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e49op3
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How did belief in Greek Mythology die out and what replaced them ?
|
[
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"answer": "The basic answer for the broader definition of Greek Myth/Religion is Christianity, but I think that broad definition isn't necessarily what most people think of when they say \"Greek Mythology\" today. The storybook version of 12 Olympian gods and series of concrete stories about each of them never existed. There were always competing or contradicting versions, and that didn't bother the ancient Greeks. In fact, many of the most popular stories are best preserved in their Roman forms by the *Metamorphoses* of Ovid.\n\n\nIt's hard for us to wrap our heads around in a world so dominated by religions like Christianity and Islam that try to define one absolute correct for of the religion, but the ancient Greeks were much more concerned with proper ceremony and practice in the present than which stories and character traits went with which gods. They also had no problem with gods from outside of their pantheon. Some gods only cared about Greece/the Greeks, others were called by different names in other cultures. If they couldn't find an analogue for one of their gods, they were more than happy to believe in a new foreign god and worship with the local traditions when they travelled. That brings me to the really radical change in \"Greek mythology.\"\n\n\nAfter the conquests of Alexander his successors carved out kingdoms from Afghanistan to Greece and made plays for power in Sicily and Italy. As Greek/Macedonian culture spread across that huge range, it was in direct contact with more outside influences than ever before. Some foreign, especially Egyptian, gods became some of the most popular and new traditions and stories seeped in. These were gods like Isis, Serapis, and Cybele.\n\n\nfter Greece was conquered by Rome (a culture that borrowed heavily from Greece, but almost never copied Greek tradition exactly) that process continued to incorporate new religious traditions from across the Roman Empire into the Greeks' traditions. Much like some of the new gods during the Hellenistic period, a few new gods of the Roman period also surpassed the traditional Olympian pantheon in some places. So already by the second century CE you have many foreign cults that coexist with the classical myths, but were also surpassing them in some contexts. It was already a very different environment in Greece than it was in 300 BCE.\n\nSome of the more famous examples include Mithra and Elagabalus. Both were Near Eastern deities picked up by the Roman armies as they marched across the region. Mithra seems to be the more popular one in Greece, but veneration of Elagabalus was found all over the Empire. We don't know much about either. They seem to have existed somewhere between traditional polytheistic religion and henotheism where one god is worshipped and many are acknowledged. Both were linked to the ancient Greek god Helios, but like I said, we don't know much in the way of details about what was really believed.\n\n\nSo finally, I get to the thing that really killed it off. It was just another little Near Eastern tradition that was circulating around the empire, competing for popularity with things like Mithra. The difference is twofold: this one was vehemently monotheistic and caught the attention of enough of the imperial elite, including the emperors. Of course, it's Christianity. \n\n\nThere had been some on and off persecution by the authorities because associations with Juaism and refusal to venerate the imperial cult (ie the deified dead emperors) were both viewed as treasonous. However, by the time Constantine gave official tolerance to Christianity with the Edict of Milan in 313, some estimates suggest that Christians accounted for almost 2/3 of some major cities. It had reached Greece and Anatolia very early on and had a strong foothold there to begin with. \n\n\nClose to death, Constantine converted officially, and all of his successors were raised Christian. Aside from a brief hiccup where Julian the Apostate tried to turn back the clock with an official canonical form of Greco-Roman paganism, it was a steady uphill climb for Christianity. Each successive Roman emperor tended to enact policy that supported Christianity over traditional paganism. Churches and Christian communities were given state funding over pagan temples, pagans were blocked out of official offices, and emperor Gratian went on a spree of confiscating pagan temple revenues, removed an altar to pagan Victory in the Senate house, and became the first emperor since Augustus not to accept the office of Pontifex Maximus, high priest of traditional Roman religion. \n\n\nIn 318 Gratian and his co-emperors, most notably Theodosius I, issued a decree stating that all of his subjects should follow Nicene Christianity, effectively making Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, and establishing an official Christian dogma for that state religion. Theodosius permitted, but did not outright endorse, the destruction of many prominent pagan temples. He ended any remaining legal and official support for pagan institutions.\n\n\nBeginning in 381, Theodosius engaged in official condemnation and persecution of non-Christian, non-Orthodox beliefs and practices that remained the standard policy for the Roman empire for the rest of its history, right through the Byzantine period. Despite heavy persecution, some pagan beliefs and practices probably survived for a few more centuries in rural or isolated areas, but by 400 or so, it was functionally gone in population centers.\n\n\nThe classical myths hadn't been the sole feature of Greek religion for more than 700 years by the time it was truly gone. In fact, they hadn't even been the most popular option for a few centuries, but ultimately Christianity's strict monotheism ended and replaced belief in classical Greek myths.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1168",
"title": "Anaximander",
"section": "Section::::Theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1408,
"text": "Some scholars see a gap between the existing mythical and the new rational way of thought which is the main characteristic of the archaic period (8th to 6th century BC) in the Greek city-states. This has given rise to the phrase \"Greek miracle\". But if we follow carefully the course of Anaximander's ideas, we will notice that there was not such an abrupt break as initially appears. The basic elements of nature (water, air, fire, earth) which the first Greek philosophers believed constituted the universe represent in fact the primordial forces of previous thought. Their collision produced what the mythical tradition had called cosmic harmony. In the old cosmogonies – Hesiod (8th – 7th century BC) and Pherecydes (6th century BC) – Zeus establishes his order in the world by destroying the powers which were threatening this harmony (the Titans). Anaximander claimed that the cosmic order is not monarchic but geometric, and that this causes the equilibrium of the earth, which is lying in the centre of the universe. This is the projection on nature of a new political order and a new space organized around a centre which is the static point of the system in the society as in nature. In this space there is \"isonomy\" (equal rights) and all the forces are symmetrical and transferrable. The decisions are now taken by the assembly of \"demos\" in the \"agora\" which is lying in the middle of the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "8033482",
"title": "Modern understanding of Greek mythology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 896,
"text": "The genesis of modern understanding of Greek mythology is regarded by some scholars as a double reaction at the end of the 18th century against \"the traditional attitude of Christian animosity mixed with disdain, which had prevailed for centuries\", in which the Christian reinterpretation of myth as a \"lie\" or fable had been retained. In Germany, by about 1795, there was a growing interest in Homer and Greek mythology. In Göttingen Johann Matthias Gesner began to revive Greek studies and a new humanistic spirit. His successor, Christian Gottlob Heyne, worked with Johann Joachim Winckelmann, and laid the foundations for mythological research both in Germany and elsewhere. Heyne approached the myth as a philologist and shaped the educated Germans' conception of antiquity for nearly half a century, during which ancient Greece exerted an intense influence on intellectual life in Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "21069417",
"title": "Egyptian mythology",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "After these early times, most changes to mythology developed and adapted preexisting concepts rather than creating new ones, although there were exceptions. Many scholars have suggested that the myth of the sun god withdrawing into the sky, leaving humans to fight among themselves, was inspired by the breakdown of royal authority and national unity at the end of the Old Kingdom (c. 2686 BC – 2181 BC). In the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BC), minor myths developed around deities like Yam and Anat who had been adopted from Canaanite religion. In contrast, during the Greek and Roman eras (332 BC–641 AD), Greco-Roman culture had little influence on Egyptian mythology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23416994",
"title": "Greek mythology",
"section": "Section::::Modern interpretations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "The genesis of modern understanding of Greek mythology is regarded by some scholars as a double reaction at the end of the eighteenth century against \"the traditional attitude of Christian animosity\", in which the Christian reinterpretation of myth as a \"lie\" or fable had been retained. In Germany, by about 1795, there was a growing interest in Homer and Greek mythology. In Göttingen, Johann Matthias Gesner began to revive Greek studies, while his successor, Christian Gottlob Heyne, worked with Johann Joachim Winckelmann, and laid the foundations for mythological research both in Germany and elsewhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13574",
"title": "Herodotus",
"section": "Section::::Mode of explanation.:Types of causality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "Herodotus attributes cause to both divine and human agents. These are not perceived as mutually exclusive, but rather mutually interconnected. This is true of Greek thinking in general, at least from Homer onward. Gould notes that invoking the supernatural in order to explain an event does not answer the question \"why did this happen?\" but rather \"why did this happen to me?\" By way of example, faulty craftsmanship is the human cause for a house collapsing. However, divine will is the reason that the house collapses at the particular moment when I am inside. It was the will of the gods that the house collapsed while a particular individual was within it, whereas it was the cause of man that the house had a weak structure and was prone to falling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26447",
"title": "Resurrection",
"section": "Section::::Religion.:Ancient Greek religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 927,
"text": "The parallel between these traditional beliefs and the later resurrection of Jesus was not lost on the early Christians, as Justin Martyr argued: \"when we say ... Jesus Christ, our teacher, was crucified and died, and rose again, and ascended into heaven, we propose nothing different from what you believe regarding those whom you consider sons of Zeus.\" (\"1 Apol.\" 21). There is, however, no belief in a general resurrection in ancient Greek religion, as the Greeks held that not even the gods were able to recreate flesh that had been lost to decay, fire or consumption. The notion of a \"general\" resurrection of the dead was therefore apparently quite preposterous to the Greeks. This is made clear in Paul's Areopagus discourse. After having first told about the resurrection of Jesus, which makes the Athenians interested to hear more, Paul goes on, relating how this event relates to a general resurrection of the dead:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23416994",
"title": "Greek mythology",
"section": "Section::::Greek and Roman conceptions of myth.:Philosophy and myth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "After the rise of philosophy, history, prose and rationalism in the late 5th century BC, the fate of myth became uncertain, and mythological genealogies gave place to a conception of history which tried to exclude the supernatural (such as the Thucydidean history). While poets and dramatists were reworking the myths, Greek historians and philosophers were beginning to criticize them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
rtnj8
|
When I am all alone, and there is no noise in the room, and it is all still and quiet, there is a sound in my ears/head that is similar to a ringing of the ears, but it's not quite the same. What causes that?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Tinnitus](_URL_0_): \"the perception of sound within the human ear in the absence of corresponding external sound\". \n\nCauses are varied, so check the ~~Zelda~~ link for more on that. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21007560",
"title": "Promise (1986 film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "It's like, all the electric wires in the house are plugged into my brain. And every one has a different noise, so I can't think. Some of the wires have voices in them and they tell me things like what to do and that people are watching me. I know there really aren't any voices, but I feel that there are, and that I should listen to them or something will happen. … I can remember what I was like before. I was a class officer, I had friends. I was going to be an aeronautical engineer. Do you remember, Bobby? I've never had a job. I've never owned a car. I've never lived alone. I've never made love to a woman. And I never will. That's what it's like. You should know. That's why I'm a Hindu. Because maybe it's true: Maybe people are born again. And if there is a God, maybe he'll give me another chance. I believe that, because this can't be all I get.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2604682",
"title": "Unglaublicher Laerm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "\" When you were upstairs, you couldn't hear anything at all, but you could see EN clicking away on laptops (and Blixa screaming in a microphone). The REAL thing was downstairs. You can see the small room on the photos - maybe 20 people could be there at the same time. Because of ear-protection headsets (or your fingers pressed into your ears) it was not about sound. It was about feeling. The massive wave of sound from those speakers (in this small room!) flattened the hairs on the back of my arms and on my head. Sometimes the music came to a DEEP grinding halt. Sometimes Blixa's voice cut through. \"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18618489",
"title": "Casa Tomada",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Usually, their home is silent, but when one day the narrator suddenly hears something inside another part of the house, the siblings escape to a smaller section, locked behind a solid oak door. In the intervening days, they become frightened and solemn; on the one hand noting that there is less housecleaning, but regretting that the interlopers have prevented them from retrieving many of their personal belongings. All the while, they can occasionally hear noises from the other side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31591527",
"title": "Saint-Paul Asylum, Saint-Rémy (Van Gogh series)",
"section": "Section::::In Saint-Paul Hospital.:The corridor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "In a letter to Theo in May 1889 he explains the sounds that travel through the quiet-seeming halls, \"There is someone here who has been shouting and talking like me all the time for a fortnight. He thinks he hears voices and words in the echoes of the corridors, probably because the auditory nerve is diseased and over-sensitive, and in my case it was both sight and hearing at the same time, which is usual at the onset of epilepsy, according to what Dr. Félix Rey said one day.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41415",
"title": "Noise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Noise is unwanted sound judged to be unpleasant, loud or disruptive to hearing. From a physics standpoint, noise is indistinguishable from sound, as both are vibrations through a medium, such as air or water. The difference arises when the brain receives and perceives a sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1555553",
"title": "Unilateral hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Profound unilateral hearing loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "BULLET::::- Lack of sound depth: any background noise (in the room, in the car) is flat and wrongly interpreted by the brain. The effect is similar to what happens when trying to hear someone speaking in a noisy crowd on a mono TV. The effect is also similar to talking on the phone to someone who is in a noisy environment (see also: King-Kopetzky syndrome)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16807646",
"title": "Environmental issues in India",
"section": "Section::::Major issues.:Noise pollution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "Indoor noise can be caused by machines, building activities, and music performances, especially in some workplaces. Noise-induced hearing loss can be caused by outside (e.g. trains) or inside (e.g. music) noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
6ela6e
|
How was Garibaldi able to conquer Southern Italy with only 1000 or so volunteers?
