to mathematical treatment, these considerations combine to make the algebra of two values of fundamental importance to computer hardware, mathematical logic, and set theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3y8e2r
|
In fantasy it is common to read about colored or painted armor. Is there any historical basis for this?
|
[
{
"answer": "Oh yes. When I first read your question I thought of enameled armor but some poking around turned up [this wonderful article from The Met](_URL_0_). Depending on the fantasy story, I doubt armor was *quite* as colorful (at least anything that wasn't gold, silver, or bronze, but as the article details there were many techniques to add color) but it could get extremely elaborate and could have color. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was a style that became popular in 16th century Germany referred to as \"black and white\" armor. Decorative patterns were created by selectively polishing certain areas. [Here's a good example.](_URL_1_) As you might expect, the higher one's status, the fancier of a pattern one could afford. [This](_URL_0_), by contrast, is a relatively \"budget\" example.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A slightly-off topic, but cool example that you can find mentioned is in David Parrott's *The Business of War* (at least where I encountered it first) are the Landsknecht of the early modern Europe period in Germany. They were known to be particularly colorful in terms of dress both in and out of battle. Many old representations of them show them in very ostentatious, bright and what we today might consider to be gaudy dress. Their dress was very distinctive for their time, with feathers, hats, etc., that would tell anyone and everyone of their profession at a glance. Not quite the question you asked, but I figured I'd turn you onto other kinds of military dress. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Here's](_URL_0_) a helmet from about 1500 that has a monster face painted on the visor. It's also unusual as it's an example of relatively low-quality 'munition' armour, as opposed to the higher quality examples that usually survive. I also came across [this](_URL_1_) album on imgur that contains a couple of examples of painted sallets (along with some modern reproductions).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In *The Armourer and His Craft*, ffoulke describes armour covered with velvet - not like a slipcover, but a permanent surface. Boiled linseed oil, like oil paint, could be tinted before being used as water-proofing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34060032",
"title": "Westminster Psalter",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "The clear and detailed depiction of the costumes of the figures in the tinted drawings has been discussed and copied in works on the history of costume since the late 18th century; in particular the sleeveless open-seam surcoat worn over chain mail of the kneeling knight is often used as an example of this innovation from the Islamic world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "842144",
"title": "Military history of the Three Kingdoms",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Dark armour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "A report in 231 AD mentions the capture of 5,000 suits of \"dark armour\" (\"xuan kai\" or \"xuan jia\" 玄鎧/玄甲) and 3,100 crossbows. Dark armour appears in Han texts as well, but only as the attire worn by honor guards at funeral processions. The only known trait about dark armour is that it reflected the sun's rays. This probably means dark armour was made of high quality steel, which was often associated with black ferrous material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59100573",
"title": "History of heraldry",
"section": "Section::::Proto-heraldry (12th century).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1364,
"text": "The oldest extant depiction of a coloured armoury can be seen on the tomb of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, who died in 1151. An enamel, probably commissioned by Geoffrey's widow between 1155 and 1160, depicts him carrying a blue shield decorated with six golden lions rampant. He wears a blue helmet adorned with another lion, and his cloak is lined in vair. A medieval chronicle states that Geoffrey was given a shield of this description when he was knighted by his father-in-law, Henry I, in 1128; but this account probably dates to about 1175. The earliest evidence of the association of lions with the English crown is a seal bearing two lions passant, used by the future King John during the lifetime of his father, Henry II, who died in 1189. Since Henry was the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, it seems reasonable to suppose that the adoption of lions as an heraldic emblem by Henry or his sons might have been inspired by Geoffrey's shield. John's elder brother, Richard the Lionheart, who succeeded his father on the throne, is believed to have been the first to have borne the arms of three lions passant-guardant, still the arms of England, having earlier used two lions rampant combatant, which arms may also have belonged to his father. Richard is also credited with having originated the English crest of a lion statant (now statant-guardant).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2175187",
"title": "Chinese armour",
"section": "Section::::Ancient armour.:Three Kingdoms (220–280).:Dark armour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "A report in 231 AD mentions the capture of 5,000 suits of \"dark armour\" (\"xuan kai\" or \"xuan jia\" 玄鎧/玄甲) and 3,100 crossbows. Dark armour appears in Han texts as well, but only as the attire worn by honor guards at funeral processions. The only trait known about dark armour is that it reflected the sun's rays. This probably means dark armour was made of high quality steel, which was often associated with black ferrous material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60533451",
"title": "The Talisman (painting)",
"section": "Section::::Influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Maurice Denis cited the Talisman in his famous 1914 essay, \"New Theories of Modern Art and on Sacred Art\": \"Remember that a painting, before it is a horse in battle, a nude woman or a sort of anecdote, is essentially a flat surface covered with colors assembled in a certain order.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38537189",
"title": "Conrad Wise Chapman",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Conrad created art while he was in active duty during the Civil War. While there were several artists on the Union side who captured the war in painting, which were also active, this was not the case on the Confederate side. His works may be the only set of battle subjects painted by a Confederate army artist during the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "812017",
"title": "Bhimbetka rock shelters",
"section": "Section::::Rock art and paintings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The paintings are classified largely in two groups, one as depiction of hunters and food gatherers, while other one as fighters, riding on horses and elephant carrying metal weapons. the first group of paintings dates to prehistoric times while second one dates to historic times. Most of the paintings from historic period depicts battles between the rulers carrying swords, spears, bows and arrows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3w3q7w
|
the yahoo-alibaba spin-off
|
[
{
"answer": "Yahoo is doing terribly and its' core business is pretty much worthless. However, Yahoo owns a lot of shares in a company called Alibaba, which is actually very profitable. So they want to get rid of their actual business and make money on the shares instead.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So yahoo way back when,bought into alibaba.\n\nNow yahoo is basically worthless compared to alibaba.people want them to split because if they want alibaba shares,they don't want to also have to pay for the (relatively crappy) yahoo stuff on top of it\n\nYahoo stock=bad\nAlibaba=good\n\nYahoo+alibaba= ? Weird mix\n\nSo people really want those alibaba shares,and the way to split them off is to make a new company. But in order to sell them,yahoo has to do some weird stuff to avoid taxes.alibaba is literally worth enough that those taxes are massive (more than yahoo entirely),so it's worth dodging them\n\nHowever,the IRS came out and said \"hey don't sell off your alibaba shares or well sue you for not paying taxes on it\" (not that directly,but that's basically what they said). No one is sure whether they would win or lose in court.\n\nSo now,instead yahoo is basically splitting itself off to get around it.\n\nI shortcutted a lot in that explanation,but if you're looking for more, Matt Levine on bloomberg has a bunch of articles that I thought were easy to follow\n\nEdit: in case it wasn't clear,it shouldn't really affect the company/board/products right now (although if it comes to it,those shares are worth more-they could literally get rid of all of yahoo and still profit)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10674423",
"title": "Taobao",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "In June 2011, Alibaba Group Executive Chairman and former CEO Jack Ma announced that Taobao would split into three different companies: Taobao Marketplace (a C2C platform), Tmall.com (a B2C platform; then called Taobao Mall), and eTao (a search engine for online shopping). The move was said to be necessary for Taobao to “meet competitive threats that emerged in the past two years during which the Internet and e-commerce landscape has changed dramatically.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32346918",
"title": "Tmall",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "In June 2011, Alibaba Group Chairman and CEO Jack Ma announced a major restructuring of Taobao through an internal email. It was reorganized into three separate companies. As a result, Tmall.com became an independent business under Alibaba Group. The other two businesses that resulted from the reorganization are Taobao Marketplace (a C2C marketplace) and eTao (a shopping search engine). The move was said to be necessary for Taobao to \"meet competitive threats that emerged in the past two years during which the Internet and e-commerce landscape has changed dramatically\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52823194",
"title": "Altaba",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Altaba Inc. is a non-diversified, closed-end management investment company based in New York City that was formed from the remains of Yahoo! Inc. after Verizon acquired Yahoo's Internet business. The company that remained after the purchase changed its name to Altaba Inc. on June 16, 2017. Verizon completed its acquisition of Yahoo!'s core internet business on June 13, 2017, and put the assets under a new subsidiary named Yahoo! Holdings within its newly created division, Oath. The only Yahoo!-branded interest held by Altaba was its stake in the joint venture Yahoo! Japan but this stake has since been sold to SoftBank Group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52823194",
"title": "Altaba",
"section": "Section::::History.:2017–present: Altaba Inc..\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "On June 16, 2017, the company that remained after Verizon Communications purchased the core Internet businesses of Yahoo! Inc. was renamed Altaba Inc. The new company, listed by the Securities and Exchange Commission as a \"non-diversified, closed-end management investment company,\" immediately began trading on NASDAQ under the ticker symbol AABA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2430273",
"title": "Alibaba Group",
"section": "Section::::Corporate governance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1090,
"text": "Alibaba's main founder Jack Ma is the executive chairman of the Alibaba Group since its creation. Joseph Tsai is Alibaba's executive vice-chairman since 2013. Daniel Zhang is Alibaba's CEO since 2015. J. Michael Evans is Alibaba's president since 2015. The board of directors of Alibaba includes top management Jack Ma, Joseph Tsai, Daniel Zhang, and J. Michael Evans, directors Eric Jing and Masayoshi Son (founder and CEO of SoftBank), and independent directors such as Chee Hwa Tung, Walter Kwauk, Börje E. Ekholm, and Wan Ling Martello, as well as Yahoo! co-founder and former CEO Jerry Yang. Besides Ma, Tsai, Zhang, and Evans, senior management also includes Maggie Wu (CFO) Judy Tong (CPO), Jeff Zhang (CTO and President of Alibaba Cloud Intelligence), Sophie Wu (CCO), Tim Steinert (General Counsel and Secretary), Jessie Zheng (CRO and CRGO/Chief Platform Governance Officer), Angel Zhao (Head of Alibaba Globalization Leadership Group), Chris Tung (CMO), Trudy Dai (President of Wholesale Marketplaces), Fan Jiang (President of Taobao.com), and Jet Jing (President of Tmall.com).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2432849",
"title": "Jack Ma",
"section": "Section::::Business career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "In October 1999 and January 2000, Alibaba twice won a total of a $25 million foreign venture capital investment. The program was expected to improve the domestic e-commerce market and perfect an e-commerce platform for Chinese enterprises, especially small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), to address World Trade Organization (WTO) challenges. Ma wanted to improve the global e-commerce system and from 2003 he founded Taobao Marketplace, Alipay, Ali Mama and Lynx. After the rapid rise of Taobao, eBay offered to purchase the company. However, Ma rejected their offer, instead garnering support from Yahoo co-founder Jerry Yang with a $1 billion investment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188213",
"title": "Yahoo!",
"section": "Section::::Altaba, Inc..\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "On June 16, 2017, parts of the original Yahoo Inc, which were not purchased by Verizon Communications, were renamed Altaba Inc. On the United States Securities and Exchange Commission's website, they listed the new company as a \"non-diversified, closed-end management investment company.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
37gbr2
|
the bill of rights
|
[
{
"answer": "**First Amendment**\n\n*Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.*\n\nThe government cannot criminalize or arrest you for speaking your mind, exercising your religion, associating with people, protesting the government, or publishing news.\n\n**Second Amendment**\n\n*A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.*\n\nThe government cannot criminalize or prevent you from having weapons or forming militias.\n\n**Third Amendment**\n\n*No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law*\n\nThe government can't force you to house members of the military.\n\n**Fourth Amendment**\n\n*The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized*\n\nThe government cannot search or seize you or your possessions without a warrant or probable cause.\n\n**Fifth Amendment**\n\n*No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.*\n\nThis one's a doozy, basically it establishes the requirement of a Grand Jury to indict people for major crimes, protects people from being tried for the same crime twice, protects you from self-incrimination, and prevents the government from arresting and incarcerating you without following \"due process.\" Also says the government can't take your stuff without due process and just compensation.\n\n**Sixth Amendment**\n\n*In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.*\n\nYou have a right to a fast and public trial, a partial jury of your peers, be told of the charges against you, be able to question witnesses against you and provide witnesses in your defense, and you have a right to a lawyer.\n\n**Seventh Amendment**\n\n*In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.*\n\nGrants you a right to a jury trial for civil cases exceeding $20 and protects the results of those cases from being overruled by a judge.\n\n**Eighth Amendment**\n\n*Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.*\n\nThe government cannot issue excessive bail or sentence people to cruel and unusual punishments.\n\n**Ninth Amendment**\n\n*The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.*\n\nBasically, just because the Constitution mentions certain rights by name (such as freedom of speech) this doesn't mean people don't have other rights *not* mentioned in the Constitution.\n\n**Tenth Amendment**\n\n*The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.*\n\nAny power not explicitly granted to the Federal Government by the Constitution is instead reserved to the States or the people.\n\nNote: This is a simplification. Centuries of application have created various case laws which flavor and limit these amendments to some degree or another.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most of them are pretty self-explanatory.\n\n1. There can be no laws against what you say, or what religion you follow, or who you associate with.\n\n2. We need a military force, so you're allowed to own guns.\n\n3. You cannot be forced to house troops.\n\n4. Your home can't be searched without an OK from a judge.\n\n5. You can't be tried twice for the same offense. You can't be forced to testify against yourself.\n\n6. You have to have a fair public trial with witnesses you can cross-examine.\n\n7. If you want a jury trial, you are entitled to have it.\n\n8. The punishment must fit the crime.\n\n9. This is not an all-encompassing list. You may have other rights too.\n\n10. If it's not specifically a federal issue, then it's automatically a state issue. [There's more, but I can't really describe it LY5.]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The bill of rights enumerates some of our most important fundamental [natural rights](_URL_0_). It doesn't *grant* any rights. It enumerates them and explicitly forbids the government from infringing on them. This is an important distinction that is clearly expressed with the ninth amendment.\n\nThe constitution doesn't grant you the right to free speech or to bear arms. You already had it.\n\nIt's also interesting to note that the term \"natural\" is used and not \"God given\" like we hear so often today. The founding fathers were surprisingly irreligious considering the limited scientific knowledge of the day.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The REALLY important thing to understand about the Bill of Rights--which, alas, neither much of the public or the government seems to grasp--is that it was NOT written as a memo from the government to the people saying, \"look at all these sweet-ass perks we're letting you have because we're nice guys.\"\n\nIt was actually intended as a memo from the people to the government saying \"U can't touch this.\" Rights are not revokable, they don't apply to JUST people we like, they are simply not subject to any legislation less than another Constitutional amendment.\n\nYeah, it frequently doesn't work out that way in real life, and people are partly to blame when the government abridges their rights, for not screaming bloody murder and running the scoundrels out of office on a rail.\n\nAnd THAT, Timmy, is why the President of the US today has the authority to order the summary murder of a US citizen on *suspicion* of being an enemy of the state.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1792950",
"title": "Second Bill of Rights",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "The Second Bill of Rights is a list of rights that was proposed by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt during his . In his address, Roosevelt suggested that the nation had come to recognize and should now implement, a second \"bill of rights\". Roosevelt's argument was that the \"political rights\" guaranteed by the Constitution and the Bill of Rights had \"proved inadequate to assure us equality in the pursuit of happiness\". His remedy was to declare an \"economic bill of rights\" to guarantee these specific rights:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1301909",
"title": "Incorporation of the Bill of Rights",
"section": "Section::::History.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1075,
"text": "The United States Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. Proposed following the oftentimes bitter 1787–88 battle over ratification of the United States Constitution, and crafted to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those found in several earlier documents, including the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the English Bill of Rights 1689, along with earlier documents such as Magna Carta (1215). Although James Madison's proposed amendments included a provision to extend the protection of some of the Bill of Rights to the states, the amendments that were finally submitted for ratification applied only to the federal government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9119240",
"title": "United States Bill of Rights",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "The United States Bill of Rights comprises the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. Proposed following the often bitter 1787–88 debate over the ratification of the Constitution, and written to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically granted to the U.S. Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those found in earlier documents, especially the Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776), as well as the English Bill of Rights (1689) and the Magna Carta (1215).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31644",
"title": "Constitution of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "The United States Bill of Rights consists of 10 amendments added to the Constitution in 1791, as supporters of the Constitution had promised critics during the debates of 1788. The English Bill of Rights (1689) was an inspiration for the American Bill of Rights. Both require jury trials, contain a right to keep and bear arms, prohibit excessive bail and forbid \"cruel and unusual punishments\". Many liberties protected by state constitutions and the Virginia Declaration of Rights were incorporated into the Bill of Rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38867",
"title": "Bill of Rights 1689",
"section": "Section::::Date and title.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "The Bill of Rights is commonly dated in legal contexts to 1688. This convention arises from the legal fiction (prior to the passage of the Acts of Parliament (Commencement) Act 1793) that an Act of Parliament came into force on the first day of the session in which it was passed. The Bill was therefore deemed to be effective from 13 February 1689 (New Style), or, under the Old Style calendar in use at the time, 13 February 1688.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25534914",
"title": "Bill of rights",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "A bill of rights, sometimes called a declaration of rights or a charter of rights, is a list of the most important rights to the citizens of a country. The purpose is to protect those rights against infringement from public officials and private citizens. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31653",
"title": "First Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "The Bill of Rights was originally proposed to assuage Anti-Federalist opposition to Constitutional ratification. Initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by the Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today. Beginning with \"Gitlow v. New York\" (1925), the Supreme Court applied the First Amendment to states—a process known as incorporation—through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zfmxv
|
the philosophical concept of epiphenomenal qualia and jackson's "mary" thought experiment.
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not open and shut because it's not demonstrable that Mary *has* learned anything new. [Mary's room](_URL_1_) has been argued by greater (or at least more singularly focused) minds than either of ours, and yet they still disagree.\n\nThis is how I see it: Suppose Mary *and Martha* work together in the black & white room, studying color vision. After a thoroughly complete study, and a development in both researchers of a complete-as-possible understanding of the phenomenon, Mary leaves the room and experiences color vision for the first time. When she returns, Martha asks her what she has learned. Can Mary tell Martha anything that will expand Martha's understanding of color vision? I think it is obvious that she cannot, so Mary really hasn't gained any new *knowledge*, even though she may perceive that she has.\n\nSimilarly, a person using \"magic mushrooms\" or LSD may perceive subjectively that they have expanded their consciousness and gained knowledge far beyond what their tiny minds could have held before. This is subjective, however; the knowledge is \"useful\" only within the tripper's own psyche.\n\nLastly, take a look at the problem from another angle used in the study of artificial intelligence. It is obvious that while in the black & white room, Mary does not experience color vision. However, the *system* which is composed of Mary, the room, the monitor, and all connected cameras and sensing equipment, *does* experience color vision. That *system* can differentiate a red apple from a green one just as readily as any person who can perceive color naturally. That person, after all, is a system of optics, sensory apparatus and neural tissue that can perceive color, even though the actual sensors (the [cone cells](_URL_2_) of the [retina](_URL_0_)) only register relative light intensity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "539988",
"title": "Knowledge argument",
"section": "Section::::Implications.:Epiphenomenalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Jackson believed in the explanatory completeness of physiology, that all behaviour is caused by physical forces of some kind. And the thought experiment seems to prove the existence of qualia, a non-physical part of the mind. Jackson argued that if both of these theses are true, then epiphenomenalism is true—the view that mental states are caused by physical states, but have no causal effects on the physical world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21402758",
"title": "Qualia",
"section": "Section::::Arguments for the existence.:Knowledge argument.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "This thought experiment has two purposes. First, it is intended to show that qualia exist. If one agrees with the thought experiment, we believe that Mary gains something after she leaves the room—that she acquires knowledge of a particular thing that she did not possess before. That knowledge, Jackson argues, is knowledge of the quale that corresponds to the experience of seeing red, and it must thus be conceded that qualia are real properties, since there is a difference between a person who has access to a particular quale and one who does not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6727771",
"title": "Inductivism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "Nearing 1840, William Whewell thought that the inductive sciences, so called, were not so simple after all, and asked recognition of \"superinduction\", an explanatory scope or principle invented by the mind to unite facts, but not present \"in\" the facts. Mill would have none of hypotheticodeductivism, posed by Whewell as science's method, which Whewell believed to sometimes, via other considerations upon the evidence, render scientific theories of known metaphysical truth. By 1880, C S Peirce had clarified the basis of deductive inference and, although recognizing induction, proposed a third type of inference that Peirce called \"abduction\", now otherwise termed \"inference to the best explanation\" (IBE).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13002123",
"title": "Discovery of Neptune",
"section": "Section::::Irregularities in Uranus's orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Adams learned of the irregularities while still an undergraduate and became convinced of the \"perturbation\" hypothesis. Adams believed, in the face of anything that had been attempted before, that he could use the observed data on Uranus, and utilising nothing more than Newton's law of gravitation, deduce the mass, position and orbit of the perturbing body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21402758",
"title": "Qualia",
"section": "Section::::Arguments for the existence.:Knowledge argument.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "First Jackson argued that qualia are epiphenomenal: not causally efficacious with respect to the physical world. Jackson does not give a positive justification for this claim—rather, he seems to assert it simply because it defends qualia against the classic problem of dualism. Our natural assumption would be that qualia must be causally efficacious in the physical world, but some would ask how we could argue for their existence if they did not affect our brains. If qualia are to be non-physical properties (which they must be in order to constitute an argument against physicalism), some argue that it is almost impossible to imagine how they could have a causal effect on the physical world. By redefining qualia as epiphenomenal, Jackson attempts to protect them from the demand of playing a causal role.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "539988",
"title": "Knowledge argument",
"section": "Section::::Responses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Nemirow and Lewis present the \"ability hypothesis\", and Conee argues for the \"acquaintance hypothesis\". Both approaches attempt to demonstrate that Mary \"gains no new knowledge, but instead gains something else\". If she in fact gains no new propositional knowledge, they contend, then what she does gain may be accounted for within the physicalist framework. These are the two most notable objections to Jackson's thought experiment, and the claim it sets out to make.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2481523",
"title": "Suggestion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "The original neuropsychological theory of hypnotic suggestion was based upon the ideomotor reflex response that William B. Carpenter declared, in 1852, was the principle through which James Braid's hypnotic phenomena were produced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
11m22d
|
Today I was in a 15 story building during an earthquake. If the building collapsed, would I have been safer on the first floor, 15th floor or somewhere in between?
|
[
{
"answer": "When a roof or building of multiple floors collapses, the safest place usually is usually where you have a sturdy floor beneath you (closer to weight bearing walls/pillars) and directly next to something incredibly sturdy. There is typically a right triangle of safety, for example, next to (but not underneath) a large bed or desk on a first floor, even if the roof collapses on it.\n\nYou typically don't want to be underneath anything if a roof collapses, as the force will typically destroy whatever you're underneath, causing you to be crushed under it. However, in the process the falling roof loses most of its momentum to destroy anything at a lower level directly next to it.\n\nI know that doesn't really answer your question, as I don't believe we have a truly definitive answer for that, but hopefully it offers some insight.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends on how it collapses. A 15 floor concrete floored building that pancakes you will be safest on the roof rather than getting sandwiched between the floors..\n\nLike the old top gear test where they put a toyota pickup on the roof and it survived. _URL_0_\n\nA 15 floor building is 50 m tall. People have been known to survive higher falls than that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I too work in a high rise in an earthquake prone city. I wonder this daily. I've always figured my only hope would be in a stairwell or next to a load bearing wall on the ground floor, with the hope that I could end up in a cavity. I've always used the experience of 9/11. I guess there was the [one dude](_URL_0_) who says he was on the 22nd floor and one on the 15th and 16 in stairwell B between 2-4 of the South Tower but the vast majority of everyone else died while several were found alive underground.\n\nI'd personally pick the odds of ending up in a cavity on the ground floor rather than falling 50 m onto a debris field.\n\nIs there any evidence or studies of this from any of the big devastating earthquakes (Sichuan or Japan or Mexico City or Iran)? Do they indeed find survivors from the roofs? Or are they all dug out of cavities within the debris?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The stairwell at the ground level will be the safest place in a building designed for seismic loading with a load bearing core. If the building is a diagrid structure or something similar, where lateral loading is directed towards the building's external structure, this is no longer true because the core is not engineered to take on lateral and eccentric loading resulting from an earthquake. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Structural engineer here. Everything is coming straight down in a total collapse. Think building demo. People have this idea of buildings falling way sideways like a Jenga block and it doesn't work that way at these scales.\n\nBut what you should do in an earthquake is different than the ideal place for a building collapse. Remember, engineers design buildings in earthquake zones to survive earthquakes that statistics indicate are the likely worst case. The same is true for hurricanes along the gulf. \n\nIf I knew for a fact the building was coming all the way down I'd want to be the hell outta there. If I had to be in the building I'd pick the basement beneath the biggest columns and girders I could find. Buildings tend to be pretty close to free fall once total collapse is induced. So the idea of riding the roof down isn't too different from jumping. In the middle you get crushed. At the bottom you probably get crushed by you may be able to pick a spot that doesn't get pancaked and hope to be dug out.\n\nOdds are good the building (in america or japan, don't know about other places) will survive ~~and~~ an earthquake, but you will get partial damage.\n\nIn an actual earthquake *you should not assume a full collapse*.\n\nGet to the inside (away from extererior windows), stay out of the elevator, stand underneath a doorway if you can. The main structure should hold-anything in it is likely to move or collapse.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the Christchurch earthquake people on the top floor of the CTV building survived. Also people of the top of the PGG building survived. People on the lower floors were not as fortunate. Generally those that were on the top floor or close to the stairwells survived. A tragedy for all involved.\n\nEdit:\n\"Ms Spencer said the top floor stayed intact until it hit the ground.\"\n\n_URL_0_\n\nKeep in mind that this building did not meet building code in some ways.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "During the 1999 [921 earthquake](_URL_1_) in Taiwan [many concrete buildings](_URL_0_) collapsed 1 story, [crushing the first floor](_URL_2_). This may be specific to the design of the buildings there however, so I imagine the answer to your question is highly dependent on the type of structure and how total the collapse is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Structural engineering PhD here attempting to weigh in.\n\nLet's assume that we are dealing with a severe seismic event:\n\n1) The majority of buildings will suffer member failures (i.e. concrete spalling and delamination, shear failures at joints, beam buckling, bursting of column covers, etc.)\n\nHOWEVER,\n\n2) Most buildings will remain standing despite these type of failures.\n\nSo, assuming there are three deformation modes due to seismic displacement (shear, flexural, and axial), the question comes down to a \"member failure rate vs. elevation\" problem.\n\nIn the shear case, I wouldn't want to be anywhere near the first floor, since shear forces are transferred and are stronger at the foundation.\n\nIn the flexural case, if we assume the building acts like a cantilevered beam, then failure will still be greater at the first floor and none at the top floor.\n\nIn the axial case, the forces should dampen with height so, again, the top floors will be safer.\n\nBased on all of these premises, and if the building sections are constant throughout the elevation, then the TOP floor will be the safest during an earthquake.\n\nNow, if the building sections become larger with decreasing elevation, then the behavior will depend on the specific design and whether it adequately offsets the greater loads experienced at the base.\n\nNote: If you were in a building that suffers catastrophic collapse, then height becomes irrelevant (i.e. a penthouse roof caving under your head is no safer than a basement roof caving in under your head). Under those circumstances, I'd want to be near a shear wall near the core of the building, hopefully under a door-frame or desk in order to minimize the chance of debris injuries.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Proven by experiment the safest place is on the top of the building:\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5756842",
"title": "Architectural forgery in Japan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Of 14 hotels that had already been built under false pretenses when the problem first came to light, two of them were shown to fail Japan's earthquake resistance standards. Because the concrete had insufficient reinforcing steel, there was a fear that an earthquake of magnitude 5 on the Japanese Shindo scale could cause the buildings to collapse. None of the buildings in question have yet collapsed, but the safety of high-rise buildings in earthquake-prone Japan has been called into question, particularly in the light of the 1995 Sampoong Department Store collapse in Korea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31469591",
"title": "CTV Building",
"section": "Section::::2011 Christchurch earthquake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "The building collapsed in the February 2011 Christchurch earthquake, with only the north shear wall that included the lift shaft left still standing. One survivor was quoted as running out of the ground floor during the shaking. When she had reached the other side of the 14 meter wide road, she looked back and \"the building was down.\" Within minutes, a fire broke out. Most of the deaths were caused by the collapse, but it is assumed that some of the victims suffered fatal burns, and some may have even drowned during the efforts of putting the fire out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2427468",
"title": "1985 Mexico City earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "A survey by the government of the damage done found that few buildings from one to five stories suffered serious damage; the same was true for buildings over fifteen stories. When the buildings were built seemed to have an effect as well. Before the 1957 earthquake, there were no building codes with respect to earthquake resistance. Some regulations were passed in that year and more in 1976 after another, stronger earthquake shook the city. However, none of these regulations had an event like 1985's in mind when passed. Most of the seriously damaged buildings were built between 1957 and 1976, when the city was starting to build upwards, in the six-to-fifteen floor range. In second place were buildings from before 1957, possibly because they were weakened by the earlier earthquakes. Structures built between 1976 and 1985 suffered the least damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "923301",
"title": "Seismic retrofit",
"section": "Section::::Typical Retrofit Scenario & Solution.:Soft-story failure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Traditional seismic design assumes that the lower stories of a building are stronger than the upper stories; where this is not the case—if the lower story is less strong than the upper structure—the structure will not respond to earthquakes in the expected fashion. Using modern design methods, it is possible to take a weak lower story into account. Several failures of this type in one large apartment complex caused most of the fatalities in the 1994 Northridge earthquake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1352291",
"title": "1988 Armenian earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Earthquake.:Damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "Many buildings did not hold up to the shaking of the earthquake and those that did collapse often lacked any survival space, but lack of effective medical care and poor planning also contributed to the substantial scope of the disaster. Buildings that didn't collapse featured well-maintained masonry and skeletal components that were joined together adequately in a way that allowed for the building to resist seismic waves. Most bridges and tunnels and other public infrastructure withstood the earthquake but hospitals did not fare well. Most collapsed, killing two-thirds of their doctors, destroying equipment and medicine, and reducing the capacity to handle the critical medical needs in the region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33502513",
"title": "2011 Van earthquakes",
"section": "Section::::9 November earthquake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Among the buildings collapsed by the earthquake was the six-story Bayram Hotel, which was hosting journalists and rescue workers. A cameraman for the Cihan News Agency had left the hotel just prior to the earthquake and said that some journalists trapped in the rubble in the building had sent text messages to colleagues asking to be rescued. The building, which had been renovated the previous year, was forty years old. A Japanese aid worker who had traveled to Turkey for the October earthquake relief work was reported to have been pulled alive from the rubble of the Bayram hotel but later died of his injuries at a hospital. Residents were angry with authorities for not having closed the building after it suffered cracks and a damaged elevator in the large earthquake a month earlier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55585051",
"title": "Empire State Building in popular culture",
"section": "Section::::Film.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the 1998 disaster television movie Earthquake in New York, during the earthquake the Empire State Building begins to crack and the windows begin to shatter, parts of the building collapse and fall but the building remains standing once the earthquake finishes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2nozip
|
the lake effect, as in what happened in buffalo.
|
[
{
"answer": "Basically, the Lake Effect is what happens when cold air moves over warmer water, picking up water vapor which freezes in the air, and then comes down as snow when the air moves downwind to land. Since Buffalo is right next to Lake Erie and Ontario, there is plenty of water for the cold air to move along. Additionally, since Buffalo has a higher elevation than the lakes, then the air moves up when it deposits snow, causing very intense snowstorms. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Great Lake are big and warm compared to the air. This encourages moisture to be taken up by the air passing over. The air is usually traveling west to east in that area. Once that air goes back over land it cools again and can't hold as much moisture. It falls as snow not very far away. It means that Buffalo, New York, can get five feet of snow while Syracuse gets nothing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19069168",
"title": "List of storms on the Great Lakes",
"section": "Section::::Early steam on the Lakes (1835).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Buffalo was a major port on Lake Erie and felt the force of the storm as water from the lake forced ships onto the piers and shoreline of the city. The creek rose 20 feet as the wind and the harbor front were swept away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44444761",
"title": "November 2014 North American cold wave",
"section": "Section::::Related weather.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "In Buffalo, New York, another winter storm triggered a strong lake-effect band, which impacted the city and its immediate southern suburbs from November 17–19, 2014, with a second wave hitting November 20 before shifting southward and weakening. As much as 65 inches fell in Cheektowaga. Snow fell at rates as high as five inches per hour. However, nearby regions of Buffalo only received between one and six inches from the storm. Once the band dissipated, the risk of flooding became a significant concern, as temperatures were forecast to rise sharply and rain was forecast to enter the area beginning November 23, causing the snowpack to melt rapidly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3985",
"title": "Buffalo, New York",
"section": "Section::::Infrastructure.:Utilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "Buffalo's water system is operated by Veolia Water. To reduce large-scale ice blockage in the Niagara River—with resultant flooding, ice damage to docks and other waterfront structures, as well as blockage of the water intakes for the hydro-electric power plants at Niagara Falls—the New York Power Authority and Ontario Power Generation have jointly operated the Lake Erie-Niagara River Ice Boom since 1964. The boom is installed on December 16, or when the water temperature reaches , whichever happens first. The boom is opened on April 1 unless there is more than of ice remaining in Eastern Lake Erie. When in place, the boom stretches from the outer breakwall at Buffalo Harbor almost to the Canadian shore near the ruins of the pier at Erie Beach in Fort Erie. The boom was originally made of wooden timbers, but these have been replaced by steel pontoons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7511146",
"title": "Lake Storm \"Aphid\"",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "The October 2006 Buffalo storm was an unusual early-season lake effect snow storm that hit the Buffalo, New York area and other surrounding areas of the United States and Canada, from the afternoon of Thursday, October 12 through the morning of Friday, October 13, 2006. It was called Lake Storm \"Aphid\" by the National Weather Service office in Buffalo in accordance with their naming scheme of lake effect snow storms for that year, which related to insects, though locals never used that terminology and have simply referred to it as the October Surprise or the October Storm or Arborgeddon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3616789",
"title": "Water buffalo incident",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "The water buffalo incident was a controversy at the University of Pennsylvania in 1993, in which a Jewish student, Eden Jacobowitz, was charged with violating the university's racial harassment policy. The incident received widespread publicity as part of the increasing debate about political correctness in the United States in the 1990s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "925835",
"title": "Blizzard of 1977",
"section": "Section::::In western New York.:Onset.:Friday afternoon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "The new snow associated with the cold front and the snow that had accumulated on land and frozen Lake Erie were all blown by the strong winds and created drifts of over in metropolitan Buffalo. During the blizzard, about of \"new\" snow fell, and much of this was thought to be from snow that had been in the snowpack on Lake Erie.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "440906",
"title": "Seiche",
"section": "Section::::Occurrence.:Lake seiches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The effect is similar to a storm surge like that caused by hurricanes along ocean coasts, but the seiche effect can cause oscillation back and forth across the lake for some time. In 1954, the remnants of Hurricane Hazel piled up water along the northwestern Lake Ontario shoreline near Toronto, causing extensive flooding, and established a seiche that subsequently caused flooding along the south shore.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
s1yix
|
Is there any other way for life to develop besides cells?
|
[
{
"answer": "It seems like this question gets into the philosophical definition of \"what is life.\" Scientists are still debating whether or not viruses constitute a form of life, so realistically we haven't even nailed down a definition of life on earth. \n\nThat being said, I don't see why life on other planets would have to adhere to any of the rules that life on earth follows.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cells are developed because it allows a control of internal environment and blocking out the outside environment. Without a membrane, it's pretty difficult but life could exist, in that DNA and metabolic machinery could be swimming around without being confined by a cytoskeleton or membrane. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe one of the characteristics of life is maintenance of homeostasis. This means that life has to be able to compartmentalize itself from the environment. \n\nAlso, as far as I know water is required for life, as that's how we are determining where to look for life. This would require life to have a permeable, hydrophobic region that separates it from the environment. \n\nFor life to develop, or evolve, there has to be some kind of information (genetic code) that you pass down to your offspring. This could be in the form of proteins, DNA, RNA, or some other thing we haven't seen before.\n\nIn essence, a cell is still the fundamental building block of life, although the various components that make up our cells may be variable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4630125",
"title": "Artificial cell",
"section": "Section::::Synthetic cells.:The minimal cell.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "The German pathologist Rudolf Virchow brought forward the idea that not only does life arise from cells, but every cell comes from another cell; \"\"Omnis cellula e cellula\"\". Until now, most attempts to create an artificial cell have only created a package that can mimic certain tasks of the cell. Advances in cell-free transcription and translation reactions allow the expression of many genes, but these efforts are far from producing a fully operational cell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25229064",
"title": "Evolution of cells",
"section": "Section::::Quotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 698,
"text": " \"The First Cell arose in the previously pre-biotic world with the coming together of several entities that gave a single vesicle the unique chance to carry out three essential and quite different life processes. These were: (a) to copy informational macromolecules, (b) to carry out specific catalytic functions, and (c) to couple energy from the environment into usable chemical forms. These would foster subsequent cellular evolution and metabolism. Each of these three essential processes probably originated and was lost many times prior to The First Cell, but only when these three occurred together was life jump-started and Darwinian evolution of organisms began.\" (Koch and Silver, 2005) \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15484616",
"title": "Labile cell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "In cellular biology, labile cells are cells that multiply constantly throughout life. The cells are alive for only a short period of time. Due to this,they can end up reproducing new stem cells and replace functional cells. Especially if the cells become injured through a process called necrosis, or even if the cells go through apoptosis. The way these cells regenerate and replace themselves is quite unique. While going through cell division, one of the two daughter cells actually becomes a new stem cell. This occurs so then that daughter cell can end up restoring the population of the stem cells that were lost. The other daughter cell separates itself into a functional cell in order to replace the lost, or injured cells during this process. Labile cells are one type of the cells that are involved in the division of cells. The other two types that are involved include stable cells and permanent cells. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5367445",
"title": "Microparticle",
"section": "Section::::Biological protocells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 982,
"text": "Although roughly cellular in appearance, microspheres in and of themselves are not alive. Although they do reproduce asexually by budding, they do not pass on any type of genetic material. However they may have been important in the development of life, providing a membrane-enclosed volume which is similar to that of a cell. Microspheres, like cells, can grow and contain a double membrane which undergoes diffusion of materials and osmosis. Sidney Fox postulated that as these microspheres became more complex, they would carry on more lifelike functions. They would become heterotrophs, organisms with the ability to absorb nutrients from the environment for energy and growth. As the amount of nutrients in the environment decreased at that period, competition for those precious resources increased. Heterotrophs with more complex biochemical reactions would have an advantage in this competition. Over time, organisms would evolve that used photosynthesis to produce energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "841429",
"title": "Synthetic biology",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Synthetic life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "A living \"artificial cell\" has been defined as a completely synthetic cell that can capture energy, maintain ion gradients, contain macromolecules as well as store information and have the ability to mutate. Nobody has been able to create such a cell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34920670",
"title": "Hologenome theory of evolution",
"section": "Section::::Origin.:Support from vertebrate biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Multicellular life is made possible by the coordination of physically and temporally distinct processes, most prominently through hormones. Hormones mediate critical activities in vertebrates, including ontogeny, somatic and reproductive physiology, sexual development, performance and behaviour. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4630125",
"title": "Artificial cell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "In the area of synthetic biology, a \"living\" artificial cell has been defined as a completely synthetically made cell that can capture energy, maintain ion gradients, contain macromolecules as well as store information and have the ability to mutate. Such a cell is not technically feasible yet, but a variation of an artificial cell has been created in which a completely synthetic genome was introduced to genomically emptied host cells. Although not completely artificial because the cytoplasmic components as well as the membrane from the host cell are kept, the engineered cell is under control of a synthetic genome and is able to replicate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7xs78t
|
How are electrical signals traveling on neurons directed to its target?
|
[
{
"answer": "The textbooks don't explain it because there is nothing to explain. The cells don't differentiate anything, it's a one origin to one destination signal conduction.\n\nA single axon runs to one single area (say, a receptor on your toe) and nowhere else. It never splits into two and never merges with another axon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What /u/unia_7 said. Each nerve carries a large number of individual axons. Each axon either goes to one group of muscle fibers, or from one sensory receptor. \n\nThat said, an axon CAN split in two and make synapses onto multiple separate target neurons. But it can't 'route' electrical signals down one branch vs. another. A branched axon duplicates the information it transmits; it can't selectively route information.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21942008",
"title": "Cell polarity",
"section": "Section::::Examples of polarized cells.:Neurons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "A neuron receives signals from neighboring cells through branched, cellular extensions called dendrites. The neuron then propagates an electrical signal down a specialized axon extension to the synapse, where neurotransmitters are released to propagate the signal to another neuron or effector cell (e.g., muscle or gland). The polarity of the neuron thus facilitates the directional flow of information, which is required for communication between neurons and effector cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14405160",
"title": "Synaptic weight",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "In the mammalian central nervous system, signal transmission is carried out by interconnected networks of nerve cells, or neurons. For the basic pyramidal neuron, the input signal is carried by the axon, which releases neurotransmitter chemicals into the synapse which is picked up by the dendrites of the next neuron, which can then generate an action potential which is analogous to the output signal in the computational case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21120",
"title": "Neuron",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "The signaling process is partly electrical and partly chemical. Neurons are electrically excitable, due to maintenance of voltage gradients across their membranes. If the voltage changes by a large enough amount over a short interval, the neuron generates an all-or-nothing electrochemical pulse called an action potential. This potential travels rapidly along the axon, and activates synaptic connections as it reaches them. Synaptic signals may be excitatory or inhibitory, increasing or reducing the net voltage that reaches the soma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27622452",
"title": "Julian Jack",
"section": "Section::::Career and research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1050,
"text": "Jack studies how nerve cells, or neurons, communicate with one another in the nervous system. He is also interested in understanding how chemical and electrical signals move through neural networks, such as the spinal cord or cerebral cortex. Although neurons form large networks, these cells do not actually touch each other. Instead, when the end of a nerve is activated it releases ions or chemicals known as neurotransmitters. Subsequently, these move across the gap, or synapse, between the neuron and the adjacent cell in the network, activating its receptors and perpetuating the signal. Jack applies theoretical and experimental approaches to research this process of synaptic transmission. This includes the use of neurophysiology methods to record bioelectrical activity and mathematical models to analyse the central and peripheral nervous systems. His work on neurotransmission is offering insight into disorders of the nervous system, such as Alzheimer’s disease and multiple sclerosis, and has the potential to improve their diagnosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21120",
"title": "Neuron",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Most neurons receive signals via the dendrites and soma and send out signals down the axon. At the majority of synapses, signals cross from the axon of one neuron to a dendrite of another. However, synapses can connect an axon to another axon or a dendrite to another dendrite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20848680",
"title": "Cellular neuroscience",
"section": "Section::::Structure and formation of synapses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "Neurons communicate with one another via synapses. Synapses are specialized junctions between two cells in close apposition to one another. In a synapse, the neuron that sends the signal is the presynaptic neuron and the target cell receives that signal is the postsynaptic neuron or cell. Synapses can be either electrical or chemical. Electrical synapses are characterized by the formation of gap junctions that allow ions and other organic compound to instantaneously pass from one cell to another. Chemical synapses are characterized by the presynaptic release of neurotransmitters that diffuse across a synaptic cleft to bind with postsynaptic receptors. A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that is synthesized within neurons themselves and released by these same neurons to communicate with their postsynaptic target cells. A receptor is a transmembrane protein molecule that a neurotransmitter or drug binds. Chemical synapses are slower than electrical synapses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156998",
"title": "Action potential",
"section": "Section::::Neurotransmission.:Dynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Neurotransmission can also occur through electrical synapses. Due to the direct connection between excitable cells in the form of gap junctions, an action potential can be transmitted directly from one cell to the next in either direction. The free flow of ions between cells enables rapid non-chemical-mediated transmission. Rectifying channels ensure that action potentials move only in one direction through an electrical synapse. Electrical synapses are found in all nervous systems, including the human brain, although they are a distinct minority.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yxdnd
|
what are the blue and orange/yellow lines that i see on the edges of everything when i have my glasses on?