|
[
{
"answer": "You're asking a lot of questions, which is understandable; Wikipedia is not a complete source of information by any stretch of the imagination. Let's begin in the beginning. \n\nAfter the eighth century, Southern Italy was contested three ways between Arabs, the Byzantine Empire, and \"Lombards,\" who were originally Germanic warriors that intermarried and replaced the old Roman \"Senatorial Class.\"\n\nWhen Charlemagne conquered Italy from the Lombard King called Desiderius, a rump state survived in Southern Italy; Seeing Charlemagne and his army at the gates of his chief city, Salerno, Duke Arechi of Benevento, a powerful and fiercely loyal vassal of the deposed King of Italy (he had married Desiderius' daughter) came to an agreement with Charlemagne. He sent his son Grimolado as a hostage to Charlemagne's court, and in exchange secured the right to continue ruling as Duke in Southern Italy; Arechi was even recognized the rank of Prince. Although culturally active, the Principality of Benevento would be marred by instability, and by the mid 9th century had split three ways: the Duchy of Benevento and the Duchy of Salerno (whose rulers both claimed the title of \"Prince\") as well as the independent Republic of Amalfi.\n\nCalabria and Puglia, on the other hand, remained Byzantine Military Provinces (called *Thema*) up to the Norman conquest. A vestige of Justinian's reconquest of Italy in the sixth century, they were ruled by an ethnically Greek *Katepano* (Commander) appointed from Constantinople. Because of southern Italy's strong ties to the Greek world, as well as the Byzantine practice of settling soldiers with land, the general picture of this part of Southern Italy is functionally Graco-Latin, leaning more towards Greek at the top of the social ladder, while the bottom would be more Latin.\n\nSicily, on the other hand, was predominantly under the Abbasid Caliphate by the ninth century. However, when Robert Guiscard (a Norman mercenary employed at the time by the Duke of Salerno) established a foothold in Messina, he revived an old Byzantine title, *Strategos*, for the governor he appointed; the same title that had been used by the Byzantine military governor (who was based in the same city, no less) when Sicily was originally attacked by Abbasids. Curiously, in the County, and later Kingdom, of Sicily the governor of Messina and its surroundings would continue to be called with the Italianized title \"Strategoto\", derived from the analogous Greek word, meaning that once the Arab-dominated ruling class was removed a Greek substrate must have been present.\n\nGenerally, the early history of Sicily saw Greeks, Lombards, and Arabs fighting with each other in every concievable combination. In 1042, Duke Guaimario of Salerno approved the Norman mercenary William Hauteville's plan to seize Sicily from the Arabs, and in return would be made Count of Puglia (should he be able to conquer that from the Byzantines as well). William (helped by his brother) went above and beyond, and used Puglia as a trampoline to take Calabria, becoming the most powerful person in southern Italy in the process. When in 1052 when Prince Guaimario was murdered, the Hautevilles took advantage of the unrest in Salerno to take the city, completing their conquest of mainland Southern Italy on their way to take Sicily.\n\nWilliam's brother Robert (nicknamed, \"Guiscard\") managed to impose himself as Count of Sicily. His rule was characterized by the unique coexistence of ethnic Arabs, Greeks, and Normans. There were some limitations on this coexistence, but no real \"genocide\" as you asked about in your question: in the Norman County (later Kingdom) of Sicily, Greeks and Arab landholders were relegated as \"Villeins\" (the lowest rank of landholder) and were taxed more heavily than Roman Catholics, a conscious decision which encouraged immigration by Northern Italian Lombards, Britons, Normans, and Provençals, and which rapidly diluted the existing Arab-Greek culture.\n\nNorman Sicily has been defined as a society based on \"Unequal Coexistence.\" Although privileged positions were given to Norman, Provencal, Lombard, and Greek immigrants (more or less in that order) tensions between Christians and Muslims would only come to the breaking point in the late twelfth century. Tensions between Sicilian Greeks and the new \"Latins\" on the other hand, were easily overcome by professing adherence to the Church of Rome, only recently (in 1054) irreparably separated from the Church of the East, in Constantinople. Indeed, Greek Christians (who had in great part welcomed the Normans) played a key role in mediating between the upper class of Latin lords and the subject populations of Muslim serfs (according to Johns J., *The Monreale Survey: Indigenes and invaders in medieval west Sicily*). It's interesting to note how within a generation of the Norman conquest, parish censuses show how serfs whose parents have Arabic names take Greek names; a testament to the dominant \"Greek Christian\" culture in spite of the new Norman ruling class and the almost entirely Arab administrative bureaucracy, and more importantly, the key role of Greek Churchmen in converting the Muslim population to Christianity.\n\nJohn Julius Norwich, in his *The Normans in Sicily* puts it this way: “Norman and Lombard, Greek and Saracen, Italian and Jew – Sicily had proved that for as long as they enjoyed an enlightened and impartial government, they could happily coexist; they could not coalesce.” Greek Orthodox inhabitants of Sicily could be expected to be fluent in Arabic, and some Muslims could be expected to be native Greek speakers. However, as with Arabic, Greek language and culture was also rapidly replaced in favor of Latin language and culture in Sicily and indeed all of Southern Italy. If you'd like to learn more, John Julius Norwich wrote a very extensive history of Sicily in two works, one chronicling the Norman Conquest and another on the actual history of the kingdom. Both works have recently been published together as a single work.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "21486576",
"title": "Giuseppe Garibaldi",
"section": "Section::::Campaign of 1860.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "Having conquered Sicily, he crossed the Strait of Messina and marched north. Garibaldi's progress was met with more celebration than resistance, and on 7 September he entered the capital city of Naples, by train. Despite taking Naples, however, he had not to this point defeated the Neapolitan army. Garibaldi's volunteer army of 24,000 was not able to defeat conclusively the reorganized Neapolitan army—about 25,000 men—on 30 September at the battle of Volturno. This was the largest battle he ever fought, but its outcome was effectively decided by the arrival of the Piedmontese Army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "55441249",
"title": "Matese Legion",
"section": "Section::::Battles.:Battle of Piedimonte.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 392,
"text": "The Garibaldian Column, guided by Csudafy, entered Piedimonte Matese on the night of 22 September 1860 to assist the legion with this battle. The Bourbon army consisted of 3000 men and 3 cannons, while the Garibaldians had only approximately 200 men. The latter were forced to find refuge in the Matese mountains, leaving the city to the enemy, who successfully conquered it on 25 September.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "21486771",
"title": "Kingdom of Sardinia",
"section": "Section::::Italian unification.:Garibaldi and the Thousand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi started his campaign to conquer the southern Apennines in the name of the Kingdom of Sardinia. He quickly toppled the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which was the largest of the states in the region, stretching from Abruzzo and Naples on the mainland to Messina and Palermo on Sicily. He then marched to Gaeta in the central peninsula. Cavour was satisfied with the unification, while Garibaldi, who was too revolutionary for the king and his prime minister, wanted to conquer Rome as well. Garibaldi was disappointed in this development, as well as in the loss of his home province, Nice, to France. He also failed to fulfill the promises that had gained him popular and military support by the Sicilians: that the new nation would be a republic, not a kingdom, and that the Sicilians would see great economic gains after unification. The former did not come to pass until 1946.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "10927458",
"title": "Battle of Volturnus (1860)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "After Garibaldi's Expedition of Thousand had conquered Sicily and much of southern Italy with a startling speed, entering in Naples on the 7 September while the King Francis II of Two Sicilies took refuge in the powerful fortress of Gaeta, midway from Rome to Naples. In the meantime the Neapolitan army was rebuilt in Capua under marshal Giosuè Ritucci, the first skirmishes with Garibaldi's volunteers occurring on the 26 and 29 September.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59642",
"title": "Italian unification",
"section": "Section::::Towards the Kingdom of Italy.:Defeat of the Kingdom of Naples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 905,
"text": "Though Garibaldi had easily taken the capital, the Neapolitan army had not joined the rebellion \"en masse\", holding firm along the Volturno River. Garibaldi's irregular bands of about 25,000 men could not drive away the king or take the fortresses of Capua and Gaeta without the help of the Sardinian army. The Sardinian army, however, could only arrive by traversing the Papal States, which extended across the entire center of the peninsula. Ignoring the political will of the Holy See, Garibaldi announced his intent to proclaim a \"Kingdom of Italy\" from Rome, the capital city of Pope Pius IX. Seeing this as a threat to the domain of the Catholic Church, Pius threatened excommunication for those who supported such an effort. Afraid that Garibaldi would attack Rome, Catholics worldwide sent money and volunteers for the Papal Army, which was commanded by General Louis Lamoricière, a French exile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "375974",
"title": "Roman Republic (19th century)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Birth of the Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Giuseppe Garibaldi formed the \"Italian Legion\", with many recruits coming from Piedmont and the Austrian territories of Lombardy and Venetia, and took up a station at the border town of Rieti on the border with the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. There the legion rose to about 1,000 and gained discipline and organization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10927458",
"title": "Battle of Volturnus (1860)",
"section": "Section::::Battle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The two armies met on the western front on the 1 October, in which the Neapolitans, spurred by the presence of Francis himself, forced the Garibaldines to retreat. Garibaldi and his fellow Giacomo Medici intervened, re-establishing the situation. Harsh fights were taking place in the meantime at Santa Maria, but at 6:00pm the Neapolitans were pushed back; the Garibaldines were however defeated on the hills neat Monte Tifata, Monte Vito and Castel Morrone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
34h6t0
|
- if hiv can take up to 6 months to show up on a blood test, how do they know donated blood is safe?
|
[
{
"answer": "They generally eliminate high risk classes from donating blood. There are a lot of reports that confirm that HIV transmits faster from certain ways over others. They make sure to ask people questions about their lifestyle to figure out whether they represent one of those high risk classes.\n\nFor example my wife is a veterinarian and over half of her class is unable to donate blood because they handled monkeys.\n\n[In the 80s around 2,000 Canadians were infected from tainted blood when HIV was first becoming a thing](_URL_0_). Today all of the mechanisms that are in place are based on old failed policies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3516857",
"title": "Blood donation in England",
"section": "Section::::Donations.:Pre-donation and exceptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "BULLET::::- Every single blood donation is tested for HIV (the virus that causes AIDS) and Hepatitis B and C. Infected blood is not used in transfusions but tests may not always detect the early stages of viral infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339553",
"title": "Diagnosis of HIV/AIDS",
"section": "Section::::Principles.:Screening donor blood and cellular products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "In the US, the Food and Drug Administration requires that all donated blood be screened for several infectious diseases, including HIV-1 and HIV-2, using a combination of antibody testing (EIA) and more expeditious nucleic acid testing (NAT). These diagnostic tests are combined with careful donor selection. , the risk of transfusion-acquired HIV in the US was approximately one in 2.5 million for each transfusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5657877",
"title": "Type I and type II errors",
"section": "Section::::Application domains.:Medicine.:Medical screening.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "The simple blood tests used to \"screen\" possible blood donors for HIV and hepatitis have a significant rate of false positives; however, physicians use much more expensive and far more precise \"tests\" to determine whether a person is actually infected with either of these viruses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339553",
"title": "Diagnosis of HIV/AIDS",
"section": "Section::::Antibody tests.:Interpreting antibody tests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "The ELISA antibody tests were developed to provide a high level of confidence that donated blood was \"NOT\" infected with HIV. It is therefore not possible to conclude that blood rejected for transfusion because of a \"positive\" ELISA antibody test is in fact infected with HIV. Sometimes, retesting the donor in several months will produce a \"negative\" ELISA antibody test. This is why a confirmatory western blot is always used before reporting a \"positive\" HIV test result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17602457",
"title": "Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men",
"section": "Section::::Reasoning for the restrictions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "Risks are also associated with a non-MSM donors testing positive for HIV, which can have major implications as the donor's last donation could have been given within the window period for testing and could have entered the blood supply, potentially infecting blood product recipients. An incident in 2003 in New Zealand saw a non-MSM donor testing positive for HIV and subsequently all blood products made with the donor's last blood donation had to be recalled. This included NZ$4 million worth of Factor VIII, a blood clotting factor used to treat hemophiliacs which is manufactured from large pools of donated plasma, and subsequently led to a nationwide shortage of Factor VIII and the deferral of non-emergency surgery on hemophiliac patients, costing the health sector millions of dollars more. Screening out those at high risk of bloodborne diseases, including MSM, reduces the potential frequency and impact of such incidents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505536",
"title": "Blood donation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Potential donors are evaluated for anything that might make their blood unsafe to use. The screening includes testing for diseases that can be transmitted by a blood transfusion, including HIV and viral hepatitis. The donor must also answer questions about medical history and take a short physical examination to make sure the donation is not hazardous to his or her health. How often a donor can donate varies from days to months based on what component they donate and the laws of the country where the donation takes place. For example, in the United States, donors must wait eight weeks (56 days) between whole blood donations but only seven days between plateletpheresis donations and twice per seven-day period in plasmapheresis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339553",
"title": "Diagnosis of HIV/AIDS",
"section": "Section::::Principles.:Screening donor blood and cellular products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Tests selected to screen donor blood and tissue must provide a high degree of confidence that HIV will be detected if present (that is, a high sensitivity is required). A combination of antibody, antigen and nucleic acid tests are used by blood banks in Western countries. The World Health Organization estimated that, , inadequate blood screening had resulted in 1 million new HIV infections worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1uqoy9
|
AMA - 20th Century American Popular Culture
|
[
{
"answer": "How did mainstream American music transition from a \"Sinatra\" sort of genre to these different sort of post ww2 genres such as Elvis, the Beatles, etc. Were there any reasons or contributing factors, or was it just a regular progression of music that occured? Sorry if I'm being too broad, just interested in the general changes in music during that era.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What would an average American caucasian midwestern nuclear family do on weekends in the late 1950s?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thank you so much for arranging this very interesting panel!\n\nMy question is the following: When did the cinema become a common sight in the towns and cities of the United States? Was it something that was targeted for a specific audience or was it like today where everyone ranging from teenage couples to families can find something to watch (and be entertained by)?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This one is for /u/American_Graffiti: What sort of children's literature was popular in the mid-20th century? Was it common for parents to read to their children or was it something they were encouraged to do on their own?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Two questions:\n1) What were the initial reactions from Europeans when Ragtime started emerging?\n\n2) In the 1960's the phrase \"Generation Gap\" entered mainstream society. In pre-1960's America, were there any generation gaps?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This one is most likely for /u/randommusician: bringing forward one of my [favorite unanswered questions on music](_URL_0_) from a while back, what were race relations like between early rock and roll musicians in 50s-60s America? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What's up with anglophilia (love of English stuff) in the 60s and 80s? Was there one thing in particular that sparked it? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oh man, this is exactly what I came here to post about.\n\n/u/Bufus: In looking at the history of Cold War era comic books I have run into some scholarship that points to the use of Comic books to establish an understanding of emerging nuclear power after World War II. My question then is, if this was in fact the case, what were reactions in the industry like to nuclear accidents like Three-Mile Island or Chernobyl? I know it says above that your focus in gender in comics but I figured I'd ask.\n\nSome sources I've run into already Ferenc Morton Szasz' *Atomic Comics: Cartoonists Confront the Nuclear World* and a couple articles published in the Journal of Popular Culture.\n\nEDIT: One more question. What was the portrayal of Communism like in the same era of American/Western comic books? This is what I was originally researching but I've been running into far more materials on Nuclear Power.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Could I have an overview of how football gained ground over baseball during the 20th century, as well as the rise of football in American culture?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why wasn't football (soccer) very popular in the US during that era, given that in the 20th century, a large number of immigrants from nations that love soccer, such as Italy, Germany or Mexico arrived? When the USA was announced as the host of the FIFA World Cup, did the sport expect a surge in its popularity?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For /u/Bufus :-\n\nHow did you go about reconstructing readers' responses to themes of gender and sexuality in comic books? How can we understand which elements were understood as escapist and which were embraced as models of social order?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "/u/yearsnotlost: How has the introduction of the automobile affected the growth and development of New York City? Has the city undergone a really major overhaul to better accomodate automobile traffic?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Are there any notable double entendres (like \"that's what she said\") of the 50's?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Okay, I think I've got a decent question that can apply to a few of you fine, fine panelists.\n\nIn your opinion, did your chosen field of media (music, cinema, comic books, etc.) advance or push boundaries of gender and sexuality? How so? Or, conversely, did your media follow slavishly along with established gender roles? Were there outliers? What were the reactions to these boundary-pushing examples?\n\nThank you all, so much, for doing this AMA!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For /u/american_graffiti: how did the automobile become an essential part of the \"coming-of-age\" experience? How has it's role in that experience changed over time?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What, if any, aspects of Brazilian culture were incorporated or influential in American popular culture? If there was none, there were any that were erroneously attributed to Brazil?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44346031",
"title": "Morris Dickstein",
"section": "Section::::Selected works.:\"Dancing in the Dark: A Cultural History of the Great Depression\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 983,
"text": "Published in 2009 by W.W. Norton & Company, Dickstein’s cultural history of the U.S. in the 1930s considers the complicated dynamic between art and entertainment in the decade, suggesting that the era produced a wide array of popular culture that shares an interest in how “ordinary people lived, how they suffered, interacted, took pleasure in one another, and endured.” A sizable portion of \"Dancing in the Dark\" focuses on what is typically thought of as \"escapist\" entertainment from the decade. The book is filled with extended analyses of the decade’s most popular sorts of entertainment: the musicals of Busby Berkeley, the performances of Humphrey Bogart, the films of Frank Capra, and the dance routines of Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers. It also contains lengthy analyses of movements and works that are typically thought of as \"high culture\": the Art Deco movement, the novels of William Faulkner, Orson Welles’ \"Citizen Kane\", and the orchestral pieces of Aaron Copland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7827808",
"title": "Geppi's Entertainment Museum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "Geppi's Entertainment Museum was a 16,000-square-foot (1,500 m2) privately owned pop culture museum located at historic Camden Station at Camden Yards in Baltimore, Maryland. The museum chronicled the history of pop culture in America from the 17th century to the early 21st century, as made popular in newspapers, magazines, comic books, movies, television, radio and video games. It featured a collection of nearly 60,000 pop culture artifacts, including magazines, movie posters, toys, buttons, badges, cereal boxes, trading cards, dolls, figurines, and other memorabilia. Geppi’s Entertainment Museum was located in downtown Baltimore's historic Camden Station at Camden Yards, directly above the former Sports Legends Museum at Camden Yards and adjacent to Oriole Park at Camden Yards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23372115",
"title": "Monty Python's Flying Circus",
"section": "Section::::Transnational themes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 998,
"text": "While American entertainment was a pervasive cultural influence in Britain at the time of the production of the series, not all references to American culture can be seen as conscious decisions. For example, Terry Jones did not know that Spam was an American product at the time he wrote the sketch. Kevin Kern summarises in his analysis of references to the US 'that portrayals of American themes reflected three broad responses to American hegemony: 1) minor or passing references to specific individuals, events, or products of American culture, 2) American cultural tropes used to serve a general comedic purpose, and 3) satire aimed at American targets, specifically US economic power, the crassness or banality of American culture, or American violence and militarism'. However, Kern does not see this as exhibiting anti-American tendencies, but as 'a natural extension of the Pythons’ frequent (…) satirical focus on vulgarity, banality, violence, and militarism in the United Kingdom (…)' \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172479",
"title": "Americana",
"section": "Section::::Americana as nostalgia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "From the mid to late 20th century, Americana was largely conceptualized as a nostalgia for an idealized life in small towns and cities in the United States around the turn of the century, roughly in the period between 1880 and the First World War, popularly considered \"The Good Old Days\". It was believed that much of the structure of 20th-century American life and culture had been cemented in that time and place. American author Henry Seidel Canby wrote:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30865483",
"title": "Gerald R. Ford Presidential Museum",
"section": "Section::::Temporary exhibits.:All That Jazz.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 891,
"text": "The drama of one of the most significant decades in America's history unfolded in this unique look at the Jazz Age. Few decades have been filled with so much yet ended so quickly as the 1920s. Businesses boomed, the stock market soared, and heroes were abundant. Before the 1920s ended in the worst stock market crash in history, America underwent a transformation from 19th century Victorian life and business to a 20th-century dynamo, setting the standard for a transformed society and industrial giant. This special exhibit featured Richard Byrd's polar flight suit, Man o' War's saddle, a brick from the St. Valentine's Day Massacre, a suit worn by Henry Ford, Ernest Hemingway's passport, Charles Lindbergh's flight goggles, a painting by Zelda Fitzgerald, a costume worn by Al Jolson, Bill Tilden's tennis racket, Louis Armstrong's trumpet, Babe Ruth's Yankees uniform, and much more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56533741",
"title": "American Epic (film series)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 2080,
"text": "Phil Harrison in \"The Guardian\" wrote that \"from the jug-bands of Memphis to the woebegone country blues of the Appalachian Mountains, early 20th-century America was full of unique musical forms developing in isolation. This first episode of a three-part series deals with the 1920s, the first decade during which these disparate yet analogous styles took flight from their places of origin and reached the rest of the nation. It's a treasure trove of picaresque stories, evocative footage and strange and beautiful music.\" Jay Meehan in the Park Record, covering the launch at the Sundance Film Festival, wrote, \"Thursday night's Sundance special event at the Eccles Center was one not to miss. One thing that came through quite clearly from the entire evening is how deeply everyone involved cares about this project.\" Ellie Porter in \"TVTimes\" awarded the show 5 stars, calling the series \"an absolute treat.\" Simon Cosyns in \"The Sun\" asked the reader to \"imagine a world with no recorded music. And then imagine the thrill of hearing a record for the first time. This mind-boggling ten-year project, led by Brits Bernard MacMahon and Allison McGourty, involves documentary films, albums and a book all exploring 'the first time America heard itself.' If you like music of any sort, there's only one word for this project. Essential.\" He awarded it five stars. Brian McCollum in the \"Detroit Free Press\" noted that the films were \"stocked with rare images and scrupulously restored audio,\" explaining how \"\"American Epic\" solves mysteries, brings a lost musical era back to life.\" He praised it as \"a documentary which pairs a scholarly eye for detail with a buoyant fan passion.\" Sarah Hughes in \"The Observer\" noted that Robert Redford's \"languid tone is a perfect fit,\" and that \"this three-part documentary is a deep dive into the music that built America. Along the way love is lost, younger generations step up to the mic and reputations fade, but, as this glorious film makes clear, the music is always there, still vibrant and vital despite the passing of the years.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3850485",
"title": "Regionalism (art)",
"section": "Section::::Regionalist Triumvirate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "American Regionalism is best known through its \"Regionalist Triumvirate\" consisting of the three most highly respected artists of America's Great Depression era: Grant Wood, Thomas Hart Benton, and John Steuart Curry. All three studied art in Paris, but devoted their lives to creating a truly American form of art. They believed that the solution to urban problems in American life and the Great Depression was for the United States to return to its rural, agricultural roots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2n0chc
|
How do you think someone in a coma would react to psychedelics?