|
[
{
"answer": "You are nearsighted, your eyeglass lenses are concave, and the outer edges act like prisms that split up light into its component colors. A white object, seen through the edge of your lenses, will appear to have a reddish halo that oozes out towards the outer edge of your lens, with a corresponding bluish halo that oozes in towards the center of your lens - and this happens no matter if you are looking through the left, right, top, or bottom edges.\n\nAt night, you can enjoy superhuman vision skills. Go outside and glance at a distant street light through the outer edge of one of your lenses. You will see a truncated rainbow - just three or four colors instead of a full wash - and you will be able to tell whether the streetlight is a sodium-vapor lamp (a heavy orange halo) or mercury-vapor lamp (a blue halo plus a green halo) just from the spectrum that only you are able to see because of the lenses that give you mutant powers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22390444",
"title": "Glass coloring and color marking",
"section": "Section::::Color caused by scattering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Glass containing two or more phases with different refractive indices shows coloring based on the Tyndall effect and explained by the Mie theory, if the dimensions of the phases are similar or larger than the wavelength of visible light. The scattered light is blue and violet as seen in the image, while the transmitted light is yellow and red.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1788660",
"title": "Anaglyph 3D",
"section": "Section::::Viewing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "A pair of glasses, with filters of opposing colors, is worn to view an anaglyphic photo image. A red filter lens over the left eye allows graduations of red to cyan from within the anaglyph to be perceived as graduations of bright to dark. The cyan (blue/green) filter over the right eye conversely allows graduations of cyan to red from within the anaglyph to be perceived as graduations of bright to dark. Red and cyan color fringes in the anaglyph display represent the red and cyan color channels of the parallax-displaced left and right images. The viewing filters each cancel out opposing colored areas, including graduations of less pure opposing colored areas, to each reveal an image from within its color channel. Thus the filters enable each eye to see only its intended view from color channels within the single anaglyphic image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "444758",
"title": "Color photography",
"section": "Section::::History.:Three-color processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "It is based on the Young-Helmholtz theory that the normal human eye sees color because its inner surface is covered with millions of intermingled cone cells of three types: in theory, one type is most sensitive to the end of the spectrum we call \"red\", another is more sensitive to the middle or \"green\" region, and a third which is most strongly stimulated by \"blue\". The named colors are somewhat arbitrary divisions imposed on the continuous spectrum of visible light, and the theory is not an entirely accurate description of cone sensitivity. But the simple description of these three colors coincides enough with the sensations experienced by the eye that when these three colors are used the three cones types are adequately and unequally stimulated to form the illusion of various intermediate wavelengths of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1979078",
"title": "Color model",
"section": "Section::::Tristimulus color space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "The most saturated colors are located at the outer rim of the region, with brighter colors farther removed from the origin. As far as the responses of the receptors in the eye are concerned, there is no such thing as \"brown\" or \"gray\" light. The latter color names refer to orange and white light respectively, with an intensity that is lower than the light from surrounding areas. One can observe this by watching the screen of an overhead projector during a meeting: one sees black lettering on a white background, even though the \"black\" has in fact not become darker than the white screen on which it is projected before the projector was turned on. The \"black\" areas have not actually become darker but appear \"black\" relative to the higher intensity \"white\" projected onto the screen around it. See also color constancy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1702426",
"title": "Blue field entoptic phenomenon",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "Blue light (optimal wavelength: 430 nm) is absorbed by the red blood cells that fill the capillaries. The eye and brain \"edit out\" the shadow lines of the capillaries, partially by dark adaptation of the photoreceptors lying beneath the capillaries. The white blood cells, which are much rarer than the red ones and do not absorb blue light, create gaps in the blood column, and these gaps appear as bright dots. The gaps are elongated because a spherical white blood cell is too wide for the capillary. Red blood cells pile up behind the white blood cell, showing up like a dark tail. This behavior of the blood cells in the capillaries of the retina has been directly observed in human subjects by adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscopy, a real time imaging technique for examining retinal blood flow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48334",
"title": "Retina",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Retinal layers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "The white blood cells in the capillaries in front of the photoreceptors can be perceived as tiny bright moving dots when looking into blue light. This is known as the blue field entoptic phenomenon (or Scheerer's phenomenon).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18500380",
"title": "Dispersion staining",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Becke' line dispersion staining.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1182,
"text": "The color of these two bands of light will vary depending on where the particle and liquid match in refractive index, the location of λo. If the match is near the blue end of the spectrum then the Becke' Line moving into the particle will contain nearly all of the visible wavelengths except blue and will appear as a pale yellow. The Becke` Line moving out will appear a very dark blue. If the match is near the red end of the spectrum then the Becke` Line moving into the particle will appear dark red and the Becke` Line moving out will appear pale blue. If the λo is near the middle of the visible wavelengths then the Becke` Line moving into the particle will be orange and the Becke` Line moving out will be sky blue. The colors seen (see Chart 1) can be used to very precisely determine the refractive index of the unknown or confirm the identity of the unknown, as in the case of asbestos identification. Examples of this type of dispersion staining and the colors shown for different λo's can be seen at http://microlabgallery.com/gallery-dsbecke.aspx. The presence of two colors helps to bracket the wavelength at which the refractive index matches for the two materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
42g4lm
|
Why is New York City named the same as the state? IE why do the city and state share the same name? Do any other places on earth do this?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Do any other places on earth do this?\n\nThere's one example in Germany: Bremen, Bremen. Bremen (the city) is part of Bremen (the state), together with another city called Bremerhaven (roughly translates to *Port of Bremen*). This is the only example in Germany, for Hamburg and Berlin, there is no distinction between the state and the city.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In North America (New) Plymouth and Providence had earlier shared the name between town and wider territory, though both later merged with neighbouring colonies. \n\nIt's also in accordance with a long British tradition in naming counties - Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire, Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire and of course Yorkshire, or the County of York, a style still common in 19th-century official usage and surviving into the 20th. Only Durham survives without the \"-shire\", as County Durham. \n\nIn France the practice may be older, though as in England (Sussex, Berkshire, Cornwall) other counties didn't carry city names. But of course it's far older, as in a recent discussion of [Athens](_URL_0_). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Dutch were originally in control of the city of New Amsterdam, which was part of the larger province of New Amsterdam. When the British took over in 1664, they renamed both the city and the province after James, the Duke of York (later King James II); for a short time, from July 1673 to November 1674, the Dutch recaptured and occupied New York, renaming it New Orange, but it was given back to the British when the Third Anglo-Dutch War ended and the name reverted back to New York. Until 1898, when the city was unified into the five boroughs, New York City exclusively referred to Manhattan, which is reflected in the address of New York, New York. The outer boroughs use their respective names, although the residents of Queens often put one of five neighborhood names instead (they are Long Island City, Flushing, Jamaica, Floral Park and Far Rockaway; which neighborhood residents choose depends on their zip code). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39891633",
"title": "Nicknames of New York City",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "New York City is frequently shortened to simply \"New York\", \"NY\", or \"NYC\". New York City is also known as \"The City\" or \"The Big City\" in much of the Western hemisphere. Other monikers have taken the form of \"Hong Kong on the Hudson\" or \"Baghdad on the Subway\", references in different cases to the city's prominence or its immigrant groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2730366",
"title": "Comparison between Esperanto and Ido",
"section": "Section::::Vocabulary.:Proper nouns.:Place names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 902,
"text": "City names are treated as foreign words (London), except when part of the name itself is a regular noun or adjective: Nov-York (\"Nov\" for \"nova\", or \"new\", but the place name York is not changed as in Esperanto \"Nov-Jorko\"). This is not a hard and fast rule, however, and \"New York\" is also acceptable, which is similar to writing \"Köln\" in English for the city of Cologne in Germany. South Carolina becomes Sud-Karolina, much in the same way that a river called the \"Schwarz River\" is not transcribed as the \"Black River\" in English even though \"schwarz\" is the German word for \"black\". However, less well-known place names are generally left alone, so a small town by the name of \"Battle River\" for example would be written the same way, and not transcribed as \"Batalio-rivero\". This is because transcribing a little-known place name would make it nearly impossible to find in the original language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "429081",
"title": "Administrative divisions of New York (state)",
"section": "Section::::City.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1165,
"text": "The city of New York is a special case. The state legislature reorganized government in the area in the 1890s in an effort to consolidate. Other cities, villages, and towns were annexed to become the \"City of Greater New York\", (an unofficial term, the new city retained the name of New York), a process basically completed in 1898. At the time of consolidation, Queens County was split. Its western towns joined the city, leaving three towns that were never part of the consolidation plan as part of Queens County but not part of the new Borough of Queens. (A small portion of the Town of Hempstead was itself annexed, also.) The next year (1899), the three eastern towns of Queens County separated to become Nassau County. The city today consists of the entire area of five counties (named New York, Kings, Queens, Bronx, and Richmond). While these counties have no county government, boroughs — with boundaries coterminous with the county boundaries — each have a Borough Board made up of the Borough President, the borough's district council members, and the chairpersons of the borough's community boards. A mayor serves as the city's chief executive officer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1075647",
"title": "Isola (fictional city)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The city is based on New York City, and similarly, has five sections, corresponding with the five boroughs of New York: Isola (both the name of the downtown section, fulfilling the role of Manhattan, and the city overall), Bethtown (Staten Island), Calm's Point (Brooklyn), Majesta (Queens), and Riverhead (Bronx). It has two major rivers, the Harb and the Dix, which inexplicably flow in a westerly direction despite the fact that Isola is on the East Coast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "645042",
"title": "New York City",
"section": "Section::::Transportation.:Streets and highways.:River crossings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 225,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 225,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "New York City is located on one of the world's largest natural harbors, and the boroughs of Manhattan and Staten Island are (primarily) coterminous with islands of the same names, while Queens and Brooklyn are located at the west end of the larger Long Island, and The Bronx is located at the southern tip of New York State's mainland. This situation of boroughs separated by water led to the development of an extensive infrastructure of well-known bridges and tunnels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2555166",
"title": "Dutch Americans",
"section": "Section::::Dutch language and Dutch names in North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "New York City for example has many originally Dutch street and place names which range from Coney Island and Brooklyn to Wall Street and Broadway. And up the river in New York State Piermont, Orangeburg, Blauvelt and Haverstraw, just to name a few places. In the Hudson Valley region there are many places and waterways whose names incorporate the word \"-kill\", Dutch for \"stream\" or \"riverbed\", including the Catskill Mountains, Peekskill, and the Kill van Kull.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15083147",
"title": "List of city nicknames in New York State",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 840,
"text": "This partial list of city nicknames in New York compiles the aliases, sobriquets, and slogans that cities in the U.S. state of New York are known by (or have been known by historically), officially and unofficially, to municipal governments, local people, outsiders, or the cities' tourism boards or chambers of commerce. City nicknames can help in establishing a civic identity, helping outsiders recognize a community or attracting people to a community because of its nickname; promote civic pride; and build community unity. Nicknames and slogans that successfully create a new community \"ideology or myth\" are also believed to have economic value. Their economic value is difficult to measure, but there are anecdotal reports of cities that have achieved substantial economic benefits by \"branding\" themselves by adopting new slogans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5hhhd7
|
does having a "will to live" help you overcome a severe illness or injury, and if so, how?
|
[
{
"answer": "Definetly. Someone who has given up on everything is less likely to think about his/hers well being. As someone who has a will to live will check up symptoms, have less anxiety. Some cures in life are really the pure basics like sleeping and eating well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Research has shown Single old people with dogs live longer given the same other circumstances. \nThey have something to live for. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I used to work for a company that made shades for hospitals and offices, and one of the benefits for hospitals patients was the ability to see outdoors through the loosely woven shade when it was down and the bedside remote control to raise and lower the shade. The remote gave the long-term bedridden patient the ability to have some control over their lives when so much of their illness was out of their control. The scene through the shade helped to keep them connected with the activities of the outside world and with nature. Thus the psychological disposition of the patient was affected by the shade and greatly helped their ability to recover sooner. The faster you can feel normal again, the faster you can recover. So logically, having the \"will to live\" will at the very least make you better able to deal with a terminal disease.\n\nOn the other hand my mother died because she lost the will to live because she no longer functioned normally due to life long case of diphtheria and was bedridden for a long time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18606535",
"title": "Will to live",
"section": "Section::::Concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 987,
"text": "In psychology, the will to live is the drive for self-preservation, usually coupled with expectations for future improvement in one's state in life. The will to live is an important concept when attempting to understand and comprehend why we do what we do in order to stay alive, and for as long as we can. This can be related to either one's push for survival on the brink of death, or someone who is just trying to find a meaning to continuing their life. Some researchers say that people who have a reason or purpose in life during such dreadful and horrific experiences will often appear to fare better than those that may find such experiences overwhelming. Everyday, people undergo countless types of negative experiences, some to which may be demoralizing, hurtful, or tragic. An ongoing question continues to be what keeps the will to live in these situations. Some people that claim to have experienced instances of the will to live, have many different explanations behind it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18606535",
"title": "Will to live",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "There are significant correlations between the will to live and existential, psychological, social, and physical sources of distress. The concept of the will to live can be seen as directly impacted by hope. Many, who overcome near-death experiences with no explanation, have described the will to live as a direct component of their survival. The difference between the wish to die versus the wish to live is also a unique risk factor for suicide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1091948",
"title": "Survival skills",
"section": "Section::::Mind preparedness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "The mind and its processes are critical to survival. The will to live in a life-and-death situation often separates those that live and those that do not. Stories of heroic feats of survival by regular people with little or no training but a strong will to live are not uncommon. Among them is Juliane Koepcke, who was the sole survivor among the 93 passengers when her plane crashed in the jungle of Peru. Situations can be stressful to the level that even trained experts may be mentally affected. One should be mentally and physically tough during a disaster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18606535",
"title": "Will to live",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Many studies have been conducted on the theory of the will to live. Among these studies are subject to the difference in gender and the elderly and also in the terminally ill. One study focused on a simple question that asked about rating one’s will to live and presented the findings that elderly participants reporting a stronger will to live and strengthened or stable will to live survived longer in comparison to those with a weak will to live. This study found that women were able to cope with life-threatening situations, but suggested that the participants could not have been stable and requires future replication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18606535",
"title": "Will to live",
"section": "Section::::Correlations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1121,
"text": "“Existential, psychiatric, social, and, to a lesser degree, physical variables are highly correlated with the will to live”. Existential issues found to correlate significantly include hopelessness, the desire for death, sense of dignity, and burden to others. Psychiatric issues found to be strongly associated are such as depression, anxiety, and lack of concentration. Physical issues that showed the strongest associations were appetite and appearance which did not show the same consistent degree of correlation. The four main predictor variables of the will to live changing over time are anxiety, shortness of breath, depression, and sense of well-being which correlate with the other variable predictors as well. Social variables and quality of life measures are shown to correlate significantly with the will to live such as support and satisfaction with support from family, friends, and health care providers. Findings on the will to live have suggested that psychological variables are replaced by physical mediators of variation as death draws nearer. The will to live has also proven to be highly unstable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23259443",
"title": "Euthanasia in New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Stance by religious organisations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "3. We should enhance support for families caring for those with terminal illnesses to assist them in understanding what is happening and likely to happen, how to manage stress and grief, and how to build positive relationships with the dying, remembering that dying can be an important last phase of life in resolving conflicts of the past and establishing new relationships of love and care.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18606535",
"title": "Will to live",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Other accounts of the will to live exist in many extreme medical cases, where patients have overcome extraordinary odds to survive. The Holocaust has provided many instances of this phenomenon, and is a good example of this as well. A proposed mechanism for the will to live is the idea that positive mental thinking tends to lower one’s risk for disease and health complications. One study showed that women who thought positively were more likely to carry more antibodies against certain strains of the flu, thus having a stronger immune system than those who were told to think negative thoughts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
69eom4
|
when nuclear weapons were added to the us arsenal, why was the ability to launch them given to the president of the united states and not congress?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because the main purpose of a nuclear weapon is to retaliate if someone attack you. It serve as a deterrent, if you attack us, you will be destroyed.\n\nIf you need the approval of the congress, which could takes days at best, it would make the deterrent value of nuclear weapons useless. Someone could destroy the US with nukes before congress can approve a retaliation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The President is the Commander in Chief. He has control over all the armed force's weapons. While he is required to get Congress approval for certain actions, if he gives an order the military will follow it.\n\nIt is not the job of Congress to give orders to the military or any other armed force in America.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine if we got attacked with our current congress. First, they'd have to meet up to approve anything which is a problem if Congress is in recess or it's 3 in the morning when nukes hit, then they will argue over party lines for a few days about whether the nuclear attack really happened and if the country that did it is really not a friend. \n\nJoking aside: Even in a one party congress where everyone agrees it'd take too long to organize and vote on that so it was given to the only single person who's supposed to be knowledgeable and trusted enough to make that decision",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Constitutionally, (although not really in practice any more), Congress is the sole authority on declarations of war or authorizations of the use of military force, but the President is the commander in chief of the armed forces. Congress can't tell generals what to do and it can't give or veto military orders. A nuclear attack is a military order and as such only the President has the authority to initiate it.\n\nOn a more practical note, if nuclear missiles have already be launched at the US, there would be only a few minutes to authorize a retaliatory strike, and even a functional congress is not capable of acting that quickly. No country in the world with nuclear weapons has that authority given to their legislatures. In every case it's the head of government or the head of state.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The need to use nuclear weapons -- particularly in response to a nuclear attack -- requires a very quick response. Congress, under the best of circumstances, can make a decision in a few days.\n\nIn the nuclear age, a decision may have to be made in a matter of minutes. The law authorizing the President, with the concurrence of the Secretary of Defense, to use nuclear weapons reflects this reality.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "here is everything you ever wanted to know about the history of the president and the bomb...great read\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Check out the podcast Radiolab. In a recent episode called \"Nukes\" they talk about the issues at play having one person with the keys and if there are better ways. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Congress has never in the 228 years of their existence had the authority to issue orders to the military(fire that cannon, move those troops 500 yards forward etc). That power belongs to the President as Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. A nuclear strike is an order from the civilian Government to the military, making it the power of the President and not Congress.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Originally they were just another weapon, and controlled by the military like any other weapon. You don't consult the government before shooting at the enemy in an already declared war. Truman could probably have stopped the two bombs from being dropped on Japan if he had really tried, but he was mostly outside of the loop, it was a decision made by generals, not the president. \n\nTruman didn't really understand the consequences until they had already been dropped. He then sat at the middle of a political firestorm of protesters asking just what using these horrific weapons really accomplished. He decided if he was going to get the blame for their use he damn well was going to have control of when they were used, and took steps to set up the current system where nukes are only used by presidential order.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People who appeal to the Constitution are using a post facto rationale to what was already in place. (The War Power is actually pretty complicated Constitutionally, esp. if you try to use the Constitution to make sense of a post-18th century world, where wars can happen sort of instantly and do not require conscripting of new troops, etc.)\n\nThe short answer is, because the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 made it that way, and Congress passed it. Congress gave that right to the Executive. They did not see it, at the time, as a giving of the right away from Congress — they saw it as enshrining the idea of civilian control of nuclear weapons, as opposed to giving the military control over them (as would be most weapons). \n\nAs for why they did that: you have to get into the history of the Atomic Energy Act, which went through two major revisions. The first (the May-Johnson Act) basically gave the military a relatively stronger role. The second (the McMahon Act) stripped that entirely away, and vested the power in the Executive. To my knowledge Congress never even considered giving themselves that kind of role — it just wasn't on the table. They did not outline anything like a chain of command. (Johnson himself emphasized the need for greater Congressional control over atomic energy matters — he was ridiculed by McMahon as implying that he wanted them to lead armies into battle.) \n\nIt didn't specify chain of command, but it made clear that the civilian Atomic Energy Commission (an executive agency) was in physical control of the weapons unless so delegated by the Presidency. This became enshrined over the Truman, Eisenhower, and Kennedy administrations as Presidential control. Again, in resistance to the idea of military control, a very different question than President vs. Congress. \n\nBy the time of Johnston it was basically taken for granted that Presidents had unilateral authority on this point. The requirements for rapid response in the Cold War (by the 1960s, the Soviets could nuke the USA within 20 minutes or so) also dictated a very streamlined chain of command. \n\nIn the 1970s and 1980s there were some proposals to add Congress into the chain of command, at least for first strike uses (e.g., not for \"instant retaliation\" purposes), but they didn't go anywhere. There is currently a bill in Congress (the Lieu-Markey bill) which tries to do something very similar. The context post-Nixon has changed very dramatically — it has ceased to be civilian vs. military, and more a question of \"should this be in the hands of one human being?\" \n\nCongress has never tried to seriously assert power in this area. They could presumably do it, under the same justification of the War Powers Act (which passed under Presidential veto). The Constitutional questions are seriously involved.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2032576",
"title": "Nuclear weapons of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Command and control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "Since World War II, the President of the United States has had sole authority to launch U.S. nuclear weapons, whether as a first strike or nuclear retaliation. This arrangement was seen as necessary during the Cold War to present a credible nuclear deterrent; if an attack was detected, the United States would have only minutes to launch a counterstrike before its nuclear capability was severely damaged, or national leaders killed. If the President has been killed, command authority follows the presidential line of succession. Changes to this policy have been proposed, but currently the only way to countermand such an order before the strike was launched would be for the Vice President and the majority of the Cabinet to relieve the President under Section 4 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24928506",
"title": "February 1960",
"section": "Section::::February 3, 1960 (Wednesday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "BULLET::::- U.S. President Eisenhower announced at a news conference that the United States should be able to make nuclear weapons available to its allies. Eisenhower urged that the Atomic Energy Act be amended in order to permit the U.S. to transfer weapons to the arsenals of other nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26869583",
"title": "President Truman's relief of General Douglas MacArthur",
"section": "Section::::Events leading up to the relief.:Nuclear weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "At a press conference on 30 November 1950, Truman was asked about the use of nuclear weapons: The implication was that the authority to use atomic weapons now rested in the hands of MacArthur. Truman's White House issued a clarification, noting that \"only the President can authorize the use of the atom bomb, and no such authorization has been given,\" yet the comment still caused a domestic and international stir. Truman had touched upon one of the most sensitive issues in civil-military relations in the post-World War II period: civilian control of nuclear weapons, which was enshrined in the Atomic Energy Act of 1946.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1234612",
"title": "Southern Victory",
"section": "Section::::\"Settling Accounts\".:1942–1943: \"Drive to the East\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "By 1943, both the United States and the Confederate States, along with other countries, have initiated programs to develop atomic weapons. While no power has developed a weapon yet, it appears that the United States and German programs are ahead of the C.S. one, with Germany the closest to completion, due to the participation of Albert Einstein. Around the turn of the New Year in 1943, the U.S. achieves its first sustaining chain reaction at its plant in Hanford, Washington. The British and the French are also rumored to be working on atomic weapons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "255151",
"title": "National Command Authority",
"section": "Section::::Authorization of a nuclear or strategic attack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Only the president can direct the use of nuclear weapons by U.S. armed forces, through plans like OPLAN 8010-12. The president has unilateral authority as commander-in-chief to order that nuclear weapons be used for any reason at any time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22330724",
"title": "Timeline of nuclear weapons development",
"section": "Section::::1980–1990.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 236,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 236,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1981 – October – President Ronald Reagan announces an update of the U.S. nuclear arsenal, including increased numbers of bombers and missiles and development of new projects such as the Rockwell B-1 Lancer, the MX missile, and the MGM-134 Midgetman missile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20895829",
"title": "History of rockets",
"section": "Section::::Modern rocketry.:Cold War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Rockets became extremely important militarily as modern intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) when it was realized that nuclear weapons carried on a rocket vehicle were essentially impossible for existing defense systems to stop once launched, and launch vehicles such as the R-7, Atlas, and Titan became delivery platforms for these weapons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1osowz
|
why are the baby boomers considered the worst generation?
|
[
{
"answer": "Obviously this is subjective, but there's a very strong case to be made that baby boomers are the most selfish generation. See [this](_URL_1_) and [this](_URL_0_) and [this](_URL_2_), for example. \n\nLong story short - unlike previous generations of Americans, the baby boomers inherited a very prosperous country and made a number of extremely short-sighted decisions that benefited them but screwed over their children, particularly in the areas of fiscal solvency (read: entitlements), education, and infrastructure. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Generally because they inherited a hard-won and prosperous welfare state but then proceeded to dismantle it in the name of short-term profit at the expense of their children. This current generation are the first who, on average, are going to be worse off than their parents, and the policies of deregulation and privatisation pursued in the 1980s are directly responsible for that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "TIL; Apparently, the greatest generation were also the worst parents ever?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The general (anti-boomer) narrative can be quickly reduced to this: Boomers benefited from a substantial government investment in human capital and then grew up generally less willing than their parents to accept high tax rates.\n\nWhen Boomers were young, government built interstate highways, made education affordable (and for many who fought in the military, essentially free), expanded social safety nets (classic entitlements like Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid), and spent 32 cents of every federal dollar on long-term investments (compared to 16 cents on the dollar now). It's undeniable that Boomers benefited substantially from these investments. \n\nNow, Boomers tend to be conservative ([source](_URL_1_)). Specifically, they tend to be skeptical of government spending/taxation and strongly in support of entitlement spending ([source](_URL_1_)) which will drive long term debt when Boomers retire. \n\nInitially, this seems hypocritical. The generation that benefited the most from government seems defensive of their safety nets and yet unwilling to use government as a tool to fix broken education systems, crumbling infrastructure, etc. The rule of the last few Presidents seems to embody this - they have spent their children's money (debt) to finance huge entitlements and tax cuts rather than massive infrastructure investments and serious investments in education. (see the piece - it's long - that started it all, by calling the Boomers the \"[Worst Generation](_URL_0_)\")\n\nThat is the common narrative. As with any generalization about millions of people, you should take it with a grain of salt (and weigh it against the fact that at least some Boomers fought the Vietnam War without a choice and helped dismantle the racist/sexist institutions maintained by their parents). \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51240626",
"title": "Cusper",
"section": "Section::::Notable cusper groups.:Baby Boomers/Generation X.:Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "This population is sometimes referred to as Generation Jones, and less commonly as Tweeners. These cuspers were not as financially successful as older Baby Boomers. They experienced a recession like many Generation Xers but had a much more difficult time finding jobs than Generation X did. While they learned to be IT-savvy, they didn't have computers until after high school but were some of the first to purchase them for their homes. They were among some of the first to take an interest in video games. They get along well with Baby Boomers, but share different values. While they are comfortable in office environments, they are more relaxed at home. They're less interested in advancing their careers than Baby Boomers and more interested in quality of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47127",
"title": "Baby boomers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "In Western Europe and North America, boomers are widely associated with privilege, as many grew up during a period of increasing affluence due in part to widespread post-war government subsidies in housing and education. As a group, baby boomers were wealthier, more active and more physically fit than any preceding generation and were the first to grow up genuinely expecting the world to improve with time. They were also the generation that reached peak levels of income in the workplace and could, therefore, enjoy the benefits of abundant food, clothing, retirement programs, and even \"midlife-crisis\" products. But, this generation also has been criticized often for its increases in consumerism which others saw as excessive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "954420",
"title": "Generation Jones",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "The generation is noted for coming of age after a huge swath of their older brothers and sisters in the earlier portion of the baby boomer population had come immediately preceding them; thus, many complain that there was a paucity of resources and privileges available to them that were seemingly abundant to older boomers. Therefore, there is a certain level of bitterness and \"jonesing\" for the level of freedom and affluence granted to older boomers but denied to them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47127",
"title": "Baby boomers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "The boomers have tended to think of themselves as a special generation, very different from preceding and subsequent generations. In the 1960s and 1970s, as a relatively large number of young people entered their late teens—the oldest turned 18 in 1964—they, and those around them, created a very specific rhetoric around their cohort and the changes brought about by their size in numbers. This rhetoric had an important impact in the self-perceptions of the boomers, as well as their tendency to define the world in terms of generations, which was a relatively new phenomenon. The baby boom has been described variously as a \"shockwave\" and as \"the pig in the python\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44132916",
"title": "Generations in the workforce",
"section": "Section::::Baby Boomers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 934,
"text": "Baby Boomers, born approximately between 1946 and 1964 were brought up in a healthy post war economy and saw the world revolving around them as the largest generation of the century. Their lifestyle is to live for work and they often expect the same level of dedication and work ethics from the next generations. They are said to prefer face to face communication, are interactive team players and attain personal fulfilment from work. Baby Boomers are often branded workaholics leaving little to no work-life balance which has inevitably led to a breakdown in family values which has influenced the next generation. They are said to be loyal to their organisations, enjoy the notion of lifetime employment and prefer to be valued or needed as opposed to rewarded with recognition or money. An article by Emma Simon in the \"Daily Telegraph\" describes them as the 'post war generation' who have enjoyed an \"unbroken run of good-luck\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40781236",
"title": "Sampo generation",
"section": "Section::::Similar issues in other countries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the United States, many Millennials and late Generation X also belong to the Boomerang Generation which live with their parents after they would normally be considered old enough to live on their own. This social phenomenon is mainly caused by high unemployment rates coupled with various economic downturns, and in turn, many Boomerang children postpone romance and marriage due to economic hardship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3861253",
"title": "Boomerang Generation",
"section": "Section::::Trend.:Support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 930,
"text": "Economic instability is the primary justification for this phenomenon, as articulated in Kimberly Palmer's 2007 \"U.S. News & World Report\" article \"The New Parent Trap: More Boomers Help Adult Kids out Financially\". In particular, the term Boomeranger has been used to draw reference to those Gen-Xers and Gen-Yers of the Boomerang Generation who have either returned to an earlier, more modest lifestyle or have simply moved back home with parents and other loved ones, in response to the Great Recession. Where the young person and his/her parents can tolerate the arrangement, it provides tremendous financial relief to the young person. Such co-residence can be a valuable form of insurance, particularly for youths from poorer families. It may also provide non-negligible income to the parents, though in many cultures, the boomeranger retains all or nearly all of their disposable income for discretionary income purchases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21m6wj
|
why my car windows do this and how i can prevent it? mostly happens in rain.
|
[
{
"answer": "It's condensation because of the temperature/humidity difference between the cabin of your vehicle and outside.\n\nThey make antifogging coatings that you can use (rainx makes one, for instance) but for immediate relief, use the defrosting setting on your air conditioner.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Turn on your vents, put your temp gauge warmer. If you find its happening more often, you need to clean your air filter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the car is equipped with air conditioning, turn it on, set the vents to defrost, and set the temperature to a warm setting. \n\nIn most cars, this will set the air from recirculate to outside air. The AC will remove moisture from the air and you will still get warm air.\n\nThe condensation will stop.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53612709",
"title": "Stone damage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Stone damage can be dangerous in many ways. Stone damage can cause small cracks in the windshield that can refract or reflect normally unharmful light such that it can distract or blind the driver. Stone damage can also cause large cracks in the windshield – this usually happens during the winter period because of the large temperature differences, but can also happen if the vehicle is exposed to vibrations or bumps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254664",
"title": "Windshield",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Windshields protect the vehicle's occupants from wind and flying debris such as dust, insects, and rocks, and provide an aerodynamically formed window towards the front. UV coating may be applied to screen out harmful ultraviolet radiation. However, this is usually unnecessary since most auto windshields are made from laminated safety glass. The majority of UV-B is absorbed by the glass itself, and any remaining UV-B together with most of the UV-A is absorbed by the PVB bonding layer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47202079",
"title": "Windshield sun shades",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "The windshield glass itself blocks most of the UV light and some of the infrared radiation. But it can't protect from the visible light that mostly penetrates through it and gets absorbed by the objects inside the car. The visible light that passes into the interior through the windshield is converted into the infrared light which, in its turn, is blocked by the glass and gets trapped inside, heating up the interior. Windshield sun shades have a reflective surface to bounce the light back, reducing the interior temperature\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17178621",
"title": "Car glass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "Vehicle glass includes windscreens, side and rear windows, and glass panel roofs on a vehicle. Side windows can be either fixed or raised and lowered by depressing a button (power window) or switch or using a hand-turned crank. The power moonroof, a transparent, retractable sunroof, may be considered as an extension of the power window concept. Some vehicles include sun blinds for rear and rear side windows. The windshield of a car is appropriate for safety and protection of debris on the road. The majority of vehicle glass is held in place by glass run channels, which also serve to contain any fragments of glass if the glass breaks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53612709",
"title": "Stone damage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "A factor that contributes to stone damage on the windshield is the fact that modern cars normally use quite thin windshields to save weight. Modern tires also contribute to stone damage since they have more tracks in which stones can get stuck.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254664",
"title": "Windshield",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Modern, glued-in windshields contribute to the vehicle's rigidity, but the main force for innovation has historically been the need to prevent injury from sharp glass fragments. Almost all nations now require windshields to stay in one piece even if broken, except if pierced by a strong force. Properly installed automobile windshields are also essential to safety; along with the roof of the car, they provide protection to the vehicle's occupants in the case of a roll-over accident .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7422901",
"title": "Window deflector",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "A window deflector is mounted above the doors of some automobiles, to protect the inside of the car from rain or other precipitation in case of slightly opened windows. Additionally, it may help to prevent precipitation entering the interior in case of an opened door, e.g. dropping from the roof or directly from the air. Deflectors are also fitted to sunroofs to deviate wind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
55sjzk
|
do those pedestrian button things at traffic lights actually do anything? how do they work?
|
[
{
"answer": "They simply activate the walk and don't walk lights.\n\nSome activate lights in high traffic areas. For instance, on a main road there might be a factory that employs a large amount of people. Parking is on the other side of the multi lane road. Lights may be put up, but they are only ever activated when someone presses the button. This allows the employees to cross the street safely.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It will depend on where you are (including which country you're in) and even what time of day it is. It may be that some of those buttons are just there to make people feel they have some sort of control, but many of them -- I can attest from personal experience -- really do work.\n\nI have encountered pedestrian crossings, for example, where you have to push the button or the lights really won't change. This is always true when it is just a light-controlled pedestrian crossing and not also an intersection. And I have encountered pedestrian crossings at intersections, where at busy times the lights change whether or not you push the button, while at less busy times they only change if you do push the button.\n\nAs for how they work, they send a signal to the software controlling the lights. On simple pedestrian crossings they change the traffic lights to red and then, after a short pause, the crossing lights to green; if the lights have recently been operated in this way, the software waits before changing the lights, so ensure that cars aren't backed up forever as pedestrian after pedestrian pushes the button.\n\nAt an intersection, the software waits for the traffic lights, as they go through their normal sequence, are switched so that the pedestrians can cross, and then change the crossing lights to green.\n\nThe box with the button may seem to be simply bolted on, but where that box contacts the post it's bolted to, there will be a hole.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the UK we have 'Pelican Crossings' which are all pedestrian operated, if the button isn't pressed the lights won't change at all as they have no bearing on other lanes of traffic ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I remember vaguely from my traffic engineering class 10 years ago that those buttons do work, but not as most people think. The buttons actually control the amount of time the light will stay on for people to walk. The more people who press it, the longer it stays \"Walk\".\n\nBut this is all from memory a long time ago, and I was most likely daydreaming about the hot girl in class during that time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "158478",
"title": "Pedestrian crossing",
"section": "Section::::Signals.:Pedestrian call buttons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Call buttons are installed at traffic lights with a dedicated pedestrian signal, and are used to bring up the pedestrian \"walk\" indication in locations where they function correctly. In the majority of locations where call buttons are installed, pushing the button does not light up the pedestrian walk sign immediately. One Portland State University researcher notes of call buttons in the US, \"Most [call] buttons don’t provide any feedback to the pedestrian that the traffic signal has received the input. It may appear at many locations that nothing happens.\" However, there are some locations where call buttons do provide confirmation feedback. At such locations, pedestrians are more likely to wait for the \"walk\" indications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251541",
"title": "Puffin crossing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "They have two sensors on top of the traffic lights (PCD pedestrian crossing detector and PKD pedestrian kerb detector). These sensors detect if pedestrians are crossing slowly and can hold the red traffic light longer if needed. If a pedestrian presses the button but then walks off, the PKD will cancel the request making the lights more efficient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25144647",
"title": "Embedded pavement flashing-light system",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "With a passive system, the pedestrian activates the device merely by walking up to the crosswalk. This is accomplished by using one of several motion detection devices. These include microwave, motion sensors, video detection, pressure plates, or a light trip beam. With an active system, the device is usually activated by a button that a pedestrian pushes in order to cross. These active systems are generally similar to lighted pedestrian signs at traffic intersections. Because many pedestrians may not realize that they need to press a button to activate the system, it is generally recommended to install a passive system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158486",
"title": "Pelican crossing",
"section": "Section::::Details.:Internationally.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "BULLET::::- A HAWK beacon, used with a standard pedestrian crossing signal, stops traffic when a pedestrian pushes a button to cross, but goes dark unless activated. It was allowed in experimental applications in the United States until 2009 and is now a standard option for transportation engineers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "163395",
"title": "Traffic light",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Traffic lights, also known as traffic signals, traffic lamps, traffic semaphore, signal lights, stop lights, robots (in South Africa and most of Africa), and traffic control signals (in technical parlance), are signalling devices positioned at road intersections, pedestrian crossings, and other locations to control flows of traffic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21844439",
"title": "Traffic light control and coordination",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "The normal function of traffic lights requires more than slight control and coordination to ensure that traffic and pedestrians move as smoothly, and safely as possible. A variety of different control systems are used to accomplish this, ranging from simple clockwork mechanisms to sophisticated computerized control and coordination systems that self-adjust to minimize delay to people using the junction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1894607",
"title": "Rules of the road in China",
"section": "Section::::Stop and go.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Pedestrians are especially in a difficult situation. In cities such as Beijing, new \"self-service\" traffic lights provide pedestrians with easy access across the road—just push a button, wait, and go when the light changes. Unfortunately, unless these traffic lights come with supervising cameras connected to the police, some drivers are likely to pass through these as well, making the pedestrian buttons rather pointless.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2y2k5z
|
how does the common signature hold so much power confirming identity? anyone could copy it and there are much better tools available.
|
[
{
"answer": "Signatures don't confirm identity, they affirm it. When you sign something, you're making a promise that you're the person named in the document.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It doesn't prove identity, it proves intent. Notarizations are used to prove identity - a notary reviews a person's identification (for example, a driver's license), watches the person sign the document, and affixes an official stamp or seal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59644",
"title": "Digital signature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "A digital signature is a mathematical scheme for verifying the authenticity of digital messages or documents. A valid digital signature, where the prerequisites are satisfied, gives a recipient very strong reason to believe that the message was created by a known sender (authentication), and that the message was not altered in transit (integrity).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44673166",
"title": "ARX (Algorithmic Research Ltd.)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "The ARX digital signature products are based on public key infrastructure (PKI) technology, with the digital signatures resulting from a cryptographic operation that creates a ‘fingerprint’ unique to both the signer and the content, so that they cannot be copied, forged or tampered with. This process provides proof of signer identity, data integrity and the non-repudiation of signed documents, all of which can be verified without the need for proprietary verification software.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59644",
"title": "Digital signature",
"section": "Section::::The current state of use – legal and practical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Only if all of these conditions are met will a digital signature actually be any evidence of who sent the message, and therefore of their assent to its contents. Legal enactment cannot change this reality of the existing engineering possibilities, though some such have not reflected this actuality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59644",
"title": "Digital signature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Digital signatures are a standard element of most cryptographic protocol suites, and are commonly used for software distribution, financial transactions, con, and in other cases where it is important to detect forgery or tampering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59644",
"title": "Digital signature",
"section": "Section::::Applications of digital signatures.:Authentication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "Although messages may often include information about the entity sending a message, that information may not be accurate. Digital signatures can be used to authenticate the source of messages. When ownership of a digital signature secret key is bound to a specific user, a valid signature shows that the message was sent by that user. The importance of high confidence in sender authenticity is especially obvious in a financial context. For example, suppose a bank's branch office sends instructions to the central office requesting a change in the balance of an account. If the central office is not convinced that such a message is truly sent from an authorized source, acting on such a request could be a grave mistake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50897992",
"title": "Trust service provider",
"section": "Section::::Legal perspective of electronic signatures created by trust service providers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "While an advanced electronic signature is legally binding under eIDAS, a qualified electronic signature which has been created by a qualified trust service provider carries a higher probative value when used as evidence in court. Because the signature’s authorship is considered non-repudiable, the authenticity of the signature cannot be easily challenged. EU member states are obligated to accept qualified electronic signatures that have been created with qualified certificate from other Member states as valid. According to the eIDAS Regulation, i.e. Article 24 (2), a signature created with a qualified certificate has the same legal value as a handwritten signature in court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239365",
"title": "David Chaum",
"section": "Section::::Notable research contributions.:New types of digital signatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "In 1989, he (with Hans van Antwerpen) introduced undeniable signatures. This form of digital signature uses a verification process that is interactive, so that the signatory can limit who can verify the signature. Since signers may refuse to participate in the verification process, signatures are considered valid unless a signer specifically uses a disavowal protocol to prove that a given signature was not authentic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
k43hb
|
copyright / trademarks.
|
[
{
"answer": "**Copyright:** You wrote something, and nobody else gets to make copies unless you say they can. Also they don't get to make a movie of your book, or a performance of your play, unless you say they can. There are some exceptions for people who are talking about your work, teaching, writing reviews (\"fair use\"). For music, you can't stop people from singing or playing the tune you wrote, but they have to pay you (\"compulsory licensing\").\n\n**Trademark:** You made up a name for something you're selling. You use that name on your product and your ads, so that people can recognize it. Competitors aren't allowed to call their products by the same name or one that's confusingly similar, because that would trick the customer. But you don't get to stop people from using the name of your product when they write reviews or articles about your product. And if you *let* your competitors call their products by the same name, or customers just decide that your product's name is the name of the whole general concept (like \"xeroxing\" or \"kleenexes\"), then you can't go after them any more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "**Copyright:** You wrote something, and nobody else gets to make copies unless you say they can. Also they don't get to make a movie of your book, or a performance of your play, unless you say they can. There are some exceptions for people who are talking about your work, teaching, writing reviews (\"fair use\"). For music, you can't stop people from singing or playing the tune you wrote, but they have to pay you (\"compulsory licensing\").\n\n**Trademark:** You made up a name for something you're selling. You use that name on your product and your ads, so that people can recognize it. Competitors aren't allowed to call their products by the same name or one that's confusingly similar, because that would trick the customer. But you don't get to stop people from using the name of your product when they write reviews or articles about your product. And if you *let* your competitors call their products by the same name, or customers just decide that your product's name is the name of the whole general concept (like \"xeroxing\" or \"kleenexes\"), then you can't go after them any more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5738417",
"title": "Legal issues with fan fiction",
"section": "Section::::Trademark law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1239,
"text": "Current federal trademark law follows the Lanham Act, otherwise known as the Trademark Act of 1946. Under the Lanham Act, a trademark is \"any word, term, name, symbol, or device, or any combination thereof\" used in commerce to identify a service or good. Under this definition, it is possible for the names and likenesses of television, film and book characters, fictional accounts, settings, or other elements of entertainment products to act as trademarks. Unlike copyright, however, trademark rights are not automatic. To establish a right in trademark, the rights-seeker must establish that his/her mark acts as a distinctive \"source identifier\" for a particular type of good or service. Thus, trademark rights may arise when a fictional character’s name or likeness may serve to identify the source of an entertainment product or related good. For example, the use of Mickey Mouse’s name or likeness may serve to identify a particular book or toy as originating from Disney. One way to establish that a mark acts as a distinctive source identifier is to establish that the relevant purchasing public has developed a strong association between the mark and its originating source. In legal terms, this is known as \"secondary meaning.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218856",
"title": "United States trademark law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "A trademark is a word, phrase, or logo that identifies the source of goods or services. Trademark law protects a business' commercial identity or brand by discouraging other businesses from adopting a name or logo that is \"confusingly similar\" to an existing trademark. The goal is to allow consumers to easily identify the producers of goods and services and avoid confusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15673153",
"title": "Trademark distinctiveness",
"section": "Section::::Assessing distinctiveness.:Acquired distinctiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "The essential function of a trademark is to exclusively identify the commercial source or origin of products or services, such that a trademark, properly called, indicates source or serves as a badge of origin. The use of a trademark in this way is known as trademark use. Certain exclusive rights attach to a registered mark, which can be enforced by way of an action for trademark infringement, while unregistered trademark rights may be enforced pursuant to the common law tort of passing off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18935023",
"title": "Trademark",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "The essential function of a trademark is to exclusively identify the commercial source or origin of products or services, so a trademark, properly called, \"indicates source\" or serves as a \"badge of origin\". In other words, trademarks serve to identify a particular business as the source of goods or services. The use of a trademark in this way is known as \"trademark use\". Certain exclusive rights attach to a registered mark.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24224282",
"title": "Trademark (computer security)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "A Trademark in computer security is a contract between code that verifies security properties of an object and code that requires that an object have certain security properties. As such it is useful in ensuring secure information flow. In object-oriented languages, trademarking is analogous to signing of data but can often be implemented without cryptography.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18935023",
"title": "Trademark",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "A trademark (also written trade mark or trade-mark) is a type of intellectual property consisting of a recognizable sign, design, or expression which identifies products or services of a particular source from those of others, although trademarks used to identify services are usually called service marks. The trademark owner can be an individual, business organization, or any legal entity. A trademark may be located on a package, a label, a voucher, or on the product itself. For the sake of corporate identity, trademarks are often displayed on company buildings. It is legally recognized as a type of intellectual property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18935023",
"title": "Trademark",
"section": "Section::::Other aspects.:Licensing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Licensing means the trademark owner (the licensor) grants a permit to a third party (the licensee) in order to commercially use the trademark legally. It is a contract between the two, containing the scope of content and policy. The essential provisions to a trademark license identify the trademark owner and the licensee, in addition to the policy and the goods or services agreed to be licensed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3eoobm
|
why don't big companies get hitmen to off people who successfully sue them?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not particularly easy to commit murder without leaving a trail to follow. It's too much of a risk for the company. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12779402",
"title": "English criminal law",
"section": "Section::::Criminal law elements.:Corporate crime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 1857,
"text": "Serious torts and fatal injuries occur as a result of actions by company employees, have increasingly been subject to criminal sanctions. All torts committed by employees in the course of employment will attribute liability to their company even if acting wholly outside authority, so long as there is some temporal and close connection to work. It is also clear that acts by directors become acts of the company, as they are \"the very ego and centre of the personality of the corporation.\" But despite strict liability in tort, civil remedies are in some instances insufficient to provide a deterrent to a company pursuing business practices that could seriously injure the life, health and environment of other people. Even with additional regulation by government bodies, such as the Health and Safety Executive or the Environment Agency, companies may still have a collective incentive to ignore the rules in the knowledge that the costs and likelihood of enforcement is weaker than potential profits. Criminal sanctions remain problematic, for instance if a company director had no intention to harm anyone, no \"mens rea\", and managers in the corporate hierarchy had systems to prevent employees committing offences. One step toward reform is found in the Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007. This creates a criminal offence for manslaughter, meaning a penal fine of up to 10 per cent of turnover against companies whose managers conduct business in a grossly negligent fashion, resulting in deaths. Without lifting the veil there remains, however, no personal liability for directors or employees acting in the course of employment, for corporate manslaughter or otherwise. The quality of a company's accountability to a broader public and the conscientiousness of its behaviour must rely also, in great measure, on its governance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7193927",
"title": "Tort reform",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Disputed issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Tort reform supporters argue that this precisely describes the problem: lawsuits over socially beneficial practices increase the costs of those practices, and thus improperly deter innovation and other economically desirable activity. They further suggest that small businesses are hurt worse by the threat of litigation than large corporations are, because the legal expenses from a single lawsuit can bankrupt a small businessperson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50947725",
"title": "Protecting Cyber Networks Act",
"section": "Section::::Major provisions.:Defensive protection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The legislation gives private companies the authority to go on the counter-offensive against hackers, meaning a company that was hacked could perform more assertive defensive measures than are currently allowed under the law. However, companies would not be allowed to hack back into other systems or manipulate systems for which they do not have consent to control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28661",
"title": "Defamation",
"section": "Section::::Laws by jurisdiction.:Australasia.:Australia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 246,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 246,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "BULLET::::- severely restricting the right of corporations to sue for defamation (see e.g. \"Defamation Act 2005\" (Vic), s 9). Corporations may, however, still sue for the tort of injurious falsehood, where the burden of proof is greater than for mere defamation, because the plaintiff must show that the defamation was made with malice and resulted in economic loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3406143",
"title": "Conspiracy (civil)",
"section": "Section::::Civil conspiracy in United States business litigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Business litigation often involves the use of conspiracy lawsuits against two or more corporations. Often joined in the lawsuit as defendants are the officers of the companies and outside accountants, attorneys, and similar fiduciaries. In many states, officers and directors of a corporation cannot engage in a conspiracy with the corporation unless acting for their private benefit independent of any benefit to the corporation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8300821",
"title": "2006 Falk Corporation explosion",
"section": "Section::::Legal action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1571,
"text": "Although workers compensation laws deny workers the right to sue their employer, it is possible for them to sue a related third party. Within a week of the explosion Williams Bailey, a law firm based in Houston, Texas, placed half-page advertisements in a local newspaper. The adverts read \"Were you seriously injured in last week's explosion?\", and directed potential clients to the company website. The advert also claims that the firm has extensive experience in explosion-related cases. Fran Deisinger, director of the Milwaukee Bar Association, said of the ad \"It's a little disconcerting because it's such a terrible situation here that I think it probably rubs everybody a little wrong\", adding that although he believed the ad to be in poor taste, it didn't breach any rules for lawyer advertising. Although it is unclear whether any workers contacted Williams Bailey, it is known that at least one injured man, and the families of the deceased, have hired personal injury lawyer Bob Habush to represent them, who once before worked on a high-profile industrial case when three people died as a result of a crane collapse in 1991. On February 7, 2007, he launched a suit against Brennan based on these allegations. J.M. Brennan responded with the following statement: \"We are proud of our employees and the response they took in response to the explosion. And we're confident that the results of the official investigation will show that J.M. Brennan's work was reasonable and did not contribute to the cause of the explosion.\" The suit was settled out of court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1818325",
"title": "Deep pocket",
"section": "Section::::Deep pocket in law and economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "A variation on the term refers to the special subtype of frivolous litigation where plaintiffs target wealthy or corporate defendants for little other reason than them having high resources. These cases involve plaintiffs who have suffered genuine damages, but the true culpability lies squarely with an individual or small entity who has very little money that could be collected if the suit was won. Instead, the plaintiff targets the nearest marginally related large corporation or wealthy defendant, often with a weak accusation of negligence. A popular example is a person being shot by a criminal, and suing the manufacturer of the firearm instead of their attacker. Sometimes legislation is passed to prevent such lawsuits, such as the Protection of Lawful Commerce in Arms Act.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6jfxy4
|
Why didn't the Roman Empire expand into Africa more then it did?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because of a little something called the Sahara Desert. The only real routes of expansion into Africa were along the southern Moroccan coast (which was desolate, sparsely inhabited all the way up to the late 18th century, when the Moroccan government began to encourage irrigation projects there) and via the Nile Valley. However, the rough terrain and relative poverty of the Sudanese and Ethiopian highlands meant that it was not really worth challenging the Kushite and Axumite lords of the upper Nile region for control. Then a far more economical policy was to maintain a web of buffer vassal states to hold off the more powerful kings in the southeast.\n\nIn other words, both the paths into Africa were impractical to use for any sizeable party in ancient times, much less a host of men, animals, and camp followers the size and scope of several Roman legions. The regions were, for lack of a better term, nigh on unconquerable in ancient conditions. Even a thousand years later, the Ottoman Empire found it extremely difficult to extend its rule south of the Wadi Halfa, and by then the introduction of the camel had led to the establishment of proper roads due to the trade explosion. \n\nThough the lack of true oceangoing ships prevented any Roman colonisation of the West Coast of Africa, in theory it would have been possible for them to preempt the Arab colonisation of Eastern Africa even with galleys, establishing tradeposts around the Horn of Africa. However, the only really suitable port, Baranis on the Red Sea (Berenice Troglodytica)... Simply put, it did not have any trees, at least not of sufficient size and tensile strength to build proper vessels. It functioned as an emporium for the Red Sea trade, but could not construct vessels of its own. In other words, for a Roman living in Alexandria to set up a trade post e.g. near Zanzibar, he would first have to travel down the Nile with hundreds of settlers, cross the desert mountains filled with Tuaregs, Berbers, and probably bandits, to get to Baranis, and there *buy* enough ships to take his entire party and supplies on a practically blind four-month journey into uncharted waters. Once there, he would have to find a trade goods worth exporting all the way back to Baranis, then set up and fortify his colony while establishing farmland and regular trade routes with Baranis, all the while probably fending off hostile natives... It was simply not worth it, when spices and ivory could be obtained far more cheaply from Indian, Arab and Ethiopian merchants.\n\nIf you want a more detailed answer, I can recommend some books and articles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21714",
"title": "North Africa",
"section": "Section::::History.:Antiquity and ancient Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1359,
"text": "North Africa remained a part of the Roman Empire, which produced many notable citizens such as Augustine of Hippo, until incompetent leadership from Roman commanders in the early fifth century allowed the Germanic peoples, the Vandals, to cross the Strait of Gibraltar, whereupon they overcame the fickle Roman defense. The loss of North Africa is considered a pinnacle point in the fall of the Western Roman Empire as Africa had previously been an important grain province that maintained Roman prosperity despite the barbarian incursions, and the wealth required to create new armies. The issue of regaining North Africa became paramount to the Western Empire, but was frustrated by Vandal victories. The focus of Roman energy had to be on the emerging threat of the Huns. In 468 AD, the Romans made one last serious attempt to invade North Africa but were repelled. This perhaps marks the point of terminal decline for the Western Roman Empire. The last Roman emperor was deposed in 476 by the Heruli general Odoacer. Trade routes between Europe and North Africa remained intact until the coming of Islam. Some Berbers were members of the Early African Church (but evolved their own Donatist doctrine), some were Berber Jews, and some adhered to traditional Berber religion. African pope Victor I served during the reign of Roman emperor Septimius Severus\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1637852",
"title": "History of North Africa",
"section": "Section::::Classical period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "When the Roman Empire began to collapse, North Africa was spared much of the disruption until the Vandal invasion of 429 AD. The Vandals ruled in North Africa until the territories were regained by Justinian of the Eastern Empire in the 6th century. Egypt was never invaded by the Vandals because there was a thousand-mile buffer of desert and because the Eastern Roman Empire was better defended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "292372",
"title": "North Africa during Antiquity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Rome lost parts of Africa to the Vandals in the 5th century. The Byzantine Empire finally lost all control of Africa as the region fell to the Umayyad conquest of North Africa by the close of the 7th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21001373",
"title": "History of Roman-era Tunisia",
"section": "Section::::Post-Roman successors.:Byzantine Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "The Eastern Romans, known also as the Byzantine Empire, eventually recaptured Rome's Africa province during the Vandalic War in 534, when led by their celebrated general Belisarius. The Byzantines rebuilt fortifications and border defenses (the \"limes\"), and entered into treaties with the Berbers. Nevertheless, for many decades security and prosperity were precarious and were never fully restored. Direct Byzantine rule didn't extend far beyond the coastal cities. The African interior remained under the control of various Berber tribal confederacies, e.g., the Byzantines contested against the Berber Kingdom of Garmules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172921",
"title": "Limes",
"section": "Section::::The southern borders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "At the greatest extent of the Empire, the southern border lay along the deserts of Arabia in the Middle East and the Sahara in North Africa, which represented a natural barrier against expansion. The Empire controlled the Mediterranean shores and the mountain ranges further inland. The Romans attempted twice to occupy the Siwa Oasis and finally used Siwa as a place of banishment. However Romans controlled the Nile many miles into Africa up to the modern border between Egypt and Sudan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5334607",
"title": "Africa",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early civilizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Following the conquest of North Africa's Mediterranean coastline by the Roman Empire, the area was integrated economically and culturally into the Roman system. Roman settlement occurred in modern Tunisia and elsewhere along the coast. The first Roman emperor native to North Africa was Septimius Severus, born in Leptis Magna in present-day Libya—his mother was Italian Roman and his father was Punic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314843",
"title": "Campaign history of the Roman military",
"section": "Section::::Republic.:Late (147–30 BC).:Jugurthine War (112–105 BC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 1174,
"text": "Rome had, in the earlier Punic Wars, gained large tracts of territory in Africa, which they consolidated in the following centuries. Much of that land had been granted to the kingdom of Numidia, a kingdom on the north African coast approximating to modern Algeria, in return for its past military assistance. The Jugurthine War of 111–104 BC was fought between Rome and Jugurtha of Numidia and constituted the final Roman pacification of Northern Africa, after which Rome largely ceased expansion on the continent after reaching natural barriers of desert and mountain. In response to Jugurtha's usurpation of the Numidian throne, a loyal ally of Rome since the Punic Wars, Rome intervened. Jugurtha impudently bribed the Romans into accepting his usurpation and was granted half the kingdom. Following further aggression and further bribery attempts, the Romans sent an army to depose him. The Romans were defeated at the Battle of Suthul but fared better at the Battle of the Muthul and finally defeated Jugurtha at the Battle of Thala, the Battle of Mulucha, and the Battle of Cirta (104 BC). Jugurtha was finally captured not in battle but by treachery, ending the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1s8ffp
|
the void
|
[
{
"answer": "Instructions were not clear. I hurt my back trying to shake my 27 inch CRT monitor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Had no effect on me\rConclusion: I'm batman ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "841997",
"title": "A Void",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "\"A Void\"'s plot follows a group of individuals looking for a missing companion, Anton Vowl. It is in part a parody of \"noir\" and horror fiction, with many stylistic tricks, gags, plot twists, and a grim conclusion. On many occasions it implicitly talks about its own lipogrammatic limitation, highlighting its unusual syntax. \"A Void\"'s protagonists finally work out which symbol is missing, but find it a hazardous topic to discuss, as any who try to bypass this story's constraint risk dying. Philip Howard, writing a lipogrammatic appraisal of \"A Void\" in his column \"Lost Words\", said \"This is a story chock-full of plots and sub-plots, of loops within loops, of trails in pursuit of trails, all of which allow its author an opportunity to display his customary virtuosity as an avant-gardist magician, acrobat and clown.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "841997",
"title": "A Void",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "A Void, translated from the original French La Disparition (literally, \"The Disappearance\"), is a 300-page French lipogrammatic novel, written in 1969 by Georges Perec, entirely without using the letter \"e\" (except for the author's name), following Oulipo constraints.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36817859",
"title": "The Void (philosophy)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "The Void is the philosophical concept of nothingness manifested. The notion of the Void is relevant to several realms of metaphysics. The Void is also prevalent in numerous facets of psychology, notably logotherapy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30037291",
"title": "Ben 10",
"section": "Section::::Elements of the franchise.:Recurring themes.:Technology.:Null Void.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "The Null Void is a pocket dimension, created by the Galvans as a penal colony. It is filled with floating rocks, with flying creatures known as the Null Guardians who protect powerless people in the Null Void from the more violent inmates. The Null Void also served as a base of operations for the Rooters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1706444",
"title": "List of Doctor Who planets",
"section": "Section::::Others.:Nebulae and other stellar regions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 507,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 507,
"end_character": 1108,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Void is the name given by the Time Lords to the infinite nothingness between dimensions, where even time does not exist. According to the Doctor, in \"Army of Ghosts\", Eternals call it the Howling, and some others call it Hell. It is only traversable using a void ship, and prior to the Time War, by a TARDIS. Various inhabitants of a parallel version of Earth-most notably the Cybermen-were also able to travel across the void to the Earth of the main universe due to the damage caused by the Cult of Skaro's Void ship. The Tenth Doctor later sealed the Void by reversing a process previously used to open it, drawing millions of Cybermen and Daleks into the Void in the process. If successfully detonated, the Reality Bomb created by Davros and the Daleks, seen in \"Journey's End\", would also have destroyed the void. The breaking down of barriers caused by this event allowed Rose Tyler and others who had relocated to the parallel Earth to return to the main universe, and the Tenth Doctor was able to travel there to return Rose, her mother Jackie Tyler and the Meta-Crisis Tenth Doctor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5142490",
"title": "Sentry (Robert Reynolds)",
"section": "Section::::Powers and abilities.:Void.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 952,
"text": "Several reasons for the existence of the Void have been given: the innate division between good and evil in any nominally normal person; a \"mind virus\" put into place by the mutant Mastermind by order of the crazed General; the idea that the Void is in fact the true personality of Rob Reynolds and the Sentry is the false one; as mentioned above, the result of covering up his past; and, according to Norman Osborn the Sentry's superhumanity eroded his humanity, leading to a 'void' in his life. During the Siege storyline, the Void exhibits a more demonic form, capable of nearly slaughtering Thor, bringing down the entire city of Asgard, and striking down every immortal and mortal hero set against it simultaneously, killing the Norn Stone-powered Loki in seconds, and even tearing the god of war, Ares, in half. Norman Osborn claims that it is the Angel of Death, tying into an earlier prelude which showed the Void's presence in biblical times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25429278",
"title": "The Evolutionary Void",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The Void was created by the Firstlife—the first beings to have existed in the galaxy—to reach the state of post-physical and fulfilment. It is where Makkathran is situated in. The people in the Void have psychic abilities such as \"farsight\" and the \"third hand\". The Void requires a tremendous amount of energy to sustain itself and the abilities it offers, which it acquires by expanding, consuming planets and star systems and converting them into energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b26oz0
|
How do plants get the material to grow so much from just a tiny seed?