|
[
{
"answer": "[This question was asked a few years ago](_URL_1_) and didn't get much of an answer. I don't know if you'll be able to get much more than that, but good luck to you.\n\nI had a look on Google Scholar for you for any reports linking use of psychoactive or psychedelic drugs with [locked-in syndrome](_URL_2_), [persistent vegetative states](_URL_3_) or [minimally conscious states](_URL_0_). I couldn't find anything, but these aren't my areas of research.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Comas simply are not well enough understood. There needs to be a scientific basis for thinking that the use of LSD will bring someone out of a coma before anyone will fund it. Research grade psychodelics are not cheap, and no researcher is going to risk their career over a potentially dangerous treatment without a solid scientific basis to fall back on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I do know that what you have inquired about has been experimented with. I remember in my schooling this subject being discussed, and if my recollection is accurate, there had been some promising results, but insufficient research has been performed to prove its efficacy.\n\nResearch of this nature is controversial and faces many obstacles of a practical nature, as well as significant public perception issues.\n\nEDIT: I have contacted a colleague to request information regarding these matters, as he has mentioned the subject some years ago. I doubt they will be in English, but I could provide a translated synopsis.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The classic reaction of psychedelics is done under the conditions of relatively healthy brains. \n\nIf theres something wrong with the brain, it's going to change how these reactions will work, or even work at all depending upon the circumstances of the person in subject. \n\nThere really is no simple way to answer this question without having a lot more information, information which, honestly may simply not be obtainable giving current medical technology and science. \n\nTo give an analogy, it's like being told a car has been in a wreck, will this fuel additive increase it's gas mileage? We don't know how wrecked the car is, or any details of it. It could just be a fender bender, or the engine block could be completely destroyed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "99398",
"title": "Bad trip",
"section": "Section::::Aspects.:Unpredictability of the experience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "The effects of psychedelics vary widely from one individual to the next, and from one experience to the next. Sometimes individuals under the influence of such drugs do not understand that they have taken a drug and believe that they will never return to their ordinary, sober perception, though some can be reminded verbally. In cases where the individual cannot be kept safe, hospitalization may be useful, though the value of this practice for individuals not mentally ill is disputed by proponents of the investigative or recreational use of psychoactive compounds. Psychosis is exacerbated in individuals already suffering from this condition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1173245",
"title": "Psychedelic experience",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "A psychedelic experience is a temporary altered state of consciousness induced by the consumption of psychedelic drugs (the best known of which are LSD and psilocybin 'magic' mushrooms). The psychedelic altered state of consciousness is commonly characterised as a higher (elevated or transcendent) state relative to ordinary (sober) experience; for example, the psychologist Benny Shanon observed from ayahuasca trip reports: \"the assessment, very common with ayahuasca, that what is seen and thought during the course of intoxication defines the real, whereas the world that is ordinarily perceived is actually an illusion.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1914580",
"title": "Cognitive shift",
"section": "Section::::Psychedelic phenomenon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "With the ingestion of psychedelics people often experience sudden shifts in cognitive association and emotive content. The experience can shift rapidly from negative to euphoric, and in certain cases mimic the schizophrenic condition, as researched by Humphry Osmond and others. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99398",
"title": "Bad trip",
"section": "Section::::Intervention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Generally, a person experiencing a psychedelic crisis can be helped either to resolve the impasse, to bypass it, or, failing that, to terminate the experience. A person's thoughts before taking or while under the influence of the psychedelic, often greatly influence the trip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7582544",
"title": "Higher consciousness",
"section": "Section::::Psychotropics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Psychedelic drugs can be used to alter the brain cognition and perception, some believing this to be a state of higher consciousness and transcendence. Typical psychedelic drugs are hallucinogens including LSD, DMT (Dimethyltryptamine), cannabis, peyote, and psilocybin mushrooms. According to Wolfson, these drug-induced altered states of consciousness may result in a more long-term and positive transformation of self.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "665323",
"title": "Psychedelic therapy",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:In terminal illness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Richard Yensen, Albert Kurland and other researchers collected evidence that psychedelic therapy could be of use to those suffering from anxiety and other problems associated with terminal illness. In 1965, research consisting of providing a psychedelic experience for the dying was conducted at the Spring Grove State Hospital in Maryland. Of 17 dying patients who received LSD after appropriate therapeutic preparation, one-third improved \"dramatically\", one-third improved \"moderately\", and one-third were unchanged by the criteria of reduced tension, depression, pain, and fear of death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99398",
"title": "Bad trip",
"section": "Section::::Aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "A multitude of reactions can occur during a psychedelic crisis. Some users may experience a general sense of fear, panic, or anxiety. A user may be overwhelmed with the disconnection many psychedelics cause, and fear that they are going insane or will never return to reality. The fear that is felt during a bad trip has a psychotic character, coming as it does from within the mind of the tripper and not from the external environment. For example, during Albert Hoffman's first acid trip, he hallucinated that his neighbour had turned into a malignant demon, when in fact she was only a friendly woman trying to help him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1utz1o
|
When is a species no longer considered invasive?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is no 'right' answer! You can either take the stance of 'it would never have got here without human help, therefore it is invasive' or 'it has adapted to the environment, therefore it is now native'. Which of these you take depends on personal viewpoint as much as anything else.\n\nHumans also have a tendency to ignore 'invasiveness' when it comes to beneficials. Many crops that are grown are most likely invasives in the sense that they wouldn't have arrived there without human assistance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't like the first answer to that question in the link you posted. Invasions happen all the time. In fact, it's why biogeography is such a fun field to get into.\n\nSpecies expand outwards and encroach on other ranges ALL the time. However, the truth is that the definition gets tenuous. I'll be the one to start a firestorm by defining it in very neutral terms:\n\nA species is an invader if it enters and occupies a niche or habitat it was absent from or never occupied previously. I welcome all debate into this as I know some fellow ecologists will probably double take on that. It's the best I can think of anyway.\n\nSo, species ranges are not set in stone and you'll see them in spots on their documented periphery where you never did before. Thus, if you consider Locality A and locality B, Species 1 from Locality A enters Locality B, finds it suitable to live in, and settles. Species 1 is therefore an invader. Species 2 is found in Locality B, but doesn't invade Locality A and stays in B. Thus, for this example, we can decide that Species 1 is an invader in B and a native in A while species 2 is a native to B.\n\nA species can not occupy a niche or habitat if it is not equipped to utilize resources or compete with species occupying them already. No species enters into a habitat without stiff competition from what's there. Thus, the most common invasive species we find today are those who are not only successful in their home niche, but were evolutionarily flexible enough to be able to expand outwards if given just the bare minimum conditions. Thus, this example is a natural invasion and happens all the time, just the scale is small and the effects are not as dangerous as landscape and global transportation of organisms by humans. For a good example of invasive dynamics at small scales, look up Huffaker's famous experiment with mites and oranges. Thus, we define the spatial scale at which a species is native and invasive in the wild.\n\nOn to human caused invasions, the effects can be devestating because we transport species across landscapes and natural barriers like mountains, saltwater, deserts, and tundras. For example, carps are established quite comfortably in the United States, even though they are native to China. And it is due to human trafficking that they are found pretty much world wide. Black basses like Largemouth bass and small mouth are so popular around the world for sport fishing, that they've been imported as far as Japan. Red-swamp crayfish are so delicious and economically easy to grow that they are found in Africa... where there are no native crayfish! \n\nWhen is a species no longer considered invasive? At the appropriate scale. No species is invasive at the global scale, since we all occupy the planet, but it can be at all landscape, ecosystem, community, and population scales. Yes, even within species can be invaders if you think about two genepools and one of them comes to intermingle with the other to make one big genepool. A cool concept actually.\n\nAlso, a species is no longer considered invasive *in effects* if you consider the inclusion of that species into the natural processes of the ecosystem. If the ecosystem is sustainable even with the new invader, then you might want to think that the invader is now an important energy component to that system. Humans are the best example. We cut down forests, harvest the oceans. But the ecosystem adapts after so many species leave for other habitats or die off, and the species left behind work with humans to maintain the energy dynamics of the system for everyone's survival. We understand that more than ever.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42429394",
"title": "North Texas Invasive Species Barrier Act of 2014",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1469,
"text": "Invasive species, also called invasive exotics or simply exotics, is a nomenclature term and categorization phrase used for flora and fauna, and for specific restoration-preservation processes in native habitats, with several definitions. The first definition, the most used, applies to introduced species (also called \"non-indigenous\" or \"non-native\") that adversely affect the habitats and bioregions they invade economically, environmentally, and/or ecologically. Such invasive species may be either plants or animals and may disrupt by dominating a region, wilderness areas, particular habitats, or wildland-urban interface land from loss of natural controls (such as predators or herbivores). This includes non-native invasive plant species labeled as exotic pest plants and invasive exotics growing in native plant communities. It has been used in this sense by government organizations as well as conservation groups such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the California Native Plant Society. The European Union defines \"Invasive Alien Species\" as those that are, firstly, outside their natural distribution area, and secondly, threaten biological diversity. It is also used by land managers, botanists, researchers, horticulturalists, conservationists, and the public for noxious weeds. The kudzu vine (\"Pueraria lobata\"), Andean Pampas grass (\"Cortaderia jubata\"), and yellow starthistle (\"Centaurea solstitialis\") are examples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24695021",
"title": "List of invasive species in North America",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "The term \"invasive species\" refers to a subset of those species defined as introduced species. If a species has been introduced, but remains local, and is not problematic for human industry or the local biodiversity, then it is not considered invasive, and does not belong on this list.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24694906",
"title": "List of invasive species in Asia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "The term invasive species refers to a subset of those species defined as introduced species. If a species has been introduced but remains local, and is not problematic to agriculture or to the local biodiversity, then it cannot be considered to be an invasive species and does not belong on this list.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "822008",
"title": "Lists of invasive species",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "These are lists of invasive species by country or region. A species is regarded as invasive if it has been introduced by human action to a location, area, or region where it did not previously occur naturally (i.e., is not a native species), becomes capable of establishing a breeding population in the new location without further intervention by humans, and becomes a pest in the new location, threatening agriculture and/or the local biodiversity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60621630",
"title": "Overabundant species",
"section": "Section::::Invasive species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "According to biology, invasive species are non-native animals that are introduced to a region or area outside of their usual habitat. Invasive species can either be introduced intentionally (if they have a beneficial purpose) or non-intentionally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24694990",
"title": "List of invasive species in Europe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The term invasive species refers to a subset of those species defined as introduced species. If a species has been introduced but remains local, and is not problematic to human systems or to the local biodiversity, then it cannot be considered to be invasive, and does not belong on this list.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16682228",
"title": "EICA hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Unlike the notable ideas (concerning the success of invasive non-indigenous organisms) that preceded it, such as the enemy release hypothesis (ERH) and Charles Darwin's Habituation Hypothesis, the EICA hypothesis postulates that an invasive species is \"not\" as fit (in its introduced habitat) at its moment of introduction as it is at the time that it is considered invasive. As suggested by the name of the hypothesis (Evolution of Increased Competitive Ability), the hypothesis predicts that much of the invasive potential of an invasive species is derived from its ability to evolve to reallocate its resources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5igz5z
|
how'd the yahoo "hacking" happen?