|
[
{
"answer": "Carbon dioxide out of the air, water and nutrients out of the ground and energy from the sun. The carbon dioxide and nutrients make up the cell structures of the plant. The water helps move everything around and inflate the cells. The sun gives it the energy to do all of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Seeds densely pack energy and very flexible cells that can use that energy to create specialized organs (leafs, roots etc.) of a plant. Once those organs reach to the surrounding resources (water, minerals, sunlight etc.) in the environment they start to use the resources in the environment to continue their growth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't think the other answers quite hit the nail on the head here. The seed provides the initial nutrients required for a tiny sprout after which the bulk of the material comes from the carbon dioxide the plant absorbs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6693638",
"title": "Brachychiton rupestris",
"section": "Section::::Cultivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Plants are readily propagated from seed. As seed is surrounded by irritating hairs within the pod, extraction requires care. Stem cuttings of semi-mature growth can be taken in late summer and require the application of rooting hormones and bottom heat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46549359",
"title": "Iris arenaria",
"section": "Section::::Cultivation.:Propagation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "To grow new plants by seed, the seed capsule should be removed from the stem, before it is ripe. Then it should be left to dry for a few days, before removing the seed (from the capsule) and sowing in trays or pots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7944587",
"title": "Iris cristata",
"section": "Section::::Cultivation.:Propagation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "If propagating by seed. Seeds are collected from the ripe brown capsules after flowering. They should be sown on acid or slightly acidic soil. The process of seedling to flowering plant, can take up to 3 years to mature and flower.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "473055",
"title": "Lythrum salicaria",
"section": "Section::::Cultivation, uses and impact.:As an invasive species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "A single plant may produce up to 2.7 million tiny seeds annually. Easily carried by wind and water, the seeds germinate in moist soils after overwintering. The plant can also sprout anew from pieces of root left in the soil or water. Once established, loosestrife stands are difficult and costly to remove by mechanical and chemical means.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34390210",
"title": "Psathyrostachys juncea",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "It is not easy to establish via seed; if the seeds are planted more than 1.9 centimeters deep the seedlings do not emerge in large numbers. The seedlings are weak. Once it has established, however, it is tough and competes well for water and nutrients. It is tolerant of fire because the dense clumpiness of the stems protects the axillary buds, which can produce tillers and resprout after destruction by fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9597864",
"title": "Nassella pulchra",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "The plant produces copious seed, up to 227 pounds per acre in dense stands. The pointed fruit is purple-tinged when young and has an awn up to 10 centimeters long which is twisted and bent twice. The shape of the seed helps it self-bury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12894948",
"title": "Magnolia guatapensis",
"section": "Section::::Seed management, sexual propagation and nursery production.:Handling of seedlings in nursery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "For a better dissemination It is recommendable to use a mix of soil and sand in 2:1 proportion. Once seedlings reached 4 cm of height we can move it to a bag. After this process, it is advisable to leave the plants under shade and reduce it gradually. When seedlings reach 25 cm of height and have been hardened at least a little, we can consider that they are ready to be planted definitively at the field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ig72k
|
How do Historians use other Social Science disciplines in their research?
|
[
{
"answer": "I use sociology, LGBT studies, queer theory, gender studies, and even dance studies in my work. In my case it is largely out of necessity, as there are no true histories of the AIDS crisis and still fairly few about gay and lesbian history. Other disciplines can offer a different perspective when you are dealing with a well-researched area of history, and are sometimes your only recourse when dealing with a less known area. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43129012",
"title": "Social Science History Association",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Social Science History is a quarterly, peer-reviewed academic journal. It is the official journal of the Social Science History Association. Its articles bring an analytic, theoretical, and often quantitative approach to historical evidence. The journal's founders intended to \"improve the quality of historical explanation\" with \"theories and methods from the social science disciplines\" and to make generalizations across historical cases. The first issue came out in the fall of 1976. The journal's articles that are most-accessed and cited through JSTOR are about social and political movements and associated narratives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "373212",
"title": "Social research",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Social scientists employ a range of methods in order to analyse a vast breadth of social phenomena: from census survey data derived from millions of individuals, to the in-depth analysis of a single agent's social experiences; from monitoring what is happening on contemporary streets, to the investigation of ancient historical documents. Methods rooted in classical sociology and statistics have formed the basis for research in other disciplines, such as political science, media studies, program evaluation and market research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26781",
"title": "Social science",
"section": "Section::::Methodology.:Social research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "In contemporary usage, \"social research\" is a relatively autonomous term, encompassing the work of practitioners from various disciplines that share in its aims and methods. Social scientists employ a range of methods in order to analyse a vast breadth of social phenomena; from census survey data derived from millions of individuals, to the in-depth analysis of a single agent's social experiences; from monitoring what is happening on contemporary streets, to the investigation of ancient historical documents. The methods originally rooted in classical sociology and statistical mathematics have formed the basis for research in other disciplines, such as political science, media studies, and marketing and market research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "222291",
"title": "Social history",
"section": "Section::::New Social History movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "The Social Science History Association was formed in 1976 to bring together scholars from numerous disciplines interested in social history. It is still active and publishes \"Social Science History\" quarterly. The field is also the specialty of the \"Journal of Social History\", edited since 1967 by Peter Stearns It covers such topics as gender relations; race in American history; the history of personal relationships; consumerism; sexuality; the social history of politics; crime and punishment, and history of the senses. Most of the major historical journals have coverage as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30434939",
"title": "Historiography of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Social history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "The Social Science History Association, formed in 1976, brings together scholars from numerous disciplines interested in social history and publishes \"Social Science History\" quarterly. The field is also the specialty of the \"Journal of Social History\", edited since 1967 by Peter Stearns It covers such topics as gender relations; race in American history; the history of personal relationships; consumerism; sexuality; the social history of politics; crime and punishment, and history of the senses. Most of the major historical journals have coverage as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26781",
"title": "Social science",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the natural sciences as tools for understanding society, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. Interpretivist social scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically falsifiable theories, and thus treat science in its broader sense. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies (for instance, by combining both quantitative and qualitative research). The term \"social research\" has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28681785",
"title": "Social Science History",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Social Science History is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal. It is the official journal of the Social Science History Association. Its articles bring an analytic, theoretical, and often quantitative approach to historical evidence. Its editor-in-chief is Anne McCants (Massachusetts Institute of Technology).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ev13g
|
In 17th Century Europe, how were coffee and coffeehouses viewed?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'll have to make this brief as I'm about to go out (but I can explain (a lot!) more, if necessary).\n\nTo answer those three questions in a go, let's establish the 17th century coffee-house in general (funnily enough, I have a chapter more or less dedicated to this in my PhD):\n\nDuring the latter half of the seventeenth century, coffee-houses were becoming increasingly popular, across a fairly diverse social scale. For the fairly inexpensive price of a dish of coffee (about a penny, according to John Spurr - see ref below), an individual got the opportunity to see whatever published paper the coffeehouse subscribed to (most likely the *London Gazette* thoughout the 1670s until licensing lapsed in '79), as well as whatever manuscript newsletters were available.\n\nThe discussion, therefore, often concerned a composite of foreign and domestic news, which is a pretty significant thing - Jurgen Habermas and others (more recently, Mark Knights, John Sommerville, Steve Pincus) have even seen this as the birth of 'public opinion' - that is, a shared and widespread perception of 'current events', inspired by a communal experience - in this case, news reception and mutual interpretation. \n\nIt's precisely this reason why official authorities tended to severely mistrust coffeehouses (See John Sommerville's 'The News Revolution in England'). A place where the ordinary folk could get together and discuss the actions of their superiors? Never!\n\nSir Roger L'Estrange (Surveyor of the Press to 1679) perhaps best summed up the official view in the mid-1660s:\n\n'[Coffee-house News] makes the Multitude too Familiar with the Actions and Counsels of their Superiours; too Pragmatical and Censorious, and gives them, not only an Itch, but a kind of Colourable Right, and License, to be Meddling with the Government.' (this is from his *Intelligencer* in the early 1660s)\n\nSo mistrusted were the businesses, in fact, that in the 1670s, there was a brief period where all coffeehouses were actually barred from trading in London, to which the government relented very shortly after. There was quite an outcry! \n\nMuch work has been done on this recently - Steve Pincus' article 'Coffeehouse politicians does create' is very good, as is Sommerville's work noted above. For more info, these are good places to start (Sommerville's especially).\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "604727",
"title": "Coffee",
"section": "Section::::Coffeehouses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "In the 17th century, coffee appeared for the first time in Europe outside the Ottoman Empire, and coffeehouses were established and quickly became popular. The first coffeehouses in Western Europe appeared in Venice, as a result of the traffic between La Serenissima and the Ottomans; the very first one is recorded in 1645. The first coffeehouse in England was set up in Oxford in 1650 by a Jewish man named Jacob in the building now known as \"The Grand Cafe\". A plaque on the wall still commemorates this and the cafe is now a cocktail bar. By 1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses in England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "370815",
"title": "Coffeehouse",
"section": "Section::::History.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "In the 17th century, coffee appeared for the first time in Europe outside the Ottoman Empire, and coffeehouses were established, soon becoming increasingly popular. The first coffeehouses appeared in Venice in 1629, due to the traffic between the Republic of Venice and the Ottomans; the very first one is recorded in 1645. The first coffeehouse in England was set up in Oxford in 1650 by a Jewish man named Jacobs at the Angel in the parish of St Peter in the East. A building on the same site now houses a cafe-bar called The Grand Cafe. Oxford's Queen's Lane Coffee House, established in 1654, is also still in existence today. The first coffeehouse in London was opened in 1652 in St Michael's Alley, Cornhill. The proprietor was Pasqua Rosée, the servant of a trader in Turkish goods named Daniel Edwards, who imported the coffee and assisted Rosée in setting up the establishment there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "370815",
"title": "Coffeehouse",
"section": "Section::::History.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1046,
"text": "From 1670 to 1685, the number of London coffee-houses began to increase, and they also began to gain political importance due to their popularity as places of debate. English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries were significant meeting places, particularly in London. By 1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses in England. Pasqua Rosée also established the first coffeehouse in Paris in 1672 and held a citywide coffee monopoly until Procopio Cutò opened the Café Procope in 1686. This coffeehouse still exists today and was a popular meeting place of the French Enlightenment; Voltaire, Rousseau, and Denis Diderot frequented it, and it is arguably the birthplace of the \"Encyclopédie\", the first modern encyclopedia. In 1667, Kara Hamie, a former Ottoman Janissary from Constantinople, opened the first coffee shop in Bucharest (then the capital of the Principality of Wallachia), in the center of the city, where today sits the main building of the National Bank of Romania. America had its first coffeehouse in Boston, in 1676.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7687063",
"title": "Coffee culture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "The culture surrounding coffee and coffeehouses dates back to 14th century Turkey. Coffee houses in Western Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean were not only social hubs, but also artistic and intellectual centers. \"Les Deux Magots\" in Paris, now a popular tourist attraction, was once associated with the intellectuals Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir. In the late 17th and 18th centuries, coffeehouses in London became popular meeting places for artists, writers, and socialites, as well as centers for political and commercial activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22291388",
"title": "English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Early London coffeehouses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1279,
"text": "The Oxford-style coffeehouses, which acted as a centre for social intercourse, gossip, and scholastic interest, spread quickly to London, where English coffeehouses became popularised and embedded within the English popular and political culture. Pasqua Rosée, the Greek servant of a Levant Company merchant named Daniel Edwards, established the first London coffeehouse in 1652. London's second coffeehouse was named the Temple Bar, established by James Farr in 1656. Initially, there was little evidence to suggest that London coffeehouses were popular and largely frequented, due to the nature of the unwelcome competition felt by other London businesses. When Harrington's Rota Club began to meet in another established London coffeehouse known as the Turk's Head, to debate \"matters of politics and philosophy\", English coffeehouse popularity began to rise. This club was also a \"free and open academy unto all comers\" whose raison d'être was the art of debate, characterised as \"contentious but civil, learned but not didactic.\" According to Cowan, despite the Rota's banishment after the Restoration of the monarchy, the discursive framework they established while meeting in coffeehouses set the tone for coffeehouse conversation throughout the rest of the 17th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22291388",
"title": "English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries were public social places where men would meet for conversation and commerce. For the price of a penny, customers purchased a cup of coffee and admission. Travellers introduced coffee as a beverage to England during the mid-17th century; previously it had been consumed mainly for its supposed medicinal properties. Coffeehouses also served tea and hot chocolate as well as a light meal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26787471",
"title": "Turkish community of London",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "By the early 1650s, an English merchant who had been trading in the Ottoman Levant returned to London with a Turkish servant who introduced the making of Turkish coffee. By 1652 the first coffee house had opened in London and within a decade more than 80 establishments flourished in the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8sb8mq
|
why does symmetry make people look more attractive?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not 100% sure about this but I think that it is in our genes. \n\nSymmetry is associated with healthiness. Back then when it was \"only the strongest survive\" symmetry was (and is) a sign of a healthy individual with good genes.\n\nIf you have a healthy partner, you and that person are more likely to create a strong and a healthy descendant that will survive till he/she is able to pass your genes to the next generation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1053447",
"title": "Physical attractiveness",
"section": "Section::::General contributing factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "Some physical features are attractive in both men and women, particularly bodily and facial symmetry, although one contrary report suggests that \"absolute flawlessness\" with perfect symmetry can be \"disturbing\". Symmetry may be evolutionarily beneficial as a sign of health because asymmetry \"signals past illness or injury\". One study suggested people were able to \"gauge beauty at a subliminal level\" by seeing only a glimpse of a picture for one-hundredth of a second. Other important factors include youthfulness, skin clarity and smoothness of skin; and \"vivid color\" in the eyes and hair. However, there are numerous differences based on gender.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55294023",
"title": "Psychosensory therapy",
"section": "Section::::Elements.:Sight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Symmetry and order may produce a calming effect to one’s sight. The construction of symmetry can produce a sense of balance, harmony and perfect proportion. Symmetry is usually perceived to be more attractive than asymmetry. For instance, a beautiful symmetrical face can be comforting and pleasing to look toward. Lack of order can evoke confusion. Extensive research has demonstrated that the lack of sunlight can produce disorders such as depression, substance abuse, and suicidal ideation and intent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53741",
"title": "Symmetry",
"section": "Section::::In the arts.:In aesthetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The relationship of symmetry to aesthetics is complex. Humans find bilateral symmetry in faces physically attractive; it indicates health and genetic fitness. Opposed to this is the tendency for excessive symmetry to be perceived as boring or uninteresting. People prefer shapes that have some symmetry, but enough complexity to make them interesting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8165347",
"title": "Psychology of art",
"section": "Section::::Psychological research.:Symmetry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "Symmetry and beauty have a strong biological link that influences aesthetic preferences. It has been shown that humans tend to prefer art that contains symmetry, deeming it more beautiful. Furthermore, symmetry directly correlates to the understanding of a face or artwork as beautiful. The greater the symmetry within the work or the face, generally the more beautiful it appears to be. Research on aesthetic preference for geometric forms and the fluent processing of symmetry sheds light on the role that symmetry plays in the overall aesthetic judgment and experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1967292",
"title": "Facial symmetry",
"section": "Section::::Facial averageness vs. symmetry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "According to the theory of sexual selection, facial symmetry plays a large role in what we perceive as attractiveness. However there is question whether changes in either symmetry or averageness alone increase facial attractiveness. Experiments show that symmetry and averageness make independent contributions to attractiveness, but when the contribution of symmetry is excluded, averageness remains a significant predictor of attractiveness. In addition, research has shown that when one couples facial symmetry with averageness, attractiveness ratings rise, suggesting these two influences are invariably linked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1967292",
"title": "Facial symmetry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Facial symmetry is one specific measure of bodily asymmetry. Along with traits such as averageness and youthfulness it influences judgments of aesthetic traits of physical attractiveness and beauty. For instance, in mate selection, people have been shown to have a preference for symmetry. This is because it is seen an indicator of health and genetic fitness, but also as holding adaptation qualities; reflecting the ability to withstand the changes in their environments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55907997",
"title": "Ovulatory shift hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Changes in cognition and behavior across the ovulatory cycle.:Attraction and mate preferences.:Symmetry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "Having symmetrical features may indicate that an individual possesses high-quality genes related to health, and that they developed in a stable environment with little disease or trauma. Studies have found that women rate faces of more symmetrical men as more attractive during high fertility, especially when evaluating them as short-term partners. It has also been demonstrated that women at high fertility are more attracted to the body odors of men with more facial and bodily symmetry. Although many studies and one meta-analysis have shown that fertility-moderated shifts in attraction to facial and bodily symmetry occur robustly, other reviews have concluded that the effect is small or non-existent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
38apug
|
what exactly happened in the olympic boycotts in 1980/84?
|
[
{
"answer": "That was the one Russia hosted right? Basically no one went there to spend money in Russia while they spent money to host it and sped up their financial collapse of the soviet union.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There were 4 significant Olympic boycotts, two in 1976 and one each in 1980/84. I mention the 1976 boycotts because they inform the subsequent ones:\n\n**Chinese-led boycott**: Taiwan (officially the Republic of China) and China (officially the People's Republic of China) both boycotted over the recognition of the other, each insisting it was the sole government for all of China.\n\n**Congolese-led boycott**: In July 1976 the New Zealand Men's Rugby Team participated in a tour of South Africa, playing against all-white teams. In response to this \"approval\" of apartheid 26 African and Middle-eastern nations boycotted the Olympic Games that started that month. Most athletes were already in Montreal when they learned of the boycott and had to return home without competing.\n\nThus, in this climate the Soviet Union was set to host its Olympics in 1980.\n\n**US-led boycott**: President Jimmy Carter announced that the US would not participate in the 1980 Moscow Olympics in response to the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. It was clear to the western world that the Soviets were making an effort to extend its oil resources at the expense of the Afghani people. 65 countries joined the United States in boycotting the games, and several others did ceremonial boycotts of the opening ceremonies or releasing their athletes to compete under the Olympic Flag.\n\n**Soviet-led boycott**: The Soviet Union and 14 other countries did not participate in 1984 games in protest of \"chauvinistic and anti-Soviet\" attitudes. It is widely understood that this boycott was retaliatory for the 1980 boycott.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Flashback to the late 70's. Your country is either Communist (Soviet Union/Russia, Eastern Europe, China, Cuba) or it isn't (Western Europe, US, Canada, Mexico, Japan, Australia). Most of the world is planted in one of these two camps. The intensity of these international relationship is high - a politician's sneeze could set off thorough nuclear war. 3rd graders were taught to duck under their desks in case of nuclear war. No kidding. It was wild.\n\nThe 1980 Olympics was hosted in Moscow. The Soviet Union (USSR) invaded Afghanistan in late-1979, and the ensuing world controversy resulted in a boycott of the Olympics from most of the non-communist world (which really didn't like the Soviet Union, and their influence over other nations). \n\nThe 1980 Olympics were held (in Lake Placid, NY) as normal, and were dominated by Russia and East Germany, save for the USA's hockey victory over the USSR, which was largely passed over in the Soviet Union. I doubt that the huge upset had anything to do with the boycott, though it's popularity shows the heated rivalry between US and USSR.\n\nSo by summer 1980, the invasion had been in the press for a few months, and the boycotts began after the Winter Games that year. In total, 65 nations (including nations who won about 70% of the medals from the previous 1976 Montreal Games) boycotted. The Olympics probably lost a ton of money, as NBC canceled coverage in the United States. \n\nWith the USA and Western Europe, it was no surprise to see the 1980 games dominated by the home-field Soviet Union team, and East Germany (who was, politically, the Soviet's bitch anyways). \n\nIn 1984, there was some payback to the West, as the games were long since scheduled to take place in beautiful Los Angeles, California. Disclaimer: I am a lifetime LA area resident, I was there. 16 nations, mostly the Soviet Union's posse from Eastern Europe, boycotted. Also, Iran and Libya boycotted, I recall because of our alliance with Israel. Iran especially has a history with Israel, and will sometimes refuse to compete. Iran boycotted *both* Olympics, because, well, crazy government.\n\nNotably, Romania, Yugoslavia, and China, all Communist/Socialist nations, did *not* join the Soviet-led boycott. \n\nWithout the USSR and East Germany, the United States dominated the Olympics, along with West Germany. Romania had a good showing, especially in Gymnastics and Weightlifting.\n\nSince the '84 Olympics had US broadcasting money, as well as a crapload of corporate sponsorship, they made some money, and Peter Uberroth (who was the director of the LA games) was a potential candidate for president. \n\nCompared to the 1980 boycott, which darn near killed the games, the '84 boycott was harsh, but not as nearly as bad.\n\nA forgotten winner from the boycotts was Ted Turner, who organized the \"Goodwill Games\" in Moscow (1986) and in Seattle (1990). These two events helped cement Turner as a major media guy when CNN (the first 24-hr news station) and TBS (the first 'national' TV station) were still new. The events, showcasing the US vs. USSR meeting in 'alternative Olympics' was a TBS exclusive, quite a win when cable TV wasn't nearly as common as it is now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31793",
"title": "University of Pennsylvania",
"section": "Section::::Athletics.:Facilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "The Olympic Boycott Games of 1980 were held at the University of Pennsylvania in response to Moscow's hosting of the 1980 Summer Olympics following the Soviet incursion in Afghanistan. Twenty-nine of the boycotting nations participated in the Boycott Games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8569404",
"title": "Sailing at the 1956 Summer Olympics",
"section": "Section::::Remarks.:Olympic boycott.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "1956 was the first time in history that several countries decided to boycott the Olympics. The boycott that influenced the sailing the most was probably that of The Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland. They withdrew to protest against the Soviet Union invasion of Hungary during the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and Soviet presence at the Games. At that time The Netherlands dominated at the International competition in the 12m Sharpie.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12813736",
"title": "1984 Summer Olympics boycott",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "The boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles followed four years after the U.S.-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. The boycott involved 14 Eastern Bloc countries and allies, led by the Soviet Union, which initiated the boycott on May 8, 1984. Boycotting countries organized another major event, called the Friendship Games, in July and August 1984. Although the boycott led by the Soviet Union affected a number of Olympic events that were normally dominated by the absent countries, 140 nations still took part in the games, which was a record at the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12813736",
"title": "1984 Summer Olympics boycott",
"section": "Section::::Revenge hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1079,
"text": "Jimmy Carter declared that the United States would boycott the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow, with 65 other countries joining the boycott. This was the largest Olympic games boycott ever. In 1984, three months before the start of the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, the Soviet Union declared it would \"not participate\" in the Games. The Soviets cited a number of reasons, namely the commercialization of the games which, in their opinion, went against the principles of the Olympic movement (indeed the XXIII Olympiad ended up being the first Olympics since 1932 to make a profit by a host country, due to the high cost of the Olympic Games) and a claimed lack of security for their athletes. The issue of commercialization did gather some criticism from foreign delegations, who were unfamiliar with this trend in the Olympic movement. However, the IOC later declared the Games \"a model for future Olympics\" due to a surplus of USD 223 million for the hosts and relying on existing venues. The majority still viewed the boycott as more of a retaliatory move by the Soviets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33529562",
"title": "List of flag bearers for Ireland at the Olympics",
"section": "Section::::Boycotts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "The 1980 Summer Olympics boycott, initiated by the United States to protest against the Soviet–Afghan War, saw many countries pull out of the Games and only 16 nations appeared at the opening ceremony. Prime Minister Charles Haughey declared his support for the boycott but the Olympic Council of Ireland still chose to send their team to Moscow. Ken Ryan, manager of the Olympic team, said that they supported the government but wanted to participate in the games \"purely from the sporting point of view\". At the opening ceremony Ryan was the sole representative of the team and marched under a white flag with bearing the Olympic rings. The Soviet cameramen avoided the protesting marchers and few Soviet commentators mentioned it. Only one comment was recorded: \"There is the clumsy plot that you all can see, against the traditions of the Olympic movement.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "658484",
"title": "Tommie Smith",
"section": "Section::::1968 Summer Olympics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "As a member of the Olympic Project for Human Rights (OPHR) Smith originally advocated a boycott of the 1968 Mexico City Olympic Games unless four conditions were met: South Africa and Rhodesia uninvited from the Olympics, the restoration of Muhammad Ali's world heavyweight boxing title, Avery Brundage to step down as president of the IOC, and the hiring of more African-American assistant coaches. As the boycott failed to achieve support after the IOC withdrew invitations for South Africa and Rhodesia, he decided, together with Carlos, to not only wear their gloves but also go barefoot to protest poverty, wear beads to protest lynchings, and wear buttons that said OPHR.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17272",
"title": "Konstantin Chernenko",
"section": "Section::::Leader of the Soviet Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "In 1980, the United States had boycotted the Summer Olympics held in Moscow in protest at the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The following 1984 Summer Olympics were due to be held in Los Angeles, California. On 8 May 1984, under Chernenko's leadership, the USSR announced its intention not to participate, citing security concerns and \"chauvinistic sentiments and an anti-Soviet hysteria being whipped up in the United States\". The boycott was joined by 14 Eastern Bloc countries and allies, including Cuba (but not Romania). The action was widely seen as revenge for the U.S. boycott of the Moscow Games. The boycotting countries organised their own \"Friendship Games\" in the summer of 1984.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9xkfkp
|
Following the Muslim conquests, many local languages, such as Berber or Coptic, were gradually replaced with Arabic and turned into minority languages. What allowed Persian to not share the same fate?
|
[
{
"answer": "I apologize that I mostly know about Coptic and Berber but I will try to demonstrate why this question is hard to answer and then introduce a recent theory into this particular subject. First, I would like to point out that when talking about \"Berber\" or \"the Berber\" one is actually talking about quite a diverse group of people and languages, some of which are not around today and some which still exist. I will reference \"the Berber\" in as general terms as I can but understand there are exceptions and differences among them. Additionally, there is not as much research on the Arabs and the Berbers in context with linguistic shift as there is for Coptic and Persian.\n\nOne is tempted to believe that conversion to Islam would inherently coincide with adoption of Arabic but those two factors actually don't share as close of a link as you would expect. Coptic Christians were using Arabic in their own Bibles as early as the 10th century^(2) They continued to be Christian and speak Arabic for the next century and to a lesser extent thereafter. Coptic Christian scholars eventually complained that Christians couldn't speak their own language in the 11th century^(3) Many Berbers converted to Islam quickly and revolted against the Arabs as early as 749 under their own form of Khawarij Sufrism yet their languages proved more resilient than Coptic over time (likely in great part due to the formation of the Almoravid dynasty)^(4) . Many early Muslim scholars would be angry with me for calling many Berbers of the Middle Ages \"Muslim\" since they often practiced syncretic forms of the religion but it's still a strong point in demonstrating separation between the religion and the Arabic language. Meanwhile, Persia (correction, see comment: Main Persian speaking area) became Islamisized quicker than either of those locations (early 8th century, there is some controversy to this, though) and yet the Persians managed to hold onto their language^(5). These cases demonstrate that conversion to Islam is a tricky factor in determining the cause of local languages *extinction* in comparison with one another.\n\nOne is also tempted to believe that the level of Arab migration an area received would influence the vitality of local languages. Indeed, the decline of the Coptic language in the 10th and 11th centuries coincided with increased Arab immigration yet it also coincided with a shrinking Coptic population, decreased heretic oppression, and an expanding economy under the Fatimids^(6 7). I will also concede that the Berber languages in North Africa do not seem to have declined so greatly until that area received higher migration but I also want to point out that Persia actually received more Arab migration in its earlier years than Egypt^(1)\n\nLanguage replacement and language adoption are two different things. After all, bilingual societies exist around the globe and Coptic itself persisted under centuries of Greek rule when Greek became a dominant language in Egypt. Why do some societies exist bilingually and others not, though? Many factors come into play when considering language shift. Recently, scholars by the names of Reza Ghafar Samar and Tej K. Bhatia have released a study proposing that surface level structural similarity between two languages greatly influences the development of a bilingual society or a monolingual society where one language overcomes another. In a recent article released last year the two scholars attempted to explain why Arabic overcame Coptic while Persian persisted by comparing the structural similarities of the two languages^(5). They worked off the premise that when two languags come into contact they demonstrate \"borrowing\" (the wholesale importation of individual words or phrases from one language into another, often with target language influence) or \"code switching\" (switching between languages completely.) They argue that the more structurally similar two languages are the more likely speakers of one language who most often encounter both are to participate in code switching instead of just borrowing. They demonstrate that Arabic and Coptic share many similarities that Persian does not and therefore Coptic speakers would have participated in code switching moreoften than just borrowing. They argue that code switching contributed to language extinction and that this phenomenon can even be seen in surviving Coptic texts.\n\n**Therefore, Persian persisted into today in great part to its lack of structural similarity with Arabic.** That also explains its abundant borrowing.\n\nMany more details exist in their article and I encourage you to read it since they obviously explain it better than I can. I hold a small amount of skepticism towards their article, though, because I do not believe they properly delineated MSA from historical dialectal Arabic found in Persia vs. Egypt. Additionally they make no mention of Berber vs. Arabic.\n\nAdditionally I would like to mention looking into the Shu'ubiyya movement and the pro-Persian practices of the Abbasids but I will let those better versed in Persian history expand on those .\n\n1. Abdul-Husain Zarrinkub**The Arab conquest of Iran and its aftermath** R.N. Frye (Ed.) (2007), pp. 1-57\n2. Mullen, Alex, and James, *Multilingualism in the Graeco-Roman Worlds*, 68.\n3. Cotton, Hannah. *From Hellenism to Islam: Cultural and Linguistic Change in the Roman Near East*. Cambridge University Press, 2012, 426.\n4. Abun-Nasr, Jamil M, *A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period, 39.*\n5. Predictability of language death: Structural compatibility and language contact Reza, Ghafar Samarab, Tej K. Bhatiac\n\nPredictability of language death: Structural compatibility and language contact [RezaGhafar Samarab](_URL_2_!)[Tej K.Bhatiac](_URL_2_!)\n\n6. Sullivan, Shaun. \"Coptic Conversion and the Islamization of Egypt.\" *Mamluk Studies* *Review* 10, no. 2 (2006): 6579. [_URL_1_](_URL_0_).\n\n7. Parker, Kenneth S. \"Coptic Language and Identity in Ayyūbid Egypt1.\" *Al-Masāq* 25, no. 2 (2013): 222 39. doi:10.1080/09503110.2013.799953.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26919",
"title": "Semitic languages",
"section": "Section::::History.:Common Era (CE).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1234,
"text": "With the advent of the early Muslim conquests of the seventh and eighth centuries, the hitherto largely uninfluential Arabic language slowly replaced many (but not all) of the indigenous Semitic languages and cultures of the Near East. Both the Near East and North Africa saw an influx of Muslim Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula, followed later by non-Semitic Muslim Iranian and Turkic peoples. The previously dominant Aramaic dialects gradually began to be sidelined, however descendant dialects of Eastern Aramaic (including the Akkadian influenced Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo and Mandaic) survive to this day among the Assyrians and Mandaeans of northern Iraq, northwestern Iran, northeastern Syria and southeastern Turkey, with up to a million fluent speakers. Western Aramaic is now only spoken by a few thousand Syriac Christians in western Syria. The Arabs spread their Central Semitic language to North Africa (Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco and northern Sudan and Mauritania) where it gradually replaced Egyptian Coptic and many Berber languages (although Berber is still largely extant in many areas), and for a time to the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain, Portugal and Gibraltar) and Malta.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "711405",
"title": "Levantine Arabic",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "Although small communities of Arabic speakers were present prior to the Muslim conquest of the Levant, it is widely accepted that during the Roman and Byzantine periods, varieties of Greek-influenced Aramaic were the dominant spoken language of Palestine. The language shift from Aramaic to Arabic, both Semitic languages, that began in the 7th century after the conquests, was not a sudden switch from one language to another, but a long process over several generations, likely with an extended period of bilingualism. Some communities, such as the Samaritans, retained Aramaic well into the Muslim period, and a few small Aramaic-speaking villages had remained until the recent Syrian Civil War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48473",
"title": "Coptic language",
"section": "Section::::History.:Islamic period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "The Muslim conquest of Egypt by Arabs came with the spread of Islam in the seventh century. At the turn of the eighth century, Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan decreed that Arabic replace Koine Greek and Coptic as the sole administrative language. Literary Coptic gradually declined, and within a few hundred years, Egyptian bishop Severus Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ found it necessary to write his \"History of the Patriarchs\" in Arabic. However, ecclesiastically the language retained an important position, and many hagiographic texts were also composed during this period. Until the 10th century, Coptic remained the spoken language of the native population outside the capital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3567942",
"title": "Islamization of Iran",
"section": "Section::::Iranian culture after Islam.:Persian policies after the Islamic conquest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "After the Islamic conquest of the Sassanid Empire, during the 90-year long reign of the Ummayad dynasty, the Arab conquerors tried to impose Arabic as the primary language of the subject peoples throughout their empire. Hajjāj ibn Yusuf was not happy with the prevalence of the Persian language in the divan, ordered the official language of the conquered lands to be replaced by Arabic, sometimes by force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15182418",
"title": "List of countries where Arabic is an official language",
"section": "Section::::History.:Umayyad Caliphate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "The early Muslim conquests (, al-Futūḥāt al-Islāmiyya) and the following Expansion of Islam (, Intishar al-Islām) led to the expansion of the Arabic language in Northern Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, the Caucasus, Western Asia, Central Asia and South Asia. Along with the religion of Islam, the Arabic language, Arabic number system and Arab customs spread throughout the entire Arab caliphate. The caliphs of the Arab dynasty established the first schools inside the empire which taught Arabic language and Islamic studies for all pupils in all areas within the caliphate. The result was (in those areas which belonged to the Arab empire) the creation of the society that was mostly Arabic-speaking because of the assimilation of native inhabitants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "554464",
"title": "Ottoman Turkish language",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "The conservation of archaic phonological features of the Arabic borrowings furthermore suggests that Arabic-incorporated Persian was absorbed into pre-Ottoman Turkic at an early stage, when the speakers were still located to the north-east of Persia, prior to the westward migration of the Islamic Turkic tribes. An additional argument for this is that Ottoman Turkish shares the Persian character of its Arabic borrowings with other Turkic languages that had even less interaction with Arabic, such as Tatar and Uyghur. From the early ages of the Ottoman Empire, borrowings from Arabic and Persian were so abundant that original Turkish words were hard to find. In Ottoman, one may find whole passages in Arabic and Persian incorporated into the text. It was however not only extensive loaning of words, but along with them much of the grammatical systems of Persian and Arabic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1497885",
"title": "Western Neo-Aramaic",
"section": "Section::::Distribution and history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Following the Muslim conquest of the Levant, there was a linguistic shift to Arabic for local Muslims and later for remaining Christians; Arabic displaced various Aramaic languages, including Western Aramaic varieties, as the first language of the majority. Despite this, Western Aramaic appears to have survived for a relatively long time at least in some villages in mountainous areas of Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon (in modern Syria). In fact, up until the 17th century, travellers in the Lebanon still reported on several Aramaic-speaking villages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3qb4er
|
the who announcement regarding processed meats.
|
[
{
"answer": "So first off you really need to understand what the numbers look like here. We're talking about maybe 34,000 cases worldwide. Almost 13 million cases of cancer are diagnosed every year. So even if we take this announcement at face value, you're looking at about .002% of all cancer. Over the course of your life you have about a 40% chance of getting some kind of cancer (much more likely very late in life) so if you live to be around 80 you're looking at about a .001% chance that you'll get any sort of cancer from your bacon intake assuming this is correct. \n\nHere's the thing: almost any sort of cooking that alters the food a lot might be carcinogenic. A good char on your steak? Probably a little bit carcinogenic. The same applies to that char of your tofu, too. This sort of modified chance is less about meat (and the processing of it) as much as it is about the methods used to make things. \n\nAlso, you need to be aware that when they did this study they basically used the crappiest bacon you can find. A crap bacon made of a miserable pig full of nitrates and nitrites really is not the same thing as a traditionally smoked and cured slice of bacon from a healthy and properly raised pig. When we're talking about odds this small, those things matter a lot. \n\nBut basically this is because these things have nitrates in them. It's not news or new. Nitrites degrade into nitrosamines in high acid or high heat environments. Nitrosamines are carcinogenic. Even \"uncured\" meats have nitrites in them, as they are cured with celery juice which contain high amounts of natural nitrates instead of chemical curing agent. \n\nPeople seem to have it in their heads that the idea of living is to never die, but it's not. You evolved to make other humans by the time you hit middle age. After that, there's no promises. Something will kill you. If it's not the 0.002% chance it's bacon, then there's the much larger chance that it's liver failure from alcohol consumption or heart disease or the massive environmental stress put on a body by a lifetime of not enough sleep, too much work, and weird exposure to electronics 24/7. All of it's got a chance of being the thing that does you in, but only one of them gets to win and ultimately one of them will. That's what this means. \"of the people that have cancer, a really small number of them had it triggered by the carcinogens that came from nitrates in processed meats as opposed to the carcinogens that came from just about every other aspect of their life or from the free radicals that they generated themselves.\" \n\nEDIT: TL:DR: life is a cost benefit analysis in action. Everything you do might have a negative consequence somewhere. Some things have a better change of hurting you than others. Eating bacon is absurdly safe compared to most everything else you do. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "933515",
"title": "Horse meat",
"section": "Section::::In various countries.:Europe.:Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "The 2013 meat adulteration scandal started when German authorities detected horse meat in prepared food products including frozen lasagna, where it was declared fraudulently as beef. The mislabeling prompted EU authorities to speed up publication of European Commission recommendations for labeling the origin of all processed meat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40280433",
"title": "JUST, Inc.",
"section": "Section::::Products.:Cultured (Clean) Meat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "In June 2017, the company revealed that it had been secretly working on cultured meat for a year and aimed to make its first commercial sale of a \"clean meat\" product by the end of 2018. In August 2017, the company said it had begun early talks with at least 10 global meat and feed companies across South America, Europe, and Southeast Asia to bring industrialized production efficiency to lab-grown meat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48557149",
"title": "Old Butcher's Shop, Childers",
"section": "Section::::Heritage listing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "It contains much of its original equipment which has the potential to provide information on the way in which meat was processed for public sale and the equipment available to butchers, such as sausage machines, brine pumps, presses and mincers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14616572",
"title": "ICA meat repackaging controversy",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Irregularities revealed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "Hans Hallén, a former quality control manager for ICA, revealed that the company knew that meat was being illegally repackaged as early as 2003. Hallén, who monitored ICA stores in southern Sweden from 2003-2005, said he had informed the company's managers of the exact practices that were exposed in the documentary program. According to Hallén, many stores engaged in practices such as repackaging meat in order to change the 'best before' date, saying that \"they even re-minced meat that had already been out on the shelves, before repackaging it and putting it back out on the shelves\". Sausage meats that had become old and sticky were also repackaged after rinsing, he said.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1781370",
"title": "Processed meat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Processed meat is considered to be any meat which has been modified in order either to improve its taste or to extend its shelf life. Methods of meat processing include salting, curing, fermentation, and smoking. Processed meat is usually composed of pork or beef, but also poultry, while it can also contain offal or meat by-products such as blood. Processed meat products include bacon, ham, sausages, salami, corned beef, jerky, canned meat and meat-based sauces. Meat processing includes all the processes that change fresh meat with the exception of simple mechanical processes such as cutting, grinding or mixing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6494435",
"title": "Curing (food preservation)",
"section": "Section::::Effect of meat preservation.:On health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meat, that is, meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermenting, or smoking, as \"carcinogenic to humans\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9556567",
"title": "Ethics of cloning",
"section": "Section::::Use of cloned animals for food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "On December 28, 2006, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the consumption of meat and other products from cloned animals. Cloned-animal products were said to be indistinguishable from the non-cloned animals. Furthermore, companies would not be required to provide labels informing the consumer that the meat comes from a cloned animal. In 2007, some meat and dairy producers did propose a system to track all cloned animals as they move through the food chain, suggesting that a national database system integrated into the National Animal Identification System could eventually allow food labeling. However, as of 2013 no tracking system exists, and products from cloned animals are sold for human consumption in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
393amq
|
when i eat apples my face sweats, why reddit
|
[
{
"answer": "Are you allergic to apples? I never had this happen or heard of it happening to anyone. Bot pls don't kill me :( Friend bot?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sounds to me like an alergic reaction.\n\nDoes it happen with apple juice?\n\nstop eating apples. You risk tightening your esophagus if you really are allergic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2453608",
"title": "Gravenstein",
"section": "Section::::Description and growing conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "The skin of the fruit is a delicately waxy yellow-green with crimson spots and reddish lines, but the apple may also occur in a classically red variation. These red apples, known as Red Gravensteins, are sports, which are genetically similar to Gravenstein, so they are not good pollinators for it, and nor is it for them. The flesh is juicy, finely grained, and light yellow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28839054",
"title": "Jell-O 1-2-3",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the episode \"The Lost Art of Forehead Sweat\" of the TV show \"The X-Files\", Agent Scully remembers having it at family celebrations, but misremembers it as \"Goop-O A-B-C\" due to the Mandela effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20632482",
"title": "Ryuk (Death Note)",
"section": "Section::::Creation and conception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "Ohba said that he always mentioned apples in the thumbnails because he wished to use \"the dying message that Shinigami only eat apples\" and therefore he needed Ryuk to hold apples and that \"There's no other reason.\" Ohba also said that he specifically chose apples as the red \"goes well\" with Ryuk's black body and that the apples \"fit well\" with Ryuk's \"big\" mouth. When Obata informed Ohba that apples held religious and psychological significance and that a person could \"read a lot\" into the inclusion of apples and that he assumed that was the reason why Ohba included the apples, Ohba said that he did not \"think about that at all\" and that he believes that \"apples are cool... that's it. [\"laughs\"]\" Ohba added that he felt including aspects that could become later plot points was beneficial, and the apples were used as a point when Light asked Ryuk to search for the cameras in exchange for apples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9894413",
"title": "Ribston Pippin",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "The apple skin is a yellow, flushed orange, streaked red with russet at the base and apex. The yellow flesh is firm, fine-grained, and sweet with a pear taste. Irregularly shaped and sometimes lopsided, the apple is usually round to conical in shape and flattened at the base with distinct ribbing. Weather conditions during ripening cause a marbling or water coring of the flesh, and in very hot weather, the fruit will ripen prematurely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18978754",
"title": "Apple",
"section": "Section::::Human consumption.:Phytochemicals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Apples are a rich source of various phytochemicals including flavonoids (e.g., catechins, flavanols, and quercetin) and other phenolic compounds (e.g., epicatechin and procyanidins) found in the skin, core, and pulp of the apple; they have unknown health value in humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55999641",
"title": "Sweat (The All-American Rejects song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "\"Sweat\" is a song by American rock band The All-American Rejects, released as the lead single from their forthcoming fifth studio album on July 7, 2017. \"Sweat\" was released alongside another song, \"Close Your Eyes\", in addition to an accompanying 11-minute music video.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21040505",
"title": "Gustatory hyperhidrosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "Gustatory hyperhidrosis is excessive sweating that certain individuals regularly experience on the forehead (scalp), upper lip, perioral region, or sternum a few moments after eating spicy foods, tomato sauce, chocolate, coffee, tea, or hot soups. This type of sweating is classified under focal hyperhidrosis, that is, it is restricted to certain regions of the body. A common cause is trauma or damage to the nerve that passes through the parotid gland, which can be due to surgery of the parotid gland (parotidectomy). This type of sweating is known as Frey's syndrome. Gustatory hyperhidrosis has been observed in diabetics with autonomic neuropathy, and a variant of this disorder has been reported following surgical sympathectomy. One of the more effective treatments is oral or topically applied glycopyrrolate. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5wi89i
|
what happens to water when it goes stale?
|
[
{
"answer": "Part of it has to do with some of the gasses inside the water evaporating out, like how when you leave water out for a while it starts developing little bubbles along the walls of the glass.\n\nThe rest, as you mentioned, is from the container itself reacting with the water and the minerals inside it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "After about 12 hours tap water starts to go flat as carbon dioxide in the air starts to mix with the water in the glass, lowering its pH and giving it an off taste",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12349567",
"title": "Drain (plumbing)",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:Waste versus re-circulated drains.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "In the United Kingdom, plumbers refer to waste water as 'bad water'. This is under the premise that the water they are moving from one area to another via the use of a drain is not needed and can be removed from the area, like a 'bad apple' being removed from a fruit bowl.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251975",
"title": "Dehumidifier",
"section": "Section::::Condensate.:Potability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "BULLET::::- Various pathogens, including fungal spores, may accumulate in the water, particularly due to its stagnancy. Unlike in distilled water production, the water is not boiled, which would kill pathogens (including bacteria).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "268397",
"title": "Anhydrous",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "A substance is anhydrous if it contains no water. Many processes in chemistry can be impeded by the presence of water, therefore, it is important that water-free reagents and techniques are used. In practice, however, it is very difficult to achieve perfect dryness; anhydrous compounds gradually absorb water from the atmosphere so they must be stored carefully.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2439731",
"title": "Edwards Aquifer",
"section": "Section::::Water balance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Annual storage can be negative during dry years with high water use and positive during wet years with relatively low water use. A long-term negative imbalance between recharge and discharge in an aquifer may lead to the depletion of the available water in the aquifer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26720883",
"title": "Post-harvest losses (vegetables)",
"section": "Section::::Causes of loss after harvest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "Fresh produce continues to lose water after harvest. Water loss causes shrinkage and loss of weight. The rate at which water is lost varies according to the product. Leafy vegetables lose water quickly because they have a thin skin with many pores. Potatoes, on the other hand, have a thick skin with few pores. But whatever the product, to extend shelf or storage life the rate of water loss must be minimal. The most significant factor is the ratio of the surface area of the fruit or vegetable to its volume. The greater the ratio the more rapid will be the loss of water. The rate of loss is related to the difference between the water vapour pressure inside the produce and in the air. Produce must therefore be kept in a moist atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35226965",
"title": "Water issues in developing countries",
"section": "Section::::Availability and access.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "The scarcity of fresh water resources is an issue in arid regions around the world, but is becoming more common due to overcommitment of resources. In the case of physical water scarcity, there is not enough water to meet demand. Dry regions do not have access to fresh water in lakes or rivers while access to groundwater is sometimes limited. Regions most affected by this type of water scarcity are Mexico, Northern and Southern Africa, the Middle East, India, and Northern China. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11671698",
"title": "Soil salinity control",
"section": "Section::::The soil salinity problem.:Secondary cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Most of the water lost this way is stored underground which can change the original hydrology of local aquifers considerably. Many aquifers cannot absorb and transport these quantities of water, and so the water table rises leading to waterlogging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3b2oc4
|
why hasn't a car company come up with a new better performing, more efficient air cooled engine?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ironic username is ironic. \n\nI think engineers like water cooling because it helps solve a number of problems. It quiets the engine, provides a reliable source of heat for the HVAC systems and allows the temperature of the engine to be contained to a narrower range, allowing it to run more efficiently. \n\nThat said, I long ago promised myself that my next car will have an air-cooled boxer six in the rear. Still waiting, however. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because you're dealing with a fuck-tonne of heat in the car engine. The reason water is used is because it takes a huge amount of energy to change its temperature, whereas air only needs a little bit of energy for its temperature to change. \n\nOn top of that, water boils at a temperature lower than the melting point of the engine parts. This happens to be a good thing because when something is boiling, its temperature stays constant. This allows you to plan for your parts to expand and run at a certain temperature range if you use water as your coolant. Air, on the other hand, lacks this benefit because it wouldn't be changing state in the environments that people typically use their cars in. \n\nI'm pretty sure that smaller combustion engines such as the ones on lawn equipment are air cooled, but those have less rigorous tolerances, and don't put off nearly as much heat as a car engine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A common misconception about Porsche's (your username) is that they were only air cooled. The engines in fact were oil-cooled. They had a tremendous oil capacity and cooling system for it. Cooling with air is very difficult because it is an insulator and an engine has a lot of volume without enough surface area (opposite of a radiator) to dissipate heat. A typical cooling system on an engine is not as complicated as you seem to imply and it is very effective. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4024093",
"title": "Thermal efficiency",
"section": "Section::::Heat engines.:Carnot efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "It can be seen that since formula_10 is fixed by the environment, the only way for a designer to increase the Carnot efficiency of an engine is to increase formula_9, the temperature at which the heat is added to the engine. The efficiency of ordinary heat engines also generally increases with operating temperature, and advanced structural materials that allow engines to operate at higher temperatures is an active area of research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1567474",
"title": "Airbus A220",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Program launch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "The new Pratt & Whitney engine should yield 12 percent better fuel economy than existing jets while being quieter, with further efficiency stemming from enhanced aerodynamics and lightweight materials. Together, the engines and high use of composite materials, like the wide-body Boeing 787 Dreamliner and Airbus A350 XWB contribute to the aforementioned 12-15% better cash operating costs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7067473",
"title": "Industrial applications of nanotechnology",
"section": "Section::::Aerospace and vehicle manufacturers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Much like aerospace, lighter and stronger materials would be useful for creating vehicles that are both faster and safer. Combustion engines might also benefit from parts that are more hard-wearing and more heat-resistant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3428890",
"title": "Fuel saving device",
"section": "Section::::Thermodynamic efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Extremely efficient vehicle designs capable of achieving 100MPG+ (such as the VW 1l) do not have substantially greater engine efficiency, but instead focus on better aerodynamics, reduced vehicle weight, and using energy that would otherwise be dissipated as heat during braking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4480666",
"title": "Ceramic engineering",
"section": "Section::::Modern industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 930,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the early 1980s, Toyota researched production of an adiabatic ceramic engine which can run at a temperature of over 6000 °F (3300 °C). Ceramic engines do not require a cooling system and hence allow a major weight reduction and therefore greater fuel efficiency. Fuel efficiency of the engine is also higher at high temperature, as shown by Carnot's theorem. In a conventional metallic engine, much of the energy released from the fuel must be dissipated as waste heat in order to prevent a meltdown of the metallic parts. Despite all of these desirable properties, such engines are not in production because the manufacturing of ceramic parts in the requisite precision and durability is difficult. Imperfection in the ceramic leads to cracks, which can lead to potentially dangerous equipment failure. Such engines are possible in laboratory settings, but mass-production is not feasible with current technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "708520",
"title": "Internal combustion engine cooling",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Some high-efficiency engines run without explicit cooling and with only incidental heat loss, a design called adiabatic. Such engines can achieve high efficiency but compromise power output, duty cycle, engine weight, durability, and emissions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50916654",
"title": "Malaise era",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "This time corresponds with significantly increased oversight of the automotive industry with regard to fuel economy and exhaust emissions by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. The resulting vehicles were significantly less powerful and slower due to new emissions restrictions being applied to older, heavier vehicle designs which also often included aggressively detuning the existing large engine designs to meet regulations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xk0w2
|
Do blind people have better short-term memory for auditory input?
|
[
{
"answer": "I might just be spitballin' here, but i'm pretty sure when someone is blind/deaf, they compensate for it through neuroplasticity. As some parts of the brain are lacking input and just using space (ie neurons in the visual cortex that are not in use due to being blind), your brain will develop connections with neighboring subsystems based on the stimuli you need to get around in the environment (ie better auditory perception to compensate for blindness). \nBack to the question, i think you are talking more about working memory; the memory system that best supports the relationship between ST and LT memory. Working memory is a constant feedback loop between auditory and visual stimuli that work together to encode information to LT memory based on ST memory inputs. If one of the stimuli isn't going to work (in the case of blind people, visual stimuli just isn't a thing), i believe that under the idea of neuroplasticity, blind people will not store information longer, but be able to attend to it longer and work with it longer due to the additional connections the brain made to compensate for being blind.\njust vise-versa everything i said in the case for deaf people.\n\nHope this helps with your understanding. And i hope the reddit community will correct any mistakes i may have written. but i think this is the best explanation for your speculations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33106906",
"title": "Eyewitness memory",
"section": "Section::::Earwitness memory.:Auditory memory in blind individuals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "It has been suggested that blind individuals have an enhanced ability to hear and recall auditory information in order to compensate for a lack of vision. However, whilst blind adults' neural systems demonstrate heightened excitability and activity compared to sighted adults, it is still not exactly clear to what extent this compensatory hypothesis is accurate. Nevertheless, many studies have found that there appears to be a high activation of certain visual brain areas in blind individuals when they perform non-visual tasks. This suggests that in blind individuals' brains, a reorganization of what are normally visual areas has occurred in order for them to process non-visual input. This supports a compensatory hypothesis in the blind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7913402",
"title": "Paul Baltes",
"section": "Section::::Life-Span Developmental Psychology.:Plasticity.:Applications of Plasticity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1462,
"text": "Neuronal plasticity, or the capability of the brain to adapt to new requirements, is a prime example of plasticity stressing that the individual’s ability to change is a lifelong process. Recently, researchers have been analyzing how the spared senses compensate for the loss of vision. Without visual input, blind humans have demonstrated that tactile and auditory functions still fully develop. A superiority of the blind has even been observed when they are presented with tactile and auditory tasks. This superiority may suggest that the specific sensory experiences of the blind may influence the development of certain sensory functions, namely tactile and auditory. One experiment was designed by Röder and colleagues to clarify the auditory localization skills of the blind in comparison to the sighted. They examined both blind human adults’ and sighted human adults’ abilities to locate sounds presented either central or peripheral (lateral) to them. Both congenitally blind adults and sighted adults could locate a sound presented in front of them with precision but the blind were clearly superior in locating sounds presented laterally. Currently, brain-imaging studies have revealed that the sensory cortices in the brain are reorganized after visual deprivation. These findings suggest that when vision is absent in development, the auditory cortices in the brain recruit areas that are normally devoted to vision, thus becoming further refined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "169136",
"title": "University of Western Ontario",
"section": "Section::::Academics.:Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Research regarding the human brain has also become a major focus at the university. The Brain and Mind Institute focuses on research in cognitive neuroscience at Western. and the Institute recently discovered the blind may echolocate by using the visual cortex of the brain. Another recent study at Western has suggested people deaf from birth may be able to reassign the area of their brain used for hearing to boost their sight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39151518",
"title": "Neuronal recycling hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Future research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "New studies have adapted this hypothesis to explain cross modal plasticity which seems to occur in blind people. This is the fact that other senses in blind people seem to be heightened as a result of the loss of vision. Since blind patients are not exposed to the novel function of visual reading, the cortical area normally devoted to this function will be used for a different function. For example, scientists have found that the neural networks devoted to detecting moving sounds in blind people seem to be recruited by the area of the visual cortex responsible for visual movement in the sighted. This supports the theory that novel functions must find a neuronal niche, with existing cortical areas capable of supporting the function. This idea might also be applied to explain cross modality in deaf patients, and other cross modal phenomena such as synethesia and the McGurk effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16816355",
"title": "UCL Neuroscience",
"section": "Section::::History.:21st century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "In April 2006, a team from the UCL Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience published research showing that individuals with a skill for learning other languages could have more \"white brain matter\" in a part of the brain which processes sound. In August 2006, a team led by Dr Emrah Duzel of the UCL Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience published research showing that exposure to new experiences can boost the memory of the human brain. In January 2007 Professor van der Lely of the UCL Centre for Developmental Language Disorders and Cognitive Neuroscience published details of a 10-minute screening test capable of identifying pre-school children who might be dyslexic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26945761",
"title": "Cross modal plasticity",
"section": "Section::::Plasticity in the deaf.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Recent research indicates that in attention-based tasks such as object tracking and enumeration, deaf subjects perform no better than hearing subjects. Improvement in visual processing is still observed, even when a deaf subject is not paying attention to the direct stimulus. A study published in 2011 found that congenitally deaf subjects had significantly larger neuroretinal rim areas than hearing subjects, which suggests that deaf subjects may have a greater concentration of retinal ganglion cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12393540",
"title": "Auditory display",
"section": "Section::::Benefits and limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Auditory display enables eyes-free usage for blind users (via a screen reader) as well as sighted users who are using their eyes for other tasks. A rapid detection of acoustic signals and the omnidirectional feature of the sense of hearing can contribute to the effectiveness of an auditory display even when vision is available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
lj043
|
time signatures
|
[
{
"answer": "Simply, a time signature is the number of beats in a measure.\n\nListen to a piece of popular modern music, and count the beats. You'll most likely notice that it goes BOOM dot dot dot BOOM dot dot dot or some variant on that. The most significant beat happens every fourth beat.\n\nIn music, these four beats define a measure, which is an organizational unit. The time signature tells you how many beats there are in a measure. A time signature of 4/4 means there are 4 beats (top 4), and each is a quarter note (which is the bottom 4). The quarter note part is only important for reading the music, as it identifies which note is the beat.\n\nNow listen to a waltz. You'll notice that the main beat (aka the downbeat) comes every three beats: oom-pah pah, oom-pah pah, and so on. (Note: fast waltzes tend to sound like there's only one beat, but they are subdivided into three.) This is a time signature of 3/4: 3 beats, and the quarter note is the beat. Some waltzes are written in 3/8, which means the eighth note has the beat. This sounds identical, but the music is written differently (usually, this is done to make it easier to read).\n\nSome pieces are in two. These often include marches (which are otherwise in 4) and polkas. Think of the oom-pah, oom-pah tuba beat that underlines a stereotypical march. This is written as 2/4 and sometimes 2/2 (which means the half note has the beat; this looks like a 4/4 measure but has 2 beats. This is done for clarity reasons too).\n\nThe next most common signature is 6/8. This means there are 6 notes to a beat, but it can also be subdivided into 2 groups of 3 notes or 3 groups of 2 notes. This signature is used for some marches and dances (for example, a march where three notes can happen per beat instead of two). [Example](_URL_5_)\n\nThese are the most common time signatures: others exist, but aren't used as frequently. \n\nSome music is in 5, which means there are 5 beats to a measure. This can be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; or it can be subdivided into 1-2-3, 1-2 or 1-2, 1-2-3. [This piece](_URL_6_), which is in 5/8, mostly alternates between the latter two. [This one](_URL_2_) is in 5/4, and goes 1-2-3,1-2. This is more common for dances; a march isn't fun if you have to take an odd number of steps.\n\nSome pieces are in 7/4 or 7/8, which can be subdivided in several ways ([here's](_URL_3_) an example). Time signatures like 9/8 and 12/8 can be used to divide a 3/4 or 4/4 measure into threes.\n\nThere are also pieces which switch time signature, which makes things even more fun. This can be done for a variety of reasons: the music switches from a march to a dance, for example, but sometimes, the melody doesn't really fit into a time signature, so assigning it one that isn't awkward creates some odd signatures. [This](_URL_4_) piece alternates between 5/4 and 6/4, because the melody is free-flowing and assigning any one signature would have interfered with the structure. Composers can use changes for notational reasons: [this](_URL_0_) section of this piece is in 7, but the composer wrote it in measures of 2/2, 2/2, and 3/2 alternating so it is easier to read. (If you listen further into this piece, you'll see the time signature change because the nature of the piece changes.)\n\nThese changes can get strange; [this piece](_URL_1_) starts out in \"free time,\" where the conductor marks each chord, and then moves between 1/8, 2/4, 3/4, 4/4, 5/4, 3/8, 4/8, 5/8, 1.54, and 2.5/4. (Basically, this is because the composer, Grainger, was really weird.)\n\nThe odd and obscure time signatures are just that; you won't see them often, and the first few are the ones worth knowing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Count from one to three, and then keep repeating it (1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3....)\n\nNow count from one to four in the same way (1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4...)\n\nDid you FEEL the difference in the rhythm? That's what a time signature tells you. \n\nHint: the top number in a time signature is the only important one. It tells you what number to count to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Simply, a time signature is the number of beats in a measure.\n\nListen to a piece of popular modern music, and count the beats. You'll most likely notice that it goes BOOM dot dot dot BOOM dot dot dot or some variant on that. The most significant beat happens every fourth beat.\n\nIn music, these four beats define a measure, which is an organizational unit. The time signature tells you how many beats there are in a measure. A time signature of 4/4 means there are 4 beats (top 4), and each is a quarter note (which is the bottom 4). The quarter note part is only important for reading the music, as it identifies which note is the beat.\n\nNow listen to a waltz. You'll notice that the main beat (aka the downbeat) comes every three beats: oom-pah pah, oom-pah pah, and so on. (Note: fast waltzes tend to sound like there's only one beat, but they are subdivided into three.) This is a time signature of 3/4: 3 beats, and the quarter note is the beat. Some waltzes are written in 3/8, which means the eighth note has the beat. This sounds identical, but the music is written differently (usually, this is done to make it easier to read).\n\nSome pieces are in two. These often include marches (which are otherwise in 4) and polkas. Think of the oom-pah, oom-pah tuba beat that underlines a stereotypical march. This is written as 2/4 and sometimes 2/2 (which means the half note has the beat; this looks like a 4/4 measure but has 2 beats. This is done for clarity reasons too).\n\nThe next most common signature is 6/8. This means there are 6 notes to a beat, but it can also be subdivided into 2 groups of 3 notes or 3 groups of 2 notes. This signature is used for some marches and dances (for example, a march where three notes can happen per beat instead of two). [Example](_URL_5_)\n\nThese are the most common time signatures: others exist, but aren't used as frequently. \n\nSome music is in 5, which means there are 5 beats to a measure. This can be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; or it can be subdivided into 1-2-3, 1-2 or 1-2, 1-2-3. [This piece](_URL_6_), which is in 5/8, mostly alternates between the latter two. [This one](_URL_2_) is in 5/4, and goes 1-2-3,1-2. This is more common for dances; a march isn't fun if you have to take an odd number of steps.\n\nSome pieces are in 7/4 or 7/8, which can be subdivided in several ways ([here's](_URL_3_) an example). Time signatures like 9/8 and 12/8 can be used to divide a 3/4 or 4/4 measure into threes.\n\nThere are also pieces which switch time signature, which makes things even more fun. This can be done for a variety of reasons: the music switches from a march to a dance, for example, but sometimes, the melody doesn't really fit into a time signature, so assigning it one that isn't awkward creates some odd signatures. [This](_URL_4_) piece alternates between 5/4 and 6/4, because the melody is free-flowing and assigning any one signature would have interfered with the structure. Composers can use changes for notational reasons: [this](_URL_0_) section of this piece is in 7, but the composer wrote it in measures of 2/2, 2/2, and 3/2 alternating so it is easier to read. (If you listen further into this piece, you'll see the time signature change because the nature of the piece changes.)\n\nThese changes can get strange; [this piece](_URL_1_) starts out in \"free time,\" where the conductor marks each chord, and then moves between 1/8, 2/4, 3/4, 4/4, 5/4, 3/8, 4/8, 5/8, 1.54, and 2.5/4. (Basically, this is because the composer, Grainger, was really weird.)\n\nThe odd and obscure time signatures are just that; you won't see them often, and the first few are the ones worth knowing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Count from one to three, and then keep repeating it (1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3....)\n\nNow count from one to four in the same way (1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4...)\n\nDid you FEEL the difference in the rhythm? That's what a time signature tells you. \n\nHint: the top number in a time signature is the only important one. It tells you what number to count to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "901045",
"title": "Numbered musical notation",
"section": "Section::::Numbered notation described.:Time signature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "The time signature is written as a horizontal fraction: codice_6, codice_7, codice_8, codice_9, etc. It is usually placed after the key signature. Change of time signature within the piece of music may be marked in-line or above the line of music. Some pieces that start with cadenza passages are not marked with time signatures until the end of that passage, even if the passage uses dotted barlines (in which case time is usually implied).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30282",
"title": "Time signature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The time signature (also known as meter signature, metre signature, or measure signature) is a notational convention used in Western musical notation to specify how many beats (pulses) are contained in each measure (bar), and which note value is equivalent to a beat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3243540",
"title": "List of musical symbols",
"section": "Section::::Time signatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Time signatures define the meter of the music. Music is \"marked off\" in uniform sections called bars or measures, and time signatures establish the number of beats in each. This does not necessarily indicate which beats to emphasize, however, so a time signature that conveys information about the way the piece actually sounds is thus chosen. Time signatures tend to \"suggest\" prevailing groupings of beats or pulses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30282",
"title": "Time signature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "There are various types of time signatures, depending on whether the music follows regular (or symmetrical) beat patterns, including simple (e.g., and ), and compound (e.g., and ); or involves shifting beat patterns, including complex (e.g., or ), mixed (e.g., & or & ), additive (e.g., ), fractional (e.g., ), and irrational meters (e.g., or ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10087789",
"title": "Half-time (music)",
"section": "Section::::Common-time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "Time signatures are defined by how they divide the measure (in , complex triple time, each measure is divided in three, each of which is divided into three eighth notes: 3×3=9). In \"common\" time, often considered , each level is divided in two (simple duple time: 2×2=4). In a common-time rock drum pattern each measure (a whole note) is divided in two by the bass drum (half note), each half is divided in two by the snare drum (quarter note, collectively the bass and snare divide the measure into four), and each quarter note is divided in two by a ride pattern (eighth note). \"Half\"-time refers to halving this division (divide each measure into quarter notes with the ride pattern), while \"double\"-time refers to doubling this division (divide each measure into sixteenth notes with the ride pattern).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1936714",
"title": "List of musical works in unusual time signatures",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "This is a list of musical compositions or pieces of music that have unusual time signatures. \"Unusual\" is here defined to be any time signature other than simple time signatures with top numerals of 2, 3, or 4 and bottom numerals of 2, 4, or 8, and compound time signatures with top numerals of 6, 9, or 12 and bottom numerals 4, 8, or 16.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30282",
"title": "Time signature",
"section": "Section::::Variants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Music educator Carl Orff proposed replacing the lower number of the time signature with an actual note image, as shown at right. This system eliminates the need for compound time signatures, which are confusing to beginners. While this notation has not been adopted by music publishers generally (except in Orff's own compositions), it is used extensively in music education textbooks. Similarly, American composers George Crumb and Joseph Schwantner, among others, have used this system in many of their works.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24c8aj
|
Why was Alfred the great viewed positively by later kings when they only came to power by taking the country from his dynasty?
|
[
{
"answer": "Alfred the Great was extremely popular. He established a model of kingship in England that was built upon by his successors, and copied by later conquerors. Alfred established fantastical roots both for his kingship, and for the Anglo-Saxon people, tying them together with Christianity as glue in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. He rallied all the petty kings in England under his own West Saxon aegis, and became the first king of the English. He began a campaign of literacy and literary production to bring England back to the glory days of 8th century scholarship, when England led the world in learning. He and his successors adopted Carolingian models both for kingship and for monasticism (i.e. the Benedictine Reform), tying politics and religion together into a theocratic form of rule. He was a genius, and his work was so far reaching that he set a course for what England would be that in some ways even withstood the flood of Norman politics and Anglo-Norman culture that would later come to dominate the island.\n\nPeople tend to forget that Cnut the Great took the kingship before William the Conqueror. There were two instances of domination by an outside force, not one, and they came in relatively rapid succession. Cnut and William the Conqueror had very different ways of ruling the country though. Cnut modeled himself after the English kings, and prime among them was Alfred. He wrote laws in a form similar to what came before him, and styled himself after English kings in many ways. See [Cnut's Letter to the English](_URL_0_) to see how he reaches out to the English and connects back to Alfred's English lineage by saying that he will uphold the laws of Edgar. Cnut knew that Alfred and his successors were extremely popular, or at least some of them were, like Edgar, who was in many ways carried on Alfred's program of politics and culture better than any other English king, so its no wonder that Cnut singled him out as his model lawgiver. \n\nWilliam handled things quite differently. He dominated the English from afar and sent barons in his stead to rule the country. He built churches in a very different style overall, and changed the laws of the country dramatically. There are poems in the AS Chronicle that complain about his style of domination and note that he changed the landscaped entirely by building new buildings everywhere. This is an instance of one kind popular sentiment finding its way into the history books.\n\nSo why then would later kings take up Alfred as a positive figure? In my view, it is because they had no choice and it was advantageous for him. Alfred had long since become a figure in the popular imagination, and tales where told about him. He was a big enough figure that there are four MSS from the 13th century, in early Middle English, that preserve a text called *The Proverbs of Alfred*. He was such an important figure that he was seen as a font of gnomic proverbs even 250-300 years after his death in England. That's a tide you can't push back, no matter what. So later kings incorporated Alfred into their political and social programs.\n\nTake a look at David Pratt's *The Political Thought of King Alfred the Great* for details about Alfred's political program, with special attention to the role of learning in his model of kingship. Elaine Treharne's *Living Through Conquest: The Politics of Early English* looks at the period of the conquests using the status of English to focus her discussion of the history of the period. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33735007",
"title": "Death of Kings",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Alfred the Great is dying, Rivals for his succession are poised to tear the kingdom apart. The country that Alfred had worked for thirty years to build is likely to disintegrate. Uhtred, a Saxon born warrior, who has been raised by the Danes, wants more than anything else to go and fight to reclaim his stolen Northumbrian inheritance. But he knows that if he deserts the King's cause, Alfred's dream - and the very future of the English nation - might vanish immediately.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42531201",
"title": "Cultural depictions of Alfred the Great",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Alfred the Great was an Anglo-Saxon King, who ruled Wessex 871 – 899. His reign is usually regarded as the first in the lists of English monarchs. He has inspired many artistic and cultural works noticeably from the sixteenth century onwards, with a height in the Victorian Period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42531201",
"title": "Cultural depictions of Alfred the Great",
"section": "Section::::Background to Alfred's growing reputation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "Alfred's reign has been regarded as pivotal in the eventual unification of England, after he famously defended Wessex and southern England against the overwhelming Vikings invasions. Apart from his military success, he was also noted for his translations of Latin texts, education reforms (including advocacy of education in the English language rather than in Latin), improving his kingdom's legal system and civic defense. Alfred's positive image may have been accentuated by Bishop Asser, who was commissioned by Alfred to write his biography. Asser presented Alfred 'as the embodiment of the ideal, but practical, Christian ruler'. Later medieval historians William of Malmesbury, Gaimar Matthew Paris and Geoffrey of Monmouth further reinforced Alfred's favourable image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "693018",
"title": "Æthelwold ætheling",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 927,
"text": "Alfred also assisted his own son by promoting men who could be relied on to support him, and by giving him opportunities for command in battle once he was old enough. In the view of Barbara Yorke, the compilation of the \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\", which magnified Alfred's achievements, may have been partly intended to strengthen the case for the succession of his own descendants. However, Yorke also argues that Æthelwold's position was not fatally undermined by Alfred's will. His mother had witnessed a charter as \"regina\", whereas Alfred followed West Saxon tradition in refusing to have his wife consecrated as queen, and Æthelwold's status as the son of a queen may have given him an advantage over Edward. Æthelwold was still the senior ætheling, and the only surviving charter he witnessed shows both him and Edward as \"filius regis\" (son of a king), but lists Æthelwold above Edward, implying that he ranked above him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1640",
"title": "Alfred the Great",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Alfred the Great (, , 'Elf-counsel' or 'Wise-elf'; between 847 and 849 – 26 October 899) was King of Wessex from 871 to and King of the Anglo-Saxons from to 899. He was the youngest son of King Æthelwulf of Wessex. His father died when he was young and three of Alfred's brothers, Æthelbald, Æthelberht and Æthelred, reigned in turn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "693018",
"title": "Æthelwold ætheling",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Ann Williams comments: \"Æthelred virtually disinherits his children in favour of Alfred's in the event of his own previous death, at least in respect of the lion's share of the inheritance and therefore the kingship. This is in fact exactly what happened, and Æthelred's sons were not pleased at the outcome.\" In his \"Life\" of Alfred, written in 893, Asser states three times that Alfred was Æthelred's \"secundarius\" (heir apparent), an emphasis that in Ryan Lavelle's view \"reflects sensitivity on the subject of Alfred's succession\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1640",
"title": "Alfred the Great",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Alfred had a reputation as a learned and merciful man of a gracious and level-headed nature who encouraged education, proposing that primary education be conducted in English rather than Latin and improving the legal system, military structure and his people's quality of life. He was given the epithet \"the Great\" during and after the Reformation in the sixteenth century. The only other king of England given this epithet is Cnut the Great.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2z7gxr
|
how come i wake up a minute or two before my bus stop more or less like clockwork when i fall asleep on the bus?
|
[
{
"answer": "Same here. I've always thought that it's about habit - even when you aren't fully conscious, so long as it's not a truly deep sleep, a body probably has to stay aware of its surroundings (in case of danger?), and therefore, through habit, the body knows when to wake you up, but I have no scientific reason for thinking this, haha.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's probably a combination of a bunch of subtle clues that you subconsciously pick up on. It could be a pattern in the stops right before yours, subtle changes in the scent of the air near your stop, specific sounds that you only hear near your stop, the absence of the voice of a person who gets off right before your stop, or a combination of any or all of these and more. There are literally millions of variables that your brain can subconsciously pick up on, and wake you up at the perfect time to get off the bus. Having ridden the same route for 6 years, your brain will be excellent at picking up on subconscious clues that you may not even be able to notice consciously.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13773814",
"title": "On-time performance",
"section": "Section::::Effects of poor on-time performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "Buses when late may experience a problem known as bus bunching. On some bus lines with a more frequent service, if one bus falls behind schedule passenger numbers waiting at bus stops may grow, required a longer layover time. One or more subsequent buses on the published schedule may pass these already cleared stops and have a nearly empty run, and may actually jump ahead of their scheduled time to the point that two or more buses are within close sight of one another. In some cases, one bus is able to pass another. This phenomenon is sometimes known as \"clumping\" or \"bunching\". When this occurs, the even spacing of buses on the schedule may be severely disrupted, leading to extremely long waits for those attempting to catch a bus, and multiple buses arriving at once. Bus bunching serves to reduce the effectiveness of buses as a transport mode.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15572814",
"title": "Wait/walk dilemma",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Their paper concludes that it is usually mathematically quicker to wait for the bus, at least for a little while. But once made, the decision to walk should be final, as opposed to waiting again at subsequent stops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19612238",
"title": "Public transport bus service",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Scheduling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "There is a common cliché that people “wait all day, and then three come along at once”, in relation to a phenomenon where evenly timetabled bus services can develop a gap in service followed by buses turning up almost simultaneously. This occurs when the rush hour begins and numbers of passengers at a stop increases, increasing the loading time, and thus delay scheduled service. The following bus then catches up because it begins to be delayed less at stops due to fewer passengers waiting. This is called bus bunching. This is prevented in some cities such as Berlin by assigning every stop arrival times where scheduled buses should arrive no earlier than specified.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56554853",
"title": "2018 Hong Kong bus accident",
"section": "Section::::Incident.:Crash.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Before boarding the bus, the driver chatted with a bus fan for some time. It was reported that the bus departed the racecourse 10 minutes late, leading some passengers to scold and quarrel with the driver. Passengers said the driver then became frustrated, and \"drove really fast as if he was throwing a tantrum\". They said he drove \"very, very fast\" the whole time, without slowing for turns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9412179",
"title": "Peterborough Transit",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "The buses being required to back out of the bays at the existing terminal eat up roughly 10 minutes before all buses can start their trips. This can cause buses to end up running behind schedule later on in the day, as the arrival/depart time at the terminal generally falls farther and farther behind the more trips that are made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2543609",
"title": "Bus bunching",
"section": "Section::::Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "A bus that is running slightly late will, in addition to its normal load, pick up passengers who would have taken the next bus if the first bus had not been late. These extra passengers delay the first bus even further. In contrast, the bus behind the late bus has a lighter passenger load than it otherwise would have, and may therefore run ahead of schedule. The classical theory causal model for irregular intervals is based on the observation that a late bus tends to get later and later as it completes its run, while the bus following it tends to get earlier and earlier. Eventually these buses form a pair, one right after another, and the service deteriorates as the headway degrades from its nominal value. The buses that are stuck together are called a bus \"bunch\" or \"banana bus\"; this may also involve more than two buses. This effect is often theorised to be the primary cause of reliability problems on bus and metro systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1568321",
"title": "The Shadow over Innsmouth",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1119,
"text": "After being told that the bus is experiencing engine trouble, the narrator has no choice but to spend the night in a musty hotel, the Gilman House. While attempting to sleep, he hears noises at his door as if someone is trying to enter. Wasting no time, he escapes out a window and through the streets while a town-wide hunt for him occurs, forcing him at times to imitate the peculiar walk of the Innsmouth locals as he walks past search parties in the darkness. Eventually, he makes his way towards railroad tracks and hears a procession of Deep Ones passing in the road before him. Against his judgment, he opens his eyes to see the creatures and faints at his hiding spot. He wakes up unharmed. Over the years that pass, he researches his family tree and discovers that he is a descendant of Obed Marsh, and realizes that he is changing into one of the Deep Ones. As the story ends, the narrator is accepting his fate and feels he will be happy living with the Deep Ones. He plans to break out his cousin from an asylum, who is even further transformed than he, and take him to the Deep Ones' city beneath the sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6b5bmz
|
How much urbanisation was there in South America, besides the Inca cities?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hey there! Are you asking about urbanization in *regions* other than that which the Inca controlled, or are you interested in cultures that inhabited the same areas before them and whose own urbanisms developed into the Inca's?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "67318",
"title": "Geography of Chile",
"section": "Section::::Urban geography.:Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Industrial cities, such as Concepción and Talcahuano, began as colonial centers in the 1600s. Most of the large cities in Chile began as settlement locations for Spanish colonists living in homes constructed from adobe. They have grown to be the densely populated urban locations they are known for today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "476649",
"title": "Trujillo, Peru",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.:2007 census.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "In recent decades, urban growth is largely due to Trujillo population increase of migrant origin, the main contributors of population (1993 census), the interior provinces of La Libertad as Otuzco (15.8%), Santiago de Chuco (9.3%), Ascope (9%) and Sánchez Carrión (5.2%), while 16% contributed Cajamarca and Ancash with 5%;\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "730689",
"title": "Araucanía Region",
"section": "Section::::Demography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "During the past three decades, the city of Temuco has had the highest rate of growth in the nation. According to the census of 1970, about 88,000 inhabitants lived in Temuco. In the census of 2000, 30 years later, the population had tripled to 250,000. The resort town of Villarrica, on Lago Villarrica, has expanded rapidly. It is located next to the fast-growing resort of Pucon, now one of the four largest tourist destinations of Chile. According to the 2002 census, the most populated cities are: Temuco (260,783, includes Padre Las Casas), Villarrica (45,531), Angol (43,801), Victoria (23,977), Lautaro (18,808), New Imperial (14,980), Collipulli (14,240), Loncoche (14,191), and Traiguén (14,140).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23431",
"title": "History of Peru",
"section": "Section::::Pre-Columbian cultures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "As these inhabitants became sedentary, farming allowed them to build settlements and new societies emerged along the coast and in the Andean mountains. The first known city in the Americas was Caral, located in the Supe Valley 200 km north of Lima. It was built in approximately 2500 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45222463",
"title": "History of the city",
"section": "Section::::Ancient times.:Americas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "In the ancient Americas, early urban traditions developed in the Andes and Mesoamerica. In the Andes, the first urban centers developed in the Norte Chico civilization (also Caral or Caral-Supe civilization), Chavin and Moche cultures, followed by major cities in the Huari, Chimu and Inca cultures. The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, flourishing between the 30th century BC and the 18th century BC. Mesoamerica saw the rise of early urbanism in several cultural regions, including the Preclassic Maya, the Zapotec of Oaxaca, and Teotihuacan in central Mexico. Later cultures such as the Aztec drew on these earlier urban traditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23425281",
"title": "Demographics of Colombia",
"section": "Section::::Census.:Urbanization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Movement from rural to urban areas was very heavy in the middle of the twentieth century, but has since tapered off. The urban population increased from 31% of the total population in 1938, to 57% in 1951 and about 70% by 1990. Currently the figure is about 77%. Thirty cities have a population of 100,000 or more. The nine eastern lowlands departments, constituting about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 3% of the population and a density of less than one person per square kilometer (two people per sq. mi.).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5391",
"title": "City",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient times.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "In the ancient Americas, early urban traditions developed in the Andes and Mesoamerica. In the Andes, the first urban centers developed in the Norte Chico civilization, Chavin and Moche cultures, followed by major cities in the Huari, Chimu and Inca cultures. The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, flourishing between the 30th century BC and the 18th century BC. Mesoamerica saw the rise of early urbanism in several cultural regions, beginning with the Olmec and spreading to the Preclassic Maya, the Zapotec of Oaxaca, and Teotihuacan in central Mexico. Later cultures such as the Aztec drew on these earlier urban traditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cwr3gu
|
why is brown rice so much dryer than white rice?
|
[
{
"answer": "Brown rice is just white rice that hasn't been processed so it still has a thing called a bran layer. \n\nThe bran layer is a tough fiberous coating. It isn't very absorbent and it surrounds the outside of the rice grain, so when you feel it in your mouth, it feels drier and more coarse than regular rice which has that tough paprt removed so only the inner more absorbant and soft middle is there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4445374",
"title": "Red rice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Red rice is a variety of rice that is colored red by its anthocyanin content. It is usually eaten unhulled or partially hulled, and has a red husk, rather than the more common brown. Red rice has a nutty flavor. Compared to polished rice, it has the highest nutritional value of rices eaten with the germ intact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "438696",
"title": "Brown rice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Brown rice is a whole-grain rice with the inedible outer hull removed, white rice is the same grain with the hull, bran layer and cereal germ removed. Red rice, gold rice, and black rice (also called purple rice) are all whole rices, but with differently pigmented outer layers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "438696",
"title": "Brown rice",
"section": "Section::::Nutritional content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Brown rice and white rice have similar amounts of calories and carbohydrates. Brown rice is a whole grain and a good source of magnesium, phosphorus, selenium, thiamine, niacin, vitamin B6, and manganese, and is high in fiber. White rice, unlike brown rice, has the bran and germ removed, and therefore has different nutritional content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2599732",
"title": "Black rice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Black rice has a deep black color and usually turns deep purple when cooked. Its dark purple color is primarily due to its anthocyanin content, which is higher by weight than that of other colored grains. It is suitable for creating porridge, dessert, traditional Chinese black rice cake, bread, and noodles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3357133",
"title": "List of rice varieties",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "On the basis of processing type, rice can be divided into the two broad categories of brown and white. Brown rice is whole grain, with only the inedible hull of the seed removed, while white (milled) rice additionally has the bran and germ removed through the process of milling. Milled rice may not necessarily actually be white in color; there are also purple, black, and red variants of rice, which can be eaten whole grain or milled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "601792",
"title": "White rice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "White rice is milled rice that has had its husk, bran, and germ removed. This alters the flavor, texture and appearance of the rice and helps prevent spoilage and extend its storage life. After milling, the rice is polished, resulting in a seed with a bright, white, shiny appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12920662",
"title": "Red Cargo rice",
"section": "Section::::Health and nutritional benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Red rice is a good source of thiamin (vitamin B), riboflavin (vitamin B), fibre, iron and calcium. The flavor of cooked red cargo rice is generally more sweet and nutty, and the texture is more chewy than standard white polished rice. Red rice takes longer to cook than white rice, but not as long as brown rice. Soaking the rice in water for at least 30 minutes before cooking produces a softer texture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a9v9s3
|
how do glow sticks light up when broken
|
[
{
"answer": "They contain two chemicals that, when mixed, produce light. One of these chemicals is stored in a thin glass vial. When you crack the stick, the chemicals start mixing & the reaction can take place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is an inner glass tube that when broken allows 2 chemicals to mix. The reaction causes them to glow with different chemicals making different colors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The outside tube is made of flexible plastic and contains a solution of phenyl oxalate and fluorescent dye. Inside that is a glass tube containing hydrogen peroxide. When you bend the stick far enough, the glass tube breaks and the two chemical solutions can mix. The reaction between phenyl oxalate and hydrogen peroxide produces energy, which goes into the fluorescent dye. The dye then emits that energy as light.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "291437",
"title": "Glow stick",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Glow sticks emit light when two chemicals are mixed. The reaction between the two chemicals is catalyzed by a base, usually sodium salicylate. The sticks consist of a tiny, brittle container within a flexible outer container. Each container holds a different solution. When the outer container is flexed, the inner container breaks, allowing the solutions to combine, causing the necessary chemical reaction. After breaking, the tube is shaken to thoroughly mix the components.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23318",
"title": "Phosphorus",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Chemiluminescence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "In 1974, the glow was explained by R. J. van Zee and A. U. Khan. A reaction with oxygen takes place at the surface of the solid (or liquid) phosphorus, forming the short-lived molecules HPO and that both emit visible light. The reaction is slow and only very little of the intermediates are required to produce the luminescence, hence the extended time the glow continues in a stoppered jar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291437",
"title": "Glow stick",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "A glow stick is a self-contained, short-term light-source. It consists of a translucent plastic tube containing isolated substances that, when combined, make light through chemiluminescence, so it does not require an external energy source. The light cannot be turned off and can only be used once. Glow sticks are often used for recreation, but may also be relied upon for light during military, police, fire, or emergency medical services operations. They are also used by military and police to mark ‘clear’ areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291437",
"title": "Glow stick",
"section": "Section::::Safety issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "In glow sticks, phenol is produced as a byproduct. It is advisable to keep the mixture away from skin and to prevent accidental ingestion if the glow stick case splits or breaks. If spilled on skin, the chemicals could cause slight skin irritation, swelling, or, in extreme circumstances, vomiting and nausea. Some of the chemicals used in older glow sticks were thought to be potential carcinogens. The sensitizers used are polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, a class of compounds known for their carcinogenic properties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "309252",
"title": "Phosphorescence",
"section": "Section::::Chemiluminescence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Some examples of glow-in-the-dark materials do not glow by phosphorescence. For example, glow sticks glow due to a chemiluminescent process which is commonly mistaken for phosphorescence. In chemiluminescence, an excited state is created via a chemical reaction. The light emission tracks the kinetic progress of the underlying chemical reaction. The excited state will then transfer to a dye molecule, also known as a sensitizer or fluorophor, and subsequently fluoresce back to the ground state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291437",
"title": "Glow stick",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "The glow stick contains two chemicals, a base catalyst, and a suitable dye (sensitizer, or fluorophor). This creates an exothermic reaction. The chemicals inside the plastic tube are a mixture of the dye, the base catalyst, and diphenyl oxalate. The chemical in the glass vial is hydrogen peroxide. By mixing the peroxide with the phenyl oxalate ester, a chemical reaction takes place, yielding two moles of phenol and one mole of peroxyacid ester (1,2-dioxetanedione). The peroxyacid decomposes spontaneously to carbon dioxide, releasing energy that excites the dye, which then relaxes by releasing a photon. The wavelength of the photon—the color of the emitted light—depends on the structure of the dye. The reaction releases energy mostly as light, with very little heat. The reason for this is that the reverse [2 + 2] photocycloadditions of 1,2-dioxetanedione is a forbidden transition (it violates Woodward–Hoffmann rules) and cannot proceed through a regular thermal mechanism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "870857",
"title": "Glow discharge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "A glow discharge is a plasma formed by the passage of electric current through a gas. It is often created by applying a voltage between two electrodes in a glass tube containing a low-pressure gas. When the voltage exceeds a value called the striking voltage, the gas ionization becomes self-sustaining, and the tube glows with a colored light. The color depends on the gas used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
141cij
|
What kind of programs or movements existed to assist the homeless between the 19th century and the Great Depression?
|
[
{
"answer": "Unions, Churches and Ethnic clubs/General Community organizations. \n\nBefore Roosevelt, there was a strong mainstream belief that the poor should not rely on a government dole in order to get by. If they needed some help, then the community could help somebody when they were down. But this was temporary and it relied totally on the community for support. If the entire community was generally down (like during the depression) then this help could dry up completely. \n\nFurther, Union membership could help a person (usually a white man, but non-Chinese minorities and women were accepted into the Knights of Labor, and eventually this would happen in other Unions as well) get jobs. Further, organizations like the First International Workingmen's Association (a European Marxist organization) would often give money to people who were striking in order to prolong the strike. But that was only if your strike was important enough, and if the government (even the US!) didnt put you down first. \n\nThis doesnt really effectively change until the New Deal, when Roosevelt creates work programs like the WPA and the CCC which payed people to work. Note: it payed people *to work*. It wasnt until Roosevelt's second term that he passed the Social Security act which, in addition to giving money to grannies, created unemployment benefits and disability payments. This was essentially a government dole, you got paid for \"nothing\". But until the New Deal this idea of free money was looked down on as socialist(and even look at what people say about Well-fare and people on long-term unemployment). Even employing people (as opposed to hiring companies) was generally avoided by the government.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2153593",
"title": "Volunteers of America",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "In the early 1900s, the organization began an expansive philanthropic program that included employment bureaus, co-operative stores, medical dispensaries, distribution of clothes, women's sewing classes, Thanksgiving meals, reading rooms, fresh air camps and other establishments. During the advent of the Great Depression in the 1930s, Volunteers of America mobilized to assist the millions of people who were unemployed, hungry and homeless. Relief efforts included employment bureaus, wood yards, soup kitchens and \"Penny Pantries\" where every food item cost one cent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "477386",
"title": "Hooverville",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Homelessness was present before the Great Depression, and was a common sight before 1929. Most large cities built municipal lodging houses for the homeless, but the Depression exponentially increased demand. The homeless clustered in shanty towns close to free soup kitchens. These settlements were often trespassing on private lands, but they were frequently tolerated or ignored out of necessity. The New Deal enacted special relief programs aimed at the homeless under the Federal Transient Service (FTS), which operated from 1933–1935.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19394651",
"title": "Homelessness",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early history through the 1800s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "The growing movement toward social concern sparked the development of rescue missions, such as the U.S. first rescue mission, the New York City Rescue Mission, founded in 1872 by Jerry and Maria McAuley. In smaller towns, there were hobos, who temporarily lived near train tracks and hopped onto trains to various destinations. Especially following the American Civil War, a large number of homeless men formed part of a counterculture known as \"hobohemia\" all over the United States. This phenomenon re-surged in the 1930s during and after the Great Depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233733",
"title": "William Aberhart",
"section": "Section::::Political career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Aberhart instituted a variety of relief programs to help people out of poverty, as well as public works programs and a debt relief program that froze some debt collections and mortgage foreclosures. This, like Tommy Douglas' similar program in Saskatchewan, was later overturned in the mid-1940s by the Supreme Court, although it aided people for a number of years during and (for a short time) after the Great Depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "667980",
"title": "Homelessness in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.:Urbanization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "The growing movement toward social concern sparked the development of rescue missions, such as America's first rescue mission, the New York City Rescue Mission, founded in 1872 by Jerry and Maria McAuley. In smaller towns, there were hobos, who temporarily lived near train tracks and hopped onto trains to various destinations. Especially following the American Civil War, a large number of homeless men formed part of a counterculture known as \"hobohemia\" all over America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19394651",
"title": "Homelessness",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The Community Mental Health Act of 1963 was a predisposing factor in setting the stage for homelessness in the United States. Long-term psychiatric patients were released from state hospitals into SROs and supposed to be sent to community mental health centers for treatment and follow-up, but it never quite worked out properly. The community mental health centers mostly did not materialize, and this population largely was found living in the streets soon thereafter with no sustainable support system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "247817",
"title": "Welfare",
"section": "Section::::Welfare systems.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "AFDC (originally called Aid to Dependent Children) was created during the Great Depression to alleviate the burden of poverty for families with children and allow widowed mothers to maintain their households. The New Deal employment program such as the Works Progress Administration primarily served men. Prior to the New Deal, anti-poverty programs were primarily operated by private charities or state or local governments; however, these programs were overwhelmed by the depth of need during the Depression. The United States has no national program of cash assistance for non-disabled poor individuals who are not raising children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1nh9sq
|
how they change wedding rings size without cutting?