|
[
{
"answer": "According to [the post from Yahoo](_URL_0_) \n > For potentially affected accounts, the stolen user account information may have included names, email addresses, telephone numbers, dates of birth, hashed passwords (using MD5) and, in some cases, encrypted or unencrypted security questions and answers. The investigation indicates that the stolen information did not include passwords in clear text, payment card data, or bank account information. Payment card data and bank account information are not stored in the system the company believes was affected.\n\nUnfortunately the post does not make it clear if the hashed passwords were salted. If they were not salted it would be very easy for an attacker to find many users that had used common passwords, especially with around a billion to work with. Thankfully there was no credit card information stolen, but with all of the information that was stolen put together and the the likelihood that people will reuse passwords and usernames across multiple sites it could be very dangerous.\n\nAlso, [Shellshock](_URL_1_), a security issue with Bash, the command language default on Unix operating systems. Essentially it allowed an unprivileged user to gain privileged access to a system, essentially allowing them to do whatever they wanted.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36573433",
"title": "2012 Yahoo! Voices hack",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "A simple matter had sparked a controversy over Yahoo!. The controversy was sparked because of Yahoo!'s silence about the data breach. After the servers were hacked, Yahoo! did not mail the affected victims, although it was promised earlier. There was no site-wide notifications about the hack, nor did any victim get any type of personal messages detailing how to reset their account passwords from Yahoo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5492831",
"title": "History of Yahoo!",
"section": "Section::::Marissa Mayer era (2012–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "On September 22, 2016, Yahoo disclosed a data breach in which hackers stole information associated with at least 500 million user accounts in late 2014. According to the BBC, this was the largest technical breach reported to date. Specific details of material taken include names, email addresses, telephone numbers, encrypted or unencrypted security questions and answers, dates of birth, and encrypted passwords. The breach used manufactured web cookies to falsify login credentials, allowing hackers to gain access to any account without a password. On December 14, 2016 a separate data breach, occurring earlier around August 2013 was reported. This breach affected over 1 billion user accounts and is again considered the largest discovered in the history of the Internet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52823194",
"title": "Altaba",
"section": "Section::::History.:1994–2017: Yahoo! Inc..\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "On September 22, 2016, Yahoo disclosed a data breach in which hackers stole information associated with at least 500 million user accounts in late 2014. According to the BBC, this was the largest technical breach reported to date. Specific details of material taken include names, email addresses, telephone numbers, encrypted or unencrypted security questions and answers, dates of birth, and encrypted passwords. The breach used manufactured web cookies to falsify login credentials, allowing hackers to gain access to any account without a password. On December 14, 2016 a separate data breach, occurring earlier around August 2013 was reported. This breach affected over 1 billion user accounts and is again considered the largest discovered in the history of the Internet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188213",
"title": "Yahoo!",
"section": "Section::::Privacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "In late January 2014, Yahoo announced on its company blog that it had detected a \"coordinated effort\" to hack into possibly millions of Yahoo Mail accounts. The company prompted users to reset their passwords, but did not elaborate on the scope of the possible breach, citing an ongoing federal investigation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51708172",
"title": "Yahoo! data breaches",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Late 2014 breach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Yahoo! reported the breach to the public on September 22, 2016. Yahoo! believes the breach was committed by \"state-sponsored\" hackers, but did not name any country. Yahoo! affirmed the hacker was no longer in their systems and that the company was fully cooperating with law enforcement. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) confirmed that it was investigating the affair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77934",
"title": "Kevin Mitnick",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.:Computer hacking.:Arrest, conviction, and incarceration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "In December 1997, the Yahoo! website was supposedly hacked, displaying a message calling for Mitnick's release or risk an internet \"catastrophe\" by Christmas Day. Yahoo! responded that the worm is nonexistent, and there were claims that it was a hoax only to scare people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36573433",
"title": "2012 Yahoo! Voices hack",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "Yahoo! Voices, formerly Associated Content, was hacked in July 2012. The hack is supposed to have leaked approximately half a million email addresses and passwords associated with Yahoo! Contributor Network. The suspected hacker group, D33ds, used a method of SQL Injection to penetrate Yahoo! Voice servers. Security experts said that the passwords were not encrypted and the website did not use a HTTPS Protocol, which was one of the major reasons of the data breach. The email addresses and passwords are still available to download in a plaintext file on the hacker's website. The hacker group described the hack as a \"wake-up call\" for Yahoo! security experts. Joseph Bonneau, a security researcher and a former product analysis manager at Yahoo, said \"Yahoo can fairly be criticized in this case for not integrating the Associated Content accounts more quickly into the general Yahoo login system, for which I can tell you that password protection is much stronger.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8fn7e4
|
Are there any known examples of jump discontinuities occurring in the natural world, (not related to manmade systems)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Definitely. One example of a natural jump discontinuity would be the [triple point of water](_URL_0_) - plot \"number of phases in equilibrium for water\" as a function of temperature and pressure, and you'll find that most of the parameter space is one, a 1-dimensional curve along which the value is 2, and a single point at which the value is 3.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Phase transitions, shock waves, electric/magnetic fields at boundaries where there is a surface charge/current density, just to name a few.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15227234",
"title": "CyberStorm 2: Corporate Wars",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "A jumpgate has been discovered in the Typheous system, and eight Earth corporations want to control it. Each of them therefore starts up a branch in the system, and begin to battle it out with the latest in military technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3032022",
"title": "Jumpstyle",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Jumpstyle, originally known simply as jump, was created in Belgium. It was a short-lived small genre that did not gain popularity in its original form. However, it came back to the public during the turn of the century, and fandom began increasing throughout Europe after undergoing significant changes in Germany in early 2003.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29385903",
"title": "Hydraulic jumps in rectangular channels",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "There are common hydraulic jumps that occur in everyday situations such as during the use of a household sink. There are also man-made hydraulic jumps created by devices like weirs or sluice gates. In general, a hydraulic jump may be used to dissipate energy, to mix chemicals, or to act as an aeration device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "910782",
"title": "Jumpgate",
"section": "Section::::The \"X\" computer game series.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "The jumpgates and their current configuration are believed to be designed by ancient beings who are currently nowhere within the X Universe gate system. They are believed to be observing the sectors but direct contact has not occurred in generations. They are also blamed for the re-routing of some jumpgates every now and again, cutting off some sectors or connecting undiscovered ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60138323",
"title": "Equestrian at the 1936 Summer Olympics – Individual eventing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "The fourth jump was a relatively novel obstacle: a jump over a hurdle into a pond. Of the 46 pairs remaining by that point in the competition, 28 had a fall of the horse or the rider at that obstacle. This included one of the equine fatalities, the American horse Slippery Slim. The International Equestrian Federation subsequently temporarily banned such jumps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31881985",
"title": "Jumpdates",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Jumpdates is an English-language online dating website launched in 2001. Although no other language versions are available at this time, the service is meant to operate worldwide and allows registration from any country in the world except for a few exceptions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39216429",
"title": "Ralph Spearow",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "Why the jump wasn't ratified as a record is unclear, with both contemporary and later sources providing contradictory explanations. Bill Bowerman claimed the jump was statistically valid but Spearow's lack of an AAU permit to compete prevented ratification. Track and field historian Richard Hymans quotes eyewitness Jonni Myyrä as saying the height Spearow cleared was found to be below the world record on remeasurement; however, Martti Jukola, also citing Myyrä as his source, claimed Spearow failed on his three official attempts and only made the height on an additional exhibition jump. The November 19, 1924 edition of the \"Eugene Guard\" referred to Spearow \"unofficially\" breaking the record, while the November 21 edition said Spearow \"tried for a world's vault record but failed by a scant margin.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
nzejf
|
Why don't we and other animals have eyes in the backs of our heads? Wouldn't having a 360 vision be a massive benefit?
|
[
{
"answer": "It would also have a massive cost.\n\nThe entire visual perceptual pathway, from the retina to V1 to MT (where motion detection happens), takes up a large amount of space in our cranium. To add a second set of eyes, facing an entirely different direction, would require the duplication of the existing \"forward\"-facing visual pathway as well as some cerebral structure to somehow process and meaingfully interpret both.\n\nThe initial cost of developing a secondary visual perceptive field is too high, particularly when the cost of developing an auditory system that can do essentially the same job is very low.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some animals do have nearly 360 degree vision. Prey Animals with flight often have large visual ranges, to see things which might attack them. Raptors have forward facing eyes so they can see distance between themselves and their prey. Similar differences exist in horses, gazelles, many fish, and sheep, animals with long history as prey. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many \"prey animals\" have upwards of 270 degree vision with eyes on the sides of their heads. Deer, rabbets, chickens.\n\nWe have binocular vision to prey better. Most predators have binocular vision. Owls, tigers, men.\n\nMany insects have nearly 360, and most are prey to anything bigger.\n\nSize matters more. \n\nAs animals go, humans are pretty big.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, as would flight. An important thing to consider is cost versus benefit. Devoting more energy and brain capacity towards extra eyes would overall decrease the fitness (contribution to the next generation) of a human (i mean really, who wants to fuck something with more than two eyes anyway?).\n\nAn excellent example illustrating the cost vs. benefit is that in certain caves, animals which burrowed and colonized completely dark areas over time lost their ability of sight. Although sight wasn't directly detrimental to their fitness, the energy expenditure necessary to have sight because too great.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On top of the cost arguments mentioned here, it's worth remembering that evolution doesn't optimize; if prey animals could hunt sufficiently with two eyes and there was sufficient pressure for 4, they it may just never happened.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Evolution doesn't necessarily result in every possible beneficial trait actually occurring. This is because evolution isn't \"goal\" oriented. It doesn't move towards a specific outcome, instead it just tends to select the most beneficial genetic variant that is present in a population. So even if 360 degree vision would be a massive benefit, we still may never develop it. \n\nI think this may be what HARGHHH was saying above, but I wasn't sure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Generally, increased field of vision comes at the cost of depth perception, color sensing and high detail vision. Our visual system allows us all of these things, which are important for hunting and living in trees as described in more detail below.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "192280",
"title": "Binocular vision",
"section": "Section::::Field of view and eye movements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Some predator animals, particularly large ones such as sperm whales and killer whales, have their two eyes positioned on opposite sides of their heads, although it is possible they have some binocular visual field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192280",
"title": "Binocular vision",
"section": "Section::::Field of view and eye movements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Other animals that are not necessarily predators, such as fruit bats and a number of primates also have forward-facing eyes. These are usually animals that need fine depth discrimination/perception; for instance, binocular vision improves the ability to pick a chosen fruit or to find and grasp a particular branch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192280",
"title": "Binocular vision",
"section": "Section::::Field of view and eye movements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Some other animals - usually, but not always, predatory animals - have their two eyes positioned on the front of their heads, thereby allowing for binocular vision and reducing their field of view in favor of stereopsis. However, eyes on the front is a highly evolved trait in vertebrates, and there are only three extant groups of vertebrates with truly forward-facing eyes: primates, carnivorous mammals, and birds of prey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181887",
"title": "Night vision",
"section": "Section::::Types of ranges.:Intensity range.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Many animals have better night vision than humans do, the result of one or more differences in the morphology and anatomy of their eyes. These include having a larger eyeball, a larger lens, a larger optical aperture (the pupils may expand to the physical limit of the eyelids), more rods than cones (or rods exclusively) in the retina, and a tapetum lucidum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192280",
"title": "Binocular vision",
"section": "Section::::Field of view and eye movements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Some animals - usually, but not always, prey animals - have their two eyes positioned on opposite sides of their heads to give the widest possible field of view. Examples include rabbits, buffaloes, and antelopes. In such animals, the eyes often move independently to increase the field of view. Even without moving their eyes, some birds have a 360-degree field of view.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22984",
"title": "Primate",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and physiology.:Head.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Primates have forward-facing eyes on the front of the skull; binocular vision allows accurate distance perception, useful for the brachiating ancestors of all great apes. A bony ridge above the eye sockets reinforces weaker bones in the face, which are put under strain during chewing. Strepsirrhines have a postorbital bar, a bone around the eye socket, to protect their eyes; in contrast, the higher primates, haplorhines, have evolved fully enclosed sockets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6543",
"title": "Carnivore",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics of carnivores.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Many hunting animals have evolved eyes facing forward, enabling depth perception. This is almost universal among mammalian predators, while most reptile and amphibian predators have eyes facing sideways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2qdrs2
|
Why were there so few German-American organized crime groups?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's hard to say something didn't happen, but we can say why other groups did turn to organized crime. Ethnic groups who were blocked from traditional employment often attempt to break out and make it by turning to crime. We can see this in the heavily discriminated against groups of the Italians, Irish, Jews, and Black organized crime, but not in the generally accepted Germans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2155646",
"title": "Immigration to Germany",
"section": "Section::::Crime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "In Germany federal authorities have largely failed to provide sufficient resistance to ethnic organized crime gangs (German: \"Clankriminalität\") as fear of stigmatizing and discriminating minorities takes precedence. All ethnic crime gangs are collectively treated as organized crime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30230208",
"title": "History of the National Crime Syndicate",
"section": "Section::::Crime begins to organize.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "The same large and politically connected gangs from New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Boston, Detroit, Chicago and New Orleans that controlled gambling, prostitution, extortion, thefts and narcotics since the early to mid-19th century, now controlled bootlegging operations across America in the 1920s. These recently organized and powerful criminal organizations began from the ethnic street gangs who committed violent crimes, provided illegal goods and services to the community and acted as enforcers for the political machines of the big cities and towns. The mainly Irish, Jewish, Italian and Polish immigrants that had begun to organize themselves at after World War I, continued their criminal activities with the start of Prohibition and began to meet the great demand for beer and liquor that came from citizens, speakeasies and blind pigs that sprang up across America overnight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5451330",
"title": "German resistance to Nazism",
"section": "Section::::Pre-war resistance 1933–39.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "In 1936, thanks to an informer, the Gestapo raids devastated Anarcho-syndicalist groups all over Germany, resulting in the arrest of 89 people. Most ended up either imprisoned or murdered by the regime. The groups had been encouraging strikes, printing and distributing anti-Nazi propaganda and recruiting people to fight the Nazis' fascist allies during the Spanish Civil War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31989603",
"title": "Crime in Germany",
"section": "Section::::Organized crime.:Russian mafia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "Another major form of Russian-speaking organized crime in Germany consists of so-called criminal \"Aussiedler\" families. \"Aussiedlers\" are ethnic Germans (also called Volga Germans) that were born in the former Soviet Union. While a lot of \"Aussiedlers\" adapted well and quickly mastered the German language, a lot of families held onto the traditional lifestyle they lived in Russia and surrounding states. This led to the formation of individual as well as clan-based groups of \"Aussiedlers\" involved in organized criminal activities such as drug trafficking, extortion, prostitution, as well as extreme violence. Due to the large number of \"Aussiedlers\" they are seen as the major form of Russian organized crime in Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60359479",
"title": "Organized crime in Singapore",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.:British colony of Singapore.:Mid-19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1109,
"text": "Organized crime groups were posing huge problems to the routine and security of people, which forced the British authorities to curb the growing problem. These secret societies intensified their criminal activities from 1850s steadily evolving into organized crimes. They started with simple acts of crime extortion, trafficking and opium dealings before expanding to bigger criminal ventures like running illegal gambling dens and brothels. Organized crime groups started to scuffle with other gangs in order to take over their “turf” and threatened other citizens to pay protection money in return for their so-called ‘protection’. The most ferocious organized crime group was GheeHinKongsi; estimated to have 800 members, this group was largely made of the Cantonese. Other secret societies involved in crime include the Hai San, a gang that rivalled the Ghee Hin group in competition for land houses and business opportunities. Major legislative development in the colonial government led to the suppression of secret societies as law enforcement authorities thwarted the activities of organized crime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36438408",
"title": "Penose",
"section": "Section::::Criminal groups concerning the \"Penose\".:Dutch crime groups.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Indigenous organized crime based in some of The Netherlands' major cities, mainly Amsterdam and The Hague, mostly has origins in the traditional working-class quarters. These small groups mainly consist of local career criminals that band together for their involvement in organized criminal activities such as extortion, loan sharking, prostitution and narcotics. Often these local criminals groups are strongly connected with, or in some cases even have an official membership to, outlaw motorcycle gangs such as the Hells Angels MC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26647873",
"title": "Mafia? Nein danke!",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "BULLET::::- Raise public awareness and the German political class about the problem of organized crime in Germany, for the recognition of the Mafia as a purely extra-national and, contrasting with greater collaboration between states, especially members of the European Union;\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1b8d87
|
Would it be possible for a human to stand on an asteroid or comet as it speeds through space?