|
[
{
"answer": "The machine linked in the OP stretches the ring to make it larger, or compresses it in one of those dies around the base to make it smaller. Gold is pretty malleable, so it's not terribly hard to change its size this way. Yes, of course it will affect the overall thickness of the band. if you stretch it, the band will get thinner, for example.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hey, goldsmith here. The picture you linked is, like another user said, a device we call a \"ring stretcher\". There are various forms of it and it usually includes a compressor as already mentioned. This works only for rings of one color, and that are the same all the way around the band. Jewelers will not use this for a ring that has any stones in it, or rings that are two-toned, or that have areas that are thinner than others, because it causes \"unexpected and/or undesired results\".... As you have already guessed, the rings when compressed and stretched maintain their original weight, it is all the same material, but you are either stretching it out thinner to cover more area, or compressing it to cover smaller area. If you compress a ring a single ring size, it will not suddenly gain a whole millimeter's worth of thickness; it's much smaller and not very noticeable. You would need to stretch or compress a ring about 5 sizes or so to see a noticeable change in the ring. Usually in rings that are going down in many sizes that are not very thick you will see a concave depression happen on the inside of the band. If you stretch a ring that is two-toned, or white gold and yellow gold, you may cause the rings to separate, because the alloys to make karat yellow gold and karat white gold are different and stretch and compress differently; if you stretch a ring with stones set in it the areas removed to accommodate the stones will stretch faster and cause the settings to become weak and the metal to stretch irregularly, same with rings that have thin and thick design areas. Additionally, rings that have plain bottom shanks and elaborate crown and shoulder areas can also sometimes be stretched, but usually at the cost of the thickness of the shank- this can be done by placing the ring on a steel ring mandrel and \"tapping\" on the shank gently with a brass or steel hammer. There are many limitations to this but it can generally safely be done to a ring that has never been cut-sized and has been properly annealed 1/2 to 3/4 of a single size up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9548425",
"title": "Princess cut",
"section": "Section::::Popularity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "As of 2015, princess cut diamonds were the second most popular choice for an engagement ring. Approximately 30% of engagement rings use princess cut diamonds, behind round diamonds (50%) and ahead of cushions (8%). It saw its popularity at its peak in the 80s and 90s. The princess cut experienced a rise in popularity from the early 2000s to the mid 2000s. In the 2000s, the most popular engagement ring featured a princess cut diamond surrounded by round brilliant-cut diamonds. Disney in conjunction with Zales created a series of Disney Princess rings, with some of them, such as Aurora's, Fa Mulan's, Snow White's, and Tinker Bell's featuring princess cuts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39386",
"title": "Engagement",
"section": "Section::::Engagement rings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "In the modern era, some women's wedding rings are made into two separate pieces. One part is given to her to wear as an engagement ring when she accepts the marriage proposal and the other during the wedding ceremony. When worn together, the two rings look like one piece of jewelry. The engagement ring is not worn during the wedding ceremony, when the wedding ring is put by the groom on the finger of the bride, and sometimes by the bride onto the groom's finger. After the wedding, the engagement ring is put back on, and is usually worn on the outside of the wedding ring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9548425",
"title": "Princess cut",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "The princess cut (technical name 'square modified brilliant') is a diamond cut shape often used in engagement rings. The name dates back to the 1960s, while the princess cut as it exists was created by Betazel Ambar and Israel Itzkowitz in 1980. The cut has a square or rectangular shape when viewed from above, and from the side is similar to that of an inverted pyramid with four beveled sides. Its popularity was at its highest in the 80s and 90s, though its popularity was high in the 2000s as well. It is the second most popular diamond cut, below round and above cushion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39376",
"title": "Engagement ring",
"section": "Section::::Styles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1139,
"text": "In the United States, where engagement rings are worn by women, diamonds have been widely featured in engagement rings since the middle of the 20th century. Solitaire rings have one diamond. The most common setting for engagement rings is the solitaire prong setting, which was popularized by Tiffany & Co. in 1886 and its six-claw prong setting design sold under the \"Tiffany setting\" trademark. The modern favorite cut for an engagement ring is the brilliant cut, which provides the maximum amount of sparkle to the gemstone. The traditional engagement rings may have different prong settings and bands. Another major category is engagement rings with side stones. Rings with a larger diamond set in the middle and smaller diamonds on the side fit under this category. Three-stone diamond engagement rings, sometimes called \"trinity rings\" or \"trilogy rings\", are rings with three matching diamonds set horizontally in a row with the bigger stone placed in the center. The three diamonds on the ring are typically said to represent the couple's past, present, and future, but other people give religious significance to the arrangement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23705847",
"title": "Ring enhancers",
"section": "Section::::Function of a Ring Wrap.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Wrap rings can serve several purposes. They can be used in addition to a wedding band or can be used as the wedding band itself, creating a coordinated wedding ring set. Wrap rings are sometimes chosen as anniversary gifts or used when renewing wedding vows. In some instances, enhancers have been chosen to wrap around an heirloom solitaire diamond ring, such as a mother’s engagement ring. Generally, these rings are used simply to enhance the appearance of a basic, diamond solitaire ring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1050708",
"title": "Dohyō",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "The diameter of the ring is 15 \"shaku\" (4.55 meters), which increased from 13 \"shaku\" (3.94 meters) in 1931. The rice-straw bales (\"tawara\" (俵)) which form the ring are one third standard size and are partially buried in the clay of the \"dohyō\". Four of the \"tawara\" are placed slightly outside the line of the circle at the four cardinal directions, these are called privileged bales (\"tokudawara\"). Originally, this was to allow rain to run off the surface, when sumo tournaments were held outdoors in the open. Today, a wrestler under pressure at the edge of the ring will often try to move himself round to one of these points to gain leverage in order to push back more effectively against the opponent who is trying to force him out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6159887",
"title": "PrincessPlus",
"section": "Section::::Brief background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "The princess cut is a relatively new diamond cut, having been created in the 1970s. The cut is sometimes referred to as a \"square modified brilliant\", as it combines the brilliance of a round cut with an overall square or rectangular appearance. Today, the princess cut is the second most popular diamond shape, second only to rounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fvpv99
|
why do modern phones lack the soap opera effect of modern tvs?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think they r referring to that hyper realistic quality in the picture.. i dont like it..it does remind me of a soap opera..I thought i was high the first time i saw it on someones tv..",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The effect you’re talking about is the motion blending that takes what is normally 30fps or 24fps material and turning into into 120fps, which makes everything look like shit and if you have it turned on you’re a horrible person. \n\nI don’t know for sure why it’s not on phones, other than maybe no one fucking wants this garbage feature. And also it would absolutely wreck your battery like this wrecks whatever it is you’re trying to watch.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Newer TV's use display panels with much higher refresh rates than the programs they are showing. That means the program is made at 24 or 30 frames per second but the panel itself is refreshing up to e.g 200 times per second.\n\nIn order for the motion to be smooth and without jitters and judders the TV has to interpolate the other 170-ish frames every second. It does that using an algorithm running on a processor. And algorithms like that can't account for every eventuality. So they get it wrong sometimes and the motion looks weird.\n\nThere should be an option to disable the interpolation. Samsung calls it Auto Motion Plus, LG calls it TruMotion, Sony calls it MotionFlow, and so on.\n\nEdit : Sorry that didn't actually answer your question. I would guess phones don't do the same because of the cost of integrating or developing their own interpolation system. I think the decoding of most video formats is already done in integrated third party hardware (GPU chips) and tacking another stage onto that wouldn't be easy or cheap. And of course the reduction in battery life isn't something their sales literature could easily spin as a worthwhile tradeoff.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27009",
"title": "Soap opera",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Daytime serials on television.:Traditional grammar of daytime serials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 924,
"text": "BULLET::::- The visual quality of a soap opera is usually lower than prime time U.S. television drama series due to the lower budgets and quicker production times. This is also because soap operas are recorded on videotape using a multi-camera setup, unlike primetime productions that are usually shot on film and frequently use the single camera shooting style. Because of the lower resolution of video images, and also because of the emotional situations portrayed in soap operas, daytime serials make heavy use of close-up shots. Programs in the United States did not make the full conversion to high definition broadcasting until September 2011, when \"The Bold and the Beautiful\" became the last soap to convert to the format; \"One Life to Live\" was an exception to this, as it continued to be produced and broadcast in standard definition – albeit in the aspect ratio – until the end of its run on ABC in January 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27009",
"title": "Soap opera",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Daytime serials on television.:Decline.:Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 1052,
"text": "As women increasingly worked outside of the home, daytime television viewing declined. New generations of potential viewers were not raised watching soap operas with their mothers, leaving the shows' long and complex storylines foreign to younger audiences. Now, as viewers age, ratings continue to drop among young adult women, the demographic group that soap opera advertisers pay the most for. Those who might watch in workplace breakrooms are not counted, as Nielsen does not track television viewing outside the home. The rise of cable and the internet has also provided new sources of entertainment during the day. The genre's decline has additionally been attributed to reality television displacing soap operas as TV's dominant form of melodrama. An early term for the reality TV genre was \"docu-soap\". A precursor to reality TV, the televised 1994–95 O. J. Simpson murder case, both preempted and competed with an entire season of soaps, transforming viewing habits and leaving soap operas with 10 percent fewer viewers after the trial ended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27009",
"title": "Soap opera",
"section": "Section::::Internet and mobile soap opera.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 226,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 226,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "With the advent of internet television and mobile phones, several soap operas have also been produced specifically for these platforms, including \"\", a spin-off of the established \"EastEnders\". For those produced only for the mobile phone, episodes may generally consist of about six or seven pictures and accompanying text.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35301989",
"title": "Soap Life",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "The Soap Opera has been a staple of American television programming for over 50 years. However, in the late 2000s a number of these daytime dramas began to face major budget cuts and cancellations. Producer Matthew D'Amato and his crew sat with actors, producers, writers, and fans in over 70 interviews to provide an insider view of the world of soap operas as told by the people who live it in an attempt to uncover the reasons behind the sudden decline of the daytime soaps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8652009",
"title": "Daytime television",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "In the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, and Australia, talk shows (hosted by a single personality or a larger panel) are a significant part of this timeslot, as well as, to a lesser extent, game shows and soap operas. In the U.S., the Big Three television networks all provide some degree of daytime programming, but the once-popular genre of soap operas have declined; although a few remain active, they have been largely replaced by less-expensive programming such as talk shows (including \"Strahan and Sara\", \"The Talk\", and \"Today with Hoda & Jenna\", which fill timeslots once filled by \"One Life to Live\", \"As the World Turns\", and \"Passions\" respectively). Game shows were also common in U.S. daytime lineups, but by the 1990's, only CBS's long-running \"The Price Is Right\" remained (which was later joined in 2009 by a revival of \"Let's Make a Deal\", which replaced the cancelled soap \"Guiding Light\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37377295",
"title": "Vine Street (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Firsts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Audiences were already accustomed to continuing story serials from the radio, but this was the first attempt on television. The term \"soap opera\" came about since many soap and cleaning product companies started trying to reach the many housewives who were home to listen these programs which normally aired in the afternoons. The \"Oxford English Dictionary\"s citation for the phrase dates its first appearance in print to 1938.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9144437",
"title": "1970s in television",
"section": "Section::::Overall trends.:United States.:The soap opera boom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "Another popular medium in U.S. television moving into the 1970s was the soap opera, which moved from being a genre watched exclusively by housewives to having a sizable audience of men (who largely watched \"The Edge of Night\") and college students; the latter audience helped \"All My Children\" gain a devoted following, as it was on during many universities' traditional \"lunch period.\" In a \"TIME\" article written about the genre in 1976, it was estimated that as many as 35 million households tuned into at least one soap opera each afternoon, the most popular being \"As the World Turns\", which routinely grabbed viewing figures of twelve million or higher each day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1wn5br
|
how do companies like primerica make you money?
|
[
{
"answer": "These companies are known as \"Multi-Level Marketing\" and have a structure *very* similar to that of a pyramid scheme (though legally, because they have a product they aren't classed as pyramid schemes).\n\nThe way it works is that someone recruits you to sell a product (in this case it's insurance). You have to pay your recruiter to be able to sell the product, and he/she gets a cut of any sales (and whoever recruited them gets a cut of whatever they make, and so on). The company encourages you not to focus on selling insurance, but instead on recruiting other people to work under you. The vast majority of people walk out of these schemes having lost large amounts of money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Don't use Primerica. It's a scam, or at least as close you can legally be to a scam. Their fees are insanely high, and their products are way too expensive.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_9_\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_8_\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_7_\n\n\n_URL_5_\n\n_URL_6_\n\n_URL_4_\n\nIf you really want advice on things like retirement saving, IRAs etc. come ask at /r/personalfinance. They have had quite a large number of detailed discussions on these things if you search back, and the community is generally willing to help everyone out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How about using Kramerica instead? \n\n\".... if you would have told me twenty-five years ago that some day I’d be standing here about to solve the worlds energy problems, I would’ve said you’re crazy… Now let’s push this giant ball of oil out the window.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2617619",
"title": "Primerica",
"section": "Section::::Sales force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1068,
"text": "In Primerica's eleven-tiered multilevel-marketing system, the company's sales representatives receive a commission for selling financial products, while a portion of the sale is also paid to the representative's recruiter, the recruiter's recruiter, and so on, up to eleven levels. Sales agents are tasked with selling the company's products to a \"warm market” including their family and friends. As of 2010, Primerica required its sales representatives to pay a $25 monthly fee, and it is estimated that these fees netted the company revenue of $2.5 million per month from its own employees. In 2010, Primerica was reported to have over 100,000 representatives selling the company's financial products, with individual earnings averaging $5,156 per year. More than 190,000 new sales recruits paid a fee to sign up for Primerica in 2014, but the company only boosted its total licensed sales force by 3,700 that year, and each member of the sales team earned an average of $6,030. As of September 2017, the company reported having 124,436 independent representatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2617619",
"title": "Primerica",
"section": "Section::::Business model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Primerica, Inc. is an insurance and financial services company that uses multi-level marketing to sell financial products and services. Headquartered in unincorporated Gwinnett County, Georgia, Primerica spun off from its former parent company Citigroup through an initial public offering on April 1, 2010. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2617619",
"title": "Primerica",
"section": "Section::::Business model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Primerica reported having 120,000 independent representatives in 2017, through Primerica's securities broker-dealer affiliate PFS Investments, Inc. in the United States, and through PFSL Investments Canada Ltd. in Canada. The company primarily sells term life insurance, as well as mutual funds, annuities, segregated funds, managed accounts, long-term care insurance, pre-paid legal services, auto insurance, home insurance, credit monitoring and debt management plans. Primerica was listed by \"Forbes\" as one of \"Americas 50 Most Trustworthy Financial Companies\" in 2015.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57359775",
"title": "Play Business",
"section": "Section::::Business model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "The business model of the company was created to help Mexican entrepreneurs find new and more modern ways to finance start ups, as well as provide investors alternatives to investing abroad. The company believes that a weak peso against the dollar is good for them as it makes U.S. investments less attractive, leading investors to look for alternatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33187656",
"title": "Primer Group of Companies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Primer Group of Companies is a Philippine company engaged in the retail sale and distribution of consumer brands and products. The company carries international brands mostly lifestyle products. The Primer Group also operates its own lifestyle boutique which includes Res/Toe/Run, The Travel Club, Ladybag, Flight001, Bratpack, GRND, General and R.O.X .In addition to the retail and distribution, The Primer Group recently opened its first retail and merchandising academy - APEX.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2617619",
"title": "Primerica",
"section": "Section::::2012 Florida lawsuit and settlement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "In 2012, Primerica was the target of multiple lawsuits alleging that the company's representatives sought to profit by earning commissions after convincing Florida firefighters, teachers and other public workers to divest from safe government-secured retirement investments to inappropriate high-risk retirement products offered by Primerica. In January 2014, the company set aside $15.4 million to settle allegations involving 238 cases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "310244",
"title": "Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis",
"section": "Section::::Organization and structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "AMORC is a worldwide organization, established in the United States as a nonprofit 501(c)(3) public benefit corporation, with the specific and primary purpose of advancing the knowledge of its history, principles, and teachings for charitable, educational, and scientific purposes. It is financed mainly through fees paid by its members. Income is used by the organization to pay expenses, develop new programs, expand services, and carry out educational work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
29bgsr
|
For a peasant/farmer, how onerous was Roman taxation? Was it good value for the services provided?
|
[
{
"answer": "It really depended on where you were and when. Even in modern times there have been areas that could resist taxation with remoteness, despite modern states having considerably more coercive power. In general, however, taxation was collected by local authorities and folded into rent payment. This could be ruinous, or it could be light. Historical sources mention instances of peasant farmers successfully negotiating an advantageous payment, and others being ground down by extraction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If I could piggyback on this question, how much did peasants, if at all, \nbenefit from the Empire's high levels of economic integration? What do we know about Roman \"peasant culture?\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One thing we also have to consider is the significant change from the late Republic to the Imperial Period. Under the Republic, tax collection in the provinces was carried out under contract by tax farmers. They would make a bid to deliver X amount of taxes, and realized profit by collecting more. This was hugely profitable for the Roman State, but incredibly onerous on those being taxed, as year on year you would see your people being wrung dry by a succession of tax farmers trying to realize the most profit they could on their limited contract (tax farming was one of the most lucrative ways for equites to get some serious coin).\n\nThe Empire, starting with Augustus, began to change this (although we aren't entirely clear when tax farming was phased out completely) by relying on more comprehensive censuses to allocate tax burdens based on actual wealth. This was intended to be a more sustainable solution to taxation for a working and lasting Empire, not just the imperial territory of a city state. Now, Tiako mentions the 'where and when' part of this. Although, I don't know personally of any source that dictates how often these censuses were taken (the depiction in the Bible is largely fanciful), they were quite large undertakings. These would determine one's tax burden. These systems are often an advantage for the taxed because in between when the census was taken and the point you were paying taxes, theoretically you could have realized a growth in wealth. Imagine if you had to pay income tax rates based on this year's income for the next five or ten years. How much money could you save? However, this could also be very bad. Imagine you had to pay income tax rates based on this year's income but suddenly lost your job. Often special dispensation of tax relief was granted by the Emperor in cases of natural disasters, but if you personally faced a particularly hard year, you would not suddenly see your burden lessen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1527309",
"title": "Farm (revenue leasing)",
"section": "Section::::Historical use.:Roman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1026,
"text": "Tax farming was originally a Roman practice whereby the burden of tax collection was reassigned by the Roman State to private individuals or groups. In essence, these individuals or groups paid the taxes for a certain area and for a certain period of time and then attempted to cover their outlay by collecting money or saleable goods from the people within that area. The system was set up by Gaius Gracchus in 123 BC primarily to increase the efficiency of tax collection within Rome itself but the system quickly spread to the Provinces. Within the Roman Empire, these private individuals and groups which collected taxes in lieu of the bid (i.e. rent) they had paid to the state were known as \"publicani\", of whom the best known is the disciple Matthew, a \"publicanus\" in the village of Capernaum in the province of Galilee. The system was widely abused, and reforms were enacted by Augustus and Diocletian. Tax farming practices are believed to have contributed to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in Western Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50845",
"title": "Income tax",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "In the early days of the Roman Republic, public taxes consisted of modest assessments on owned wealth and property. The tax rate under normal circumstances was 1% and sometimes would climb as high as 3% in situations such as war. These modest taxes were levied against land, homes and other real estate, slaves, animals, personal items and monetary wealth. The more a person had in property, the more tax they paid. Taxes were collected from individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301892",
"title": "Progressive tax",
"section": "Section::::Early examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "In the early days of the Roman Republic, public taxes consisted of assessments on owned wealth and property. The tax rate under normal circumstances was 1% of property value, and could sometimes climb as high as 3% in situations such as war. These taxes were levied against land, homes and other real estate, slaves, animals, personal items and monetary wealth. By 167 BC, Rome no longer needed to levy a tax against its citizens in the Italian peninsula, due to the riches acquired from conquered provinces. After considerable Roman expansion in the 1st century, Augustus Caesar introduced a wealth tax of about 1% and a flat poll tax on each adult, this made the tax system less progressive (as it no longer only taxed wealth).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1670509",
"title": "Tax resistance",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "The earliest and most widespread forms of taxation were the corvée and tithe, both of which can be traced back to the beginning of civilization. The corvée was state-imposed forced labour on peasants too poor to pay other forms of taxation (\"labour\" in ancient Egyptian is a synonym for taxes). Low taxes helped the Roman aristocracy increase their wealth, which equalled or exceeded the revenues of the central government. An emperor sometimes replenished his treasury by confiscating the estates of the \"super-rich\", but in the later period, the resistance of the wealthy to paying taxes was one of the factors contributing to the collapse of the Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21423531",
"title": "Economy of the Han dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Monetary system and urbanization.:Circulation and salaries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "Merchants and peasant farmers paid property and poll taxes in coin cash and land taxes with a portion of their crop yield. Peasants obtained coinage by working as hired laborers for rich landowners, in businesses like breweries or by selling agricultural goods and homemade wares at urban markets. The Han government may have found collecting taxes in coin the easiest method because the transportation of taxed goods would have been unnecessary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1527309",
"title": "Farm (revenue leasing)",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "Tax farming was an important step in the history of economic development by providing a method for collecting taxes across a large area without the need for a tax-collecting bureaucracy, or during periods when such a bureaucracy is unworkable or impossible to maintain. Systems of tax farming similar to the Roman model were used in Ptolemaic Egypt, various medieval Western European countries, the Ottoman and Mughal empires, and in Qing Dynasty China. As states become stronger, buoyed up by revenues brought in by tax farming, the practice was discontinued in favour of centralized tax collection systems. In part this was because tax farming systems tended to rely on wealthy individuals outside the state machinery, gangs, and secret societies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "118382",
"title": "Publican",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "At the height of the Republic's era of provincial expansion (roughly 146 BC until the end of the Republic in 27 BC) the Roman tax farming system was very profitable for the publicani. The right to collect taxes for a particular region would be auctioned every few years for a value that (in theory) approximated the tax available for collection in that region. The payment to Rome was treated as a loan and the publicani would receive interest on their payment at the end of the collection period. In addition, any excess (over their bid) tax collected would be pure profit for the publicani. The principal risk to the publicani was that the tax collected would be less than the sum bid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
181nm9
|
If Mitochondria exist as almost separate entities from the cell, does it always divide perfectly during mitosis?
|
[
{
"answer": "In mammals, mitochondria don't necessarily divide during mitosis; instead they divide when the host cell requires more energy and combine or die out when less energy is needed. During mitosis, the mitochondria present are split up between the two daughter cells. In single celled eukaryotes; the mitochondria divides with the cell cycle to ensure each daughter cell receives a mitochondria. That being said, mitochondria divide by [binary fission](_URL_2_) much like prokaryotes do. This process is simple, when compared to mitotic division, and is as close to perfect as possible, except the sizes might not be congruent.\n\nMitochondria are essentially a cell of their own. They have their own DNA, produce their own energy, but must acquire its nutrients from the host cell. In return, the host cell gets a healthy supply of energy. This symbiotic relationship makes it so that one cannot survive without the other. The mitochondria will starve due to lack of nutrients and the host cell will eventually die without a good source of energy. The [Endosymbiotic theory](_URL_1_) can help with understanding how this could have occurred. Not all eukaryotic cells require a mitochondria though (amitochondrial). A [RBC; Red Blood Cell](_URL_0_) is an example of this. \n\n > If so, how frequent does this happen?\n\nI'm not sure as to how frequent this happens but I will assume that it doesn't happen very often or that the cells do not last long enough for us to observe this happening enough.\n\nSource: Biotechnology student.\n\nTL;DR: Mitochondria divide pretty damn perfectly except for size sometimes. I assume it would be hard to gauge at how frequent cells are given no mitochondria. Someone else may be able to help with this point.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When a mother cell divides into two daughter cells, the mitochondria divide between them. Each cell will receive some mitochondria, but not the same mitochondrial mix as the mother cell. Mitochondria are very fascinating: I suggest you look up LHON, a human mitochondrial disease that has interesting relationships with mitosis.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll answer your question, but I recommend you keep reading if you are *awesome* and want further insight into mitochondrial behaviour!\n\n**Firsly:** all it takes is one *fragment* of a mitochondrion to repopulate the entire cell with mitochondria. So it isnt critical that the population be split equally (though it would help with smooth operation of the cell).\n\n**Secondly**, [Have a look at this image](_URL_0_). It represents the 3 conventional morphologies of a mitochondrial network. Here are the morphological characteristics associated with mitochondria during the stages of cell division (mitosis):\n\n* **Interphase:** Reticular around nucleus and the periphery the cell\n\n* **Prophase:** Fragmented but excluded from the spindle apparatus\n\n* **Metaphase:** Fragmented but excluded from spindle apparatus and spindle equator\n\n* **Anaphase:** Fragmented and evenly distributed in the cell periphery\n\n* **Telophase:** Fragmented with repopulation of the spindle equator\n\n* **Cytokinasis:** Reticular with some fragmentation\n\nBasically: mitochondria alter their morphology to ensure their division is synchronised with the cell. \n\n\n**Reference:** \nMartínez-Diez, M., Santamaría, G., Ortega, Á. D., & Cuezva, J. M. (2006). Biogenesis and Dynamics of Mitochondria during the Cell Cycle: Significance of 3′UTRs. PLoS ONE, 1(1). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000107\n\n\n\n... buuuuuuuut Its hard for me to shut up when talking about mitochondria...\nI research their degradation within the cell, and every day i study them i find something new that demonstrates their archaebacterial origins!\n\nI occasionally use the following metaphor when discussing mitochondria:\n**\"the cell is a ranch of mitochondrial cattle\"**\nThis metaphor is particularly appropriate when talking about their dual behaviour as individuals or as a \"herd\" (network) depending on the situation. \n\nThe mitochondrial network is normally **reticular** in many cells, and only changes in response to specific stimuli. *(like cattle grazing a field)*. [NOTE: not all cells contain a reticular network, but stick with me here]\n\nMitochondria become **hyperfused** in response to threats like starvation. When mammalian cells starve, they initiate autophagy (literally \"self-eating\") to recover nutrients from useless or old organelles. By banding together, the mitochondria avoid being trapped and digested by the cell. *(like cattle forming a herd to avoid predators).*\n\nMitochondria become **fragmented** when *other* mitochondria threaten their survival!\nMitochondria produce large amounts of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) which damage lipids, DNA & proteins (i.e. everything that mitochondria are made of). Damaged mitochondria produce more ROS than healthy ones, so mitochondria fragment when ROS levels increase in the cell. *(like cattle avoiding a disease in the herd... (i dont actually know if cattle do that, but it makes biological sense)).*\n\nI hope this extra info gives you a new perspective on the little critters inside our cells!\n\n**Extra references:**\nFrank, M., Duvezin-Caubet, S., Koob, S., Occhipinti, A., Jagasia, R., Petcherski, A., … Reichert, A. S. (n.d.). Mitophagy is triggered by mild oxidative stress in a mitochondrial fission dependent manner. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research, (0). doi:10.1016/j.bbamcr.2012.08.007\n\nTondera, D., Grandemange, S., Jourdain, A., Karbowski, M., Mattenberger, Y., Herzig, S., … Martinou, J.-C. (2009). SLP-2 is required for stress-induced mitochondrial hyperfusion. The EMBO Journal, 28(11), 1589–1600. doi:10.1038/emboj.2009.89\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20621",
"title": "Microtubule",
"section": "Section::::Mitosis.:Centrosomes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Most cells only have one centrosome for most of their cell cycle, however, right before mitosis, the centrosome duplicates, and the cell contains two centrosomes. Some of the microtubules that radiate from the centrosome grow directly away from the sister centrosome. These microtubules are called astral microtubules. With the help of these astral microtubules the centrosomes move away from each other towards opposite sides of the cell. Once there, other types of microtubules necessary for mitosis, including interpolar microtubules and K-fibers can begin to form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33023092",
"title": "Mitochondrial fission",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Although mitochondria are commonly depicted as singular oval-shaped structures, it has been known for at least a century that they form a highly dynamic network within most cells where they constantly undergo fission and fusion. Mitochondria can divide by prokaryotic binary fission and since they require mitochondrial DNA for their function, fission is coordinated with DNA replication. Some of the proteins that are involved in mitochondrial fission have been identified and some of them are associated with mitochondrial diseases. Mitochondrial fission has significant implications in stress response and apoptosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20369",
"title": "Mitosis",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:Forms of mitosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "The mitosis process in the cells of eukaryotic organisms follow a similar pattern, but with variations in three main details. \"Closed\" and \"open\" mitosis can be distinguished on the basis of nuclear envelope remaining intact or breaking down. An intermediate form with partial degradation of the nuclear envelope is called a \"semiopen\" mitosis. With respesct to the symmetry of the spindle apparatus during metaphase, an approximately axially symmetric (centered) shape is called as \"orthomitosis\", distinguished from the eccentric spindles of \"pleuromitosis\", in which mitotic apparatus has a bilateral symmetry. Finally, a third criterion is the location of the central spindle in case of closed pleuromitosis: \"extranuclear\" (spindle located in the cytoplasm) or \"intranuclear\" (in the nucleus).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19588",
"title": "Mitochondrion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "The mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a double-membrane-bound organelle found in most eukaryotic organisms. Some cells in some multicellular organisms may, however, lack them (for example, mature mammalian red blood cells). A number of unicellular organisms, such as microsporidia, parabasalids, and diplomonads, have also reduced or transformed their mitochondria into other structures. To date, only one eukaryote, \"Monocercomonoides\", is known to have completely lost its mitochondria. The word mitochondrion comes from the Greek , , \"thread\", and , , \"granule\" or \"grain-like\". Mitochondria generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy. A mitochondrion is thus termed the \"powerhouse\" of the cell. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6235",
"title": "Cell nucleus",
"section": "Section::::Dynamics and regulation.:Assembly and disassembly.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 1177,
"text": "At a certain point during the cell cycle in open mitosis, the cell divides to form two cells. In order for this process to be possible, each of the new daughter cells must have a full set of genes, a process requiring replication of the chromosomes as well as segregation of the separate sets. This occurs by the replicated chromosomes, the sister chromatids, attaching to microtubules, which in turn are attached to different centrosomes. The sister chromatids can then be pulled to separate locations in the cell. In many cells, the centrosome is located in the cytoplasm, outside the nucleus; the microtubules would be unable to attach to the chromatids in the presence of the nuclear envelope. Therefore, the early stages in the cell cycle, beginning in prophase and until around prometaphase, the nuclear membrane is dismantled. Likewise, during the same period, the nuclear lamina is also disassembled, a process regulated by phosphorylation of the lamins by protein kinases such as the CDC2 protein kinase. Towards the end of the cell cycle, the nuclear membrane is reformed, and around the same time, the nuclear lamina are reassembled by dephosphorylating the lamins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13133474",
"title": "Tetraspora",
"section": "Section::::Life cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "Cell division in \"Tetraspora\" species has been described. It is noted that prior to mitosis beginning, cells become immotile and the basal bodies located at the surface of cells start to retreat in. This causes the preprophase nucleus to migrate toward retreating basal body complex, around which microtubules start to gather. The basal body complex arranges itself to be closely associated with one pole of the cell, creating a mitotic spindle known as open polar fenestrae. Furthermore, it is speculated that the spindle itself may also be unicentric. Eventually microtubules extend from the spindle, and during anaphase they penetrate through the fenestrae and split the nucleus. Subsequently to telophase, the nucleus reforms, but a phycoplast forms. In addition, a protoplast is found inside the cell wall and is noted to rotate within the wall during cleavage; a process known to occur by the cell undergoing furrowing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9417783",
"title": "Phragmosome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "When mitosis is completed, the cell plate and new cell wall form starting from the center along the plane occupied by the phragmosome. The cell plate grows outwards until it fuses with the cell wall of the dividing cell at exactly the spots predicted by the preprophase band.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4tlpo9
|
why are fiber-optic connections faster? don't electrical signals move at the speed of light anyway, or close to it?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not directly faster but indirectly it can be much faster than copper depending on what needs to be done. Fiber has the advantage of not having to deal with any kind of electro-magnetic interference along the wire, no matter how long it is or how many wires are bundled together. So you can get much more bandwidth out of the same diameter cable than you would with copper. It's also harder to splice into to eavesdrop on the traffic so security conscious engineers prefer it over copper. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The \"speed\" of your connection is not determined by the speed in which the messenger particles travel. But rather the speed in which they can convey information.\n\nIn this case the issue here is not raw speed of photons vs. electrons, but the bandwidth if information they can carry. Photons can operate at higher frequencies and therefore carry more information per photon. Electrons cannot operate well at those higher frequencies so are limited in the amount if information they can carry.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Light in optic fibre is actually pretty slow, about two-thirds the speed of light. Electricity through copper carries data much closer to the speed of light, so that isn't the answer to your question.\n\n\nThe reason fibre is faster for home broadband, which is probably what you're actually wondering, is because of the technologies used. \n\n\nDSL makes use of the copper phone cables to your house, but it's fighting a battle against a noisy phone line to do so. More noise (interference) on the line reduces the amount of data that can be sent, akin to shouting at a friend over the noise of a roaring highway.\n\nCable is faster, and that's because it uses a higher-quality connection to you in the form of coaxial cable. This adds shielding to the electrical signal, reducing the noise that interferes with the signal. However, your cable is shared with many other properties, so you'll be fighting for your share of that data with your neighbours.\n\n\nA fibre connection runs through glass that is quite impervious to outside noise. Electricity from outside doesn't affect it like it can with copper, and it isn't affected by light from outside the glass, either. This means that the signal is not fighting as much noise, and you can push more data over the fibre than you could over copper.\n\n\nI haven't mentioned latency, but most questions about speed are usually referring to bandwidth, not latency.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Individual signals inside both fiber and electrical cables do travel at similar speeds.\n\nBut you can send way more signals down a fiber cable at the same time as you can an electrical cable.\n\n\nThink of each cable as a multi-lane road. Electrical cable is like a 5-lane highway. \n\nFiber cable is like a 200 lane highway. \n\nSo cars on both highway travel at 65 mph, but on the fiber highway you can send way more cars. \n\nIf you're trying to send a bunch of people from A to B, each car load of people will get there at the same speed, but you'll get everyone from A to B in less overall time on the fiber highway than you will on the electrical highway because you can send way more carloads at the same time. \n\n\n**Bonus Info** This is the actual meaning of the term *bandwidth*. It's commonly used to describe the speed of an internet connection but it actually refers to the number of frequencies being used for a communications channel. A group of sequential frequencies is called a *band*. One way to describe a communications channel is to talk about how wide the band of frequencies is, otherwise called *bandwidth*. The wider your band is, the more data you can send at the same time and so the faster your *overall* transfer speed is. \n\n**EDIT**\n**COMMENTS** Many other contributors have pointed out that there is a lot more complexity just below the surface of my ELI5 explanation. The reason *why* fiber can have more lanes than electrical cables is an interesting albeit challenging topic and I encourage all of you to dig into the replies and other comments for a deeper understanding of this subject. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Electrons move close to light speed, but the signal carried by them in a cable moves much slower, depending on the cable. The electrons don't actually move very far, they just bump into each other, like a sound wave. That wave can be as slow as 60%ish of light speed. \n\nFor what it's worth, the light in fiber optic cable also isn't going light speed, ironically enough. Light moves slower in a medium than in a vacuum, and the light is not taking a straight path, but bouncing around. Still, it's much faster than coaxial cable, at least.\n\nFor most applications, you're not going to notice the difference. The cable in your neighborhood is going to stay copper. But the nodes going out of neighborhoods, that handle all the incoming traffic there, and which have to communicate with the ISP directly, would greatly benefit from fiber optic cable. The distances are long enough, and the bandwidth high enough that fiber optic will make a huge difference.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not sending you information *faster* but rather its sending you *more information* at a time, which means more total data transmitted over a given period of time, and that's typically what we refer to as \"faster\" \n\n\nThe reason it sends you more information at a time is, as others have described, it is very insulated against noise and other external factors. \n\n**I like bad analogies so here you go**\n\nImagine if I have 50 eggs and my goal is to take them 100 yards as fast as I can, and the goal is to get them there without breaking them.\n\nFirst time I try I am given nothing. I use my shirt as a \"pouch\" and fill it up with the eggs and then run. A lot of the eggs bounce/fall out as I'm running and half of them are broken or missing when I get there. \n\n\nSecond time I try I am given metal box to put them in. While running the eggs bounce around inside the box and about 1/3 of them break. \n\n\nThird try I am given a thick plastic bag. I fill it up with the eggs and only 4-5 of them fall out the top on my way there. Nearly all the eggs made it safely.\n\n\n-I can run near the speed of light. \n\n-I am your ISP\n\n-Eggs are data\n\n-My shirt is DSL\n\n-Metal box is coax\n\n-Plastic bag is fiber",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Latency\" = the time that it takes a signal to go from sender to receiver. If you're talking, it's affected by the speed of sound. If it's radio, it's the speed of light. Wire and fiber optic are both close enough to the speed of light.\n\n\"Throughput\" = the amount of data that you can transmit or receive in any given unit of time.\n\nSo, for example, if you want to send a bunch of data from New York to Washington DC, you might have two choices:\n (a) send it over the internet\n (b) put it all on hard drives, load those hard drives into a minivan, and drive them\n\nIf you choose option (a), Washington will start receiving the data long before it would if you chose option (b). But, if you're sending enough data, Washington may finish receiving the data sooner if you choose option (b).\n\nSimilarly, if you want to move a pile of gravel from one place to another, 10 yards away, you might have two options:\n\n (a) pick up individual pieces and throw them over\n (b) load up the gravel into a wheelbarrow and cart it over\n\nYou'll get some of the gravel there faster with choice (a), but you'll be done sooner with choice (b).\n\n\nSo, when you hear people talk about \"speed,\" they don't mean \"how long does it take to get the first little bit\" (that would be latency, which is affected more by the speed of light). They mean \"how long does it take this to finish?\" and that's affect mostly by throughput.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You’re confusing two concepts.“Speed” as in how long it it takes to download a big file, and “speed” as in the time it takes for communication to be exchanged. They’re not necessarily related.\n\nLet’s say you need to move some toys. You could hire a truck or you could hire a train. Trucks and trains can make the journey in approximately the same span of time, but trains carry a lot more while doing it.\n\nFibre optics are like the train in this analogy. Each individual unit of information doesn’t get to the destination any faster, but you can send a whole lot more of them per second.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lot of \"meh\" answers... The answer is closer to the fact that you can switch optics much faster (THz range) compared to low GHz range for wires. Yes, you can also use multiple wavelengths but individual signals can carry more bits per seconds than a copper connection.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So I see the answers here about the speed of electrons:\n\nYou can outrun electrons in a wire.\n\nI know this isn't ELI5 below but\n\nA major thing to remember is that they do not move in a straight line. They're always bumping into one another and it's more of a collective \"drift speed.\" let's take a wire with a 0.001mm radius with a current of 1 amp.\n\n________I_______ \n Q * e * R^2 * p\n\nThe electrons are traveling at .00025 m/s.\n\nSo the reason the activity is instant when using electronics is that it's similar to filling a tube with tennis balls. Put one more tennis ball in one end, and it forces one out the other end.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To transfer a lot of information, you don't just need to transfer a signal, you need that signal to *change quickly*, the more quickly the better.\n\nAnd electric signals that change quickly are really hard to transmit over long lines: they create magnetic fields and radio waves, through which they lose energy until you can't measure them anymore, or they are simply dampened by capacitive resistance.\n\nLight, on the other hand, is transmitted the same, no matter how quickly its intensity changes; it's limited purely by the electrooptical elements that create and receive the signal. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends what you mean by \"faster\". There are two possible measures - how long it takes to transfer a certain amount of data (bandwidth) and the delay before your data arrives at the other end (latency)\n\nIf latency is critical, and you are communicating over a long distance, then fiber may not be the best option. In a fiber cable, the signal travels at about 0.6x the speed of light (the light travels more slowly through the glass fiber than air).\n\nHowever, in a radio network (or a professional microwave beam system), the signal travels at the speed of light.\n\nIf you need to link computers a long distance apart (several hundred miles or more), and you need low delay (latency), it is better to do it with wireless links. This is particularly important for financial work, where deals are done in order they are received, and to get the best deal, you need to be first in line. If a company is doing this type of work, then they usually prefer a wireless link between private wireless towers than a fiber link.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People often get confused between bandwidth and latency. Imagine a funnel used to pass water; size of the funnel is the bandwidth and the rate at which water passes is the latency. Now if the water itself is being passed slowly, increasing the size of the funnel will not help.\nMany times you complain to the ISP of bad network performance and almost all times they suggest to increase your bandwidth; but if the packets themselves are traversing at a slow rate, increasing the bandwidth will not help.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They're not necessarily faster. They just have less loss. Think of Fiber like a perfectly paved road and copper as a paved road that turns into a dirt road, then a trail, and then hits a brick wall.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is quite a bit of misinformation here, so I will try and ELI5 for you.\n\nFirst - what is bandwidth? Bandwidth refers to the number of electrical pulses transmitted over a link within a second. Each pulse carries individual bits of information. Bandwidth is the data transfer capability of a connection and is commonly associated with the amount of available frequencies and speed of a link. \n\nData Throughput - is the actual amount of data that can be carried over this connection. When people discuss upload/download speeds they are actually discussing data throughput.\n\nNow onto the question at hand - why are fiber-optic connections faster? There are many reasons, but here is a quick breakdown for you. \n\n1. Cable lengths, resistance and attenuation. Glass has much less resistance to light than copper does to electrical signals. This allows the light to travel faster and further. For copper wires, more repeaters are required to ensure signal strength is not lost. Every time a signal hits a repeater the transmission is delayed. \n\n2. Noise. Copper wires also are at a higher risk of EMI radiation. This radiation can disrupt your signal and cause the systems to have to resend the frames (bits of information). Cross talk is also a type of noise (when a signal jumps from one wire to another) and can also cause signal loss. \n\n3. Cable size. In Canada/USA, the typical Copper connection (Coaxial) which is used for most home installations is a 10Base2, ThinNet cable. This allows for about 10Mbps for Ethernet. Think of this as the size of the pipe itself. Fiber uses larger pipes1000Base-x which allows for speeds of 1000 Mbps.\n\n4. Cable Sharing. Coaxial is also the tunnel used to bring your tv services to your home. This sharing of the line is called broadband. Different frequenciess spectrums are used for different purposes. If you have fiber installed, it is typically dedicated for your internet services. Coaxial is also shared amongst other customers in your region and thus reduces your available data throughput further.\n\nI think this about sums it up, but it has been a while since I studied this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In a bunch of the replies, there are great answers and analogies. However, none of them mention modulation. \n\nCable modems, dsl modems. Modem stands for modulator/demodulator. The point of the modem is change the electrical signal from digital to analog for transmission and from analog to digital for receiving. It's difficult for an analog signal to represent 1s and 0s so it does this by using a sine wave. It uses the process called phase shift keying in which it represents the individual 1s and 0s as a shift in phase on the sine wave. To get more bandwidth, you add more possible shifts in the sine wave to represent more bits at a time. This is where the term noise comes into play. The more noise, the harder it is for your modem to recognize the phase shift. Each phase shift is a Hertz, cycles per second. It is the same concept as 4g, lte, 3g, 2g in your phone. 2g uses less types of phases compared to 3g. \n\nFiber is different. Fiber doesn't need to convert data to analog before sending it down the line. It can transmit data faster by adjusting the intensity of the light. \n\nI apologize for the lack of ELI5.. -ness but it is really hard to put this into simpler terms. I'll edit it when I'm not mobile. \n\nEdit: for correctness. I forgot fiber doesn't need to convert to an analog signal before transmitting and receiving.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm sure the answer is already here, but it's not so much speed as it is bandwidth. \n\nBut to answer the actual question, the speed of light in a standard fibre optic cable is 0.69c and the speed of electricity through copper depends on a few things... Signal frequency, current, conductor size, insulator. For all intensive purposes, the speed of the signal propagation is extremely close to a fibre cable. Like 0.64c-0.72c\n\nWhere fibre has the advantage is bandwidth. A similarly sized fibre cable can carry a much wider bandwidth of signal, allowing for speeds upwards of 100gbe, where I think the max you'll get over your cat5/6 is around 1gbe. But the word \"speed\" in the context of Internet bandwidth is a little bit misleading. If you were to compare it to copper pipes transporting water to your house, an Ethernet cable is like a 1/2\" copper pipe, while a fibre optic cable is like a 5\" pipe. The water flows at the same speed, but you can get way more water from your 5\" pipe.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here is an actual ELI **5** for you.\n\nConstant stream is no information, because how would you know where the information starts and where it stops ?\n\nYou send information by starting and stopping the stream of electricity or the light or whatever.\n\nElectricity is lazy, it starts and stops slowly.\n\nLight is not as lazy as electricity, you can start and stop it much faster.\n\nTherefore sending information by light is faster.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Much of the confusion stem from the word faster or speed. Some people equate volume to speed. 500mbps is fast! Well, a 500mbps connection over satellite will be over 1000ms because the data has to travel to space and back. Conversely, a 56kbps connection to an adjacent server could be 1ms. So was is fast?\n\nFor most people (1gbps users,) fiber and copper connection operate the same. In fact, the difference between copper and fiber are almost nothing. Last month, a coax carrier had the highest average bitrate for netflix. This month they are 10kbps slower than the current #1. There are many fiber carriers that have lower average bitrates than coax counterparts.\n\nIn most applications, copper and fiber send the same volume of data. There are even 10gbps specifications for copper. One bonus you do get is wavelength-division multiplexing. You can send different colors of light over the same piece of glass and they do not interfere with each other. Most people do not deal in C/DWDM.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Copper lines also degrade signals over distance. That's why when you used to call long distance from NY to CA, it would cost a fortune. Phone companies had to amplify that signal every time it degraded to a point. Not an issue with fiber.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a communications technician who went to tech school and has worked in data centers for Microsoft, facebook, and wells fargo installing and maintaining thsee sorts of connections...\n\n1. Copper cabling is electrical in nature. Because of this, you can only send so much through the cable before you start to reach a physical limitation of the electrical signal interfering with itself via EMI (Electromagnetic interference)\n\n2. Fiber does, in general tend to move faster. The speed of light is only constant in a vaccum. Fiber is just light impulses being sent throught glass. Copper is actually electrons running through a conductor, and there is a lot of drag.\n\n3. Fiber can have multiple signals overlaping eachother in orders of hundreds of signals per strand. Part of the job the boxes at either end is to put the signal back together. Copper can do this but at less then 0.1% the magnitude. Rule of thumb. One fiber connection can handle the load of 1000 copper lines.\n\n4. The way my tech school instructor explained it to me in layman's terms was: Imagine you're standing in walmart. Your thumb nail is copper. The rest of Walmart is fiber.\n\nIn short, the main reason we don't have more fiber is actuallt because of a lack of skilled labor that know's what the fuck they're doing. If you like money, it's a good field. Tedious but I'm making 24/hour and I'm only 25.\n\nEdit: formating",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll explain it like you're five.\n\nElectrons in a wire move really fast, but photons in a vacuum move faster.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "IAA[G]NE (I am a [Google] Network Engineer) so I think I'm fairly qualified to chime in here to clear things up and dispel some inaccuracies in other comments. Not completely ELI5 but more ELI15.\n\nIt's got nothing to do with the speed of light. Sure there are differences, but that only affects latency a little, not really speed (see other comments here for more on that). It's more to do with how fast you can turn the signal on and off.\n\nAbout claims of fibre carrying more channels/signals:\n\nSo fibre can carry hundreds of signals / streams at once. More signals = more throughput. But so can electrical - just look at your cable tv connection - 200+ channels, and all sent over the one wire. It's the same principle - different frequencies on the radio dial. Fibre uses the same principle, and can carry 100+ channels, but the frequencies are represented by different colours, split and combined using a prism - though you cant see these colours as they're deep into the infra-red (like how you cant see the light from your TV IR remote).\nThe main difference is that electrical has a limit to how much total combined speed it can carry...\n\nLet's look more at the differences between electrical and fibre signals.\n\nElectric cables are susceptible to noise - think about if your mobile phone is near a speaker and you get the buzzing. Lots of things aside from your phone can give out this interference - power lines, other cables in the same duct, TV/Radio stations, even radio hiss from space! Now imagine that over a looong cable between two cities and you're talking about a lot of noise on the signal (like radio static on a weak station). Even shielding them only reduces the noise to a certain extent.\nAs well as receiving noise, electrical cables radiate signals - they are like a long antenna, some of the signal gets radiated and lost this way so it gets weaker.\n\nFibre signals aren't susceptible to noise - a solid black tube can't pass any light at all, so the fibres within the cladding are completely blacked out from external light. (Note there can be reeealy tiny amounts of noise from quantum effects and the electronics at each end, but its minuscule compared to electrical.)\nThe light within the also doesnt leak out. Refraction is like a near-perfect mirror, keeping the signal bouncing inside the fibre for a very long distance.\n\nSo we've established that electrical signals get noisy, and fibre optics don't pick up interference.\n\nNext, we have signal degradation.\n\nElectricity has \"inductance\" - this manifests itself very similarly to physical inertia, which means it resists being changed. Heavier objects are harder to move and stop than lighter ones. So electricity has the same thing, it takes time to change the signal - which is what happens when the zero and one bits are transmitted. The longer the cable, the more the inductance (i.e \"inertia\"), so the longer it takes to change that zero to a one. Therefore you have to send signals at a slower rate to allow the electrons to keep up with the changes. There is a similar related effect called capacitance which also slows down the maximum rate of change.\n\nLight has no inductance, (so there is effectively no \"inertia\") - therefore changing it from zero to one is pretty much instant. That means you can change it much faster - more \"bits per second\" - regardless of distance.\n\n(note it's not really \"inertia\", the above is mostly an analogy, but it behaves like it)\n\nNext is resistance. Electrons are large (compared to photons), so they interact with the copper atoms as they travel through the wire. This interaction is analogous to friction. Friction creates heat, which is where the energy goes. In a wire, some electrons lose energy in the same way as heat (which is why power cables can get hot when carrying a lot of current). So over a long distance, much of the signal diminishes due to resistance. For high speed signals (1-10Gbps), this typically happens within a few hundred metres. Not very useful when you need to get cat videos between cities!\n\nLight interacts much less with fibre optics - the photons are tiny and much less likely to interact with the glass - especially as it's super clear specially made glass. The signal can travel up to 100km before it gets too weak for the other end to \"see\".\n\nSo we have problems of \"interference\" and \"signal degradation\". Electrical gets both problems, fibre only degradation, and much less so.\n\nEventually the signal degrades to such a weak one. For electrical signals, the noise from interference drowns out the original signal and you can no longer detect it. For the speeds that matter (1Gbps to 10Gbps) electrical signals are drowned out after just a couple of hundred metres.\nWith fibre, the degradation happens after around 100km (depending on the power of the lasers at each end). There are other interesting effects with fibre (e.g dispersion), but they are more advanced topics.\n\nWhen the signal starts to get weak, but before it's too weak to extract, you install an amplifier to boost the signal. It's much more feasible and economical to install fibre amplifiers/repeaters every 100km that it is every few hundred metres for electrical. And that's why fibre is used for anything except short network connections (usually only inside buildings).\n\nTL;DR: High speed electrical signals can only travel ~100m before they get too weak and drowned out with noise. Fibre optics don't pick up noise and the signal can travel 100km before you need to amplify it.\n\n\n[edit: better wording]\n\n[edit 2: I know people are nit-picking. This is meant to be a simple(r) explanation using terms/analogies that avoid some of the deep detail].\n\n[edit3: more clarification - and Gold, thank you!]\n\n[edit 4: clarified a bit especially on inductance and the inertia analogy]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Multiplexing lets a single wire carry more than 1 conversation. When you multiplex though, you have use a carrier frequency that is several magnitudes greater than the frequency of whatever you're transmitting (human voice for example).\n\nAs the number of conversations you're multiplexing goes up, the carrier frequency must also go up. It gets to a point when the frequency is so high that the signal no longer stays on the wire. It gets radiated out and never returns; the wire basically becomes an antenna.\n\nThis is the bandwidth of the wire. The \"width\" of the band of signals that can travel on the wire is fixed by the properties of the conductor and the electromagnetic spectrum - radio waves.\n\nFiber does not have this limitation. The signal will never radiate from the wire. Consequently, you can raise the carrier frequency really high and cram *even more* conversations onto a single wire... er fiber. This gives fiber a larger bandwidth of possible frequencies it can carry.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes they both move at near light speed. Difference is frequency. Bandwidth has nothing much to do with it. Reason fiber is better is that there is no interference in the frequency's. For both cable type's they must follow a frequency plan. With copper cable the issue is harmonics. Harmonics will cause interference between signals causing them to be distorted so in the end you will lose data.\n\n Since they are following a set frequency plan that does not allow 1 signal to interfere with another this limits the number of signals on a line. Fiber frequency's are different since it is in area of visible light spectrum. They can tune a line to hold several signals allowing you to have more data without loss. So really its not that fiber is faster, Fiber allow you to have more signals running without interference caused by harmonics. Easier way to think of it there are 2 10 lane highways. 1 is a normal 10 lane people moving in and out. Other is a smart lane controlled by computer where everyone moves at a set speed and distance. On one side people will interfere with others the more people on the highway the more interference. On the computer controlled side it knows when they need to get off and when to allow people to move around to keep the speed constant. They both can get you from A to B but on one side you have interference the more people. Other side the amount of people do not cause interference. Yes there is a cap to how many people are on the highway. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is this /r/shittyaskscience ?\n\nTo OP: One pound of sugar and one pound of cotton weigh the same.\n10Mbps on copper is the same as 10Mbps on fiber. Which speed tier you have with your ISP is the only thing that matters.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine a stretch of road, for sake of argument it is 1km long, the road represents our fibre or copper link. People travelling along the road are the bits of data. Lets say there are 1000 people we want to get from one end to the other. The problem is the road has only a single lane and each person must go in a separate car and each car must be 100m apart. Cars must travel at the imposed speed, 10m/s, analogous to the speed of light.\n\nIt takes the first car 100 seconds to reach the end of the road however the last car is still stuck at the start because only 10 cars can be on the road at a time. Each car starts every 10 seconds Thus it takes 10000 seconds for the last car to get under way. The latency of the link (100 seconds) is far smaller than the time it takes to transfer all the data (10100 seconds). \n\nTo speed up the transfer time, make the connection faster, we need more cars travelling at the same time. We can do this in 3 ways, add more lanes (multiple carriers), make the cars closer together (higher frequency) and thirdly put more people in each car (use advanced modulation schemes).\n\nIt turns out that these 3 things are easier to do with light and fibre cables than electrons in copper cables. Copper cables are like a bumpy road, put the cars too close together and they easily crash, fibre optics allows the cars to pack very close together without crashes. This also means we can't pack as many lanes into the road either because the cars need a wider lane.\n\nIt also turns out that copper cables are like a road with a steep gradient, the cars eventually slow down and need a push to get running again. This further means that we can't pack the cars as close together. \n\nIn practise the cars on our copper road have to be about 1000 times further apart than on a fibre optic road. This results in data transfer speeds which are 1000 times faster with fibre!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A somewhat simplified explanation: To send a train of digital pulses down a cable as quickly as possible, the pulses need to be as short and as closely spaced as possible. The shorter the pulses, the higher the frequency components required to create them. (This is called the uncertainty principle of Fourier analysis.) Fiber optics cables can carry visible frequencies, 10^15 hertz, whereas coax cable cannot, they operate at lower (microwave or below) frequencies, so digital pulses can't be as short or closely-spaced in coax as in optical fibre. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fiber are not faster, but being an optical medium it allow the signal to be transfered at much lesser loss and interference. And by having higher quality signal, it is also easier to develop protocols and tech to squeeze in as much as possible.\n\nFor example a Long Wave fiber with the right 10G trancievers can transfer up to 10 over miles while a copper 10G tech can only goes up to at most 30 feet.\n\nFor cases like home fiber, it is much more cost efficient to push passive optical network over long distances than using copper as we don't need a couple of middleman equipment along the way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Why are fiber-optic connections faster?\n\nIt doesn't. Not always at least.\n\nBack in the old days, if you want to have 100Mbps connection to your ISP, a dedicated Ethernet cable connecting your home and your ISP is required because that's the max speed of Ethernet cable (let's assume better cable was never invented, anyway). It's expensive, so we normally don't have that. And now there's optic-fiber. An optic-fiber is able to transfer multiple 100Mbps sessions. Cost down, and that's why we can all afford to 100Mbps Internet connections today. This may lead to the stereotype that fiber is faster.\n\n > Don't electrical signals move at the speed of light anyway, or close to it?\n\nThe speed of the movement of the signal is not what we know about the speed of Internet connection. When an ISP advertises 100Mbps, it's the amount of data transfered over a specific time. 100 million bits per second, for example. It really doesn't matter if the signal, optic or electric, travels at the speed of light. As long as this parcel of 100 million bits data delivers from the ISP to my home within one second, it's 100Mbps.\n\nDisclaimer: This answer contains biased, comprehensive or inaccurate information. Please always refer to a reliable source for more detailed technical information.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You get the same ping, but better speeds, with fiber.\n\nThat's like getting your water from a small pipe vs a large pipe: a specific drop of water (i.e. a bit, aka a 0 or a 1) might not come out of it any faster, but you'll get much more water every second from the larger pipe (bits per second).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The number of wrong answers on this thread is truly epic.\n\nHere is a really simple ELI5 answer:\n\nA fiber optic line can transmit much more information per second than a typical copper line, whether twisted pair or coaxial.\n\nOn a twisted pair or coaxial cable, the signal is sent as a radio frequency signal, and the maximum frequency such a cable can transmit is measured in gigahertz, or billions of cycles per second.\n\nLight is also a radio frequency signal, but it is at a much higher frequency, measured in terahertz, or trillions of cycles per second.\nBecause fiber optic lines transmit light, which is at a much higher frequency, it allows for transmitting a larger signal. The size of a signal is measured in bandwidth, and the bandwidth of a fiber optic signal can be many orders of magnitude larger than a signal can be on an twisted pair or coaxial cable.\n\nEach bit of data is not sent faster one way versus the other, but by sending more of them simultaneously, the fiber optic signal transmits much more data in the same amount of time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No. Electricity in general does NOT operate at the speed of light. Electron currents do not flow at that speed through conductors.\n\nThe thing most people don't realize is electrons move through metals and semiconductors much as [an ink drop moves through water by diffusion](_URL_0_). \n\nThe electrons move a short distance, hit an atom, and then careen away in a different direction until they hit another atom. This is how diffusion works as well. The typically path length before a collision is typically in silicon is about 1 nanometer or 1 billionth of a meter. Metals like copper are a bit longer at 50-100 nm.\n\nSo it's pretty slow in terms of forward progress down a wire. Far slower than the speed of light. But faster than most things you experience daily. This speed is captured by a parameter called \"carrier mobility\" and \"drift velocity\". For silicon maximum \"saturation\" velocity is ~0.03% of c. For metals it's a bit higher but less then 1% of c.\n\nThis fairly low speed is also related to why magnetic fields generated by electrical currents are relatively weak: the magnetic field is a relativistic correction to electrostatics but the electron velocity in metals is just barely relativistic so the effects are weak so magnetic fields require a lot of current.\n\nThere's also another way that energy gets transmitted electrically : not by electron movement but by electromagnetic radiation fields propagating along the wires. \n\nThese operate faster then the diffusion processes of electron movement but typically still at a fraction of the speed of light. These are sort of like having a radio signal propagating along the surface of the metal. The interaction with the metal slows it down but it's faster than the electron velocities.\n\nThere's a specification typically associate with electronic cables called the \"velocity factor\" that captures this numerically. A common value is 70% (of the speed of light). But this is only for high speed AC signals.\n\nSo compare this to fiber optic cables. The speed of light in a fiber is defined by the index of refraction, N, of the cable material. However it's possible to tune this value to increase the speed (N=1 is the speed of light, 1/N is the speed in the material).\n\nLab versions of fiber materials have managed [99.7% of the speed of light](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a lot of good answers here clarifying that optics' real advantage is interference, power, signal integrity, etc all leading to higher throughput.\n\nI would just add one fun fact that a lot of folks are glossing over. Contrary to your post, a signal can actually propagate FASTER over copper than over most fiber optics. This is because the speed of electricity through copper is on the order of 0.75c, while the speed of light through a normal backbone optical cable is around 0.5-0.66c.\n\nSo if your goal was to send data with the absolute least latency-- and you had a dedicated connection, such that bandwidth / interference were not issues-- copper would actually be a significantly better choice.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Technically the speed of light is different depending on the medium it is passing through. The well known speed of light that everyone refers to is the speed of light through a vacuum. A quick Google search indicates that scientists have gotten light to move as slowly as 17 meters per second through some special semi conductor. As for the differences in data transmission speed in wire and optical fiber, that's already been pretty well addressed. But a short answer involves the term multiplexing. The way prisms can separate a beam of light into many different colors means that you can actually merge multiple light signals into one and then separate it again at its destination. Another huge benefit with optical fiber is that it preserves the signal. Electromagnetic interference has no effect on it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This thread is too far gone and no one will read this, but in short, fiber is not inherently faster than copper. There are many ways to cram *more* data down a fiber, but an IP packet moving over a fiber will move at the same speed it does over copper. As to the more part, there are things like Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM) that let you put 40 or 80 signals down a single fiber in a way you can never do on copper. There are also things like Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), which is how your cable modem works in part, that function over copper and fiber. Source: I do this for a living.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a side note. As far as internet speeds fiber being better this is because the fibers can be made very very thin, orders of magnitude compared to copper. The actual conductor being thinner allows more signal per area. \n\nSent from mobile. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not about the speed at which the data moves, it's about the bandwidth. You can send signals at higher bandwidths through a fiber rather then through copper wires. Higher bandwidths means there's the possibility of sending higher bitrates which finally allows you to receive more information per second.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "to put it in extremely layman term, lets rule out all the interference in this case. electrical signal can move up to 99% of what light speed does exception that the medium it is using is generally copper.\n\nthere are so much blocking for the electrons to move across, heat is a issue on physical medium which changes everytime, hence the throughput will never be 99%, more of like 50% or even lesser then lightspeed.\n\nwhere else for fibre, it really depends on it's medium! lousy plastic mimicking a good fibre glass may give somewhere 70% of the light speed quality. a good one without much diffraction will result a close 99%. \n\nfibre use reflection for it's bound. this is taught in basic engineering.\n\nme too, network engineer from Singapore telecom and communication is my forte since 18 year old.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not about speed of travel, it's about speed of modulation. We can modulate light waves (THz) much faster than we can modulate electric circuits (GHz). The faster you can modulate, the richer the signal you can encode into a signal of a given duration. This translates into downloading faster, as you are able to receive more information in a finite span of time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are different kinds of speed. The speed of light effects latency, that is how long it takes to send a message and start to get a response. But what fiber optic cables are better at is throughput. This can be viewed as how wide the cable is. More information can fit in the fiber optic at the same time. So the result is that your web page will start loading just as fast with both, but it will finish loading faster with fiber optic cable. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am a cable dawg, I do install these.\nFiber is literal light. No interference. \nCopper is not and has interference. \nFiber is muy Bueno .",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7309377",
"title": "Fiber-optic communication",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with electrical transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 934,
"text": "The main benefits of fiber are its exceptionally low loss (allowing long distances between amplifiers/repeaters), its absence of ground currents and other parasite signal and power issues common to long parallel electric conductor runs (due to its reliance on light rather than electricity for transmission, and the dielectric nature of fiber optic), and its inherently high data-carrying capacity. Thousands of electrical links would be required to replace a single high bandwidth fiber cable. Another benefit of fibers is that even when run alongside each other for long distances, fiber cables experience effectively no crosstalk, in contrast to some types of electrical transmission lines. Fiber can be installed in areas with high electromagnetic interference (EMI), such as alongside utility lines, power lines, and railroad tracks. Nonmetallic all-dielectric cables are also ideal for areas of high lightning-strike incidence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3372377",
"title": "Optical fiber",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Optical fiber is used as a medium for telecommunication and computer networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because light propagates through the fiber with much lower attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8774050",
"title": "Telecommunications engineering",
"section": "Section::::History.:Optical fiber.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and computer networking because it is flexible and can be bundled into cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3372377",
"title": "Optical fiber",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 989,
"text": "For short-distance applications, such as a network in an office building (see FTTO), fiber-optic cabling can save space in cable ducts. This is because a single fiber can carry much more data than electrical cables such as standard category 5 Ethernet cabling, which typically runs at 100 Mbit/s or 1 Gbit/s speeds. Fiber is also immune to electrical interference; there is no cross-talk between signals in different cables, and no pickup of environmental noise. Non-armored fiber cables do not conduct electricity, which makes fiber a good solution for protecting communications equipment in high voltage environments, such as power generation facilities, or metal communication structures prone to lightning strikes. They can also be used in environments where explosive fumes are present, without danger of ignition. Wiretapping (in this case, fiber tapping) is more difficult compared to electrical connections, and there are concentric dual-core fibers that are said to be tap-proof.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2940457",
"title": "Multi-mode optical fiber",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with single-mode fiber.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "The LED light sources sometimes used with multi-mode fiber produce a range of wavelengths and these each propagate at different speeds. This chromatic dispersion is another limit to the useful length for multi-mode fiber optic cable. In contrast, the lasers used to drive single-mode fibers produce coherent light of a single wavelength. Because of the modal dispersion, multi-mode fiber has higher pulse spreading rates than single mode fiber, limiting multi-mode fiber’s information transmission capacity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7309377",
"title": "Fiber-optic communication",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Amplification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "The transmission distance of a fiber-optic communication system has traditionally been limited by fiber attenuation and by fiber distortion. By using opto-electronic repeaters, these problems have been eliminated. These repeaters convert the signal into an electrical signal, and then use a transmitter to send the signal again at a higher intensity than was received, thus counteracting the loss incurred in the previous segment. Because of the high complexity with modern wavelength-division multiplexed signals (including the fact that they had to be installed about once every 20 km), the cost of these repeaters is very high.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3843580",
"title": "Optical networking",
"section": "Section::::Optical Amplification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "The capacity of fiber optic networks has increased in part due to improvements in components, such as optical amplifiers and optical filters that can separate light waves into frequencies with less than 50 GHz difference, fitting more channels into a fiber. The erbium-doped optical amplifier was developed by David Payne at the University of Southampton in 1986 using atoms of the rare earth erbium that are distributed through a length of optical fiber. A pump laser excites the atoms, which emit light, thus boosting the optical signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1zmdje
|
Has the privilege of knights to make knights ever been abolished?
|
[
{
"answer": "Alternatively I'd question the premise. Did common knights (as opposed to Barons, Earls, or other titled nobility) ever have the right to bestow knighthood upon others - particularly with regard to England, Great Britain, or the UK? If not, where did this idea arise?\n\nToday all knighthoods are bestowed by the Queen or by a member of the Royal family on her behalf. I have no idea with regard to the past.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As an Englishman I can only really answer this in regards to the Kingdom of England and the subsequent United Kingdom effectively, as my knowledge of foreign knightly orders isn't great.\n\nWhat I can tell you is that a knight has never been able to make anyone a knight. The only person who can bestow knighthoods and other titular dignities such as peerages is a Fons Honorum (Fount of Honour). This is almost always a monarch, but some individual orders exist with their own Fount of Honour, though these are not considered legitimate by most.\n\nIt's also worth bearing in mind that knights always belong to orders and orders have set numbers of members. For example, The Most Noble Order of the Garter has twenty four members and never any more. Other knightly orders, like The Most Honourable Order of the Bath have ranks such as Knight Grand Cross and Dame Grand Cross, Knight Commander and Dame Commander and Knight Companion. Whilst Knights and Dames Grand Cross have influence on the monarch and might informally advise the Fons Honorum on who to appoint, they cannot under any circumstances knight anybody else.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For the first century and a half or so in which knighthood was in existence - perhaps 900 to 1050 CE - it was not a title but an occupation. You were a knight (*miles* is the period word) if you possessed a horse, mail, a sword, and a lance, and had the training necessary to use them. You could be either a landowner, through vassalage or outright allodial holding, or a dependent member of a noble household. \n\nGradually, the concepts of knighthood and nobility became enmeshed, and by 1100 nobles were increasingly self-identifying as knights. From this point onward knighthood as a class becomes more formalized, more rigid, and more static. Formal dubbing ceremonies develop, and become more elaborate over time. The concept of heraldry is invented and then expanded upon. By the end of the 13th century knighthood has so many duties and expenses attached to it that it is only available, basically, to very wealthy landowners; the everyday business of war is carried on by men-at-arms, who are knights in all but title. People often confuse these men as being lower class soldiers, but they generally came from knightly families, but could not afford to be themselves knighted. They are frequently referred to as esquires, but as people tend to confuse this with boy servants, I avoid using it in a general discussion such as this. Any esquire's hope was to enrich himself enough to be knighted, but this was increasingly unlikely.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8002154",
"title": "Imperial Knight",
"section": "Section::::History.:Organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "The Knights as a group were governed by the General Directorate (\"Generaldirektorium\"). This exercised the \"jus retractus\", the right to buy back any land sold to a non-knight for the original price within three years, and the \"just collectandi\", the right to collect taxes for the upkeep of the knightly order, even on estates that had been sold to non-knights. The knights also had the right to tax their subjects directly, and also possessed the feudal rights to the \"corvée\" and the \"bannum\". The knights' reputation for heavy taxes (the maligned \"Rittersteuer\") and high judicial fines rendered them an anachronism in the eyes of imperial reformers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8002154",
"title": "Imperial Knight",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "In the Peace of Westphalia, the privileges of the Imperial Knights were confirmed. The knights paid their own tax (voluntary) to the Emperor, possessed limited sovereignty (rights of legislation, taxation, civil jurisdiction, police, coin, tariff, hunt; certain forms of justice), and the \"ius reformandi\" (the right to establish an official Christian denomination in their territories). The knightly families had the right of house legislation, subject to the Emperor's approval, and so could control such things as the marriage of members and set the terms of the inheritance of family property. Imperial knights did not, however, have access to the Imperial Diet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29068574",
"title": "Order of the Reunion",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "Knights of the new Order were appointed right up to the end of the First Empire in 1814. On their initial restoration in 1814 the Bourbons neither abolished nor awarded the Order of the Reunion and Napoleon awarded it during the Hundred Days. On 28 July 1815 Louis XVIII of France abolished it, asking its knights to return their gold and silver badges to the chancellory of the Legion d’Honneur. Those returned included few from the Netherlands since the cross was the replacement for the Order of the Union and the Dutch – having seen their country looted and drained of manpower for so long by the French – were unwilling to send their gold and silver awards back to Paris.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1149235",
"title": "Fount of honour",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "The 13th century witnessed the trend of monarchs, beginning with Emperor Frederick II (as King of Sicily) in 1231, retaining the right of \"fons honorum\" as a royal prerogative, gradually abrogating the right of knights to elevate their esquires to knighthood. After the end of feudalism and the rise of the nation-state, orders and knighthoods, along with titles of nobility (in the case of monarchies), became the domain of the monarchs (heads of state) to reward their loyal subjects (citizens) – in other words, the heads of state became their nations' \"\"fountains of honour\"\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15555913",
"title": "Nuova Cronica",
"section": "Section::::Municipal statistics.:Knights and the ordinances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "Villani states that there were only 75 full-dress knights in his day and not 250 knights as in the previous government of Florence, because the popular second government denied the magnates much of their authority and status, \"hence few persons were knighted.\" In 1293, new city ordinances were passed that stated anyone who did not belong to a guild or a council of the captain of the people were to be barred from serving as priors, standard-bearers of justice, or judges. This effectively excluded the powerful magnates of the city from holding important offices, while a prison for magnates was built in 1294, and Giovanni Villani writes that the first magnates punished for failing to adhere to these ordinances were the Galli.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8002154",
"title": "Imperial Knight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The immediate status of the Imperial Knights was recognized at the Peace of Westphalia. They never gained access to the Imperial Diet, the parliament of lords, and were not considered Hochadel, the high nobility, belonging to the Lower Nobility. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21768570",
"title": "Knights of the Royal Oak",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1018,
"text": "The Knights of the Royal Oak was an intended order of knighthood. It was proposed in 1660 at the time of the restoration of Charles II of England, known as the English Restoration. It was to be a reward to those Englishmen who faithfully & actively supported him during his exile in France. The knights so created were to be called \"Knights of the Royal Oak\", and bestowed with a silver medal, on a ribbon, depicting the king in the Royal oak tree, a reference to the oak tree at Boscobel House, then called the \"Oak of Boscobel\", in which King Charles II hid to escape the Roundheads after the Battle of Worcester in 1651. Men were selected from all the counties of England and Wales, with the number from each county being in proportion to the population. William Dugdale in 1681 noted 687 names, each with a valuation of their estate in pounds per year. The estates of 18 men were valued at more than £3,000 per year. The names of the recipients are also listed in the baronetages, published in five volumes, 1741.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
60cvp0
|
why do so many superhero origin stories involve parents dying?
|
[
{
"answer": "Parents are only there to cause angst for the hero. If they're loving and supportive they must die. If they're not then they're mean and abusive so the hero must run away bemoaning his fate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because so many superhero writers are unimaginative hacks. It's easier to fall back on a trope like that than it is to write an interesting and unique origin story.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is a very common trope in fiction. It is frequently used because it can accomplish several things\n\n- give the protagonist a motive. Why are they a superhero / chasing this villain / in this job. Easy answer: their parents died.\n\n- if the crime was committed by the main antagonist, it's an easy way to establish that they are bad business. They are obviously evil cause they will just kill a kid's parents (or even try to kill them). It can also serve to show how incompetent law agencies / other people are in the story if this villain won't be caught for the crime until our hero gets involved.\n\n- it clears the way for the protagonist engaging in things parents would normally stop you from. \n\n- it gives the protagonist a source of angst (which, to be honest, some writers mistake as a fully-functioning personality) / helps create a dark and edge tone to the work.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "503156",
"title": "Spider-Girl (Mayday Parker)",
"section": "Section::::Other versions.:Prime Earth (Earth-616).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "However, baby May and her parents were never reunited in Marvel's main continuity. Editors repeatedly stated that the baby died, or at the very least would never be seen again; the child was considered a major factor in the aging of the characters. In \"Marvel Knights Spider-Man\" issue No. 9, Mac Gargan, while speaking of Norman Osborn, states \"He kills your unborn child, you kill his son\". To date, this is the most conclusive evidence of the infant's fate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16359070",
"title": "Roles of mothers in Disney media",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "The heroes and heroines of most Disney movies come from unstable family backgrounds; most are either orphaned or have no mothers. Few, if any, have only single-parent mothers. In other instances, mothers are presented as \"bad surrogates\" eventually \"punished for their misdeeds.\" There is much debate about the reasoning behind this phenomenon. It is notable that the phenomenon, while present since the beginning of the Disney canon in the presence of the Evil Queen in \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\", became more prevalent upon the death of Walt Disney's mother Flora in a tragic accident where she asphyxiated in the home that her son had bought her. Two of the most remembered and notable examples occurred directly after she died, these being the long imprisonment of Mrs. Jumbo in \"Dumbo\" and the dramatic death of Bambi's mother in \"Bambi\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20562380",
"title": "Kill off",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Comic books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1250,
"text": "Death is a frequently used dramatic device in comic book fiction, and in particular superhero fiction. Unlike stories in television or film, character deaths are rarely by unforeseen behind-the-scenes events, as there is no analogous situation to having actors portraying characters. Instead, characters are typically killed off as part of the story, or occasionally by editorial mandate to generate publicity for a title. Teasers may hint at characters' deaths for an extended period. A number of factors often mean that these changes are not permanent. Due to extremely long print runs, the popularity of these characters (with writers and fans) and occasionally rights issues for using the character in licensed adaptations, characters are often brought back to life by later writers. This can happen either as a depiction of their literal resurrection or by retcon, a revision which changes earlier continuity and establishes the character not to have died in the first place. This phenomenon is known as the comic book death. Killing off a main character such as Superman, Batman or Captain America can often lead to an uptick in publicity for a comic book, as well as high sales for the story in which they are inevitably brought back to life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13482953",
"title": "Superhero fiction",
"section": "Section::::Common plot elements.:Death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Death in superhero fiction is rarely permanent, as characters who die are often brought back to life through supernatural means or via retcons (retroactive changes to the continuity), the alteration of previously established facts in the continuity of a fictional work. Fans have termed the practice of bringing back dead characters \"comic book death\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4139866",
"title": "Alexandra DeWitt",
"section": "Section::::Woman in Refrigerator syndrome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Because of the brutal manner in which Alex is killed, and because of the different 'significant others' of superheroes that are constantly in danger of being killed, women in the series who are killed in a particularly violent manner, to further a male hero's story, are said to have suffered from the Woman in Refrigerator syndrome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1148117",
"title": "Comic book death",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Because death in american super-hero comics is so often temporary, readers rarely take the death of a character seriously—when a character dies, the reader feels very little sense of loss, and simply left wondering how long it will be before they return to life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18564154",
"title": "Orphan",
"section": "Section::::In literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Orphans are especially common as characters in comic books. Almost all the most popular heroes are orphans: Superman, Batman, Spider-Man, Robin, The Flash, Captain Marvel, Captain America, and Green Arrow were all orphaned. Orphans are also very common among villains: Bane, Catwoman, and Magneto are examples. Lex Luthor, Deadpool, and Carnage can also be included on this list, though they killed one or both of their parents. Supporting characters befriended by the heroes are also often orphans, including the Newsboy Legion and Rick Jones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
236qf1
|
what's the difference between cables that send power and cables that send data? how come phone cables can do both?
|
[
{
"answer": "At each end of every cable is a connector. Typically cables have a male connector that plugs into the female connector on a device. On every connector there are multiple \"pins\" or connection points. You solder a wire to each pin, and encase it into one cable. \n\nFor example, on an instrument/old telephone connector there are 2 pins, labeled signal and ground. Inside the cable are two wires of different colors, one soldered to signal and the other soldered to ground. \n\nNow a USB connector has 4 pins. Vcc (+5V supply), D- (Data -), D+ (Data +) and Ground. There is also a more or less standard for color coding the wires inside the cable, where Vcc is red and Ground is black, D- is white and D+ is green. If you cut open an iPod charging cable you can see those four individual wires. \n\nIn some applications you have to have multiple pins on a connector for supplying power and signal, or multiple signals. In other applications you can send power and the signal on the same line (like telephones), or multiple signals together using a technique called multiplexing (which is how TV cables work). You generally need a different connector and cable for different applications because of the difference in power requirements, number of signals, size of the device, etc. \n\nHope this helps! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ELI5: Technically there is none, it depends on the hardware sending the power and receiving the power. Both transmit electricity, but if the hardware is made to do so it can transmit a pattern in the electricity that hardware on the other end can understand. Having them separate has to do with cost, efficiency, flexibility, and complexity of the hardware.\n\nUSB is actually a bundle of cables, 4 to be exact, you can see it on the pins. The outer 2 are for transmitting power. The inner 2 are data. Once again this is likely done to allow more flexibility. For example, some external hdd units have a usb cable with 2 plugs. 1 is for data, the other power. This is because in some situations the power supplied by 1 usb plug is not sufficient to power the hdd.\n\nMore detail (And a bit of a rant):\nThere are various engineering reasons why there are dedicated cables. The SATA one is likely related to efficiency and modularity. Passing power through the motherboard is not as efficient as grabbing it from the power supply directly.\n\nThis is also why it's utterly silly when iPhones have a proprietary plug with 30 some odd pins. You need at most 3 related to power (+/- and ground) and 2 for data since all communication with your computer is done via usb anyway. Sure you can dedicate pins for certain tasks but the fact that Android phones can do the same bloody thing with 4 pins (they use a std usb plug by design) means that this is primarily motivated by business reasons rather than engineering reasons.\n\nAlso, the cables themselves play a relatively minor role as can be seen with USB 1, 2, and 3. All of them use the same plugs with the same 4 wires in the cable. Yet the data transfer speeds are vastly different. This is because each of those iterations improved the hardware sending/receiving the signals making them more efficient and able to cram more data into the cable. As a note wire quality does play a role in it as a bad wire can severely impede the speeds. But don't buy into the Monster cable sales pitch, most of the time it doesn't matter all that much unless you got a really bad cable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42418",
"title": "Electrical cable",
"section": "Section::::Modern applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "Electrical cables are used to connect two or more devices, enabling the transfer of electrical signals or power from one device to the other. Cables are used for a wide range of purposes, and each must be tailored for that purpose. Cables are used extensively in electronic devices for power and signal circuits. Long-distance communication takes place over undersea cables. Power cables are used for bulk transmission of alternating and direct current power, especially using high-voltage cable. Electrical cables are extensively used in building wiring for lighting, power and control circuits permanently installed in buildings. Since all the circuit conductors required can be installed in a cable at one time, installation labor is saved compared to certain other wiring methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "194114",
"title": "Serial communication",
"section": "Section::::Cables.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Practically all long-distance communication transmits data one bit at a time, rather than in parallel, because it reduces the cost of the cable. The cables that carry this data (other than \"the\" serial cable) and the computer ports they plug into are usually referred to with a more specific name, to reduce confusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17912042",
"title": "Telecommunications cable",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Telecommunications cables are a type of guided transmission mediums. Cables are usually known to transmit electric energy (AC/DC); however, cables in telecommunications fields are used to transmit electromagnetic waves; they are called \"electromagnetic wave guides\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10782772",
"title": "Telco cable",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "A telco cable, also known as a Telecom cable or Amphenol cable, is a thick cable used for connecting multiple voice or data lines for LANs or telecommunications. The ends use 25 pairs of polarized pins (50 pins total). This cable handles up to 25 data channels or phone lines. The name Amphenol comes from the company that first manufactured it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2533985",
"title": "Serial cable",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "A serial cable is a cable used to transfer information between two devices using a serial communication protocol. The form of connectors depends on the particular serial port used. A cable wired for connecting two DTEs directly is known as a null modem cable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41812",
"title": "Transmission medium",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Guided.:Coaxial cable.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Coaxial cable is a type of transmission line, used to carry high frequency electrical signals with low losses. It is used in such applications as telephone trunklines, broadband internet networking cables, high speed computer data busses, carrying cable television signals, and connecting radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas. It differs from other shielded cables because the dimensions of the cable and connectors are controlled to give a precise, constant conductor spacing, which is needed for it to function efficiently as a transmission line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46380",
"title": "Coaxial cable",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Coaxial cable is a type of transmission line, used to carry high frequency electrical signals with low losses. It is used in such applications as telephone trunklines, broadband internet networking cables, high speed computer data busses, carrying cable television signals, and connecting radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas. It differs from other shielded cables because the dimensions of the cable and connectors are controlled to give a precise, constant conductor spacing, which is needed for it to function efficiently as a transmission line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1yp57j
|
Are artistic traits, such as being able to draw exceptionally or excelling in the musical arts, dependent on one's genes?
|
[
{
"answer": "'Artistic' is probably not a genetic trait. But if you break it down into its component parts, then each of the following things are at least PARTLY genetic: hand-eye coordination, fine motor movement, gross motor movement, depth perception, color perception, tonal perception, dexterity, muscle composition, flexibility, memory, etc.\n\nIf you have a genetic predisposition to a large number of those sub-traits then you may be well on your way to being genetically 'artistic.'",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20358",
"title": "Music lesson",
"section": "Section::::Extra-musical benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "A relationship between music and the strengthening of math, dance, reading, creative thinking and visual arts skills has also been reported in literature. (Winner, Hetland, Sanni, as reported in \"The Arts and Academic Achievement - What the Evidence Shows\", 2000) However recent findings by Dr. Levitin of McGill University in Montreal, Canada, undermines the suggested connection between musical ability and higher math skills. In a study conducted on patients with Williams syndrome (a genetic disorder causing low intelligence), he found that even though their intelligence was that of young children, they still possessed an unusually high level of musical ability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4390344",
"title": "Music psychology",
"section": "Section::::Applied research areas.:Music education.:Musical aptitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Musical aptitude refers to a person's innate ability to acquire skills and knowledge required for musical activity, and may influence the speed at which learning can take place and the level that may be achieved. Study in this area focuses on whether aptitude can be broken into subsets or represented as a single construct, whether aptitude can be measured prior to significant achievement, whether high aptitude can predict achievement, to what extent aptitude is inherited, and what implications questions of aptitude have on educational principles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44923345",
"title": "Artful Learning",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Research shows that participation in the arts plays a vital role in influencing brain development and performance. Arts which are considered enrichment in education programs, may in fact be central to the way humans neurologically process and learn. In 1999, The President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities teamed up with the Arts Education Partnership to publish a comprehensive study on the inclusion of the arts in education.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3389587",
"title": "Mastery learning",
"section": "Section::::Learning For Mastery (LFM).:Variables of LFM.:Aptitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Bloom argues that there are 1 to 5 percent of students who have special talent for learning a subject (especially music and foreign languages) and there are also around five percent of students who have special disability for learning a subject. For other 90% of students, aptitude is merely an indicator of the rate of learning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23689073",
"title": "The Shape of Time",
"section": "Section::::Chapter 1: The History of Things.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "The comparisons between talent and genius are explored in regard to time and degree. Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael are provided as examples; to debate between who is more talented is a moot point. Both were extremely talented artists but the other artists of the time \"came late when the feast was over through no fault of their own\" (7). The ideas of 'nature vs. nurture' in regard to the inheritable traits of genius; Kubler concludes that genius is indeed a result of 'nurture' as learning is not a biological concern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "142910",
"title": "Creativity",
"section": "Section::::Assessing individual creative ability.:Social-personality approach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 1270,
"text": "Some researchers have taken a social-personality approach to the measurement of creativity. In these studies, personality traits such as independence of judgement, self-confidence, attraction to complexity, aesthetic orientation, and risk-taking are used as measures of the creativity of individuals. A meta-analysis by Gregory Feist showed that creative people tend to be \"more open to new experiences, less conventional and less conscientious, more self-confident, self-accepting, driven, ambitious, dominant, hostile, and impulsive.\" Openness, conscientiousness, self-acceptance, hostility, and impulsivity had the strongest effects of the traits listed. Within the framework of the Big Five model of personality, some consistent traits have emerged. Openness to experience has been shown to be consistently related to a whole host of different assessments of creativity. Among the other Big Five traits, research has demonstrated subtle differences between different domains of creativity. Compared to non-artists, artists tend to have higher levels of openness to experience and lower levels of conscientiousness, while scientists are more open to experience, conscientious, and higher in the confidence-dominance facets of extraversion compared to non-scientists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44256346",
"title": "G Is for Genes",
"section": "Section::::Part One: In theory.:The Abnormal is Normal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Students that are high performing or low performing are no more likely to be more genetically exceptional than an average student and same genes influence performance all across the distribution of performance. In other words, a math professor and a student struggling with mathematics are using the same genes when they perform mathematical tasks. There are many genes with small effect which are working together in an interplay with many environmental experiences and the same genes can have allelic differences. This is why turning on or off genes is unlikely to have large effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
j21g3
|
A question from my 4yo son
|
[
{
"answer": "Is the Sun soft or hard? As explained to a 4 year old.\n\nGood question. What is hard or soft? Generally hardness is a property that only solids have, but under certain circumstances non-solids may have a similar reaction to stress. Hardness is the measure by which an external force permanently changes the shape of an object. Hardness can be defined by several other properties such as plasticity, elasticity, and in liqiuds viscosity and surface tension. Viscosity is a material's internal resistance to change and surface tension basically the same except on the surface to external stress. Now... the sun.\n\nThe sun is mainly made up of Hydrogen and Helium. Both of these are gases like what you find in balloons or gaint airships. So... it's not a solid, or a liquid so we stop there right? Weeeeellll.... all matter has various phases of state: solid, liquid, and gas. These we are all familiar with, but there are other phases too. When a gas gets hot enough, it can become something known as plasma, for example... lightning. When enough heat and pressure is applied a gas or liquid can form something known as a supercritical fluid. Supercritical fluids are liquid-gas hybrids in that they are both liquids and gases at the same time. They also have no surface tension. ZERO. The gases in the sun are really hot, around 2'000'000 degrees hot. There is also alot of them, so dense that it's 200 times the density of Earth's air (about the density of cork really). All of this and the immense gravity give it huge pressure. Enough that the gas become both a plasma and a supercritical fluid. What does this mean well... since it has no surface tension it's like the ultimate in soft liquids. So the sun is soft.\n\nAnd hopefully you won't ask me about the viscosity of the plasma, because I have no idea how to figure that out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The sun is plasma, not gas.\n\nIf your could touch it, it wouldn't feel solid until you were near the core.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tell him also that the sun accounts for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System. :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's only really dense in the middle. It's so huge that overall it's actually about as dense as water. The inner bits are a lot more dense than that, and the outer bits are a lot less.\n\nSo if you had a space-ship that was immune to heat, it'd just fall through the outer bits.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know for sure. But If I had to make an educated guess (I am currently doing a PhD in physics) I'd say it is a bit like a flame. A very hot flame. A bit like the flame of a gas burner or something. Pretty squishy. You wouldn't even feel it if you touched it, but it's very hot of course.\n\nAn interesting fact, by the way: The sun has an atmosphere also called the corona. This atmosphere is very much hotter (1 000 000 celsius) than the surface of the sun (10 000 celsius). And no-one really knows why :(\n\nEdit: Spelling",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All from Wikipedia - _URL_0_\n\nThe core (25% of the radius) is up to 150 times the density of water.\n\nThe next layer, the radiative zone, (from 25% to 70% of the radius) has a density from 20 times the density of water (similar to gold) to one fifth the density of water (similar to cork).\n\nThe convective zone (from 70% to the visible surface) has a density that drops to 1/6,000th the density of air.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Look at [this](_URL_0_) (and related videos). I think that answers pretty well... not hard, not squishy, I’d rather say viscous. Like a huge burning ball of honey, for example — it’s a image I’d propose to a 4 years old.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A neutron star has a solid surface.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a layman interpreting this answers for a four year old I think it might be safe to tell the child that \"Kind of like the the earth, some parts are hard while others are squishy\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would say squishy, because at some definable 'surface' the gas would *not* be dense. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Neither, it's more like a cloud. A giant burning cloud. If you were floating just above the surface of the sun, you could swipe your hand right through it without feeling any resistance (though your hand might not survive). As you fly deeper into the sun, it will start to feel like a thicker cloud, eventually feeling like you're under water, then like you're in a pool of syrup, then so thick that you can't move at all. \n\nBut the dense part is really fairly concentrated at the center of the sun. So if you were a giant and the sun was just the size of an apple to you, you could squish it without any problems. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not that this is truly germane to this discussion, but I find it fascinating that a 4yo's curiosity has caused an almost day long debate between people with enough cumulative degrees to start their own university. This is why I love Reddit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is the Sun soft or hard? As explained to a 4 year old.\n\nGood question. What is hard or soft? Generally hardness is a property that only solids have, but under certain circumstances non-solids may have a similar reaction to stress. Hardness is the measure by which an external force permanently changes the shape of an object. Hardness can be defined by several other properties such as plasticity, elasticity, and in liqiuds viscosity and surface tension. Viscosity is a material's internal resistance to change and surface tension basically the same except on the surface to external stress. Now... the sun.\n\nThe sun is mainly made up of Hydrogen and Helium. Both of these are gases like what you find in balloons or gaint airships. So... it's not a solid, or a liquid so we stop there right? Weeeeellll.... all matter has various phases of state: solid, liquid, and gas. These we are all familiar with, but there are other phases too. When a gas gets hot enough, it can become something known as plasma, for example... lightning. When enough heat and pressure is applied a gas or liquid can form something known as a supercritical fluid. Supercritical fluids are liquid-gas hybrids in that they are both liquids and gases at the same time. They also have no surface tension. ZERO. The gases in the sun are really hot, around 2'000'000 degrees hot. There is also alot of them, so dense that it's 200 times the density of Earth's air (about the density of cork really). All of this and the immense gravity give it huge pressure. Enough that the gas become both a plasma and a supercritical fluid. What does this mean well... since it has no surface tension it's like the ultimate in soft liquids. So the sun is soft.\n\nAnd hopefully you won't ask me about the viscosity of the plasma, because I have no idea how to figure that out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3852524",
"title": "The Jade Peony",
"section": "Section::::Plot Synopsis.:Sek-Lung, Third Brother.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Sek-Lung, or Sekky the third son, is the youngest child of the Chen family and the second child born to Father and Stepmother. Because he tended to be sickly, he becomes close to Poh-Poh, who spends most of her time taking care of him. When she passes away, he becomes obsessed with the war games that have emerged with the impending Second World War and finds his world increasingly confusing when his babysitter, Meiying, begins an illicit relationship with a Japanese boy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40931934",
"title": "Kehinde",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Kehinde (Short for Omokehinde) is a given name of Yoruba origin meaning \"the second-born of the twins\" or the one who comes after Taiwo. Though Taiwo is the firstborn, it is believed that Kehinde is the elder twin, sending Taiwo into the world first to determine if it is time to be born.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14758054",
"title": "Alive: The Final Evolution",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:Protagonists.:The Tezuka Family.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Her eldest son, , is 28 years old, who took care of his younger siblings in Yukie's absence. Her second eldest son, , is a 27 years old martial artist and a Comrade with the ability to manipulate electricity. is the 16 years old daughter and a computer wiz. She controls the technical aspects of their operations. is the second oldest daughter in the family and is 10 years old. She is Yuta's classmate and a Comrade with the ability to run at high speeds. The last 3 kids are Osomatsu, Karamatsu and Choromatsu (nicknames), and 5, 4 and 3 years old, respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59734056",
"title": "Middle Child (song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "\"Middle Child\" (stylized in all caps) is a song by American rapper J. Cole. The song was released on January 23, 2019, through Dreamville Records, Roc Nation and Interscope Records, as the first single from Dreamville's 2019 compilation album, \"Revenge of the Dreamers III\". The song was written by J. Cole, Allan Felder, Norman Harris, and Tyler Williams and produced by T-Minus and Cole. It was serviced to rhythmic and urban contemporary radio on February 5, 2019. The track contains a sample from \"Wake Up to Me\", written by Felder and Harris, as performed by First Choice. On the song, J. Cole explores \"his place between the old and new generations of hip hop, making him the 'middle child' of rap.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7831921",
"title": "Embraced by the Moonlight",
"section": "Section::::Characters.:Main Characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1355,
"text": "The previous life of Rin from \"Please Save My Earth\". In the events after the first series, Shion has lived in peace with Mokuren and watching over Rin, Alice, and Ren as spirits. Shion is fond of Ren and treats the boy as his own son due to his and Mokuren's inability to have children. When Ren's psychic abilities awaken and he has difficulty controlling them, Shion tells him that he is the one meant to protect the Earth, which inspires Ren to promise him and Mokuren that he will do his best. when Alice becomes pregnant with her and Rin's second child, Shion subconsciously sent his powers to the child, allowing it to take on his physical appearance, even though the child turns out to be a girl. Mokuren speculates that the child, whom Rin names Chimako, is the daughter that Shion has always dreamed of having. On a side note, he is fond of Japanese culture, particularly manga and video games. He also once took over Rin's body periodically to spend more time with Ren, with Rin not noticing and even having no memory of the incidents and becoming angry with Shion when he found out. Rin forbids Shion from seeing Ren once Ren starts losing control of his psychic powers and develops a spoilt personality as a result of experiencing his father's old memories but promises Shion he can see Ren when he grows up and learns to control his powers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "284015",
"title": "List of Neon Genesis Evangelion characters",
"section": "Section::::Supporting characters.:Classmates.:Toji Suzuhara.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1366,
"text": " is the Fourth Child. Toji is a tough boy, the stereotypical \"jock,\" and is in constant conflict with Asuka. His younger sister was injured in the battle between the third Angel, Sachiel, and Unit 01, and he beats Shinji up soon after for being indirectly responsible. However, after witnessing firsthand the suffering Shinji experiences piloting Unit 01 in the battle against Shamshel, Toji comes to respect Shinji, apologizes to Shinji for beating him up (his sister was angry at him for beating him up and demanded he apologize), and the two eventually become friends. When the Tokyo branch of NERV gains custody of Unit-03, Toji is identified as the Fourth Child and approached to become an EVA pilot; he agrees in order for his sister to receive better medical treatment. During the activation test for Unit-03, the EVA is possessed by the Angel Bardiel and the unit is destroyed by Unit-01 under the control of the Dummy Plug system when Shinji refuses to fight against the possessed EVA out of concern for the pilot. Unit-01 savagely destroys the possessed Evangelion under extreme protest of Shinji, and crushes the pilot's cockpit capsule, causing Toji to lose his leg. In the manga, the incident results in Toji's death. In \"Rebuild of Evangelion\", Toji does not become a pilot; instead, Asuka pilots Unit-03. His sister's name is also revealed as Sakura.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28719604",
"title": "Dele Momodu",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "Ayobamidele, meaning 'my joy has followed me home', is the last of three siblings. He lost his father at the age of 13, thereafter relying on his mother and relatives for support. Dele was taught by his late mother, who died on 18 May 2007, not to despair even when times are tough. This was exemplified by her continual support of him even when others had written him off. She had given him up to a third chance at passing his WAEC (Senior Secondary Exams). Although his mother's source of income was from petty trading, and she had two older children Dr. OlaDele B. Ajayi and Debbie Ajayi to care for, she labored hard to sustain her family, and in the words of Momodu, \"She didn't give up on me.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9rmy0m
|
how do public policy think-tanks work?