|
[
{
"answer": "If the asteroid in question had enough mass for it's gravity to hold you down, yes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. Why wouldn't it be? \n\nIf your velocity relative to the asteroid or comet is 0, you wouldn't fly off of it or something.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23516569",
"title": "Space architecture",
"section": "Section::::Future.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "If such a crew is to be summoned to a distant asteroid, there may be less risky ways to divert the asteroid. Another promising asteroid mitigation strategy is to land a crew on the asteroid well ahead of its impact date and to begin diverting some its mass into space to slowly alter its trajectory. This is a form of rocket propulsion by virtue of Newton's third law with the asteroid's mass as the propellant. Whether exploding nuclear weapons or diversion of mass is used, a sizable human crew may need to be sent into space for many months if not years to accomplish this mission. Questions such as what the astronauts will live in and what the ship will be like are questions for the space architect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55619793",
"title": "ʻOumuamua",
"section": "Section::::Hypothetical space missions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 901,
"text": "More advanced options of using solar, laser electric, and laser sail propulsion, based on Breakthrough Starshot technology, have also been considered. The challenge is to get to the asteroid in a reasonable amount of time (and so at a reasonable distance from Earth), and yet be able to gain useful scientific information. To do this, decelerating the spacecraft at ʻOumuamua would be \"highly desirable, due to the minimal science return from a hyper-velocity encounter\". If the investigative craft goes too fast, it would not be able to get into orbit or land on the object and would fly past it. The authors conclude that, although challenging, an encounter mission would be feasible using near-term technology. Seligman and Laughlin adopt a complementary approach to the Lyra study but also conclude that such missions, though challenging to mount, are both feasible and scientifically attractive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28506",
"title": "Spacecraft propulsion",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Earth's surface is situated fairly deep in a gravity well. The escape velocity required to get out of it is 11.2 kilometers/second. As human beings evolved in a gravitational field of 1g (9.8 m/s²), an ideal propulsion system would be one that provides a continuous acceleration of 1g (though human bodies can tolerate much larger accelerations over short periods). The occupants of a rocket or spaceship having such a propulsion system would be free from all the ill effects of free fall, such as nausea, muscular weakness, reduced sense of taste, or leaching of calcium from their bones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55945754",
"title": "Project Lyra",
"section": "Section::::Detail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "The challenge is to get to the asteroid in a reasonable amount of time (and so at a reasonable distance from Earth), and yet be able to gain useful scientific information. To do this, decelerating the spacecraft at ʻOumuamua would be \"highly desirable, due to the minimal science return from a hyper-velocity encounter\". If the investigative craft goes too fast, it would not be able to get into orbit or land on the asteroid and would fly past it. The authors conclude that, although challenging, an encounter mission would be feasible using near-term technology. Seligman and Laughlin adopt a complementary approach to the Lyra study but also conclude that such missions, though challenging to mount, are both feasible and scientifically attractive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55905895",
"title": "List of fictional astronauts (miscellaneous futuristic activities)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "The following is a list of fictional astronauts on missions to deflect asteroids and comets which pose a threat to Earth, as well as performing other miscellaneous feats of space exploration not yet achieved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23758030",
"title": "Asteroid capture",
"section": "Section::::Asteroid Redirect Mission.:Aerocapture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Once an asteroid is on course to encounter a planet with an atmosphere, it is in principle possible to tweak its orbit so that it intercepts the planet's atmosphere, using aerobraking to slow the asteroid at periapsis by dumping some of its kinetic energy into the atmosphere – this technique has however never been used by spacecraft performing rendezvous manoeuvres with other planets such as Mars, but it would reduce the otherwise very large amount of fuel required to decelerate a spacecraft from a Sun-orbital velocity to a planet-orbital velocity. This technique is referred to as aerocapture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37854188",
"title": "High Speed Ground Transportation Act of 1965",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Today, as we meet here in this historic room where Abigail Adams hung out her washing, an astronaut can orbit the earth faster than a man on the ground can get from New York to Washington. Yet, the same science and technology which gave us our airplanes and our space probes, I believe, could also give us better and faster and more economical transportation on the ground. And a lot of us need it more on the ground than we need it orbiting the earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3bih4k
|
why do we find the natural human odor to be so offensive? are there other animals who are put off by the smell of their own species?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, that's not \"natural human odor\" you're smelling. What you're smelling are actually mostly the chemical byproducts of bacteria eating all the oils and things in your sweat.\n\nThese bacterial byproducts are actually some of the same chemicals that make some cheese smelly and even some of the same ones that make rotting flesh smell the way it does.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1276337",
"title": "Androstenone",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Detectability as a pheromone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "There is also a specific anosmia to the odor in some humans; they are unable to smell specific odors, but have, otherwise, a normal sense of smell. However, this should, by no means, be regarded as indicative for being labeled as a pheromone, as it is true of over 80 olfactory compounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46405867",
"title": "Evolution of olfaction",
"section": "Section::::Human.:Selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "The role of smell has long been viewed as secondary to the importance of auditory, tactile, and visual senses. Humans do not rely on olfaction for survival to the same extent as other species. Instead, smell plays a heavier role in aesthetic food perception and gathering information on the surroundings. Nevertheless, humans also communicate via odorants and pheromones, exerting both subconscious and conscious (artificial) scents. For example, olfaction is able to mediate the synchronization of menstrual cycles for females living in close proximity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2438760",
"title": "Change blindness",
"section": "Section::::In other senses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Olfactory\" – Humans are constantly in a state of change blindness due to the poor spatial and temporal resolutions with which scents are detected. Although, humans' odor detection thresholds are very low, our olfactory attention is only captured by unusually high odorant concentrations. Olfactory input is made up of a series of sniffs separated in time. The long inter-sniff-interval creates \"change anosmia,\" in which humans have trouble discerning smells that are not highly concentrated. This period of sensory habituation as well as very low concentrations of odorants regularly yield no subjective experience. This behavior is called \"experiential nothingness\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55769090",
"title": "Human sex pheromones",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "While humans are highly dependent upon visual cues, when in proximity, smells also play a role in sociosexual behaviors. An inherent difficulty in studying human pheromones is the need for cleanliness and odorlessness in human participants. Experiments have focused on three classes of putative human pheromones: axillary steroids, vaginal aliphatic acids, and stimulators of the vomeronasal organ.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21244265",
"title": "Olfaction",
"section": "Section::::In plants and animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Figures suggesting greater or lesser sensitivity in various species reflect experimental findings from the reactions of animals exposed to aromas in known extreme dilutions. These are, therefore, based on perceptions by these animals, rather than mere nasal function. That is, the brain's smell-recognizing centers must react to the stimulus detected for the animal to be said to show a response to the smell in question. It is estimated that dogs in general have an olfactory sense approximately ten thousand to a hundred thousand times more acute than a human's. This does not mean they are overwhelmed by smells our noses can detect; rather, it means they can discern a molecular presence when it is in much greater dilution in the carrier, air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "747239",
"title": "Body odor",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "In many animals, body odor plays an important survival function. Strong body odor can be a warning signal for predators to stay away (such as porcupine stink), or it can also be a signal that the prey animal is unpalatable. For example, some animals species, who feign death to survive (like opossums), in this state produce a strong body odor to deceive a predator that the prey animal has been dead for a long time and is already in the advanced stage of decomposing. Some animals with strong body odor are rarely attacked by most predators, although they can still be killed and eaten by birds of prey, which are tolerant of carrion odors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3305772",
"title": "Arum",
"section": "Section::::Infloresence and pollination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The other main group are called \"flag\" species - due to the infloresence being on a long stalk. These species also exhibit thermogenesis, but if an odour is released it is not recognizable to the human nose, and it is debated if pollinators are attracted by a non-recognizable smell, the thermogenesis itself or visual attraction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
nywdq
|
Any good book on history of education?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi, a while ago I commented on a similar question. [You could have a look here](_URL_0_), perhaps it could be useful to you as well?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1230710",
"title": "The Education of Henry Adams",
"section": "Section::::Assessment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "\"The Education\" is an important work of American literary nonfiction. It provides a penetrating glimpse into the intellectual and political life of the late 19th century. The Modern Library placed it first in a list of the top 100 English-language nonfiction books of the 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10417693",
"title": "History of education in the United States: Bibliography",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "The history of education in the United States, or foundations of education, covers the trends in educational philosophy, policy, institutions, as well as formal and informal learning in America from the 17th century to today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3465241",
"title": "Francis Wayland Parker",
"section": "Section::::External links.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "BULLET::::- History of Education: Selected Moments of the 20th Century - \"1901– Francis W. Parker progressive school opens\", A work in progress edited by Daniel Schugurensky, Department of Adult Education, Community Development and Counselling Psychology, The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto (OISE/UT)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15536310",
"title": "Pirates and Pathfinders",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "The book was a history textbook, intended for \"the intermediate grades of the elementary schools\". The book focused on the history of European discovery and colonization of the rest of the world, with a particular focus on the achievements of the British Empire. The book was divided into seven chapters:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41146204",
"title": "History of Education Quarterly",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The History of Education Quarterly is an international quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal dedicated to publishing high-quality scholarship in the history of education. It is the official journal of the field's leading professional society in the United States, the History of Education Society, and has been published since 1960. It is published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16727746",
"title": "Literacy in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "The National Bureau of Economic Research published a data series with an overview of the history of education in the United States leading up to the 20th and 21st centuries. It stated that \"formal education, especially basic literacy, is essential for a well-functioning democracy, and enhances citizenship and community.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25892206",
"title": "Historia scholastica",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "The \"Historia Scholastica\" was a required part of the core curriculum at the University of Paris, Oxford and other universities, and a significant secondary source of popular biblical knowledge from its completion around 1173 through the fifteenth century, although after about 1350 it was gradually supplanted by newer works. It was translated into every major Western European vernacular of the period. Numerous paraphrases and abridgements were produced, in Latin and vernacular languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1wtx2f
|
Why are salts of hydrochloric acid and organic bases called "hydrochlorides" instead of "chlorides"?
|
[
{
"answer": "Acid-base reactions don't necessarily result in water being produced, that is only true for the simplest case of Arrhenius theory in which the acid always provides a proton and the base a hydroxyl group. A more general theory of acid base reactions is [Bronsted theory](_URL_0_), which still defines an acid as a group that can release a proton, but a base is any species that can accept a proton.\n\nTake the example of pyridine mentioned in the Wiki article. What is happening is that when you react pyridine with hydrochloric acid, since the amine moiety (the nitrogen atom) is basic, it will become protonated (the hydrogen will tack on) to create C5H5N-H^+ and then the chlorine anion will serve as the counterion to maintain charge neutrality, so that in the end you will have the salt C5H5N-H^+ Cl^- .",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The hydrogen is actually incorporated into the structure of the drug in these reactions. The type of reaction you learned in school follow the general scheme:\n\nH+ + OH- -- > H2O\n\nThere are counter ions like Na+ or Cl- as well, but I'm just illustrating the acid/base interaction.\n\nThe preparation of these drugs follows this general scheme:\n\nH+ + Cl- + Drug -- > DrugH+ + Cl-\n\nHere they hydrogen ion becomes a part of the drug structure (usually by a dative bond with a nitrogen atom in the drug) which gives it an overall positive charge. The positively charged drug and the negatively charged chloride ion then form an ionic bond. This ionic character is what allows the drug to be more water soluble as a hydrochloride salt.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4661656",
"title": "Alkali salt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Rather than being neutral (as some other salts), alkali salts are bases as their name suggests. What makes these compounds basic is that the conjugate base from the weak acid hydrolyzes to form a basic solution. In sodium carbonate, for example, the carbonate from the carbonic acid hydrolyzes to form a basic solution. The chloride from the hydrochloric acid in sodium chloride does not hydrolyze, though, so sodium chloride is not basic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12730565",
"title": "Free base",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Some alkaloids are more stable as ionic salts than as free base. The salts usually exhibit greater water solubility. Common counterions include chloride, bromide, sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, acetate, oxalate, citrate, and tartrate. Ammonium salts formed from the acid-base reaction with hydrochloric acid are known as hydrochlorides. For example, compare the free base hydroxylamine (NHOH) with the salt hydroxylamine hydrochloride (NHOH Cl).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66269",
"title": "Chloride",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "The chloride ion is the anion (negatively charged ion) Cl. It is formed when the element chlorine (a halogen) gains an electron or when a compound such as hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water or other polar solvents. Chloride salts such as sodium chloride are often very soluble in water. It is an essential electrolyte located in all body fluids responsible for maintaining acid/base balance, transmitting nerve impulses and regulating fluid in and out of cells. Less frequently, the word \"chloride\" may also form part of the \"common\" name of chemical compounds in which one or more chlorine atoms are covalently bonded. For example, methyl chloride, with the standard name chloromethane (see IUPAC books) is an organic compound with a covalent C−Cl bond in which the chlorine is not an anion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66269",
"title": "Chloride",
"section": "Section::::Electronic properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "A chloride ion is much larger than a chlorine atom, 167 and 99 pm, respectively. The ion is colorless and diamagnetic. In aqueous solution, it is highly soluble in most cases; however, some chloride salts, such as silver chloride, lead(II) chloride, and mercury(I) chloride are slightly soluble in water. In aqueous solution, chloride is bound by the protic end of the water molecules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1571859",
"title": "Hydrazoic acid",
"section": "Section::::Reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "In its properties hydrazoic acid shows some analogy to the halogen acids, since it forms poorly soluble (in water) lead, silver and mercury(I) salts. The metallic salts all crystallize in the anhydrous form and decompose on heating, leaving a residue of the pure metal. It is a weak acid (p\"K\" = 4.75.) Its heavy metal salts are explosive and readily interact with the alkyl iodides. Azides of heavier alkali metals (excluding lithium) or alkaline earth metals are not explosive, but decompose in a more controlled way upon heating, releasing spectroscopically-pure gas. Solutions of hydrazoic acid dissolve many metals (e.g. zinc, iron) with liberation of hydrogen and formation of salts, which are called azides (formerly also called azoimides or hydrazoates).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1286190",
"title": "Lithium chloride",
"section": "Section::::Chemical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "The salt forms crystalline hydrates, unlike the other alkali metal chlorides. Mono-, tri-, and pentahydrates are known. The anhydrous salt can be regenerated by heating the hydrates. LiCl also absorbs up to four equivalents of ammonia/mol. As with any other ionic chloride, solutions of lithium chloride can serve as a source of chloride ion, e.g., forming a precipitate upon treatment with silver nitrate:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15758126",
"title": "Hofmann–Löffler reaction",
"section": "Section::::Reaction mechanism.:Mechanistic studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1524,
"text": "An important question in discussing the role of the acid is whether the \"N\"-haloamine reacts in the free base or the salt form in the initiation step. Based on the pK values of the conjugate acids of 2° alkyl amines (which are generally in the range 10–11), it is evident that \"N\"-chloroamines exist largely as salts in a solution of high sulfuric acid concentration. As a result, in the case of chemical or thermal initiation, it is reasonable to assume that it is the \"N\"-chloroammonium ion which affords the ammonium free radical. The situation changes, however, when the reaction is initiated upon irradiation with UV light. The radiation must be absorbed and the quantum of the incident light must be large enough to dissociate the N-Cl bond in order for a photochemical reaction to occur. Because the conjugate acids of the \"N\"-chloroamines have no appreciable UV absorption above 225 mμ, whereas the free \"N\"-chloroamine absorb UV light of sufficient energy to cause dissociation (λ 263 mμ, ε 300), E. J. Corey postulated that in this case it is actually the small percentage of free \"N\"-chloroamine that is responsible for most of the initiation. It was also suggested that the newly generated neutral nitrogen radical is immediately protonated. However, it is important to realize that an alternative scenario might be in operation when the reaction is initiated with the UV light; namely, the free \"N\"-haloamine might not undergo dissociation upon irradiation, but it might function as a photosensitizer instead. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5jw3g3
|
security codes on credit cards
|
[
{
"answer": "It makes it harder to use stolen credit card data for online purchases without the physical card. The 3 digit code is not stored on the cards magnetic strip, it's only printed on the card itself, so if the card's data is surreptitiously stolen using a card skimmer, they don't get the code, and theoretically it should be impossible to use the card for online purchases (assuming the online store in question requires the code).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Technical specifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Both of these standards are maintained and further developed by ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 17/WG 1. Credit cards have a magnetic stripe conforming to the ISO/IEC 7813. Many modern credit cards have a computer chip embedded in them as a security feature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30871905",
"title": "Card security code",
"section": "Section::::Location of code.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The card security code is typically the last three or four digits printed, not embossed like the card number, on the signature strip on the back of the card. On American Express cards, however, the card security code is the four digits printed (not embossed) on the front towards the right. The card security code is not encoded on the magnetic stripe but is printed flat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 942,
"text": "Credit card security relies on the physical security of the plastic card as well as the privacy of the credit card number. Therefore, whenever a person other than the card owner has access to the card or its number, security is potentially compromised. Once, merchants would often accept credit card numbers without additional verification for mail order purchases. It's now common practice to only ship to confirmed addresses as a security measure to minimise fraudulent purchases. Some merchants will accept a credit card number for in-store purchases, whereupon access to the number allows easy fraud, but many require the card itself to be present, and require a signature (for magnetic stripe cards). A lost or stolen card can be cancelled, and if this is done quickly, will greatly limit the fraud that can take place in this way. European banks can require a cardholder's security PIN be entered for in-person purchases with the card.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30871905",
"title": "Card security code",
"section": "Section::::Location of code.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "BULLET::::- Diners Club, Discover, JCB, MasterCard, and Visa credit and debit cards have a three-digit card security code. The code is the final group of numbers printed on the back signature panel of the card.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Technical specifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "In addition to the main credit card number, credit cards also carry issue and expiration dates (given to the nearest month), as well as extra codes such as issue numbers and security codes. Not all credit cards have the same sets of extra codes nor do they use the same number of digits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30871905",
"title": "Card security code",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "A card security code (CSC), card verification data (CVD), card verification number, card verification value (CVV), card verification value code, card verification code (CVC), verification code (V-code or V code), or signature panel code (SPC) is a security feature for \"card not present\" payment card transactions instituted to reduce the incidence of credit card fraud.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 882,
"text": "Three improvements to card security have been introduced to the more common credit card networks, but none has proven to help reduce credit card fraud so far. First, the cards themselves are being replaced with similar-looking tamper-resistant smart cards which are intended to make forgery more difficult. The majority of smart card (IC card) based credit cards comply with the EMV (Europay MasterCard Visa) standard. Second, an additional 3 or 4 digit card security code (CSC) is now present on the back of most cards, for use in card not present transactions. Stakeholders at all levels in electronic payment have recognized the need to develop consistent global standards for security that account for and integrate both current and emerging security technologies. They have begun to address these needs through organisations such as PCI DSS and the Secure POS Vendor Alliance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5rr4dv
|
I've heard there was hand-to-hand fighting in Stalingrad. Is this true? If so, why weren't guns sufficient?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hand-to-hand can be something of a misnomer, in that it is often used as an example of hyperbole to indicate the ferocity of urban combat, and is not necessarily literal.\n\nThat being said, urban warfare gets up close and personal, and Stalingrad is in the running for most brutal urban combat of all time, and there are examples of journals from both sides where the authors specifically mention and describe hand-to-hand fighting in close quarters. \n\nEdit: I will note that the primary source letters and journals with which I'm familiar were translated into English, and were exclusively from the Soviet perspective. I'm not sure hand-to-hand is a figure of speech in Russian the way it is in English.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "329519",
"title": "SU-152",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The Stalingrad counteroffensive, Operation Uranus, exposed the Red Army's urgent need for mobile heavy guns. Primary targets for these guns were German fortifications in and around Stalingrad. At the time Soviet front-line ground units did not possess sufficient firepower to deal with pillboxes and other fortifications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41742612",
"title": "Gun cultures",
"section": "Section::::Russia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "During World War II, and the years building up to it, saw a surge in firearms culture in the Soviet Union. Rifle-training and marksmanship was seen as a symbol of fighting honor for the Soviet motherland, and later were a source of influence for sniping schools in the United States. During the Battle of Stalingrad, the city's fate also relied on local militias. Firearms were also part of military propaganda, such as in the case of the famous Soviet sniper Vasily Zaytsev. Soviet snipers were essential and important to the Soviet strategy against the German invasion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36926969",
"title": "Enemy at the Gates: The Battle for Stalingrad",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Enemy at the Gates: The Battle for Stalingrad is a book written by William Craig and published in 1973 by Reader's Digest Press and in 1974 by Penguin Publishing. The 2001 film \"Enemy at the Gates\" utilized the book's title and used it as one of its sources, but was not a direct adaptation of the work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3115308",
"title": "Barrier troops",
"section": "Section::::In film.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "The 2001 film \"Enemy at the Gates\" shows Soviet Red Army barrier troops using a PM M1910 to gun down the few retreating survivors of a failed charge on a German position during the Battle of Stalingrad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8110575",
"title": "Battle of Stalingrad in popular culture",
"section": "Section::::Films.:Fiction films.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Stalingrad\" (2013), a Russian film that tells the story of six Soviet reconnaissance troops and their part in the battle, holding a building along with various units to defend Stalingrad and Volga River from German attacks\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1462403",
"title": "British heavy tanks of World War I",
"section": "Section::::Combat history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "In 1945, occupying troops came across two badly damaged Mk V tanks in Berlin. Photographic evidence indicates that these were survivors of the Russian Civil War and had previously been displayed as a monument in Smolensk, Russia, before being brought to Berlin after the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. Accounts of their active involvement in the Battle of Berlin have not been verified.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "319027",
"title": "Urban warfare",
"section": "Section::::Urban warfare tactics.:First Chechen War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "Initially, the Russians were taken by surprise. Their armoured columns that were supposed to take the city without difficulty as Soviet forces had taken Budapest in 1956 were decimated in fighting more reminiscent of the Battle of Budapest in late 1944. As in the Soviet assault on Berlin, as a short term measure, they deployed self-propelled anti-aircraft guns (ZSU-23-4 and 2K22M) to engage the Chechen combat groups, as their tank's main gun did not have the elevation and depression to engage the fire teams and an armoured vehicle's machine gun could not suppress the fire of half a dozen different fire teams simultaneously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fd1y5y
|
Was Greek civilization derived from Egypt
|
[
{
"answer": "Civilisation is one of those loose terms that, the more we think about it, the harder it is to define. I'm assuming you mean the general sense of identity/values/aesthetics/social structures and so on that we consider to be 'Greek.' The answer really isn't simple.\n\nFirstly, to say there was a single Greek civilisation is a bit over simplistic. When most people think of Greece they think of Athenians, with their forums and philosophers, but Athens was not all of Greece nor was it often the most important. Sparta is the obvious counterpoint, but there's also Corinth, Thebes, and hundreds of other city-states with their own social structures and values. The point being that ancient Greeks were unified by a shared language (although divided by dialect) and a general region, but were not some unified cultural group by a long shot.\n\nOkay, so let's just take a general Athenian-esque sense of Ancient Greece. Did it draw from Egypt and the Near-East? Yes, absolutely. Herodotus thanks Egypt for teaching Greece things like geometry and mathematics. Did Greece take everything? No, of course not. Its language, Athenian democracy, Greek hoplite warfare, literary/oratory works like those of Homer, or great architectural achievements like the Parthenon. Egyptians and Babylonians didn't make those. Greeks did. \n\nThere's also the fact that 'philosophy' is a very broad term. French post-modernism, Chinese Confucianism, and European renaissance humanism are all philosophises of their own but are very distinct things. Humans seem to be hard-wired to question their own existence and societies. The Egyptians were among the first, but it's by no means uniquely theirs. 'Architecture' is a similarly diverse thing. Peru's Machu Pichu is a feat of architecture just like Rome's Colosseum or Beijing's Forbidden Palace, but each one is a unique reflection of their societies and time periods using different material and methods. The same is true for Greek architecture as opposed to Egyptian or Babylonian - the Pyramids are not the Parthenon. \n\nCultures are not discrete nor do they exist in a vacuum. Each one builds on what came before and redefines it for its own needs. Cultural transmission is not a case of X culture meeting Y and taking all of Y's ideas. Y's ideas might take root in culture X, but culture X's unique perspectives and uses can and almost always will produce an entirely new thing Z. Think of how tea is a cornerstone of British culture despite originally being Indian, or how rice has integrated itself into Persian cuisine despite only making it to the region in the 13th century or so. Just because something comes from somewhere else, that doesn't mean a culture can't make it their own. The premise that if one culture found something first then it's forever theirs is just not appropriate. By that logic, everything is African since the basic tenants of society like language and fire was first utilised by the earliest humans spreading from the continent.\n\nI know this answer has been more broad reaching that just Greece of Egypt, but I think taking a step back and addressing the basic assumptions implicit in the question are important.\n\nAs for some basic things that were original? I mentioned a few, but we can list more. Greek mythology, perhaps the first histories as we'd understand them from those like Herodotus or Thucydides, democracy, the Greek language and its derivatives, theatre, winches and cranes, etc etc. Of course, these ideas have changed over time. Modern democracy is not the same as ancient Athenian democracy, but that's the whole point - humanity builds on what came before and what came from elsewhere. We always have and we always will.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1261233",
"title": "Naucratis",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Archaeological evidence suggests that the history of the ancient Greeks in Egypt dates back at least to Mycenaean times ( 1600-1100 BC) and more likely even further back into the proto-Greek Minoan age. This history is strictly one of commerce as no permanent Greek settlements have been found of these cultures to date.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12028600",
"title": "Greeks in Egypt",
"section": "Section::::Antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Greeks have been present in Egypt since at least the 7th century BC. Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BC and claimed that the Greeks were one of the first groups of foreigners that ever lived in Egypt. Diodorus Siculus claimed that Rhodian Actis, one of the Heliadae, built the city of Heliopolis before the cataclysm; likewise the Athenians built Sais. Siculus reports that all the Greek cities were destroyed during the cataclysm, but the Egyptian cities including Heliopolis and Sais survived.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12108",
"title": "Greece",
"section": "Section::::History.:Prehistory and early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1023,
"text": "Greece is home to the first advanced civilizations in Europe and is considered the birthplace of Western civilisation, beginning with the Cycladic civilization on the islands of the Aegean Sea at around 3200 BC, the Minoan civilization in Crete (2700–1500 BC), and then the Mycenaean civilization on the mainland (1600–1100 BC). These civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC, during a time of regional upheaval known as the Bronze Age collapse. This ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. Though the unearthed Linear B texts are too fragmentary for the reconstruction of the political landscape and can't support the existence of a larger state contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records suggest the presence of a single state under a \"Great King\" based in mainland Greece.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17809904",
"title": "White Africans of European ancestry",
"section": "Section::::Greeks in Africa.:Egypt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 169,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 169,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Greeks have been living in Egypt since and even before Alexander the Great conquered Egypt at an early stage of his great journey of conquests. Herodotus, who visited Egypt in the 5th century BC, wrote that the Greeks were the first foreigners that ever lived in Egypt. Diodorus Siculus attested that Rhodian Actis, one of the Heliadae built the city of Heliopolis before the cataclysm; likewise the Athenians built Sais. While all Greek cities were destroyed during the cataclysm, the Egyptian cities including Heliopolis and Sais survived.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66540",
"title": "Ancient Greece",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1030,
"text": "Ancient Greece () was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity ( AD 600). Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Roughly three centuries after the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece, Greek urban poleis began to form in the 8th century BC, ushering in the Archaic period and colonization of the Mediterranean Basin. This was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedon, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. The Hellenistic period came to an end with the conquests and annexations of the eastern Mediterranean world by the Roman Republic, which established the Roman province of Macedonia in Roman Greece, and later the province of Achaea during the Roman Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30072",
"title": "Thales of Miletus",
"section": "Section::::Influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "The ancient civilization and massive monuments of Egypt had \"a profound and ineradicable impression on the Greeks\". They attributed to Egyptians \"an immemorial knowledge of certain subjects\" (including geometry) and would claim Egyptian origin for some of their own ideas to try and lend them \"a respectable antiquity\" (such as the \"Hermetic\" literature of the Alexandrian period).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5178",
"title": "Classics",
"section": "Section::::Classical Greece.:Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "Ancient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning the Archaic (c. 8th to 6th centuries BC), Classical (c. 5th to 4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic (c. 3rd century BC to 6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world. It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek. Its Hellenistic phase is known as Koine (\"common\") or Biblical Greek, and its late period mutates imperceptibly into Medieval Greek. Koine is regarded as a separate historical stage of its own, although in its earlier form it closely resembles Classical Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classical and earlier periods included several regional dialects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
61a8pg
|
how can a baseball player throw 95 mph baseball when a boxer's top punching speed is around 25 mph?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because the speed of a pitch comes from the whip of the arm accelerating the ball. The punch is just arm movement. The two are not connected when it comes to speed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1377339",
"title": "Steve Dalkowski",
"section": "Section::::Baseball career.:Pitching speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Scientists contend that the theoretical maximum speed that a pitcher can throw is slightly above . Beyond that the pitcher would cause himself a serious injury. There is no doubt that a pitcher who can throw at 100 mph+ is rare, with only a small handful of pitchers every generation being capable of this feat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4384977",
"title": "Kyuji Fujikawa",
"section": "Section::::Pitching style.:Fastball.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "While there are other pitchers in both Japanese professional baseball (Kroon, Kubota) and the major leagues that throw harder than Fujikawa on a consistent basis in terms of absolute velocity, Fujikawa's fastball is most notable for the late life at the end of its trajectory (akin to that of Philadelphia Phillies closer Jonathan Papelbon) that makes it appear to \"hop\" in front of hitters and seem faster than radar gun readings would suggest. That hitters are frequently seen swinging and missing high fastballs by a distance of two to three balls even when they clearly end up caught out of the strike zone is a testament to how much the pitch appears to \"jump\" at them in front of the plate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "467802",
"title": "Fastball",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "The fastball is the most common type of pitch thrown by pitchers in baseball and softball. \"Power pitchers,\" such as former American major leaguers Nolan Ryan and Roger Clemens, rely on speed to prevent the ball from being hit, and have thrown fastballs at speeds of (officially) and up to (unofficially). Pitchers who throw more slowly can put movement on the ball, or throw it on the outside of home plate where batters can't easily reach it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "635408",
"title": "Two-seam fastball",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "The velocity of this pitch also varies greatly from pitcher to pitcher. At the major collegiate level and higher, two-seam fastballs are typically thrown in the low 90s (MPH), but with much variation. Pitchers such as Greg Maddux, Bob Stanley, Brandon McCarthy, David Price, and Eddie Guardado are notable for having success at the major-league levels with two-seam fastballs in the mid 80s to lower 90s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "467802",
"title": "Fastball",
"section": "Section::::Pitches.:Rising fastball.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "What is likely happening is that the pitcher first throws a fastball at one speed, and then, using an identical arm motion, throws another fastball at a higher speed. The higher-speed fastball arrives faster and sinks less due to its high speed. The added back-spin from the higher speed further decreases the amount of sink. When the pitch is thrown, the batter expects a fastball at the same speed, yet it arrives more quickly and at a higher level. The batter perceives it as a fastball which has risen and increased in speed. A switch from a two-seam to a fastball can enhance this effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "514642",
"title": "Pitch (baseball)",
"section": "Section::::Fastballs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "The fastball is the most common pitch in baseball, and most pitchers have some form of a fastball in their arsenal. Most pitchers throw four-seam fastballs. It is basically a pitch thrown very fast, generally as hard as a given pitcher can throw while maintaining control. Some variations involve movement or breaking action, some do not and are simply straight, high-speed pitches. While throwing the fastball it is very important to have proper mechanics, because this increases the chance of getting the ball to its highest velocity, making it difficult for the opposing player to hit the pitch. The cut fastball, split-finger fastball, and forkball are variations on the fastball with extra movement, and are sometimes called sinking-fastballs because of the trajectories. The most common fastball pitches are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "467802",
"title": "Fastball",
"section": "Section::::Pitches.:Four-seam fastball.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "The four-seam fastball is the most common variant of the fastball. The pitch is used often by the pitcher to get ahead in the count or when he needs to throw a strike. This type of fastball is intended to have minimal lateral movement, relying more on its velocity. It is often perceived as the fastest pitch a pitcher throws, with recorded top speeds above 100 mph. The fastest pitch recognized by MLB was on September 25, 2010, at Petco Park in San Diego by then Cincinnati Reds left-handed relief pitcher Aroldis Chapman. It was clocked at 105.1 miles per hour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
38qqgi
|
when and why will the current tech boom end? what are the implications for the overall economy?
|
[
{
"answer": "\"Tech\" is a very big field with many sub genres if you like. The 70-90s boom was the personal computer, 00s-10s was the the internet era and to a certain extent it's still going. The next few years will see lots of wearables, IoT and all things 3D printing related. We expect to see interesting developments and changes in how computing as a whole is done.\nIt's also important to realise that tech is in everything and spills out to almost every other field from medicine to aviation.\nI don't see the popularity of tech going down anytime soon as it has become a fundamental tool for facilitating almost everything in modern society",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Technology is always changing and evolving. It will always be changing and evolving. The tech boom will never end, just adapt to suit the user needs",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29459972",
"title": "Oxford Martin School",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "A report published in 2013 looked at the effect of new technologies on the structure of the labour market, with repetitive jobs being replaced by automation. It predicted that over two decades, 45 percent of all jobs in the United States were at risk of replacement. A report published in early 2016, \"Industrial Renewal in the 21st Century: Evidence from US cities\" looked at how technology companies such as Facebook and Uber affect the wider economy of the United States. It showed that their effect on job creation is small and that they increase disparities in wealth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29269618",
"title": "Causes of the Great Recession",
"section": "Section::::Macroeconomic conditions.:End of a long wave.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "The market has been already saturated by new \"technical wonders\" (e.g. everybody has his own mobile phone) and – what is more important - in the developed countries the economy reached limits of productivity in conditions of existing technologies. A new economic revival can come only with a new technological revolution (a hypothetical Post-informational technological revolution). Šmihula expects that it will happen in about 2014-15.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "423582",
"title": "New economy",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "According to another point of view, the \"new economy\" is a current Kondratiev wave which will end after a 50-year period in the 2040s. Its innovative basis includes Internet, nanotechnologies, telematics and bionics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35122793",
"title": "Smihula waves",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics of the theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1409,
"text": "A period of technological revolution (an innovation phase) is associated with economic revival. When new but also already-proven and reliable technologies are available, the interest in new technological development temporary declines and investments are diverted from research to their maximal practical utilization. This period we can designate as an application phase. It is also associated with economic growth and perhaps even an economic boom. However, at a certain moment profitability (profit/price ratio) from new innovations and new sectors declines to the level acquired from older traditional sectors. Markets are saturated by technological products – (market saturation – everybody has a mobile phone, every small town has a railway station) and new capital investment in this originally new sector will not bring any above-average profit (e.g. the first railways connected the biggest cities with many potential passengers, later ones had ever smaller and smaller customer potential, and the level of profit from each new railway was therefore lower than from the previous one). At this moment economic stagnation and crisis begin – but a will to risk and to try something new emerges. The stagnation and crisis are therefore overcome by a new technological revolution with new innovations which will revitalize the economy. And this new technological revolution is the beginning of a new wave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14246632",
"title": "Quantitative behavioral finance",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Meanwhile, in the US the growth of new technology, particularly the internet, spawned a new generation of high tech companies, some of which became publicly traded long before any profits. As in the Japanese stock market bubble a decade earlier these stocks soared to market valuations of billions of dollars sometimes before they even had revenue. The bubble continued into 2000 and the consequent bust reduced many of these stocks to a few percent of their prior market value. Even some large and profitable tech companies lost 80% of their value during the period 2000-2003.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5660960",
"title": "Economic stagnation",
"section": "Section::::Stagnation in the United States.:Post-2008 period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "One theory is that the boost in growth by the internet and technological advancement in computers of the new economy does not measure up to the boost caused by the great inventions of the past. An example of such a great invention is the assembly line production method of Fordism. The general form of the argument has been the subject of papers by Robert J. Gordon. It has also been written about by Owen. C. Paepke and Tyler Cowen. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43545389",
"title": "Secular stagnation",
"section": "Section::::Post-2009.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "One theory is that the boost in growth by the internet and technological advancement in computers of the new economy does not measure up to the boost caused by the great inventions of the past. An example of such a great invention is the assembly line production method of Fordism. The general form of the argument has been the subject of papers by Robert J. Gordon. It has also been written about by Owen. C. Paepke and Tyler Cowen. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
da3enz
|
How long did it take to Christianise the people of Denmark and other parts of the Viking world (Norway, Sweden, Iceland etc)?