|
[
{
"answer": "They get paid to think about problems and write reports of their conclusions. The analysts that work in these places combine expertise in the subject matter (economics, foreign policy, ...) with critical thinking and analysis skills to explore the problem, the solution space, and possible courses of action.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37101",
"title": "Think tank",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "A think tank or policy institute is a research institute which performs research and advocacy concerning topics such as social policy, political strategy, economics, military, technology, and culture. Most policy institutes are non-profit organisations, which some countries such as the United States and Canada provide with tax exempt status. Other think tanks are funded by governments, advocacy groups, or corporations, and derive revenue from consulting or research work related to their projects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27074649",
"title": "BEST Education Network",
"section": "Section::::Think Tanks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The Think Tanks are typically held at a university where sustainable tourism is taught and researched. They consist of research presentations, keynote speakers, a research agenda, and curriculum development sessions. Each year the Think Tank has a particular theme and seeks to provide vision and cutting-edge insight to the topic at hand. Past themes have included:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37101",
"title": "Think tank",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Think tanks vary by ideological perspectives, sources of funding, topical emphasis and prospective consumers. Some think tanks, such as The Heritage Foundation, which promotes conservative principles, and the Center for American Progress are more partisan in purpose. Others, including the Tellus Institute, which emphasizes social and environmental topics, are more issue-oriented groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37101",
"title": "Think tank",
"section": "Section::::Global think tanks.:North American think tanks.:Government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 355,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 355,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Government think tanks are also important in the United States, particularly in the security and defense field. These include the Center for Technology and National Security Policy at the National Defense University, the Center for Naval Warfare Studies at the Naval War College, and the Strategic Studies Institute at the U.S. Army War College.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18932",
"title": "Media bias",
"section": "Section::::Scholarly treatment in the United States and United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "As mentioned above, Tim Groseclose of UCLA and Jeff Milyo of the University of Missouri at Columbia use think tank quotes, in order to estimate the relative position of mass media outlets in the political spectrum. The idea is to trace out which think tanks are quoted by various mass media outlets within news stories, and to match these think tanks with the political position of members of the U.S. Congress who quote them in a non-negative way. Using this procedure, Groseclose and Milyo obtain the stark result that all sampled news providers -except Fox News' Special Report and the Washington Times- are located to the left of the average Congress member, i.e. there are signs of a liberal bias in the US news media. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37101",
"title": "Think tank",
"section": "Section::::Global think tanks.:South American think tanks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 375,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 375,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "According to the National Institute for Research Advancement, a Japanese policy institute, think tanks are \"one of the main policy actors in democratic societies ..., assuring a pluralistic, open and accountable process of policy analysis, research, decision-making and evaluation\". A study in early 2009 found a total of 5,465 think tanks worldwide. Of that number, 1,777 were based in the United States and approximately 350 in Washington DC alone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43040226",
"title": "Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project",
"section": "Section::::Uses and users of ACLED.:Think tanks and blogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Think tanks such as the Center for Strategic and International Studies, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, the Carter Center, the Council on Foreign Relations, the Brookings Institution, and the Africa Center for Strategic Studies, utilize ACLED data for research and to inform policy recommendations. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2gu714
|
Were the Persians and the Chinese empires aware of each other's existence and did they frequently interact?
|
[
{
"answer": "The first known interaction was reported by Zhang Qian, a Chinese explorer. He wrote that they were an advanced civilization, and commented on their currency, wine, cultivation and walled cities and also of the amount of cities. This was in 126 BCE and the two people started trading embassies and missions and had a peaceful relationship. \n\nAs they entered the Sassanid Period the two civilizations benefited greatly from trade on the silk road and were very close. Both of them worked together to guard the trade routes, and they continued to send missions to each other. The Persians were noted to send great entertainers to the Chinese courts.\n\nAfter Persia was conquered by Islam, the relations continued. However in 751, the Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese had a border dispute. They proceeded to battle over Syr Dara at the Battle of Talas. The Persians won a great victory, and after the battle, relations returned to normal, trading envoys, goods and missions between the two, and working together.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The problem with this question is that there have been Persian and Chinese Empire**s** more or less continuously for the past 2200 years. The Persian heartland of Fars and the Chinese Central Plains together represent two of the oldest and most continuous loci of political power on the planet. In the context of trade and contact, for much of the past thousand years Persian was the lingua franca of the Indian Ocean, which historically probably the most dynamic commercial zone on the planet, and China was the largest economy.\n\nIf you mean during the Parthian period, yes, [the Chinese knew about them](_URL_0_), but we can't say much for the reverse because we actually know distressingly little about the Parthians.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29416684",
"title": "China–Iran relations",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "Sino-Persian relations (Chinese: 中国–波斯关系, Persian: [same as above]) refer to the historic diplomatic, cultural and economic relations between the cultures of China proper and Greater Iran, dating back to ancient times, since at least 200 B.C. The Parthians and Sassanid empires (occupying much of present Iran and Central Asia) had various contacts with the Han, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming. For millennia the two ancient civilizations of Asia were further connected both economically and culturally via the Silk Road. The two were also briefly unified under the Mongol Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3872186",
"title": "Interracial marriage",
"section": "Section::::Asia.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "There have been various periods in the history of China where a number of Arabs, Persians and Turks from the Western Regions (Central Asia and West Asia) migrated to China. Persians intermarried around the time of Manichaeism's spread to China before the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution. Moreover, Persians brought Buddhism to China and there is evidence of close relationship during its pre-Islamic times (see An Shigao).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39848386",
"title": "Southward expansion of the Han dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Historical significance.:Trade and foreign contact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1249,
"text": "Han dynasty emperors and their successors maintained commercial and diplomatic ties with various South and Southeast Asian kingdoms. Han dynasty ships traveled as far as India, expanding the horizon for new foreign markets for Chinese goods and services through maritime trade within the orbit of the Indian Ocean. Trade relationships were also established between China and foreign empires through the conquered territories. Trade connected China with the Indian Mauryan, Sātavāhana and Shunga Empires, the Persian Parthian Empire, and the European Roman Mediterranean. Roman dancers and entertainers were sent to Luoyang as a gift to China from a Burmese kingdom in 120. A kingdom referred to in the \"Book of Han\" as Huangzhi delivered a rhinoceros in the year 2 AD as a tribute. An Indian embassy arrived in China between 89 and 105. Roman merchants from the province of Syria visited Nanyue in 166, Nanjing in 226, and Luoyang in 284. Foreign products have been found at archaeological sites excavating tombs in southern China. Originating with the overseas demand for Chinese silk, the ancient Silk Road trade routes were responsible for the transmission of goods and services as well as ideas between ancient Europe, the Near East, and China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29416684",
"title": "China–Iran relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:Sassanian era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "On various occasions, Sassanian kings sent their most talented Persian musicians and dancers to the Chinese imperial court. Both empires benefited from trade along the Silk Road, and shared a common interest in preserving and protecting that trade. They cooperated in guarding the trade routes through central Asia, and both built outposts in border areas to keep caravans safe from nomadic tribes and bandits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1618577",
"title": "Sino-Roman relations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1246,
"text": "Sino-Roman relations comprised the mostly indirect contact, flow of trade goods, information, and occasional travellers between the Roman Empire and Han Empire of China, as well as between the later Eastern Roman Empire and various Chinese dynasties. These empires inched progressively closer in the course of the Roman expansion into the ancient Near East and simultaneous Han Chinese military incursions into Central Asia. Mutual awareness remained low, and firm knowledge about each other was limited. Only a few attempts at direct contact are known from records. Intermediate empires such as the Parthians and Kushans, seeking to maintain lucrative control over the silk trade, inhibited direct contact between these two Eurasian powers. In 97 AD, the Chinese general Ban Chao tried to send his envoy Gan Ying to Rome, but Gan was dissuaded by Parthians from venturing beyond the Persian Gulf. Several alleged Roman emissaries to China were recorded by ancient Chinese historians. The first one on record, supposedly from either the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius or his adopted son Marcus Aurelius, arrived in 166 AD. Others are recorded as arriving in 226 and 284 AD, with a long absence until the first recorded Byzantine embassy in 643 AD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5876413",
"title": "Sasanian Empire",
"section": "Section::::Relations with neighboring regimes.:Relations with India.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Lower-level cultural interchanges also took place between India and Persia during this period. For example, Persians imported the early form of chess, the \"chaturanga\" (Middle Persian: \"chatrang\") from India. In exchange, Persians introduced backgammon (\"Nēw-Ardašēr\") to India.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20198436",
"title": "Second Persian invasion of Greece",
"section": "Section::::Strategic analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 1174,
"text": "At the beginning of the invasion, it is clear that the Persians held most advantages. Regardless of its actual size, it is clear that the Persians had brought an overwhelming number of troops and ships to Greece. The Persians had a unified command system, and everyone was answerable to the king. They had a hugely efficient bureaucracy, which allowed them to undertake remarkable feats of planning. The Persian generals had significant experience of warfare over the 80 years in which the Persian empire had been established. Furthermore, the Persians excelled in the use of intelligence and diplomacy in warfare, as shown by their (nearly successful) attempts to divide-and-conquer the Greeks. The Greeks, by comparison, were fragmented, with only 30 or so city-states actively opposing the Persian invasion; even those were prone to quarrel with each other. They had little experience of large-scale warfare, being largely restricted to small-scale local warfare, and their commanders were chosen primarily on the basis of the political and social standing, rather than because of any experience or expertise. As Lazenby therefore asks: \"\"So why did the Persians fail?\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2htcv7
|
When and how did pop culture associate all things Nuclear with the color green?
|
[
{
"answer": "Radioactive materials are often portrayed as green because back in the mid 20th century, there was a trend of making glowing watch faces with radioactive paint mixed with phosphorus. As you say, radioactivity is impossible to see with the naked eye and if you have Cherenkov radiation, it's a visible blue. The phosphorus interacting with the radioactive decay is what makes a green glow. As time went on, the glow of the phosphorus was associated with radiation. As was the case with these watch faces. Some were even made with radium.\n\nThese sorts of watches were pretty popular and had to be hand painted. Sadly the women who made them had horrible amounts of cancer from working with all these radioactive materials. \n\nSource: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43650448",
"title": "Green (R.E.M. album)",
"section": "Section::::Release and reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 965,
"text": "\"Green\" was released on November 7, 1988, in the United Kingdom, and the following day in the United States. R.E.M. chose the American release date to coincide with the 1988 presidential election, and used its increased profile during the period to criticize Republican candidate George H. W. Bush while praising Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis. With warm critical reaction and the conversion of many new fans, \"Green\" ultimately went double-platinum in the US, reaching number 12, and peaked at number 27 in the UK. \"Orange Crush\" became R.E.M.'s first American number one single. It was the band's first gold album in the UK, making it the quartet's European breakthrough. \"What I love about it is the immensely unlikely lyrics,\" remarked Neil Hannon, frontman of The Divine Comedy, \"and, in the mandolin on 'You Are The Everything' and 'The Wrong Child', it's got a bit of what comes later but in a much purer way. It's so small and intense, it's amazing.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12460",
"title": "Green",
"section": "Section::::In history and art.:Modern history.:In the 20th and 21st century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "In the 1980s green became a political symbol, the color of the Green Party in Germany and in many other European countries. It symbolized the environmental movement, and also a new politics of the left which rejected traditional socialism and communism. (See section below.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46097",
"title": "Green party",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "The first Green Party to achieve national prominence was the German Green Party, famous for their opposition to nuclear power, as well as an expression of anti-centralist and pacifist values traditional to greens. They were founded in 1980 and have been in coalition governments at state level for some years. They were in federal government with the Social Democratic Party of Germany in a so-called Red-Green alliance from 1998 to 2005. In 2001, they reached an agreement to end reliance on nuclear power in Germany, and agreed to remain in coalition and support the government of Chancellor Gerhard Schröder in the 2001 Afghan War. This put them at odds with many Greens worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45434",
"title": "Environmental movement",
"section": "Section::::Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "In the 1980s the green parties that were created a decade before began to have some political success.. In 1986, there was a nuclear accident in Chernobyl, Ukraine. The end of the 1980s and start of the 1990s saw the fall of communism across central and Eastern Europe, the fall of the [Berlin Wall], and the Union of East and West Germany. In 1992 there was a UN summit held in Rio de Janeiro where Agenda 21 was adopted. The Kyoto Protocol was created in 1997 which set specific targets and deadlines to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions. In the early 2000s activists believed that environmental policy concerns were overshadowed by energy security, globalism, and terrorism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "729955",
"title": "Green Party (UK)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Name change and internal strife, 1985–1986.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1005,
"text": " 1985 was a time of political change in the UK. After the formation of the Social Democratic Party (SDP), there were noises being made that the UK needed a \"green\" party. In response to the rumours that a group of Liberal Party activists were about to launch a UK 'Green Party', HELP (the Hackney Local Ecology Party) registered the name \"The Green Party,\" with a green circle, designed by Steve O’Brien, as its logo. The first public meeting, chaired by David Fitzpatrick (then an Ecology Party speaker), was 13 June 1985 in Hackney Town Hall. Paul Ekins (then co-chair of the Ecology Party) spoke on the subject of Green politics and the inner city. Hackney Green Party put a formal proposal to the Ecology Party Autumn Conference in Dover that year to change to the Green Party, which was supported by the majority of attendees, including John Abineri, formerly an actor in the BBC series \"Survivors\" who supported adding \"Green\" to the name to fall in line with other environmental parties in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1559562",
"title": "The Brilliant Green",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "The Brilliant Green take much of their influence from Western music, most predominantly The Beatles, with over half their songs including English lyrics. Their break came in 1998 when their third single, \"There Will Be Love There,\" was chosen as the theme song for the popular Japanese Drama \"Love Again\" and, as a result, went straight to the top of the charts. After another number one hit with \"Tsumetai Hana\" they released their self-titled debut album which sold over one million copies in just two days. On the back of this success their first national tour, cleverly titled \"There Will Be Live There,\" sold out across Japan in only three minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8772775",
"title": "Edith Green",
"section": "Section::::Political career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Green also provided significant input to the National Defense Education Act of 1958, intended to keep the United States ahead of the Soviet Union during the space race after the launch of \"Sputnik 1\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4v3phu
|
why do you need to pay to get a divorce and pay to get married?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because it requires paperwork which your government has decided it will charge a fee to process.\n\nGenerally it is a nominal fee. Is ~$10 really stopping anyone from getting hitched?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Previous answers are correct.\n\nGovernments have to decide, for each service they offer, whether to charge a fee or to use tax money -- either way the staff need to be paid.\n\nUsually if the service benefits very large numbers of people, or if it's for poor people, they use tax money. But if it's for just one person or family at a time, and it's not specially focused on the poor, it seems fairer that the person benefiting from the service would pay for it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why does it cost money to get divorced?\n\nBecause it's worth it!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32880901",
"title": "Divorce law in Sweden",
"section": "Section::::International comparison.:Grounds for divorce.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "In other jurisdictions such as United Kingdom and Singapore, divorce is granted on the basis of an irretrievable breakdown of marriage. Under current divorce law in England and Wales, a person has to prove in court that the marriage has broken down; there are five reasons for which a marriage can be considered to have broken down: adultery, unreasonable behaviour, desertion after two years, two years' separation with consent or five years' separation without consent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19728",
"title": "Marriage",
"section": "Section::::Divorce and annulment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 264,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 264,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "After divorce, one spouse may have to pay alimony. Laws concerning divorce and the ease with which a divorce can be obtained vary widely around the world. After a divorce or an annulment, the people concerned are free to remarry (or marry).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8048030",
"title": "Jaunsar-Bawar",
"section": "Section::::Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Divorce is not a taboo in this culture, and divorced women are not ostracised from society. However, if the woman comes back to the parents' home after a divorce, the family must pay back the bride price to the man's family. If the woman divorces her husband to marry another man, the second man must pay bride price to the first man's family..But over the years this practice is followed by a few masses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39495273",
"title": "Divorce in England and Wales",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "A divorce in England and Wales is only possible for marriages of more than one year and when the marriage has irretrievably broken down. Whilst it is possible to defend a divorce, the vast majority proceed on an undefended basis. A decree of divorce is initially granted 'nisi', i.e. (unless cause is later shown), before it is made 'absolute'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42328712",
"title": "Gender inequality in Egypt",
"section": "Section::::Legal status and marriage law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Divorce procedures differ by gender, with divorces being more freely granted to men. A man can divorce his wife by saying \"you are divorced\" three times. The proceeding is then formalized within 30 days by registering the divorce with a notary. Women are then entitled to financial maintenance for up to two years. Some women, when negotiating with their husbands for divorce, are willing to forfeit the financial assistance in exchange for him initiating the divorce. Women sometimes choose this option because of the legal red tape that is involved in wife-initiated divorce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40147",
"title": "Divorce",
"section": "Section::::Gender and divorce.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 153,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 153,
"end_character": 1028,
"text": "For couples to Conservative or Orthodox Jewish law (which by Israeli civil law includes all Jews in Israel), the husband must grant his wife a divorce through a document called a \"get\". Granting the 'get' obligates him to pay the woman a significant sum of money(10,000-20,000$) as stated on the religious prenuptial contract, which can be in addition to whatever prior settlement he had reached as far as continuous child support and funds he had to pay by court order in the civil divorce. If the man refuses, (and agreeing on condition he won't have to pay the money is still called refusing), the woman can appeal to a court or the community to pressure the husband. A woman whose husband refuses to grant the get or a woman whose husband is missing without sufficient knowledge that he died, is called an agunah, is still married, and therefore cannot remarry. Under Orthodox law, children of an extramarital affair involving a married Jewish woman are considered \"mamzerim\" (illegitimate) and cannot marry non-\"mamzerim\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40147",
"title": "Divorce",
"section": "Section::::Law.:Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "In some other countries, when the spouses agree to divorce and to the terms of the divorce, it can be certified by a non-judiciary administrative entity. The effect of a divorce is that both parties are free to marry again if a filing in an appellate court does not overturn the decision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1k3r77
|
How common was the surname 'Hitler' in Germany/Austria prior to the 1930s? Did people later drop it because of its connotations?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is some anecdotal evidence.\n\nThe name \"Adolf\" was a relatively common one in Belgium prior to World War II. One of the most famous 19th century Belgian politicians was [Adolf Daens](_URL_1_). After World War 2, the name died out. Parents stopped naming their babies Adolf, but I don't know if existing \"Adolfs\" changed their name. Nowadays the frst name is non-existant here.\n\nSidenote: post-WW2, a lot of Belgian names were based on American/English names such as Danny, Willy, Ronny, Michael, Daisy, Bettybut are uncommon these days for newborns.\n\nRegarding the name \"Hitler\". His father, Alois Hitler, was actually born Alois Schicklgruber. He started (officially) using his stepfather's name, Hiedler, in the 1870's. That name got registered as Hitler for unknown reasons. So, Hitler's father was actually the first person to take on the name of Hitler. From there, it's relatively easy to track Hitler's (male) relatives after World War II. [William Patrick Hitler](_URL_0_). He was a British nephew of Hitler and joined the US Navy in 1941. He later changed his name to Stuart-Houston. \nHitler's half-nephew, Heinz Hitler, died in World War II leaving no children behind. \n\nI couldn't find anything else on other male relatives of Hitler, so I think the name naturally went extinct after world war II with the exception of William Patrick Hitler.\n\nI don't know about the name Schicklgruber however.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hitler was not a common name in that time. In fact, Hitlers father \"invented\" that name. Alois Hitler, Adolfs' father was considerd to be an illegitimate child of a Farmer in Lower Austria, who was called \"Hiedler\". Alois was called \"Schickelgruber\" after his Mother. After the death of Alois' alleged real father he changed his name into his fathers name, and changed it to Hitler. It is not clear why he did this. \n\nHilter also had siblings. Some of them changed their surname even before Adolf Hitler became \"the Füher\" because he didn't wanted the public to know about his family. E.g. Paula Hitler, Adolfs Sister changed her name to \"Wolf\"(=Wulf). \n\nSome of the Hilter offspring still live today, but they have changed their names. In fact, the Name Hitler doesn't excist anymore in Germany or Austria\n\nOther Realtives of the NSDAP-Leaders like Göring have decided to sterilize themself, because of the difficulties with their Name.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Here are some statistics](_URL_0_) concerning the French cognate (\"Adolphe\") of the first name Adolf (abscissa is year and ordinate is the number of males born in that year who received \"Adolphe\" as first name).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "New York Times: Three Quiet Brothers on Long Island, All of Them Related to Hitler\n\nNone have children, it was rumored that they made a pact to end the Hitler bloodline.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > What about other notorious dictators/fascists in Germany and elsewhere?\n\nIn cases where the surname is common, at least, it doesn't seem to have had a large effect. Francisco Franco was dictator of Spain for years, and yet today we still have the [president of Paraguay](_URL_1_) and [an American actor](_URL_0_) named Franco. And the surname of the Greek dictator of 1967-74, Georgios Papadopoulos, is still one of the most common Greek names (it means something like \"son of a priest\").",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've always wondered if he had the civil/parish documents destroyed for some reason, once he came to power.\n\nBut perhaps reality is simpler.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hitler was a rare last name but it did exist, and some Hitlers did change their names (including relatives of Adolf). For example, in letters to the editor [here](_URL_0_),a few people talk about their families changing their names from Hitler.\n\nAdolf died in popularity after WWII in Germany, Germany, Switzerland and France where the name had some presence (as Adolf, Adolph or Adolphe). In Spain, which did not fight in WWII, the name didn't get such terrible connotations and Adolfo is an acceptable normal thing to name a child. I have a Spanish friend named Adolfo myself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "i have a only slightly related question which i wanted to ask for quite some time. When i worked for a newspaper in Germany, people often sent postcards to take part in sweepstakes organized by the newspaper. There were quite a number of people born 1943-45 who were named Adolf or even Adolphine (the female version). \nAre there any records what happened when the parents of those children claimed to not have been nazis after the war?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14525860",
"title": "Back from the Front",
"section": "Section::::Production notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "\"Schicklgruber\" is the surname Adolf Hitler's father, Alois Hitler carried for the first 40 years of his life, until he took the name Hitler (Hiedler) from his stepfather. While Adolf Hitler himself never carried the surname, the British made use of it for propaganda purposes since even to Germans, the name is laughable. The Stooges used it numerous times as the only name by which they would refer to Hitler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18296177",
"title": "Hitler family",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Before the birth of Adolf Hitler the family surname had many variations that were often used almost interchangeably. Some of the common variances were Hitler, Hiedler, Hüttler, Hytler, and Hittler. Alois Schicklgruber (Adolf's father) changed his name on 7 January 1877 to \"Hitler\", which was the only form of the last name that Adolf used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5573019",
"title": "Czech name",
"section": "Section::::Surnames.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "German surnames are also quite common in the Czech Republic; the country was part of the Austrian Empire before 1918 and had a large German population until World War II. Some of them got phonetically normalized and transcribed to Czech (\"Müller\" (miller) as well as \"Miler\"; \"Stein\" (Stone) as well as \"Štajn\", \"Schmied\" (Smith) as well as \"Šmíd\" (or \"Šmýd\"), Fritsch (Frič), Schlessinger (Šlesingr), etc. Some of them retain their original German surnames e. g. : Gottwald, Feiersinger, Dienstbier, Berger, Koller, Klaus, Franz, Forman, Ebermann, Lendl, Ulihrach, Gebauer, Kaberle, Vogelstanz, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40066244",
"title": "Zimmerman (surname)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "German names were regularly Anglicized with immigration. Surnames were often translated, so in this case, Zimmerman would become Carpenter. Later generations also altered their original family names frequently after being in the United States many years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "419808",
"title": "Anglicisation",
"section": "Section::::Personal names.:Immigrant names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "German names of immigrants were also anglicised (such as Bürger to Burger, Schneider to Snyder) in the course of German immigration waves during times of political and economic instability in the late 19th and early 20th century. A somewhat different case was the politically motivated change of dynasty name in 1917 by the royal family of the United Kingdom from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha to the House of Windsor. Incidentally, Saxe-Coburg was already an anglicisation of the German original .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20493",
"title": "Masuria",
"section": "Section::::History.:Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "In 1938, the Nazi government (1933–1945) changed thousands of toponyms (especially names of cities and villages) of Old Prussian and Polish origin to newly created German names; about 50% of the existing names were changed in 1938 alone, despite resistance by the Prussian people, who continued to use their traditional place names.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20863761",
"title": "Franz-Ludwig Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg",
"section": "Section::::Family.:Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "After his father's assassination attempt against Adolf Hitler failed on 20 July 1944, Stauffenberg was sent to a foster home in Bad Sachsa and given the new surname of \"Meister\", as the Nazis viewed the name of Stauffenberg unacceptable, due to the prominence of that name in the assassination attempt. Franz-Ludwig's mother, two older brothers, and younger sister Valerie, as well as other relatives, were arrested under Nazi \"Sippenhaft\" (blood guilt) laws. He was educated at the Schule Schloss Salem and then qualified as a lawyer after passing his \"staatsexamen\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9i5n8z
|
how can we drive for minutes, maybe even hours, without really paying attention to the road? i have daydreamed and come back and not known what has happened the past 15 minutes.
|
[
{
"answer": "Seriously, I kind of shutter every time it happens",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Driving involves a lot of habits and muscle memory. You do it so much your body just learns how to do it on it's own. Basically your subconcious kinda takes over the driving thing leaving you free to daydream. This is fine if you were on a open road with no traffic or hazards but in the real world the environment is always changing which makes that kind of driving dangerous. Your subconcious is great at the basic repetitive task of keeping the vehicle at speed and between the lines but it has no clue how to deal with other stuff like traffic or pedestrians, so it just doesn't. If you don't snap out of it in time you'll just run into someone/thing. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ever done a mundane task at work and don’t really have to think about it? Same process. Your body just goes into autopilot",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not remembering what happened for the last 15 minutes doesn't mean you weren't reasonably alert during that period, it just means that you weren't forming long term memories of what happened. It is possible for that part of your brain to take a break because whatever is happening is so irrelevant that there is no need to store it beyond the short term. The result is you have no memory of that period but if something unexpected happened you would still be able to react to it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's called [Highway Hypnosis](_URL_1_) which is a form of [Automaticity](_URL_0_).\n\nThe short version is that for tasks like driving, the thing you're doing is relatively simple. Stay in the lines, go about this fast, stay a certain distance from other cars, etc. As such once you have a certain amount of practice at doing it you don't really need to think about it as long as nothing unusual happens.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To put it simply, your brain filters out useless or redundant information, such as memories of extremely repetitive or monotonous tasks. \nIf you’ve ever been doing a job and zoned out for hours without realizing it, it’s effectively the same thing. \nThere’s no reason for your brain to store your memories of that time, so it doesn’t.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I get scared witless when I realize I’ve been driving on autopilot. It’s truly scary stuff. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "344413",
"title": "World Solar Challenge",
"section": "Section::::Important rules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "BULLET::::- Driving time is between 8:00 and 17:00 (from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m.). In order to select a suitable place for the overnight stop (alongside the highway) it is possible to extend the driving period for a maximum of 10 minutes, which extra driving time will be compensated by a starting time delay the next day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28990838",
"title": "Japanese urban legend",
"section": "Section::::Supernatural legends.:Fatal Fare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "This story concerns a lone taxi driver making his way along a road at night. Legend goes that a person will suddenly appear from the darkness and hail the taxi. The person will sit in the back of the car and will ask to be taken to a place the driver has never heard of. When the driver mentions this, he is assured that he will be given directions. The passenger then feeds the driver increasingly complex directions which leads them down streets and alleys, through many towns and even in some instances all the way from the city to the countryside. After traveling this distance and still seeming no closer to any destination, the driver becomes uneasy. He turns around to the back seat to ask the passenger exactly where they are – but he is shocked to find that the passenger has vanished. The taxi driver turns back to the steering wheel, only to drive off the edge of a cliff and die.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19001051",
"title": "Narrative of the abduction phenomenon",
"section": "Section::::Capture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Upon getting out of the vehicle, the driver and passenger(s) often will experience a blank period and amnesia (see Missing Time), after which they will find themselves again standing in front of, or driving their car. While they frequently will not consciously remember the experience, either subsequent nightmares or hypnosis will reveal events interpreted as having occurred during the period lacking explicit memory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46855102",
"title": "ITNAmerica",
"section": "Section::::Model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "In order to meet the real world needs of older adults, the ITN model must maintain flexibility. Most drivers, for example, do not give up driving all at once. Often times night driving is the first place where people notice difficulty, so they arrange their schedule to drive only during daylight hours. A driver might be perfectly safe at noontime but have trouble seeing after sunset. The ITN model is built to accommodate such transitions, even if they unfold over years. The driver who sees well in daytime but struggles in low light might volunteer as a driver during the day and be an ITN rider in the evening. Alternatively, an ITN volunteer might use the service for have a medical appointment that necessitates a ride home after. The ITN model allow people to be earning their ride miles even as they use the service, being both part of the transportation solution and a beneficiary of it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14282275",
"title": "Mark SaFranko",
"section": "Section::::Short stories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "“You ever been lost?” he asked. “Like when you make a turn and you know you’re not on the right road, but you keep driving anyway? You keep driving because you’re thinking that it’s going to turn out to be the right road...That’s where I am. I’m on that road.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37780679",
"title": "The Raven That Refused to Sing (And Other Stories)",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Writing and recording.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "\"Drive Home\" is based on a suggestion from illustrator Hajo Mueller. It is \"about a couple driving along in a car at night, very much in love; the guy is driving, and his partner – his wife or girlfriend or whoever she is – is in the passenger seat, and the next minute she’s gone.\" The ghost of the man's partner eventually returns, \"saying, ‘I’m going to remind you now what happened that night.’ There was a terrible car accident, and she died, etcetera, etcetera – again, the idea of trauma leading to a missing part of this guy’s life. He can’t deal with the reality of what happened, so he blocks it out – like taking a piece of tape and editing a big chunk out of it.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40172612",
"title": "Assured clear distance ahead",
"section": "Section::::Derivations.:Seconds of distance to stop rule.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Whereas most driving is done below , \"maintaining a blanket 5 or 6 seconds of travel time to the edge of visibility\" (), \"will keep drivers in compliance with the ACDA rule in most simple highway driving conditions – day or night\" – with growing error towards safety at lower speeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
82r2er
|
Would rain droplets on a lower gravity planet be larger, on average, compared to our own planet?
|
[
{
"answer": "Disregarding all of the minor/major changes that lowering gravity would do to atmospheric formation of clouds, etc., and we accepted for the sake of the question that identical precipitation clouds are forming on this planet in relation to what we experience here on Earth:\n\nI would think that with lower gravity the droplets formed would need to reach a higher \"critical mass\" before they could break from suspension in the atmosphere and fall as conventional rain. Obviously this mass point would change based on density of the atmosphere, ambient temperature at that altitude and more, but again, I'm saying that in identical circumstances as Earth save for lower gravity, I would theorize that yes, rain droplets would need to be larger due to a lessened force acting against their atmospheric suspension.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm by no means an expert, but my understanding as a mechanical engineer is that the shape and size of rain droplets depend on 3 sets of parameters:\n\n1, the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s^2 on earth)\n\n2, the fluid dynamic properties of the atmosphere (namely density and viscosity of the air)\n\n3, the fluid dynamic properties of the rain water (again density, viscosity, and other effects such as surface tension)\n\nThe size and shape of rain drops represents an equilibrium in the interaction between all of these parameters, so changing any of them will alter the result.\n\nNow someone with more fluids experience than me can explain what would happen to the drops if they have less acceleration.\n\n[edited for formatting]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I feel like this is a hard question to answer without knowing atmospheric composition... Presumably, if Earth had lower gravity, its likely that larger drops would form because the terminal velocity of the drop would be lower.\n\nA big part of the drop size is determined by the relationship between velocity, air density, and surface tension. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Raindrop size is a balance between surface tension of the drop, aerodynamic forces from its terminal fall speed and force from collisions with other drops. \n\nIn general, reduced gravity would result in a lower terminal velocity and increase the size drops could grow to before being torn apart by aerodynamic forces (assuming pressures and temperatures like that of earth).\n\nThere would likely be some feedback from collision dynamics as well as from reduced efficiency of surface tension of larger mass drops that would lead to a nonlinear change in the size dustribution. Lamb and Verlinde provide a detailed explanation of the microphysics involved \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This 2012 Nature paper, [Air density 2.7 billion years ago limited to less than twice modern levels by fossil raindrop imprints](_URL_0_) (paywalled, I can provide a pdf if anyone wants), says that raindrop size is unrelated to atmospheric density (although raindrop velocity is related to it).\n\n\nI'm not sure if that also applies to pressure, though I would imagine it does, in which case raindrop size will only depend on the species you're raining out. In that case, all water raindrops would be the same size (surface tension being the key factor).\n\n\n\nSidenote, other people have mentioned it, but in general atmospheric pressure and planet size are fairly independent, so lower gravity isn't all that important a parameter. Venus is about the same size as Earth but has 100x as much atmosphere. Mars is about half the size of the Earth but has less than 1% its atmospheric pressure. Titan is a bit smaller than mars but has a higher pressure (and significantly higher mass) atmosphere than Earth. Atmospheres are a tiny component of the total mass of a planet, so it's pretty easy to have way more atmosphere without asking much of your planet, allowing them to vary wildly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10924517",
"title": "Close to Critical",
"section": "Section::::Setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "That latter statement necessitates, as Clement states in the story, that the surface pressure on Tenebra be 800 atmospheres, not 218. At 800 atmospheres of pressure the surface atmosphere, with its load of dissolved oxygen and sulphur oxides, is compressed to a density a little less than the density of liquid water (1182 kilograms per cubic meter). Only when the density of the planet's air is a little less than the density of liquid water will the raindrops descend slowly; otherwise, they would come down like meteors and make life on Tenebra impossible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19009110",
"title": "Rain",
"section": "Section::::Formation.:Coalescence and fragmentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "Raindrops have sizes ranging from mean diameter but develop a tendency to break up at larger sizes. Smaller drops are called cloud droplets, and their shape is spherical. As a raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes more oblate, with its largest cross-section facing the oncoming airflow. Large rain drops become increasingly flattened on the bottom, like hamburger buns; very large ones are shaped like parachutes. Contrary to popular belief, their shape does not resemble a teardrop. The biggest raindrops on Earth were recorded over Brazil and the Marshall Islands in 2004 — some of them were as large as . The large size is explained by condensation on large smoke particles or by collisions between drops in small regions with particularly high content of liquid water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24784913",
"title": "Murasaki (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Fictional physical characteristics of the Murasaki system.:Chujo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "This is the smaller world, with 0.76 Earth masses at 94% of its diameter, and 85% of its surface gravity. The mean surface temperature is only +5 °C. Because most of this chilly planet's water is locked in permafrost and glaciers, the atmosphere (which has a sea-level pressure of 0.7 bar, equivalent to about 3,650 m altitude on Earth) is not only thin but also uncomfortably dry. From the hemisphere where the companion world Genji can be seen it hangs in the sky as a globe of 6° 20' diameter, and when full gives over 320 times the light of the full Moon as seen from Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22818",
"title": "Olympus Mons",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "The typical atmospheric pressure at the top of Olympus Mons is 72 pascals, about 12% of the average Martian surface pressure of 600 pascals. Both are exceedingly low by terrestrial standards; by comparison, the atmospheric pressure at the summit of Mount Everest is 32,000 pascals, or about 32% of Earth's sea level pressure. Even so, high-altitude orographic clouds frequently drift over the Olympus Mons summit, and airborne Martian dust is still present. Although the average Martian surface atmospheric pressure is less than one percent of Earth's, the much lower gravity of Mars increases the atmosphere's scale height; in other words, Mars's atmosphere is expansive and does not drop off in density with height as sharply as Earth's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41068",
"title": "Drop (liquid)",
"section": "Section::::Size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Scientists traditionally thought that the variation in the size of raindrops was due to collisions on the way down to the ground. In 2009 French researchers succeeded in showing that the distribution of sizes is due to the drops' interaction with air, which deforms larger drops and causes them to fragment into smaller drops, effectively limiting the largest raindrops to about 6 mm diameter. However, drops up to 10 mm (equivalent in volume to a sphere of radius 4.5 mm) are theoretically stable and could be levitated in a wind tunnel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48814",
"title": "Aerobot",
"section": "Section::::Basics of balloons.:The Mars aerobot effort.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "The atmospheric pressure on Mars is about 150 times less than that of Earth. In such a thin atmosphere, a balloon with a volume of 5,000 to 10,000 cubic meters (178,500 to 357,000 cubic feet) could carry a payload of 20 kilograms (44 pounds), while a balloon with a volume of 100,000 cubic meters (3,600,000 cubic feet) could carry 200 kilograms (440 pounds).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1720933",
"title": "Surface gravity",
"section": "Section::::Relationship of surface gravity to mass and radius.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1168,
"text": "The fact that many large celestial objects are approximately spheres makes it easier to calculate their surface gravity. The gravitational force outside a spherically symmetric body is the same as if its entire mass were concentrated in the center, as was established by Sir Isaac Newton. Therefore, the surface gravity of a planet or star with a given mass will be approximately inversely proportional to the square of its radius, and the surface gravity of a planet or star with a given average density will be approximately proportional to its radius. For example, the recently discovered planet, Gliese 581 c, has at least 5 times the mass of Earth, but is unlikely to have 5 times its surface gravity. If its mass is no more than 5 times that of the Earth, as is expected, and if it is a rocky planet with a large iron core, it should have a radius approximately 50% larger than that of Earth. Gravity on such a planet's surface would be approximately 2.2 times as strong as on Earth. If it is an icy or watery planet, its radius might be as large as twice the Earth's, in which case its surface gravity might be no more than 1.25 times as strong as the Earth's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6st27k
|
How did Venice lose her maritime importance while the less-powerful Genoa maintained as Italy's largest port today?