|
[
{
"answer": "It depends on the region; The Jelling Stone in Denmark announcing the establishment of Christianity as the religion by Harald was still significant even if it didn't mean the whole country was converted yet. As did the Icelandic þing decision of 1000 and Saint Olaf's supposed completion of christening of Norway a few decades later. The Swedes were supposedly still largely pagan according to Adam of Bremen in his own day (1070s) and the last concrete mention of pagan resistance there would be the martyring of Saint Botvid by a pagan in 1120. Adam of Bremen also claims fringe areas of Denmark - Bornholm and Blekinge as not having been converted properly until their bishop missioned there in the 1060s. However, Adam has a bias in wanting to hold forth the importance and relevance of the missionary work done in the ecclesiastical province of Hamburg-Bremen that he represented and there's a commonly-held interpretation that he neglected or minimized the contributions made by Anglo-Saxon and Irish missionaries. Adam was not a first-hand witness to conditions in Scandinavia either (and Orderic even less so). \n\nArchaeology actually pushes the dates back a bit. Christian burials first turn up in Bornholm already in the late 900s. The excavation of Kata Farm and other sites in Sweden now show that at least the elites in Götaland were converting in that same late-900s time frame as the core areas of Denmark, and the same goes for Østfold and Rogaland in Norway. Whereas areas like Trøndelag, Agder, northern Norway and the inner parts of eastern Norway converted later, as did Svealand in Sweden. Evidence shows rapid changes towards Christian burial practices in the 11th century in Norway. Even in Sveland's Uppland, historians tend to side with an earlier date than a later one; it was probably mostly Christian by the 1080s. Adam's claim that Emund the Old (circa 1050s) neglected Christianity could be interpreted as Adam's judgement on Emund's tolerance of paganism. It's been suggested the traditional date of 1120 for Botvid's martyring may be a bit late too.\n\nOf course by Christian burial practices we primarily mean east-west oriented graves and the abandoning of cremation. Needless to say, that doesn't necessarily mean the buried were completely Christian. (Burials in churchyards was also a thing that would come later) But Scandinavia was likely almost completely converted by 1100, and in that century Christian institutions were strengthened considerably and what holdouts may have existed would have the thumb-screws tightened by the fact that things like inheritance rights became contingent on conversion. Although law codes we have from the 13th century, like Gulathingsloven, ban pagan activities, there's no concrete evidence of such activities still happening in that period. (one might compare to Magnus Erikssons Country Law of 1340 which finally banned thralldom in Sweden but entered into force something like 70 years after the last mention of anyone owning a thrall)\n\n\nAs I said in [a post yesterday](_URL_0_), the nationalists/romantics of the 19th century really wanted to believe paganism had survived longer than it actually likely did, because they'd adopted the view that pre-Christian beliefs were a core part of national identity. (and that crowd is still around although not so represented in academia anymore) But we don't know that any actual Viking Age Scandinavians felt that way. If it was such a core part of their identity, one would perhaps expect more resistance than we know of. On the contrary, it's been argued (e.g. in _Skiftet_) that resistance to conversion may have been primarily rooted in opposition to the associated political and social changes, not the faith itself.\n\nThe Baltic States and Finland were converted later (and the Scandinavians played no small part in those Baltic Crusades), and those were much more isolated parts of Europe. Scandinavia had frequent cultural contacts with the continental and southern Europe for a millennium before the Viking Age ended. As for Delumeau, his ideas that most European weren't 'really' Christians (not just the north) doesn't have that much support. Although it's based in the correct observation that the average masses did not view nor practice Christianity the same way as the priests and educated classes, judging that this means that these people weren't Christian is anachronistic because it's based on later standards. These people regarded themselves as good Christians and by the standards of their time, _were_. It (and associated \"two-tier\" models like Muchembled's) have also been criticized since the start for being overly simplistic and creating a false dichotomy because there was in fact significant interplay between the 'low' and 'high' religious traditions. E.g. the medieval canonization of saints was often little more than an official sanction of a popular veneration that'd started spontaneously. \n\nAnyway, Denmark was mainly Christian well before Canute IV, in fact most of Scandinavia probably was by that point. Anyway, this is a pretty brief post, but to mention some sources and further reading: \n\nNora Berend (ed), _Christianization and the Rise of Christian Monarchy: Scandinavia_, Central Europe and Rus' c. 900–1200, Cambridge University Press, 2007 \n\nAnders Winroth, _The conversion of Scandinavia: Vikings, merchants, and missionaries in the remaking of Northern Europe_, Yale University Press, 2014\n\nSten Tesch (ed), _Skiftet - Vikingatida sed och Kristen tro_, Artos & Norma, 2017",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "56989432",
"title": "History of Christianity in Norway",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 808,
"text": "The history of Christianity in Norway started in the Viking Age in the 9th century. Trade, plundering raids and travel brought the Norsemen into close contacts with Christian communities, but their conversion only started after powerful chieftains decided to receive baptism during their stay in England or Normandy. Haakon the Good was the first king to make efforts to convert the whole country, but the rebellious pagan chieftains forced him to apostatize. Olaf Tryggvason started the destruction of pagan cult sites in the late 10th century, but only Olaf Haraldsson achieved the official adaption of Christianity in the 1020s. Missionary bishops subjected to the archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen were responsible for the spread of the new faith before the earliest bishoprics were established around 1100.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "621178",
"title": "Christianization",
"section": "Section::::Christianization of Europe (7th-15th centuries).:Scandinavia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1151,
"text": "The Christianization of Scandinavia started in the 8th century with the arrival of missionaries in Denmark and it was at least nominally complete by the 12th century, although the Samis remained unconverted until the 18th century. In fact, although the Scandinavians became nominally Christian, it would take considerably longer for actual Christian beliefs to establish themselves among the people. The old indigenous traditions that had provided security and structure since time immemorial were challenged by ideas that were unfamiliar, such as original sin, the Immaculate Conception, the Trinity and so forth. Archaeological excavations of burial sites on the island of Lovön near modern-day Stockholm have shown that the actual Christianization of the people was very slow and took at least 150–200 years, and this was a very central location in the Swedish kingdom. Thirteenth-century runic inscriptions from the bustling merchant town of Bergen in Norway show little Christian influence, and one of them appeals to a Valkyrie. At this time, enough knowledge of Norse mythology remained to be preserved in sources such as the Eddas in Iceland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25795914",
"title": "Christianity in Norway",
"section": "Section::::Christianization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "The conversion of Norway to Christianity began in 1000 AD. The raids on Ireland, Britain and the Frankish kingdoms had brought the Vikings in touch with Christianity. Haakon the Good of Norway who had grown up in England tried to introduce Christianity in the tenth century, but had met resistance from pagan leaders and soon abandoned the idea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "521817",
"title": "Nidaros",
"section": "Section::::Pre-Reformation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "The Christianization of Norway was begun by Haakon the Good (d. 961) and was continued by Olaf Trygvesson (d. 1000) and Saint Olaf Haraldsson (d. 1030), two Vikings who had converted (and been baptized) at Andover in England and Rouen in Normandy, respectively. Olaf Trygvesson founded Nidaros in 997, and built a Kongsgård estate and church there. From this base, he worked to spread Christianity in Norway, Orkney, Shetland, the Faroes, Iceland, and Greenland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "43358465",
"title": "List of church ruins on Gotland",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Gotland began to gradually abandon Norse religion and adopt Christianity during the 11th century. While the earliest churches were wooden, construction of stone churches began during the 12th century. The church building period was fairly short; in the countryside stone churches were erected between the early 12th and mid-14th centuries, while in Visby the last churches were inaugurated during the 15th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1727767",
"title": "Religion in Norway",
"section": "Section::::Christianity.:From Conversion to Reformation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "The conversion of Norway to Christianity began in the 1000s. The raids on the British isles and on the Frankish kingdoms had brought the Vikings in touch with Christianity. Haakon the Good of Norway who had grown up in England tried to introduce Christianity in the mid-10th century, but had met resistance from pagan leaders and soon abandoned the idea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22983160",
"title": "Christianity in the 8th century",
"section": "Section::::Spread of Christianity.:Scandinavia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "Although the Scandinavians became nominally Christian in the 8th century, it took considerably longer for actual Christian beliefs to become established among the people. The old indigenous traditions that had provided security and structure since time immemorial were challenged by ideas that were unfamiliar, such as original sin, the Immaculate Conception, the Trinity and so forth Archaeological excavations of burial sites on the island of Lovön near modern-day Stockholm have shown that the actual Christianization of the people was very slow and took at least 150–200 years, and this was a very central location in the Swedish kingdom. At this time, enough knowledge of Norse mythology remained to be preserved in sources such as the Eddas in Iceland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
37xrsi
|
why do games nowadays get sold at normal price unfinished? is it just for money, or is the gaming industry creating such massive games they can't release all the content at once?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm 33 years old and was heavily involved in gaming when I was a teenager. I'm not the most OG guy around, but I remember a \"back in the day\" story or two.\n\nYou are remembering with rose colored glasses what \"then\" was like. Back then games were routinely released with game killing bugs. While we did not see the DLC for content that should of been there by default, we saw a lot more of the \"this game cannot currently be played, wait for the 2.0 patch\". \n\nIn addition, expansions were often after thought content. So you'd pay nearly full price for 2 new weapons (and one of them uses the model of an old weapon) and a handful of new levels. $40 please.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For years, costs have been going up. It already costs over 50 million USD to make a typical AAA game, and some experts are expecting that number to pass 100 million in the next few years. Customers expect better and better fidelity every year, and that means developers are struggling to hire even more of the best artists, programmers, designers, and so on.\n\nFor years, profit margins have been getting smaller, or even disappearing. People complain that games used to cost only $50, compared to maybe $60 today. Problem is, that hasn't kept up with inflation -- if it had, that same game would cost more than $90, today. The market price for a big title has actually gone down over the years, all while development and marketing costs have skyrocketed.\n\nMeanwhile, in mobile markets and some online games, players are balking at spending even $1 to buy a game. Developers and publishers are expected to give away their work for free, on the off chance that someone *might* spend some money on it down the road. Some businesses have done very well at that, but many more haven't.\n\nRetailers and publishers are really pushing pre-orders, which leads to a lot of those special deals you're seeing. It's bad enough that some games are judged commercially *solely* by the number of pre-orders they get.\n\nI'm not exactly happy with the current state of the industry, but the market forces driving those decisions are hard to ignore.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8427709",
"title": "Virtual tax",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "However, many users stated that this is the biggest push factor to inflate, as the sellers now demand higher prices before selling an item (in order to make up for the loss of in-game money through tax system). Also, some users state that the inflation will eventually stop without the interference of the game developer. They claim that as more players achieve high levels, they would be able to hunt more monsters and deliver more equipment. Like the real world, the economy of online games are based on supply and demand. When more items are released into the market, it pushes the supply up, resulting in cheaper goods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145427",
"title": "Phantasy Star (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "The game was difficult to recommend for some because of its high price. \"Computer Entertainer\" found the purchase difficult to justify as it was the highest price they had ever seen for a game on any cartridge-based system or disk-based computer. \"Computer and Video Games\" felt they could only recommend it for hardcore RPG fans for this reason. \"VideoGames & Computer Entertainment\", however, called it \"such a remarkable video game that it may justify its existence as the most expensive cartridge on the shelf.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46618",
"title": "Shovelware",
"section": "Section::::Shovelware video games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Low-budget, poor-quality games, released in the hopes of being purchased by unsuspecting customers, are often referred to as \"shovelware\". This can lead to discoverability issues when a platform has no quality control. Several well-known examples were released for the Wii, including ports of PlayStation 2 games which had previously only been released in Europe. \"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1014142",
"title": "David Braben",
"section": "Section::::Work.:Game development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "In 2012, Braben explained in an interview with developer website Gamasutra his opinion that the sale of secondhand games negatively affects development of new titles, also holding the price of games in general much higher than they would otherwise be. However, later in 2014 he acknowledged: \"Piracy goes hand in hand with sales. If a game is pirated a lot it will be bought a lot. People want a connected experience, so with pirated games we still have a route in to get them to upgrade to real version. And even if someone's version is pirated, they might evangelise and their mates will buy the real thing.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "101812",
"title": "Video game publisher",
"section": "Section::::Business risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "BULLET::::- The industry has become more \"hit driven\" over the past decade. Consumers buy the game that's best-marketed but not necessarily of the highest quality, therefore buying fewer other games in that genre. This has led to much larger game development budgets, as every game publisher tries to ensure that its game is #1 in its category. It also caused publishers to on occasion force developers to focus on sequels of successful franchises instead of exploring original IP; some publishers such as Activision Blizzard and Electronic Arts have both attracted criticism for acquiring studios with original games, and assigning them to support roles in more mainstream franchises.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3171627",
"title": "Parallel importing in video games",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for importing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 895,
"text": "BULLET::::- Financial reasons. Due to high release-prices, it is often considerably cheaper for gamers to buy Japanese(non-domestic) versions of popular games that have already passed out of the \"new release\" phase of their marketing in the foreign country. Furthermore, because of variations in international exchange rates and international video game market demand, import gamers may save money by importing games instead of buying localized versions, even when shipping and handling costs and import tax are taken into consideration. This is also true within the used games market offering used import games way cheaper than local new games due to the localization delay. Before, however, the introduction of the Euro, new import games were commonly sold 40% more expensive by import shops than the European local edition. Similar price disparities exist between American and Asian markets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "994639",
"title": "GameStop",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Used games market.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "GameStop has been criticized by game developers and publishers for the retailing of used game titles. By reselling used copies at a small discount on the same shelf space as new copies of the game, it is argued that GameStop is taking profits directly from organizations such as developers and publishers which are solely dependent on their intellectual property for revenue. In effect, this means that companies such as GameStop can resell used copies of a game within days of the title's release and keep all of the profit, thereby cutting directly into the critical initial sales which would otherwise go to publishers and developers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
1t5zxs
|
How does a bit in a computer turn on or off (1 / 0) without something to do it manually?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's all capacitors and transistors which are in effect electronic switches. [Here's a description of how DRAM operates](_URL_1_).\n\nIf that explanation is too complex/in-depth, you can look at [how a latch operates](_URL_0_). This is different in principle than DRAM (memory) but it's an electronic circuit that can store one bit of information.\n\n",
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"answer": "To add a little context to it computer memory used to be wires and magnets as in [this picture](_URL_0_). So imagine on the left the wires are 1, 2, 3, 4, etc and at the bottom the wires are a, b, c, d, etc. If you run current through wires 1 and a the memory location 1a would be on, or 1. \n\nAs /u/ramk13 noted today it is done with capacitors and transistors but the idea is basically the same, just a lot smaller and faster.\n",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "468313",
"title": "Mask (computing)",
"section": "Section::::Common bitmask functions.:Toggling bit values.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 831,
"text": "So far the article has covered how to turn bits on and turn bits off, but not both at once. Sometimes it does not really matter what the value is, but it must be made the opposite of what it currently is. This can be achieved using the codice_21 (exclusive or) operation. codice_21 returns codice_1 if and only if an odd number of bits are codice_1. Therefore, if two corresponding bits are codice_1, the result will be a codice_8, but if only one of them is codice_1, the result will be codice_1. Therefore inversion of the values of bits is done by codice_21ing them with a codice_1. If the original bit was codice_1, it returns codice_32. If the original bit was codice_8 it returns codice_34. Also note that codice_21 masking is bit-safe, meaning that it will not affect unmasked bits because codice_36, just like an codice_2.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77359",
"title": "Serial port",
"section": "Section::::Settings.:Stop bits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Stop bits sent at the end of every character allow the receiving signal hardware to detect the end of a character and to resynchronise with the character stream. Electronic devices usually use one stop bit. If slow electromechanical teleprinters are used, one-and-one half or two stop bits are required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "264399",
"title": "Bitwise operation",
"section": "Section::::Bit shifts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "The bit shifts are sometimes considered bitwise operations, because they treat a value as a series of bits rather than as a numerical quantity. In these operations the digits are moved, or \"shifted\", to the left or right. Registers in a computer processor have a fixed width, so some bits will be \"shifted out\" of the register at one end, while the same number of bits are \"shifted in\" from the other end; the differences between bit shift operators lie in how they determine the values of the shifted-in bits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "264399",
"title": "Bitwise operation",
"section": "Section::::Bitwise operators.:XOR.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "The bitwise XOR may be used to invert selected bits in a register (also called toggle or flip). Any bit may be toggled by XORing it with 1. For example, given the bit pattern 0010 (decimal 2) the second and fourth bits may be toggled by a bitwise XOR with a bit pattern containing 1 in the second and fourth positions:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "468313",
"title": "Mask (computing)",
"section": "Section::::Common bitmask functions.:Masking bits to codice_1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "To turn certain bits on, the bitwise codice_2 operation can be used, following the principle that codice_3 and codice_4. Therefore, to make sure a bit is on, codice_2 can be used with a codice_1. To leave a bit unchanged, codice_2 is used with a codice_8.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26341",
"title": "Radioteletype",
"section": "Section::::Technical description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "When a key of the teleprinter keyboard is pressed, a 5-bit character is generated. The teleprinter converts it to serial format and transmits a sequence of a \"start bit\" (a logical 0 or space), then one after the other the 5 data bits, finishing with a \"stop bit\" (a logical 1 or mark, lasting 1, 1.5 or 2 bits). When a sequence of start bit, 5 data bits and stop bit arrives at the input of the teleprinter, it is converted to a 5-bit word and passed to the printer or VDU. With electromechanical teleprinters, these functions required complicated electromechanical devices, but they are easily implemented with standard digital electronics using shift registers. Special integrated circuits have been developed for this function, for example the Intersil 6402 and 6403. These are stand-alone UART devices, similar to computer serial port peripherals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "468313",