|
[
{
"answer": "More to the point, why did Genoa become an industrial power, and Venice did not?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can answer at least to the part about Venice's decline. What you said about the Ottomans wasn't entirely correct. When the Ottomans came into power, they were perceived as an enemy of Europe. This stopped flat the entry of Silk Road goods into Europe. The main exception to this, actually, was Venice. Many merchants in Venice struck deals with the Ottomans to trade those Silk Road goods, giving them a monopoly on these goods when trading with the rest of Europe.\n\nWhat caused Venice's decline was the discovery of alternate trading routes with Asia, because suddenly Venice lost their monopoly. This situation was further worsened by sporadic conflicts with the Ottomans which plummeted Venice into increasing irrelevance.\n\nAs for industrialization, it is important to consider Venice's position as a small island in the Adriatic. This means that any and all raw materials coming to Venice have to incur import costs. This wasn't a problem when the city flourished, as wealth was abundant to cover these costs. But since the decline, these costs have actually become a large obstacle to the survival of the city. Venice in modern days is suffering from depopulation and is in a state of disrepair, a truly sad state for the Serenissima.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have been studying quite a bit of Mediterranean history at university, and what others have said about the decline of Venice is very true. Discovery of the cape route most certainly the decline in trade for Venice, but also the entry of the English and Dutch in the 16th and 17th centuries (the so-called Invasion of the Northerners) undercut their monopoly heavily.\nOn the other hand, Genoa was already mostly out of the trading business by the 16th century with the loss of their Black Sea and Aegean colonies. But they remained financially very central to Europe through their banking business and they were able to profit from the growth of long distance trade by transforming their port into a free port (although mostly limited to grain). Opening up the port meant that Genoa became a point from which grain was distributed to the rest of the peninsula, and in term kept traffic flowing through it as the Genoese got into other businesses.\n\nI would suggest looking at works by Thomas Allison Kirk for Genoa and for Venice Frederic Lane's works are pretty good. Maria Fusaro (one of my tutors) has some works on the English 'invasion' which I highly recommend as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think you are conflating together some things that happened centuries apart. In fact Genoa's mercantile empire declined faster and more dramatically than the Venetian one. To the point that Genoa essentially lost political independence much earlier than Venice.\n\nA first phase of relative decline of the Republic begun with the long conflict with Venice, culminating in the War of Chioggia in the 1380s. Genoa's expansion was ended and most of the resources of the Republic went into consolidation of its oligarchic structure and the former trading empire evolved into a prominent banking venture. The founding of the Bank of St. George in 1407 marked a turning point in the evolution of the Republic that, surrounded by more powerful nations, had to suffer repeated periods of French and Milanese occupation in the XV Century. The fall of Constantinoples - the Genoese had been traditional allies of the fading Bizantine Empire enjoying special trading privileges - was another blow to their trading ambitions.\n\nIt was in fact the Bank which helped the City survive and avoid permanent conquest: in the XVI Century the Genoese bankers became prominent lenders to the Crown of Spain. Under the rule of the Doria family, strong of the ties with the Spanish kingdom, the city saw a period of resurgence. Noetheless the absolute prominence of the Bank within the City meant a growing identification of the Administration with the Bank's \"shareholders\". Very few most renown families held control of the Bank, which was to say of the entire economy of the City, as the Bank also oversaw traffics, tariffs and taxes, held lands under direct or indirect control; it also brought a situation where the leadership was essentially extracting money by financing no longer the debt of foreign nations but the public debt of the city itself. \n\nThe decline of the Spanish finances during the late XVI early XVII Century marked therefore a new period of decline for the Genoese; again they were subject to political and military pressure from outside forces: the French and the Austrians took turns as major influences until, after the brief restoration of the Republic during the Napoleonic Campaign in Italy, Genoa ended up with the Kingdom of Sardinia. Which is also the moment when some resurgence of its trading nature begun, as it became the main port of the Kingdom under the reactionary Carlo Felice and his more progressive son Carlo Alberto. \n\n\nIn any case, despite the glorious parenthesis of the XVI Century, the Genoese decline was more marked than the Venetian one. Venice retained a larger trading influence for longer time, a larger degree of political independence and, despite being forced to abandon its policy of conquest on the mainland, roughly after the War of the League of Cambrai a the beginning of the XVI Century, a larger mainland crossed by some trading routes. The progressive erosion of their commercial empire under pressure by the Ottomans led Venice to a similar evolution in a conservative-oligarchic sense. Here though, having retained a significant portion of land, the Venetian leadership was heavily based on land possession and the public debt was therefore transofrmed in a series of concessions - at times very unfortunate - that developed a system of internal tariffs and borders, which ultimately resulted in a general backwardness of the agrarian and (almost non existent) industrial production of the main land in the late XVIII Century.\n\n\nBy the time of the Restoration, both Venice and Genoa were in deep economic and political decline; but Venice was perhaps in slightly better condition. Unfortunately for them - if the annexation to the Austro Hungarian Empire brought a progressive elimination of the internal borders, as the Austrians used the Venetian mainland as a pathway to their more advanced Lombard holdings - the Austrians already had a main port on the Adriatic sea: Trieste. And they saw no purpose in developing another one, despite the Venetian maritime tradition becoming important for the Empire.\n\n\nBy the way, the port of Genoa isn't necessarily the largest port of Italy by every indicator - for example Trieste carries more tonnage as you can see [here](_URL_0_) and Venice is far from a merely turistic city (you usally don't visit the port and industrial town of Mestre-Marghera because frankly they are desperately unpleasant to the eye).\n\n\nThe resurgence of Venice as an industrial pole is usually tied to the personal efforts of Giuseppe Volpi, who is famous for an infinite list of things: the Cinema Festival, being in charge of the finances under Fascism, the creation of the often renamed Adriatic Society of Energy, pioneering the Hydroelectric sector with the construction of Alpine dams, etc.\n\nThis process continued during the Italian economic boom in the post WW2 period and would bring us to cross the 20 years barrier. \nAlso it must be noted that there are geographical limitations to the access to the Venetian lagoon that have made harder to logistically accomodate large volumes of traffic; essentially the need to develop and maintain channels dug into the lagoon.\n\n\n\nFor sources I used G. Candeloro's *Storia dell'Italia moderna*.\n\nI also used some data from [this publication of the City of Genoa](_URL_0_)\n\n\n\nEdit: Added a couple of sentences that were left in my fingers when I posted. \n\nAlso I think I broke the record for the use of the adjective prominent...\n\nFinally, this is a long, long subject to deal with and I am not entirely familiar with it, as Candeloro's work mostly focused on the condition of pre unitary Italy and the nature of the economical relations within the various states. I hope someone may fill in the gaps I left; also you may want to know more on the Venetian development process after WW1 but of that I know very little unfortunately.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Timely question! I'm actually reading Alvise Zorzi's *Venezia Austriaca* right now! \n\nI've been going a bit crazy writing tediously winding posts about Italian economic history, so I'll try to be more concise here. The short answer is: The Railroad. \n\nFirst things first: Venice continued to be the political, economic, and social center of the Republic of Venice even after the stratospheric rise in Atlantic trade made Mediterranean trade comparatively less of an economic force. [Further, the relationship between Venice and the Ottoman Empire was more complex than it is commonly depicted](_URL_0_). Just because northeastern Europe accelerated doesn't mean that economic activity in southern Europe stopped altogether. Far from being a \"backwater,\" to this day Venice is the political and administrative capital of the Veneto region, one of the most industrious in Italy. Although the historic portion of the city only houses twenty thousand people in a space built for ten times as many, the area administrated by the city council extends over multiple islands in the lagoon and far into the mainland, governing two hundred and fifty thousand people. The Venezia-Pedua-Treviso urban area houses over two and a half million people and is home to three universities, two airports, and [according to an OECD study](_URL_1_), manufactures 23% of Italian exports. So just because the historic center of Venice is swamped with tourists doesn't mean there isn't anything else going on nearby. \n\nHowever, a depopulation like that experienced in Venice's city center has no precedent in Italy. Once the Republic of Venice was amalgamated into Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy, and later handed off to the Austrian Empire's constituent Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, two things happen: the apparatus of government moves to Milan, and Triest exists. You see, although Venice was awarded the title of \"Joint Capital\" with Milan, apart from the pomp and circumstance surrounding occasional royal visits, the city housed none of the offices of government above the provincial level. The city's educated young men hoping for a career in government found that they had to move to the Lombard capital, and often took their families with them. On the entrepreneurial level too, although the region was (and still is!) economically vibrant, local entrepreneurs found increasingly few reasons to visit the city from their estates and manufactures in places like Treviso, Vicenza, and Verona. Of course, they city population had already been on the decline as emergent manufacturing shifted the economic focus from the city to the mainland, but as long as the city was the gateway to the Republic it retained some economic relevancy; annexation by the Austrian Empire ended that. The reason for that is the second point I brought up: Triest. The Austrian Empire's historic port on the Adriatic was not only closer to the Empire's heartland, but also not in the middle of a lagoon. The Empire's industrialists could unload goods from ships directly to railcars in Triest, while in Venice they had to load them onto river-boats, and in a second moment load them onto railcars. River navigation had been in use for hundreds of years, and the navigable river and canal network in northern Italy was certainly extensively developed, but could in no way compare to the boon in transport and industry brought by railroad. \n\nIn addition, Austrian policies often disproportionately favored Triest. In Venice, an early boon thanks to the Austrian fleet being based there was soon erased after a series of mutinies triggered a policy of de-italianization in the navy, in addition to its relocation to, you guessed it, Triest. The move was doubly beneficial, since the triestine seaport was also revamped and updated to accomodate the move. Also, because Triest was the closer port of entry for Austrian entrepreneurs, it was declared a duty-free zone, with the natural consequence that lot of Italian trade that had previously passed through Venice was also redirected there. Edit: It's worth saying that there *were* attempts to connect Venice to the mainland via rail, however at the time of the revolt of 1848 the line stopped at Verona (and just two years prior stopped even earlier, in Vicenza). By 1857, the line to Milan was completed, but that same year Triest's connection to Vienna was also finished, sealing that port's position as the preferential point of entry for the Empire's Austrian, Czech, and Hungarian realms. \n\nOnce Italy was unified, there were some attempts to stop the city's moribund trajectory: the Università Ca'Foscari was founded, which was meant to be a training academy for the Italian Kingdom's diplomatic corps. Starting in the early 20th century, a large port complex was constructed just across the lagoon in Mestre and Marghera, and the historic center was connected to these facilities (and the mainland) with a railway bridge in the 1930s. After WWII, the government sanctioned a large petrochemical refinery to be constructed just across the lagoon. However, if these policies were meant to revitalize the city, they were sorely misguided: with so many new structures just across the lagoon, the historic center depopulated even more rapidly. \n\nThe story of Genoa was somewhat different. After it's zenith in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, it would first become a puppet of the Milanese, and later construct itself as a client-state of Spain, giving up sovereignty and in return becoming an important financial center. In a twist of fate that had a surprisingly positive effect, the Congress of Vienna awarded the Republic of Genoa to the Kingdom of Sardinia as a reward for the little kingdom's firm anti-Napoleonic stance. The Kingdom of Sardinia was a bizarre polity, centered on Piedmont but in possession of its namesake island since 1718 due to curious circumstances following the War of Spanish Succession. Under Piedmontese rule, Genoa would again flourish: the \"Royal Road\" connecting the seaport to Turin became an important transit line in northwestern Italy, while in 1844 King Charles Albert commissioned the Genoa-Turin railway, which would become one of Italy's most important industrial axis. Indeed, The Turin-Milan-Genoa triangle would become the country’s industrial heartland after unification; with Genoa the key point of departure to and from Milan and Turin. \n\nIf you'd like to know more about Italian economic history, I'd suggest the following:\n\nDavis, John A. *Italy in the Nineteenth Century, 1796-1900*. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2000. Print. \n\nAnd if you can read Italian:\n\nRomani, Mario. *Storia Economica d’Italia nel secolo XIX.* Bologna, Italy: Il Mulino. 1983. Print.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Paul Strathern](_URL_0_) argues that, among other things, the fall of the ERE and rise of the Ottoman Empire was one of the tipping points in Venetian history. Venice, in many ways, was *not* ideally situated for the type of commerce it mainly engaged in, to the point where the Council of Ten considered leaving and being the Republic of Venice somewhere other than the Venetian islands. \n\nPart of what had previously made Venice successful were lucrative trade deals that the Republic had made with the ERE, including trading rights in Constantinople and other major ports. With the ERE on its deathbed and the Ottomans rising, the Venetians had hoped to renegotiate these trade rights with the Sultan, which is likely part of the reason why they delayed a relief fleet which was meant to go to Constantinople. However, that did not work out as well as they had hoped and the Ottomans were far less willing to negotiate trade deals than the Greeks had been. \n\nIn addition, the 15th century was filled with many economic and technological changes, one of the most important being the Portuguese navigating a route around the Cape of Africa. So diminished trade opportunities, foreign competition, and a less-than ideal geographic location were factors to the decline.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3396566",
"title": "War of Chioggia",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "The two maritime powers, Genoa and Venice, had long been leading commercial powers with ties to Constantinople that had nurtured their growth during the Early Middle Ages. Their rivalry over trade with the Levant had generated a number of wars. Genoa, having suffered previous defeats at the hands of the Venetians, had emerged from submission to the Visconti tyrants of Milan during the 14th century, although it had also been severely weakened by the Black Death of 1348 which took a toll of 40,000 on the city. Venice had participated in the dismemberment of the Byzantine Empire in 1204 and gradually taken over land on the Adriatic, entering into conflict with Hungary; on the Italian mainland, its terrestrial acquisition had generated a rivalry with the nearby largest city, Padua.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "613492",
"title": "Republic of Venice",
"section": "Section::::History.:18th century: decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Although Venice declined as a seaborne empire, it remained in possession of its continental domain north of the Po Valley, extending west almost to Milan. Many of its cities benefited greatly from the \"Pax Venetiae\" (Venetian peace) throughout the 18th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32616",
"title": "Venice",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "This all changed by the 17th century, when Venice's trade empire was taken over by countries such as Portugal, and its importance as a naval power was reduced. In the 18th century, then, it became a major agricultural and industrial exporter. The 18th century's biggest industrial complex was the Venice Arsenal, and the Italian Army still uses it today (even though some space has been used for major theatrical and cultural productions, and as spaces for art). Since World War II, many Venetians have moved to the neighboring cities of Mestre and Porto Marghera, seeking employment as well as affordable housing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7570560",
"title": "History of the Republic of Venice",
"section": "Section::::Decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "The decline of Venice in the 18th century was also due not only to Genoa, Venice's old rival, but also to Livorno, a new port on the Tyrrhenian Sea created by the grand dukes of Tuscany and chosen as staging-post for British trade in the Mediterranean. Still more injurious were the Papal town of Ancona and Habsburg Trieste, a free port since 1719, in the Adriatic Sea, which no longer constituted a \"Venetian Gulf\". An eminent Venetian politician of the time declared, \"Apart from the residue which is left to us, Ancona robs us of the trade from both the Levant and the West, from Albania and the other Turkish provinces. Trieste takes nearly all the rest of the trade which comes from Germany.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "647483",
"title": "Duchy of the Archipelago",
"section": "Section::::Background and establishment of the Duchy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "The Italian city states, especially the Republic of Genoa, Pisa, and the Republic of Venice, had been interested in the islands of the Aegean long before the Fourth Crusade. There were Italian trading colonies in Constantinople and Italian pirates frequently attacked settlements in the Aegean in the 12th century. After the collapse and partitioning of the Byzantine Empire in 1204, in which the Venetians played a major role, Venetian interests in the Aegean could be more thoroughly realized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32616",
"title": "Venice",
"section": "Section::::Transportation.:Ports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "The Port of Venice () is the eighth-busiest commercial port in Italy and is one of the most important in the Mediterranean concerning the cruise sector, as a major hub for cruise ships. It is one of the major Italian ports and is included in the list of the leading European ports which are located on the strategic nodes of trans-European networks. In 2002, the port handled 262,337 containers. In 2006, 30,936,931 tonnes passed through the port, of which 14,541,961 was commercial traffic, and saw 1,453,513 passengers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32616",
"title": "Venice",
"section": "Section::::History.:Expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "From the 9th to the 12th century, Venice developed into a city state (an Italian thalassocracy or \"repubblica marinara\"; the other three being Genoa, Pisa, and Amalfi). Its strategic position at the head of the Adriatic made Venetian naval and commercial power almost invulnerable. With the elimination of pirates along the Dalmatian coast, the city became a flourishing trade center between Western Europe and the rest of the world (especially the Byzantine Empire and Asia), with its navy protecting sea routes against piracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3q9ue1
|
Since DNA is an acid, is there such thing as DNA salts?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not only can DNA exist as a salt, but this is pretty much its standard form in the solid state. In an aqueous medium, DNA exists as a conjugate base with negatively charged phosphate groups stabilized by a bunch of [counterions](_URL_1_) that are floating around in the solution such as Na^(+). When you precipitate the DNA (e.g. as is most commonly done through the [addition of ethanol](_URL_0_)), these cations will bind to the phosphate groups and the DNA will precipitate out as a salt.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interesting tidbit: The salt of inosinate (RNA monomer, equivalent for the present question) is a common food additive. One of the many umami flavor molecules. I think it was discovered by the same guy who first found MSG.\nIt is likely that the neutral molecule is an internal salt - phosphate deprotonated and the base ring is protonated. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8255258",
"title": "DNA separation by silica adsorption",
"section": "Section::::Operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "A further explanation of how DNA binds to silica is based on the action of guanidinium HCl (GuHCl), which acts as a chaotrope. A chaotrope denatures biomolecules by disrupting the shell of hydration around them. This allows positively charged ions to form a salt bridge between the negatively charged silica and the negatively charged DNA backbone in high salt concentration. The DNA can then be washed with high salt and ethanol, and ultimately eluted with low salt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7955",
"title": "DNA",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Deoxyribonucleic acid (; DNA) is a molecule composed of two chains that coil around each other to form a double helix carrying genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids; alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4173711",
"title": "History of molecular biology",
"section": "Section::::History of DNA biochemistry.:First isolation of DNA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Working in the 19th century, biochemists initially isolated DNA and RNA (mixed together) from cell nuclei. They were relatively quick to appreciate the polymeric nature of their \"nucleic acid\" isolates, but realized only later that nucleotides were of two types—one containing ribose and the other deoxyribose. It was this subsequent discovery that led to the identification and naming of DNA as a substance distinct from RNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17314163",
"title": "Spin column-based nucleic acid purification",
"section": "Section::::Related methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Even prior to the nucleic acid methods employed today it was known that in the presence of chaotropic agents, such as sodium iodide or sodium perchlorate, DNA binds to silica, glass particles or to unicellular algae called diatoms which shield their cell walls with silica. This property was used to purify nucleic acid using glass powder or silica beads under alkaline conditions. This was later improved using guanidinium thiocyanate or guanidinium hydrochloride as the chaotropic agent. The use of glass beads was later changed to silica gel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8986812",
"title": "Desoxyribonucleate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "\"Desoxyribonucleic acid\" and \"desoxyribonucleate\" are archaic terms for DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, and its salts, respectively. The terms are used in this sense in various classic papers in genetics, such as Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty (1944).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505791",
"title": "Ribonucleotide",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:General structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Both RNA and DNA contain two major purine bases, adenine (A) and guanine (G), and two major pyrimidines. In both DNA and RNA, one of the pyrimdines is cytosine (C). However, DNA and RNA differ in the second major pyrimidine. DNA contains thymine (T) while RNA contains uracil (U). There are some rare cases where thymine does occur in RNA and uracil in DNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29732133",
"title": "History of RNA biology",
"section": "Section::::1930–1950.:RNA and DNA have distinct chemical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "When first studied in the early 1900s, the chemical and biological differences between RNA and DNA were not apparent, and they were named after the materials from which they were isolated; RNA was initially known as \"yeast nucleic acid\" and DNA was \"thymus nucleic acid\". Using diagnostic chemical tests, carbohydrate chemists showed that the two nucleic acids contained different sugars, whereupon the common name for RNA became \"ribose nucleic acid\". Other early biochemical studies showed that RNA was readily broken down at high pH, while DNA was stable (although denatured) in alkali. Nucleoside composition analysis showed first that RNA contained similar nucleobases to DNA, with uracil instead of thymine, and that RNA contained a number of minor nucleobase components, e.g. small amounts of pseudouridine and dimethylguanine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
23u67r
|
why is it impossible to stop thinking?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some kinds of meditation are the attempt to silence your thoughts. Through willpower and training you can silence the internal monologue of your thoughts. Of course your brain is still functioning and processing information, it does that even when you're asleep.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "it isn't, it took me some self control but i can stop my verbal thought at will for however long i will.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since I don't feel anybody here has adequately answered the question directly, I will take it upon myself.\n\nThe reason WHY it is impossible (or near impossible)?\n\nEvolutionarily, thinking means you're doing something, usually productive. Be it food, comfort, sex, success, understanding, your thinking is always trying to help you in a potential scenario. Those who didn't think as often ended up not being able to account for many outcomes, and died/failed to reproduce because of surprises they didn't account for.\n\nIn addition, constantly thinking keeps you alert and aware of your surroundings. It's like trying to run a program on a computer. Would you rather run it on the computer that's already on and warmed up, or the one that's off and needs to be booted up? It's not much of a difference for a mind, but biologically, split-seconds save lives and pass genes.\n\n**TL;DR: You're always thinking because it helps you react to possible and unexpected situations**",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hard* not impossible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It isn't. The only problem is, you cant catch yourself not thinking.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not impossible, it requires a lot of practice. Here is how we start learning to silence what we call the \"monkey brain\" in zen:\n\nSit in a quiet room and close your eyes. We are going to only focus on breathing. Breathe in to an eight count. Count the numbers in your head. I know that this is thinking, but it's just how we start. Hold the breath for an eight count, release on an eight count, and hold your exhale for an eight count.\n\nOther thoughts and pictures will enter your mind as you do this. Every time this happens, say to yourself \"thinking,\" push it aside having noted it as such, and resume your counting.\n\nStart off only doing this for five or so minutes at a time, slowly building up to twenty minutes or so. After a time (you won't realize when), you'll become comfortable doing this without counting your breathing and will have achieved being able \"not to think.\" You should be able to clear your mind at will at this point and have completed the first step of learning to meditate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Would you even know if you stopped thinking?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43218859",
"title": "Thought stopping",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Thought stopping is a cognitive intervention technique prescribed by therapists (psychologists and psychiatrists) with the goal of interrupting, removing, and replacing problematic recurring thoughts. It is considered a core cognitive intervention method that is distinct for the absence of analysis in the treatment of negative thoughts. It is often employed as a standalone or auxiliary treatment to address depression, panic, anxiety, and addiction, among other afflictions that involve obsessive thought.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6795380",
"title": "Thought suppression",
"section": "Section::::Other methodologies.:Think/no think paradigm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "Research has also shown that doing difficult counting tasks at the same time as a think/no think task leads to less forgetting in the no think condition, which suggests that suppression takes active mental energy to be successful. Furthermore, the most forgetting during the no think phase occurs when there is a medium amount of brain activation while learning the words. The words are never learned if there is too little activation, and the association between the two words is too strong to be suppressed during the no think phase if there is too much activation. However, with medium activation, the word pairs are learned but able to be suppressed during the no think phase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1543381",
"title": "Stopping thought",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Stopping thought is a term in Zen referring to the achievement of the mental state of samādhi, where the normal mental chatter slows and then stops for brief or longer periods, allowing the practitioner to experience the peace of liberation. This is normally first done during zazen meditation, but should ideally be mastered, so that it can be done regularly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26685627",
"title": "Motivated forgetting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Thought suppression is a method in which people protect themselves by blocking the recall of these anxiety-arousing memories. For example, if something reminds a person of an unpleasant event, his or her mind may steer towards unrelated topics. This could induce forgetting without being generated by an intention to forget, making it a motivated action. There are two main classes of motivated forgetting: \"psychological repression\" is an unconscious act, while \"thought suppression\" is a conscious form of excluding thoughts and memories from awareness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34071247",
"title": "Social Networking and Psychology",
"section": "Section::::Psychology of social networking.:Neuroscience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "\"What psychologists and brain scientists tell us about interruptions is that they have a fairly profound effect on the way we think. It becomes much harder to sustain attention, to think about one thing for a long period of time, and to think deeply when new stimuli are pouring at you all day long. I argue that the price we pay for being constantly inundated with information is a loss of our ability to be contemplative and to engage in the kind of deep thinking that requires you to concentrate on one thing.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3318239",
"title": "Glossary of psychiatry",
"section": "Section::::T.:Thought blocking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 280,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 280,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Thought blocking, also referred to as \"thought withdrawal\", refers to an abrupt stop in the middle of a train of thought; the individual might or might not be unable to continue the idea. This is type of formal thought disorder that can be seen in schizophrenia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26685627",
"title": "Motivated forgetting",
"section": "Section::::Suppression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "In order to suppress a thought, one must (a) plan to suppress the thought and (b) carry out that plan by suppressing all other manifestations of the thought, including the original plan. Thought suppression seems to entail a state of knowing and not knowing all at once. It can be assumed that thought suppression is a difficult and even time consuming task. Even when thoughts are suppressed, they can return to consciousness with minimal prompting. This is why suppression has also been associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2utq0y
|
During the American civil war Why weren't bayonet charges used often?
|
[
{
"answer": "it appears to be inexperience by these armies. in the beginning of the war, the armies grew in size, many times their normal peacetime strength and so you have inexperienced leaders at every level; and large numbers of raw recruits. Frank Vizetelly an English war correspondent makes mention of this in a National Geographic article in April of 1961 (100th anniversary issue).\n\nI seem to recall that as the war went on bayonet charges were used more, at Spotsylvania, the Crater, Ft. Pillow, etc. These are all in 1864. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think that one of the reasons was because of the improved accuracy of the new rifled muskets. They could be effective out past 500 yards while older smoothbore muskets were only effective 50-100 yards. So getting close for a bayonet charge when the enemy has rifles would be suicide.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53436",
"title": "Bayonet",
"section": "Section::::Bayonet charge.:American Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "During the American Civil War (1861–1865) the bayonet was found to be responsible for less than 1% of battlefield casualties, a hallmark of modern warfare. The use of bayonet charges to force the enemy to retreat was very successful in numerous small unit engagements at short range in the American Civil War, as most troops would retreat when charged while reloading (which could take up to a minute with loose powder even for trained troops). Although such charges inflicted few casualties, they often decided short engagements, and tactical possession of important defensive ground features. Additionally, bayonet drill could be used to rally men temporarily discomfited by enemy fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52725374",
"title": "Use of bayonets for crowd control",
"section": "Section::::Historical use by country.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "During 1968 revisions to the United States Army Field Manuals there was a move by the United States Secretary of the Army to eliminate the description of the bayonet as a crowd control weapon; however, senior Army leadership resisted the change. A study conducted that year by the Human Resources Research Organization concluded that the bayonet \"is highly valuable as a riot control weapon\" with a survey of personnel involved in military peacekeeping operations reporting its most valuable attribute was its psychological effect on a crowd. A compromise was ultimately reached whereby use of the bayonet was permitted in cases of violent mobs but not in routine civil operations. Two years later, in the protests that led to the Kent State shootings of 1970, two persons were injured after being bayoneted by soldiers of the Ohio National Guard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53436",
"title": "Bayonet",
"section": "Section::::Bayonet charge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "The development of the bayonet in the late 17th century led to the bayonet charge becoming the main infantry tactic through the 19th century and into the 20th. As early as the 19th century, military scholars were already noting that most bayonet charges did not result in close combat. Instead, one side usually fled before actual bayonet fighting ensued. The act of fixing bayonets has been held to be primarily connected to morale, the making of a clear signal to friend and foe of a willingness to kill at close quarters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "474957",
"title": "Charge (warfare)",
"section": "Section::::Infantry charges.:Bayonet charge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "The development of the bayonet in the late 17th century led to the bayonet charge becoming the main infantry charge tactic through the 19th century and into the 20th. As early as the 19th century, tactical scholars were already noting that most bayonet charges did not result in close combat. Instead, one side usually fled before actual bayonet fighting ensued. The act of fixing bayonets has been held to be primarily connected to morale, the making of a clear signal to friend and foe of a willingness to kill at close quarters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52725374",
"title": "Use of bayonets for crowd control",
"section": "Section::::Historical use by country.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "The New York Draft Riots of 1863 saw the use of bayonet charges by the U.S. Army against unruly mobs in New York City. During lumber protests in Tacoma, Washington in 1935, the Washington National Guard advanced on picketers with fixed bayonets, causing them to move away from the Federal Building where they had gathered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25595604",
"title": "Military history",
"section": "Section::::Technological evolution.:Gunpowder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Bayonets also became of wide usage to infantry soldiers. Bayonet is named after Bayonne, France where it was first manufactured in the 16th century. It is used often in infantry charges to fight in hand-to-hand combat. General Jean Martinet introduced the bayonet to the French army. They were used heavily in the American Civil War, and continued to be used in modern wars like the Invasion of Iraq.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52725374",
"title": "Use of bayonets for crowd control",
"section": "Section::::Historical use by country.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "The British Army made extensive use of the bayonet in crowd control operations in British India. In the 19th century, in Ireland, police used the bayonet charge as a method of forcing crowds to scatter; in July 1881 one person was killed by police bayonet in this manner. The British Army continued use of the bayonet as a crowd control weapon into the 20th century, using it during operations during the Hong Kong 1956 riots. The Queen's Guard still use fixed bayonets while on guard and use them as a deterrent when challenged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
385405
|
caitlyn jenner in vanity fair and the big deal of it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Caitlyn Jenner was formerly Bruce Jenner, an internationally renowned Olympic athlete who was the face of masculinity and athleticism in the 1970s. She recently came out as transgender. She is very likely the biggest celebrity in history to come out as trans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "She is transgender, and this is her first public appearance as a woman. She was a big Olympic hero back in the day and become famous again more recently in reality tv. She was formerly Bruce Jenner. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A famous Olympic athlete named Bruce Jenner (who's been in the news a lot in recent years as he was married to the Kardashian family's mom), came out as transgender a little while back. Since Bruce was a huge star and pretty much the national standard for masculinity back when he was competing, this was pretty big news, and raised a lot of people's awareness of transgendered people.\n\nSo Vanity Fair has now given Caitlyn (formerly Bruce) Jenner a with no other headlines obscuring the picture - pretty much unheard of for a magazine like this. Since she's one of the most famous transgendered people ever to come out and is being interviewed in a very popular mainstream magazine, it's a pretty big deal for LGBT awareness.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Caitlyn is the new name of Bruce Jenner, who recently came out publically as a male-to-female transgender. She is known as one of the world's most celebrated Olympic athletes and a symbol of American triumph in the Cold War, having beaten the returning Russian champion of the Decathlon and setting a new world record.\n\nShe was the picture of peak masculinity, and for her to self-identify as a woman - in a time when transgender people are facing a lot of distrust, hatred and even violence - is seen as opening doors for acceptance of the LGBT community. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3135294",
"title": "Buzz Bissinger",
"section": "Section::::Journalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Bissinger's July 2015 Vanity Fair cover story \"Call Me Caitlyn,\" on the transition of former Olympic decathlete, businessperson, and television personality Bruce Jenner to Caitlyn Jenner star of E!'s \"Keeping Up With the Kardashians\" and \"I Am Cait\", with photographs by Annie Leibovitz, was one of the biggest international scoops in years. Bissinger had exclusive access to Jenner both immediately before and after her cosmetic surgery. The 11,000-word article was months in the making and kept heavily under wraps until it was released on the magazine's website on June 1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18589083",
"title": "Rose McGowan",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.:Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "In 2015, McGowan criticized Caitlyn Jenner for stating that \"the hardest part about being a woman is figuring out what to wear\", after Jenner had been named \"Woman of the Year\" by \"Glamour\". McGowan stated, \"We are more than deciding what to wear. We are more than the stereotypes foisted upon us by people like you. You're a woman now? Well f**cking learn that we have had a VERY different experience than your life of male privilege.\" In response to accusations of transphobia, McGowan stated, \"Let me take this moment to point out that I am not, nor will I ever be, transphobic. The idea is laughable. Disliking something a trans person has said is no different than disliking something a man has said or that a woman has said. Being trans doesn't make one immune from criticism.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "846592",
"title": "The Powers That Be (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Cast.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "BULLET::::- Valerie Mahaffey as Caitlyn Van Horne, Bill and Margaret's daughter. Caitlyn is very unhappy in her marriage and begins an affair with Joe Bowman, her father's election opponent. Not very bright, and very shallow, Caitlyn is nevertheless quite a sweet-natured woman.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15627191",
"title": "The Suite Life on Deck",
"section": "Section::::Cast.:Main.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1520,
"text": "BULLET::::- London Tipton, portrayed by Brenda Song, is the socialite of the four main teenage characters. She is a parody of Paris Hilton. She is the daughter of Wilfred Tipton, a multi-billionaire and the owner of the Tipton Hotel chains, including the one in Boston and the SS \"Tipton\". London is typically selfish, dim-witted, spoiled, gullible and meticulous about her appearance but she is happy and heartwarming, and she does care for her friends (even if she can't remember the difference between Zack and Cody). She also has a pomeranian pet dog named Ivana. When she is happy, she usually claps her hands and repeatedly jumps up and down while saying her catchphrase, \"Yay me!\" Mr. Moseby fools London into thinking that she is on the SS \"Tipton\" for a vacation, to trick her into boarding the ship. London gets enrolled at the Seven Seas High School program because her father wants her to live in the real world. London does not live in a first class suite on the SS \"Tipton\", but a small cabin. London reluctantly agrees to accept Bailey Pickett (Debby Ryan) as her new roommate, although she does so after unsuccessfully trying to bribe Bailey into leaving as she did with her previous roommate. The two later become good friends. In \"The Suite Life of Zack & Cody\", when London resided at the Tipton Hotel, it seemed that she was living in her own bubble. On the SS \"Tipton\", London became more aware of the real world and faced several difficulties to help her when she takes over her father's business.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1654569",
"title": "Landi Swanepoel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "She is known for her campaigns for Guess?, but her highest accolade was her selection as the \"Sylvia\" character in Peroni's Nastro Azzurro beer commercial that pays homage to Federico Fellini's \"La Dolce Vita\". The role was originally played by Anita Ekberg. She was discovered as a model when she was fourteen while shopping with her mother.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46882958",
"title": "I Am Cait",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "I Am Cait is an American television documentary series which chronicles the life of Caitlyn Jenner after her gender transition. The eight-part one-hour documentary series debuted on July 26, 2015, on the E! network. The series focuses on the \"new normal\" for Jenner, exploring changes to her relationships with her family and friends. The show additionally explores how Jenner adjusts to what she sees as her job as a role model for the transgender community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39182787",
"title": "Monica Beverly Hillz",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Activism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "When unconfirmed rumors began circulating that Caitlyn Jenner was transitioning from male to female, \"In Touch Weekly\" released a cover with a male-presenting Caitlyn (then known as Bruce) in photoshopped makeup. The cover was widely criticized, and Hillz released a statement saying \"I think it's so wrong in so many ways for them to poke fun and do such things to someone... They know nothing about just to make money and make a mockery of trans people everywhere. They need to educate instead of just doing nonsense like that.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2r6wzq
|
why is the credit card considered so secure if all the information required to make a purchase is on the card?
|
[
{
"answer": "Though chip/PIN aspect protects the cardholder and merchant from one type of fraud, the security procedures and insurance of the entire industry protects both from the other type of fraud.\n\nLet's say I have your credit card information. I can make a purchase online, but I generally need an address to ship it to, or I need to be somewhere to cash in (e.g. plane tickets). I get caught both ways.\n\nLet's say I am able to get a store to ring in a purchase from just the plastic card (no chip/swipe) or just from the numbers. Even if I get away with that, chances are that there will be a report soon enough (either from the cardholder, or the bank's security people) that the card or card information was suspected as stolen.\n\nIn most cases, the cardholder is protected (insurance). The merchant could also be protected, depending on whether or not the employee ringing in the purchase checked ID, signature, or phoned the bank to make sure the purchase was okay.\n\nEdit -fdjklas;",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I work at Saks and we see significant credit card fraud at our store. For this reason we don't have a customer swipe or pin pad, you have to hand your card to the cashier, we frequently ask for ID as well. Banks and CC companies are getting more vigilant as well, we frequently have cards declined because people are traveling and our store is located in a high end outlet mall. So the bank will see charges from the Gucci outlet, the Armani store and Burberry and freeze the card because it's outside your normal spending habits. Even so, we lose money to fraud, although I don't know exactly how much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 942,
"text": "Credit card security relies on the physical security of the plastic card as well as the privacy of the credit card number. Therefore, whenever a person other than the card owner has access to the card or its number, security is potentially compromised. Once, merchants would often accept credit card numbers without additional verification for mail order purchases. It's now common practice to only ship to confirmed addresses as a security measure to minimise fraudulent purchases. Some merchants will accept a credit card number for in-store purchases, whereupon access to the number allows easy fraud, but many require the card itself to be present, and require a signature (for magnetic stripe cards). A lost or stolen card can be cancelled, and if this is done quickly, will greatly limit the fraud that can take place in this way. European banks can require a cardholder's security PIN be entered for in-person purchases with the card.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Benefits and drawbacks.:Benefits to merchants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "For merchants, a credit card transaction is often more secure than other forms of payment, such as cheques, because the issuing bank commits to pay the merchant the moment the transaction is authorized, regardless of whether the consumer defaults on the credit card payment (except for legitimate disputes, which are discussed below, and can result in charges back to the merchant). In most cases, cards are even more secure than cash, because they discourage theft by the merchant's employees and reduce the amount of cash on the premises. Finally, credit cards reduce the back office expense of processing checks/cash and transporting them to the bank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6863064",
"title": "Contactless payment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Some suppliers claim that transactions can be almost twice as fast as a conventional cash, credit, or debit card purchase. Because no signature or PIN verification is typically required, contactless purchases are typically limited to small value sales. Lack of authentication provides a window during which fraudulent purchases can be made while the card owner is unaware of the card's loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5451418",
"title": "Digital credential",
"section": "Section::::Anonymous.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "On the other hand, the use of a credit card, whose main purpose is similar to money, allows for the creation of highly detailed records about the card owner. Credit cards are therefore not privacy protecting. The main privacy advantage of money is that its users can remain anonymous. There are however other security and usability properties that make real world cash popular.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17608461",
"title": "Wireless identity theft",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:RSA report.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "The issues raised in a 2006 report were of importance due to the tens of millions of cards that have already been issued. Credit and debit card data could be stolen via special low cost radio scanners without the cards being physically touched or removed from their owner’s pocket, purse or carry bag. Among the findings of the 2006 research study \"Vulnerabilities in First-Generation RFID-Enabled Credit Cards\", and in reports by other white-hat hackers:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26425793",
"title": "Alternative payments",
"section": "Section::::Merchant advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Unlike traditional credit card transactions, many alternative payments often provide additional security features that protect the merchant from fraud and returned transactions, because the funds availability is verified and payment is made directly from a bank account. The banks guarantee the funds and because there are no chargebacks, merchants are often not required to provide collateral or keep a reserve. Furthermore, accounts are validated in real-time and fraud modules scrub transactions, similar to the approval process with credit cards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15905419",
"title": "Credit card fraud",
"section": "Section::::Compromised accounts.:Card not present transaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "The mail and the Internet are major routes for fraud against merchants who sell and ship products and affect legitimate mail-order and Internet merchants. If the card is not physically present (called CNP, card not present) the merchant must rely on the holder (or someone purporting to be so) presenting the information indirectly, whether by mail, telephone or over the Internet. The credit card holder can be tracked by mail or phone. While there are safeguards to this, it is still more risky than presenting in person, and indeed card issuers tend to charge a greater transaction rate for CNP, because of the greater risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2qx085
|
Is air indoors more polluted than outdoors?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think it seriously depends on the situation but the EPA suggests that particle levels are the same or lower than outdoors in houses without smoking ([source](_URL_1_)). The Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (discovered via Google, see [source](_URL_0_)) suggests that indoor levels could be a few times higher, and given some things I've read following links on these two websites, I think it comes down to mostly factors such as burning things (obviously) or heating systems and proper ventilation.\n\nI'll add that in places with extreme outdoor pollution, such as smog, indoors is almost certainly lower, especially with simple filtration systems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46840722",
"title": "Air pollution sensor",
"section": "Section::::Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Scientific evidence has indicated that indoor air pollution can be worse than outdoor pollutants in large and industrialized cities. Many products and chemicals used inside the home, for cooking and heating, and for appliances and home décor are primary sources of indoor air pollutants. Everything we use in the home contributes to the pollution, and can possibly degrade the environment. Air pollution is responsible for 7 million premature deaths around the world each year. When pollutants enter the body through our respiratory system, they can be absorbed in the blood and travel throughout the body, and can directly damage the heart and other vital organs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38000135",
"title": "Airlog",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Although, from a global perspective, harmful indoor air pollution is caused by cooking and heating with solid fuels on open fires or traditional stoves, especially in poorly ventilated rooms, indoor air pollutants may also come from heating and cooling equipment, electronic appliances, cleaning products, air fresheners, insecticides, and construction materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219736",
"title": "Indoor air quality",
"section": "Section::::HVAC design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 1121,
"text": "Dilution of indoor pollutants with outdoor air is effective to the extent that outdoor air is free of harmful pollutants. Ozone in outdoor air occurs indoors at reduced concentrations because ozone is highly reactive with many chemicals found indoors. The products of the reactions between ozone and many common indoor pollutants include organic compounds that may be more odorous, irritating, or toxic than those from which they are formed. These products of ozone chemistry include formaldehyde, higher molecular weight aldehydes, acidic aerosols, and fine and ultrafine particles, among others. The higher the outdoor ventilation rate, the higher the indoor ozone concentration and the more likely the reactions will occur, but even at low levels, the reactions will take place. This suggests that ozone should be removed from ventilation air, especially in areas where outdoor ozone levels are frequently high. Recent research has shown that mortality and morbidity increase in the general population during periods of higher outdoor ozone and that the threshold for this effect is around 20 parts per billion (ppb).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67042",
"title": "Weatherization",
"section": "Section::::Air Quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Weatherization can have a negative impact on indoor air quality, especially among occupants with respiratory illnesses. This occurs because of a decrease in air exchange in the home, and resulting increase in moisture. This leads to higher concentrations of pollutants in the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67042",
"title": "Weatherization",
"section": "Section::::Air Quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Weatherization generally does not cause indoor air problems by adding new pollutants to the air. (There are a few exceptions, such as caulking, that can sometimes emit pollutants.) However, measures such as installing storm windows, weather stripping, caulking, and blown-in wall insulation can reduce the amount of outdoor air infiltrating into a home. Consequently, after weatherization, concentrations of indoor air pollutants from sources inside the home can increase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4109488",
"title": "Urban forest",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.:Air pollution reduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1120,
"text": "As cities struggle to comply with air quality standards, trees can help to clean the air. The most serious pollutants in the urban atmosphere are ozone, nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfuric oxides (SOx) and particulate pollution. Ground-level ozone, or smog, is created by chemical reactions between NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of sunlight. High temperatures increase the rate of this reaction. Vehicle emissions (especially diesel), and emissions from industrial facilities are the major sources of NOx. Vehicle emissions, industrial emissions, gasoline vapors, chemical solvents, trees and other plants are the major sources of VOCs. Particulate pollution, or particulate matter (PM10 and PM25), is made up of microscopic solids or liquid droplets that can be inhaled and retained in lung tissue causing serious health problems. Most particulate pollution begins as smoke or diesel soot and can cause serious health risk to people with heart and lung diseases and irritation to healthy citizens. Trees are an important, cost-effective solution to reducing pollution and improving air quality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2236730",
"title": "Kitchen cabinet",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Considering that North Americans spend a large proportion of their lives indoors, it’s clear why this is a key issue in designing healthy spaces. Additionally, air quality is not a stand-alone problem; rather, every other component of the home can affect air quality. Air quality can be compromised by off-gassing from cabinetry, countertops, flooring, wall coverings or fabrics; by cooking by-products released into the air, and by mold caused by excess moisture or poor ventilation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vw2s5
|
why are most corporations considered evil?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most corporations aren't evil and just do useful things like make your bread for your breakfast toast or make wires for your house.\n\nOf those that are evil often their evilness can be often put down to either to outright corruption in management ranks, which is just the human condition.\n\nAnd secondarily companies often do evil things because traditionally directors (CEOs etc) can be sued personally by the shareholders of that company if they don't act in such a way to make the most possible money. This leads them to make unethical decisions just to make larger profit. Because if they don't. They could potentially be sued by the shareholders for running the business improperly.\n\nSome countries (recently the UK) have passed laws to try and allow the directors more leeway in how they run the company.\n\nI believe in the UK directors of companies are now protected from shareholders sueing the director if the director acted in a fashion that was intended to benefit society or the environment.\n\nA lot of other countries are passing similar laws\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No matter how altruistic a company may seem, it's ultimate purpose is survival. \n\nAs a company grows in size and takes on more responsibilities, the situation worsens as the company is faced with more and more difficult decisions. Customer satisfaction becomes increasingly at odds with maintaining profit margin, competition with others, and employee benefits. \n\nOnce the company grows further and takes on large loans and investors from varied groups, it's purpose slowly shifts from survival to dominance, and will ultimately stop at nothing to achieve this.\n\nMy .02$\n\n\"All corporations are foreign.\" - [Immortal Technique](_URL_0_)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A company's reason for existing is to make money for the owner(s) and shareholders. They have no social responsibility except to obey applicable laws.\n\nSome of the things some of them do to make money may be considered questionable or even evil. Take for example Myriad Genetics which owned a patent on methods of testing for genes associated with breast cancer. They could prevent anybody from performing those tests without paying them, despite that those tests were likely to save lives. It also made it difficult to get second opinions from other labs not licensing their technology. It did, however, make them a lot of money, and was perfectly legal until a court case decided otherwise.\n\nEdit: the court case was decided against them because the genes were naturally occurring and their tests were not novel except as they applied to the naturally-occurring genes. The court held that naturally-occurring genes could not be patented.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A business main's goal is to make profit. \n\nMost things today now runs like a business. This can include charity, government, and events. The core of it all is that it can only run and survive on one particular resource: Money.\n\nThe more money, the more things they can do like investing, innovating, and spending back into the economy.\n\nCompanies as you have described are portrayed to focus only on the money and not the customer.\n\nWhen a corporation goes public, they sell their stocks to shareholders. The stocks give the shareholder some controls of the company in exchange for their financial investment to the corporation. Now you got shareholders pressuring you to keep making money and you now have a lot less control of your company. You have to balance between running the company and keeping your investors happy. These shareholders will only join in if they find your corporation profitable.\n\nTo me, evil is subjective.\nDo you trust a business that hides their real intentions and claiming to be a \"good company\"?\nOr do you trust a business that is honest with the fact that their goal is focused on the money?\n\nEdit: Added more info on Publicly traded companies.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If someone wants to take your children's toys, you would react. Corporations start when someone has new ideas, or is lucky, and take a slice of the market share and keep growing, until other corporations or newcomers try to take their share of the market. They then consolidate and adapt the culture of the business, moving jobs to where it is cheaper and less regulated, lobbying politicians, and even financial and other shenanigans.\n\nAre they evil? No, but what they often do is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many good answers in this thread, but I think the simplest one is this:\n\n\n*Short Term Profit is a temptation that most corporations can't resist.*\n\n\nThe issue is that to pursue the lifeblood of a corporation (money) thousands of decisions must be made. The decisions that lead to money savings and money generation are the ones that are typically going to be chosen. Intended and unintended negative consequences are rarely weighed by those making the decisions, as the corporation's responsibilities are spread out over many groups and individuals.\n\n\nThis is contrasted with a small business that has the decisions and responsibility centralized in the owner's hands, along with the larger scale impact reduced.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32780354",
"title": "Evil corporation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "An evil corporation is a trope in popular culture that portrays a corporation as ignoring social responsibility in order to make money for its shareholders. According to Angela Allan writing in \"The Atlantic\", the notion is \"deeply embedded in the landscape of contemporary culture—populating films, novels, videogames, and more.\" The science fiction genre served as the initial background to portray corporations in this dystopian light. Evil corporations can be seen to represent the danger of combining capitalism with larger hubris.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32780354",
"title": "Evil corporation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 980,
"text": "In real life, too, corporations have been accused of being evil. To guard against such accusations, Google at one point in its history had the official motto \"Don't be evil\", now used as part of the closing lines of the company's code of conduct. The company has been accused of violating this principle on several occasions, including with their now discontinued participation in a military drone AI program.\"The New Yorker\" wrote that \"many food activists consider Monsanto (now Bayer) to be \"the\" definitively evil corporation\". \"The Debate over Corporate Social Responsibility\" wrote, \"For many consumers, Wal-Mart serves as the evil corporation prototype, but record numbers shop at the stores for low prices.\" In Japan, a committee of journalists and rights activists issues an annual \"corporate raspberry award\" known as Most Evil Corporation of the Year Award (also called the Black Company Award) to a company \"with a culture of overwork, discrimination and harassment\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40229978",
"title": "Anti-corporate activism",
"section": "Section::::Counter-arguments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "In addition, from the perspective of business ethics it might be argued that chief executives are not inherently more evil than anyone else and so are no more likely to attempt unethical or illegal activity than the general population. Large multi-national corporations do continue to attempt to erode governmental regulations through in-house or contracted lobbyists who work closely with State and Federal legislators. So as corporate laws continue to lean in their favor, corporate members have improved portals to drive up company profits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57584715",
"title": "Evil empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "An evil empire is a speculative fiction trope in which a major antagonist of the story is a technologically advanced nation, typically ruled by an evil emperor or empress, that aims to control the world or conquer some specific group. They are opposed by a hero from more common origins who uses their guile or the help of an underground resistance to fight them. Well-known examples are the Galactic Empire in \"Star Wars\", which forms upon the collapse of the more benevolent Galactic Republic and is opposed by Luke Skywalker, as well as the Galactic Empire in \"Dune\", whose Emperor plots the downfall of House Atreides, and is opposed by Paul Atreides. The theme also often appears in video games, such as the \"Final Fantasy\" series, starting with \"Final Fantasy II\", which was inspired by \"Star Wars\", and becoming a major part of \"Final Fantasy VI\" in the form of the Gestahl Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13081323",
"title": "The Myth of the Rational Voter",
"section": "Section::::Summary.:Anti-market bias.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "The second is where corporations, even small-scale suppliers, are seen as greedy monopolists that prey on the consumer. Caplan argues that all trade is a two-way street and that people like middlemen are not interposers attempting to fleece the people, but rather, making up for transportation, storage, and distribution costs. At a more broad level, cheating people is bad for business and the existence of multiple firms offering similar products implies competition, not monopoly power, which limits any firm's ability to increase prices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3942109",
"title": "Anti-consumerism",
"section": "Section::::Politics and society.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Many anti-corporate activists believe the rise of large-business corporations poses a threat to the legitimate authority of nation states and the public sphere. They feel corporations are invading people's privacy, manipulating politics and governments, and creating false needs in consumers. They state evidence such as invasive advertising adware, spam, telemarketing, child-targeted advertising, aggressive guerrilla marketing, massive corporate campaign contributions in political elections, interference in the policies of sovereign nation states (Ken Saro-Wiwa), and news stories about corporate corruption (Enron, for example).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46112",
"title": "Violence",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 164,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 164,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Anti-capitalists assert that capitalism is violent. They believe private property and profit survive only because police violence defends them and that capitalist economies need war to expand. They may use the term \"structural violence\" to describe the systematic ways in which a given social structure or institution kills people slowly by preventing them from meeting their basic needs, for example the deaths caused by diseases because of lack of medicine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vqmyu
|
Landing on Mars with a glider?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Does it have something to do with the 100 times thinner atmosphere\n\nProbably. NASA engineers are smart people and think of all the angles, and then go through rigorous math to compare the price and effectiveness of various techniques. When you're sending something up into space, often the most expensive part of it is sending it up on a rocket *into* space and to Mars. So, I suppose they realized that, in that particular case, a rocket would be lighter, cheaper, and less prone to failure than other alternatives.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The wings of the glider would have to be BIG. Very thin atmosphere and the weight of the rover come into play. \n\nOnce those wings get big enough, their own weight comes into play. Also you would have to find a way to make the wings compact enough to be launched in a rocket, then unfurl once they were needed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A very [interesting read](_URL_0_) about this subject from the author of the X-Plane flight simulator.\n\nFor people who are not so well versed in aviation terms, [indicated airspeed](_URL_1_) is sort of an airspeed that takes into account the atmospheric pressure. In a lower pressure the same true airspeed generates less lift but indicated airspeed takes this into account so a plane will always stall at the same indicated airspeed, regardless of the pressure. So when he says there that indicated airspeed is one tenth of the true airspeed on Mars, it means that to generate the same amount of lift you need to go ten times as fast on Mars. So if your plane can take off at 60 knots on Earth, then on Mars the same indicated airspeed would be at 600 knots true airspeed. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35720571",
"title": "Mars flyby",
"section": "Section::::Concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "One application of a Mars flyby is for a human mission, where after landing and staying on the surface for some time the ascent stage has a space rendezvous with another, unmanned spacecraft, that was launched separately from Earth, flying by. This would mean the ascent stage of the lander to reach the speed necessary equal to that of the spacecraft flying by, but the resources needed for Earth return would not have to enter or leave Mars orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21955309",
"title": "Ptolemaeus (Martian crater)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "The Soviet probe Mars 3 is thought to have successfully landed in Ptolemaeus Crater in 2 December 1971, but contact was lost seconds after landing due do a dust storm occurring at the time. On 11 April 2013, NASA announced that the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) may have imaged the Mars 3 lander hardware on the surface of Mars. The HiRISE camera on the MRO took images of what may be the parachute, retrorockets, heat shield and lander.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38082",
"title": "Viking program",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "After orbiting Mars for more than a month and returning images used for landing site selection, the orbiters and landers detached; the landers then entered the Martian atmosphere and soft-landed at the sites that had been chosen. The \"Viking 1\" lander touched down on the surface of Mars on July 20, 1976, and was joined by the \"Viking 2\" lander on September 3. The orbiters continued imaging and performing other scientific operations from orbit while the landers deployed instruments on the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "101444",
"title": "Mars 6",
"section": "Section::::Launch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Mars 6's lander separated from the flyby bus on 12 March 1974 at an altitude of from the surface of Mars. The bus made a flyby with a closest approach of . The lander encountered the atmosphere of Mars at 09:05:53 UTC, slowing from as it passed through the upper atmosphere. A parachute was then deployed to further slow the probe's descent, and retrorockets were intended to fire during the last seconds before the probe reached the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47791",
"title": "Mars program",
"section": "Section::::Spacecraft.:Mars 3MP.:Mars 6.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 1255,
"text": "Mars 6 successfully lifted off on August 5, 1973, into an intermediate Earth orbit on a Proton-K/D booster and then launched into a Mars transfer trajectory. Total fueled launch mass of the lander and bus was 3260 kg. It reached Mars on March 12, 1974. The descent module separated from the bus at a distance of 48,000 km from Mars. The bus continued on into a heliocentric orbit after passing within 1600 km of Mars. The descent module entered the atmosphere at 09:05:53 UT at a speed of 5.6 km/s. The parachute opened at 09:08:32 UT after the module had slowed its speed to 600 m/s by aerobraking. During this time the craft was collecting data and transmitting it directly to the bus for immediate relay to Earth. Contact with the descent module was lost at 09:11:05 UT in \"direct proximity to the surface\", probably either when the retrorockets fired or when it hit the surface at an estimated 61 m/s. Mars 6 landed at in the Margaritifer Terra region of Mars. The landed mass was 635 kg. The descent module transmitted 224 seconds of data before transmissions ceased, the first data returned from the atmosphere of Mars. Much of the data was unreadable due to a flaw in a transistor which led to degradation of the system during its journey to Mars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21553250",
"title": "Aeolis quadrangle",
"section": "Section::::Mars Science Laboratory discoveries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "On August 6, 2012, the Mars Science Laboratory landed on Aeolis Palus near Aeolis Mons in Gale Crater. The landing was from the target (), closer than any previous rover landing and well within the target area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11593789",
"title": "Flight to Mars (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Flight to Mars is a 1951 American Cinecolor science fiction film drama, produced by Walter Mirisch for Monogram Pictures, directed by Lesley Selander, that stars Marguerite Chapman, Cameron Mitchell, and Arthur Franz. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1cc400
|
If you listen to music loudly (via earphones) in a very windy situation, where you can barely hear the music (for example in a convertible going fast), is the music still doing damage to your ears?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of the leading causes of hearing loss for motorcycle riders is \"wind noise.\" So playing music that is even louder than that most definitely has damaging potential. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yep. Same thing with being at a bar or loud concert and yelling into your friends' ears so that you can hear each other. No different then if someone was yelling into your ear in a quiet room. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6846175",
"title": "Listener fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Sensory overload.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "When exposed to a multitude of sounds from several different sources, sensory overload may occur. This overstimulation can result in general fatigue and loss of sensation in the ear. The associated mechanisms are explained in further detail down below. Sensory overload usually occurs with environmental stimuli and not noise induced by listening to music.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6846175",
"title": "Listener fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Introduction of artifacts in audio material.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "Musicality, especially on the radio, contains musical aspects (timbre, emotional impact, melody), and artifacts that arise from non-musical aspects (soundstaging, dynamic range compression sonic balance). The introduction of these sonic artifacts affects the balance between these musical and non-musical aspects. When the volume of music is higher, these artifacts become more apparent, and because they are uncomfortable for the ear, cause listeners to \"tune out\" and lose focus or become tired. These listeners may then unconsciously avoid that type of music, or the radio station they may have heard it on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9387902",
"title": "Don't Lose The Music",
"section": "Section::::Objectives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Experts agree that exposure to sounds over 85 dB over time can cause damage to hearing. Many concert venues and nightclubs play music at levels over 100 decibels. It is also possible to listen to music on personal audio equipment (such as MP3 players) at levels which exceed damage-risk criteria, depending on the equipment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1560437",
"title": "Portable media player",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Risk of hearing damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "According to the Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks, the risk of hearing damage from digital audio players depends on both sound level and listening time. The listening habits of most users are unlikely to cause hearing loss, but some people are putting their hearing at risk, because they set the volume control very high or listen to music at high levels for many hours per day. Such listening habits may result in temporary or permanent hearing loss, tinnitus, and difficulties understanding speech in noisy environments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6894544",
"title": "Noise-induced hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Workplace.:Sporting events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Studies are still being done on fan exposure, but some preliminary findings show that there are often noises that can be at or exceed 120 dB which, unprotected, can cause damage to the ears in seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6894544",
"title": "Noise-induced hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Personal listening devices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Although research is limited, it suggests that increased exposure to loud noise through personal listening devices is a risk factor for noise induced hearing loss. More than half of people are exposed to sound through music exposure on personal devices greater than recommended levels. Research suggests stronger correlations between extended duration or elevated usage of personal listening devices and hearing loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1731484",
"title": "Amusia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Social and emotional.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Other than their inability to hear music, which is most likely due to a genetic defect, the rest of an amusic's brain remains normal. The only effect is on the ability to tell different notes apart due to the separation of two key areas in the brain. Most sufferers of amusia describe music as unpleasant. Others simply refer to it as noise and find it annoying. This can have social implications because amusics often try to avoid music, which in many social situations is not an option. In China and other countries in which identical words have different meanings based on pitch, amusia may have a much more pronounced social and emotional impact: difficulty in speaking and understanding the language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.