"title": "Mask (computing)",
"section": "Section::::Common bitmask functions.:Querying the status of a bit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "It is possible to use bitmasks to easily check the state of individual bits regardless of the other bits. To do this, turning off all the other bits using the bitwise codice_12 is done as discussed above and the value is compared with codice_1. If it is equal to codice_8, then the bit was off, but if the value is any other value, then the bit was on. What makes this convenient is that it is not necessary to figure out what the value actually is, just that it is not codice_8.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
ebnmfl
|
Did Sweden out of fear cooperate/facilitate the invasion and conquest of Norway by Nazi Germany?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's a lot of myths about this and I've [previous debunked](_URL_0_) some of them, for more reading. So, to try to keep this short:\n\n**Invasion of Norway**\n\nSweden most certainly did not aid the _invasion and conquest_ of Norway. Sweden was no more aware of the impending invasion than Norway was, so they couldn't if they wanted to (which they did not). \n\nWhat happened here was that _after_ the invasion and occupation of Norway was completed, the Nazi government demanded that unarmed German troops who needed medical care and others on leave, would be allowed to pass from Norway through Sweden on train to and from Germany. This \"transiting\" was a violation of neutrality; although a smoewhat slight one; the former transiting was explicitly permitted under the Hague Convention, the latter was not. In a few cases, trains with sealed boxcars that the Swedes could reasonably assume had arms did pass through Sweden, and the most flagrant violation was the 'Midsummer crisis' when the Swedish government acquiesced to allow some armed German troops to pass through Sweden from Norway to Finland, for the purpose of defending Finland against the Soviets.\n\nSo Germany made no use of Sweden whatsoever to 'take control' over Norway. It had some use of Sweden in maintaining the occupation. But in the greater scheme of things it's not so clear how great the impact really was. It's not likely it would've strained Germany so much to ferry the troops over to occupied Denmark instead. The main issue was likely the safety of their troops; such ferries being potential targets for allied air raids. \n\nThe main reason the transiting is well known is not because of its great significance to the war effort, but because it was intensely unpopular in Sweden at the time as it was a violation of neutrality that helped a country most Swedes hated in an occupation they hated. It remains a well-known fact if not one of the most well known facts in Sweden, together with the Swedish iron trade with Germany. Probably _too_ well known (as historians have pointed out), the public perception of Swedes is that Sweden helped Germany much more than they actually did. \n\nYour post here certainly raises the bar to new heights of absurdity. though.\n\n**Trade**\n\nGermany had been Sweden's largest trading partner since well before a unified Germany even existed. International law does not ban neutral parties from trading with belligerents though, and when the war broke out, Sweden made a War Trade Agreement with Germany and the Allies in December 1939 that set quotas for trade with Germany in strategic goods such as iron ore and ball-bearings, which were set _below pre-war levels_. Trade in other commodities did go up; Sweden had no choice in that; the Gulf of Finland was mined (and Sweden was hostile to the Soviets anyway after the outbreak of the Winter war) and so was Skagerrak. Germany only allowed a few ships to pass each month, and those were allocated for the most desperately needed goods. Sweden did try to secretly aid the allies here by charging the British less for Swedish ball-bearings (on which they were critically dependent for aircraft engines) than the Germans. Which is actually a violation of neutrality. Ball bearing exports to Germany ceased completely in 1944, and generally exports to Germany were ramped down as the war progressed and Sweden's negotiating position improved. \n\nThe Swedish economy did **not** benefit from the war. It's not just false but completely absurd to even believe the GDP would increase by 20% in a time when the country was suffering severe shortages of all import goods but particularly fossil fuels, on which it was dependent for heating, steel production and vehicles. A significant portion of vehicles had to be converted to run on wood gas. Rationing was in effect for sugar, coffee, salt, meat, and other consumer goods. Sweden had received thousands of refugees from neighboring countries; such as the 70,000 'war children' from Finland, which demanded resources. Sweden's conscript-based armed forces were at full mobilization; over a million men out of a 6-million population were drafted into service. Resources were poured into arms production. \n\nI don't see how it is reasonable to believe that Sweden's GDP grew by a whopping 20% in that time period. It most certainly did not; Sweden's economy suffered from the war. In year 2000 SEK values, the GDP per capita was 56.6k SEK in 1939, _dropped_ over 10% to 50.0k by 1941, and recovered to 53.8k by 1945. ([numbers from _URL_1_](http://www._URL_1_/htmldatatest2/index.html)) \n\n > they(Sweden)committed the great crime of appeasement ?\n\nDid Sweden commit a 'great crime'? You're taking the two most well known actions of Sweden during the war - transiting and the iron ore trade - and trying to reduce the entirety of what happened to that. Which is to ignore entirely the actions the Swedish government took _against_ the Germans, who they in fact were against. Those are not as well known because unlike the transiting, they were _not_ known at the time. They were highly secret for fear of provoking a German invasion. Sweden's most egregious violation of neutrality was in fact in Norway's favor; starting in 1943, the government secretly trained over 15,000 Norwegians as 'police' to form an army unit of the exile government, which later participated in the liberation of Finnmark Fylke. This was so secret, even the Swedish military leadership wasn't briefed on it until 1944. It is a more severe violation of neutrality than the transiting of unarmed German troops, and a voluntary one at that and not one that Sweden was coerced into.\n\nLikewise, while the Swedish public were well aware of the German troops moving to and from Norway on trains, they were wholly unaware that the Swedish government had allowed the OSS and Norwegian government-in-exile to transit thousands of Norwegian resistance fighters who'd fled to Sweden over to Britain. And more generally the government was aware of the Norwegian Resistance was active on Swedish territory. It wasn't known until decades later that the Swedes broke the German codes during the war and shared some of that information with the Allies. And there are many other things. \n\nBut basically you're taking a point of Swedish wartime self-criticism here and casting it as the defining event of Swedish-Norwegian post-war relations, and it certainly was not. Casting it as Sweden enriching itself at Norway's expense by helping the Nazis is a _huge_ distortion of history.",
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "38882917",
"title": "Operation Graffham",
"section": "Section::::Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
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"text": "Overall the operation appeared to meet few of its initial aims. The political approach did lead to an increased discussion amongst the lower levels of Swedish officialdom as to the possibility of an invasion in Norway. However, it failed to convince the higher levels of government (with the exception of Nordenskiöld, who did not communicate his beliefs to anyone). Even the purchase of Norwegian securities went unnoticed. The overriding belief within the Swedish government was that any invasion of Norway would be diversionary, and that the European mainland would always be the main target of the Allies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "31273000",
"title": "Blockade of Germany (1939–1945)",
"section": "Section::::Third phase.:Sweden.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 163,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 163,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Sweden had long been Germany's main source of high quality iron ore and ball bearings, and continuation of supplies from the port of Narvik, which the British tried to stop with Operation Wilfred was one of the factors which led to the German occupation of Norway. Allied economic warfare experts believed that without the Swedish exports the war would grind to a halt, but Sweden was surrounded by Axis countries and by those occupied by them, and could have herself been occupied at any time if they failed to give Germany what she wanted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2119964",
"title": "History of Scandinavia",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:Second World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 598,
"text": "Alone out of the three Scandinavian countries, Sweden was not invaded and remained nominally neutral during the war. They successfully cultivated peace with the Germans, supplying them with needed raw materials. The Swedish government was very careful to avoid inflaming the Nazis, going so far as to persuade newspaper editors to censor articles, and letting the Nazis move supplies through Sweden and into Norway all the way up to 1943. However, they would occasionally aid the Allies. They granted the Jews that escaped from Denmark asylum and gave notable aid to Finland during the Winter War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "918245",
"title": "Swedish neutrality",
"section": "Section::::Armed neutrality.:Significance of the neutrality policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 880,
"text": "Had the war continued for a longer period of time, Germany or the Allies might have had no choice but to invade Sweden in order to thwart enemy advances. If Germany had been able to sustain its successes on the battlefield beyond 1943, and been capable of bringing the war to an end favorable to its own terms, Sweden would have had no choice but to join the new order of Europe, a new order under the domination of Nazi Germany. Germany would not have allowed a country to exist on the sidelines in the new order of Europe, and Sweden would have had to abandon its policy of neutrality. However, German domination of Europe did not succeed and Sweden was left on its own. Sweden's ability to maintain its policy of neutrality until the war's end was due in large part to luck, since events out of its control played the largest part in the fate of Sweden's policy of neutrality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "489133",
"title": "Sweden during World War II",
"section": "Section::::War.:Winter War.:Possible Allied invasion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 314,
"text": "Meanwhile, the Germans, having suspected an Allied threat, were making their own plans for an invasion of Norway in order to protect their strategic supply lines. The Altmark Incident of 16 February 1940 convinced Hitler that the Allies would not respect Norwegian neutrality, so he ordered plans for an invasion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "489133",
"title": "Sweden during World War II",
"section": "Section::::War.:Occupation of Denmark and Norway.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1078,
"text": "When Germany invaded both Denmark and Norway on April 9, 1940, the 100,000 Swedish soldiers who had been deployed along the Finnish border in northern Sweden were in the process of being demobilized, owing to the end of the Winter War there. Before the outbreak of hostilities, Sweden had had no plans for defending Norway or any defense strategy against a German invasion from the direction of Norway. Moreover, an agreement from the Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905 stated that no fortification was allowed along this border. One of Germany's demands on Sweden, as Germany's invasion progressed, was that Sweden was not to mobilize. However, Sweden re-organized its system of mobilization to allow for personal order by letter to be made possible as an alternative to official proclamation, so that 320,000 men were able to be raised in a few weeks. This was called \"The Organization\" and was barely different from a full mobilization when completed. Sweden also started to build fortifications at the Norwegian border and along the coast of Scania.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38882917",
"title": "Operation Graffham",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "Bevan suggested a political deception with the aim of convincing the Swedish government that the Allies intended to invade Norway. During the war Sweden maintained a neutral position, and had relations with both Axis and the Allied nations. It was therefore assumed that if Sweden believed in an imminent threat to Norway this would be passed on to German intelligence. Graffham was envisioned as an extension of existing pressure the Allies were placing on Sweden to end their neutral stance, one example being the requests to end the export of ball bearings (an important component in military hardware) to Germany. By increasing this pressure with additional, false requests, Bevan hoped to further convince the Germans that Sweden was preparing to join the Allied nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1q7l87
|
need some physics help to explain why or how this works? (xpost from r/lifehacks)
|
[
{
"answer": " > ...mainly just the idea as to whether the flower pots actually do help generate more heat and faster.\n\nDefinitely not. The flower pots are only insulating the heat given off by the candles, so it won't dissipate as fast (the same way a thermos works, essentially). Since the room is so small, and his desk is right next to the \"heater\", it could make a difference.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49023538",
"title": "Materiality turn",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Following Latour (Latour, 2007: 139), the materiality-turn is related to \"the way we move knowledge forward in order to access things that are far away or otherwise inaccessible\" (materiality) or \"the way things move to keep themselves in existence.\" We propose to call this 'matter-iality', to emphasise how things matter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5326179",
"title": "Polhode",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "If energy is dissipated while an object is rotating, this will cause the polhode motion about the axis of maximum inertia (also called the major principal axis) to damp out or stabilize, with the polhode path becoming a smaller and smaller ellipse or circle, closing in on the axis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48938687",
"title": "Absement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "In kinematics, absement (or absition) is a measure of sustained displacement of an object from its initial position, i.e. a measure of how far away and for how long. Absement changes as an object remains displaced and stays constant as the object resides at the initial position. It is the first time-integral of the displacement (the area under a displacement vs. time graph), so the displacement is the rate of change (first time-derivative) of the absement. The dimension of absement is length multiplied by time. Its SI unit is meter second (m·s), which corresponds to an object having been displaced by 1 meter for 1 second. This is not to be confused with a meter per second (m/s), a unit of velocity, the time-derivative of position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "474936",
"title": "Self-oscillation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Self-oscillation is the generation and maintenance of a periodic motion by a source of power that lacks any corresponding periodicity. The oscillator itself controls the phase with which the external power acts on it. Self-oscillators are therefore distinct from forced and parametric resonators, in which the power that sustains the motion must be modulated externally. In linear systems, self-oscillation appears as an instability associated with a negative damping term, which causes small perturbations to grow exponentially in amplitude. This negative damping is due to a positive feedback between the oscillation and the modulation of the external source of power. The amplitude and waveform of steady self-oscillations are determined by the nonlinear characteristics of the system. Self-oscillations are important in physics, engineering, biology, and economics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17318749",
"title": "Deflection (physics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "A deflection, in physics, refers to the change in an object's velocity as a consequence of contact (collision) with a surface or the influence of a field. Examples of the former include a ball bouncing off the ground or a bat; examples of the latter include a beam of electrons used to produce a picture, or the relativistic bending of light due to gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2120343",
"title": "Faraday paradox",
"section": "Section::::Paradoxes in which Faraday's law of induction seems to predict zero EMF but actually predicts non-zero EMF.:Why is this paradoxical?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "The experiment is described by some as a \"paradox\" as it seems, at first sight, to violate Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, because the flux through the disc appears to be the same no matter what is rotating. Hence, the EMF is predicted to be zero in all three cases of rotation. The discussion below shows this viewpoint stems from an incorrect choice of surface over which to calculate the flux.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31196132",
"title": "Warp (2012 video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "The third power is known as Swap. This power is an extension of the echo and allows Zero's echo to swap places with an object of the player's choice. The swap power can be used as an extended warp in many situations. The power will only work when the end destination is an object. If Zero is inside an object while swap is used, the destination object will be placed inside the original object. This causes the internal object to destroy the external object and take its place. This technique can be used to destroy objects/humans and create distractions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1woj0j
|
why is it that when you quit smoking you get sick and cough so much.
|
[
{
"answer": "Nicotine is a physically addictive drug meaning that your body developed a physical dependence on the drug being in your system.\n\nWithout the nicotine your body starts to go through withdrawal symptoms until your nicotine dependence is gone.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically... it's your body's withdrawal symptom reacting to it's extreme addiction to nicotine after not receiving what it thinks it needs. Which is why it's hard for so many people to go cold turkey and need to be weaned off using patches or gum, making your body \"need\" a little less each day. Going cold turkey with smoking is no different than any hardcore drug that your body is addicted to and has an adverse reaction when it's deprived of said addiction. \n\nWhy I'll never understand smoking above anything else. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your respiratory system is lined with small hairs called cilia. These hairs have the job of moving particulates up you lung so you can get rid of them. Tobacco smoke acts kind of like an anesthetic to these cilia. Once the effects of the tobacco wear off the cilia kick back in and voile coughing spell.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "289607",
"title": "Smoking cessation",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.:Depression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "Like other physically addictive drugs, nicotine addiction causes a down-regulation of the production of dopamine and other stimulatory neurotransmitters as the brain attempts to compensate for the artificial stimulation caused by smoking. Therefore, when people stop smoking, depressive symptoms such as suicidal tendencies or actual depression may result, although a recent international study comparing smokers who had stopped for 3 months with continuing smokers found that stopping smoking did not appear to increase anxiety or depression. This side effect of smoking cessation may be particularly common in women, as depression is more common among women than among men.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "289607",
"title": "Smoking cessation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Smoking cessation (also known as quitting smoking or simply quitting) is the process of discontinuing tobacco smoking. Tobacco smoke contains nicotine, which is addictive and can cause dependence. Nicotine withdrawal often makes the process of quitting difficult.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "878764",
"title": "Allen Carr",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "At Allen Carr Clinics during stop-smoking sessions, smokers are allowed to continue smoking while their doubts and fears are removed, with the aim of encouraging and developing the mindset of a non-smoker before the final cigarette is extinguished. A further reason for allowing smokers to smoke while undergoing counselling is Carr's belief that it is more difficult to convince a smoker to stop until they understand the mechanism of \"the nicotine trap\". This is because their attention is diminished while they continue to believe it is traumatic and extremely difficult to quit and continue to maintain the belief that they are dependent on nicotine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "878764",
"title": "Allen Carr",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "Carr teaches that smokers do not receive a boost from smoking a cigarette, and that smoking only relieves the withdrawal symptoms from the previous cigarette, which in turn creates more withdrawal symptoms once \"it\" is finished. In this way the drug addiction perpetuates itself. He asserted that the \"relief\" smokers feel on lighting a cigarette, the feeling of being \"back to normal\", is the feeling experienced by non-smokers all the time. So that smokers, when they light a cigarette are really trying to achieve a state that non-smokers enjoy their whole lives. He further asserted that withdrawal symptoms are actually created by doubt and fear in the mind of the ex-smoker, and therefore that stopping smoking is not as traumatic as is commonly assumed, if that doubt and fear can be removed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30206738",
"title": "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Smoking cessation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "In those who smoke, stopping smoking is the only measure shown to slow down the worsening of COPD. Even at a late stage of the disease, it can reduce the rate of worsening lung function and delay the onset of disability and death. Often, several attempts are required before long-term abstinence is achieved. Attempts over 5 years lead to success in nearly 40% of people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47368939",
"title": "Inflammatory aortic aneurysm",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Tobacco Use: Cigarette smoking and other forms of tobacco use appear to increase the risk of aortic aneurysms. In addition to the damaging effects that smoking causes directly to the arteries, smoking contributes to the buildup of fatty plaques in the arteries (atherosclerosis) and high blood pressure. Smoking may also cause an aneurysm to grow faster by further damaging the aorta.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "289607",
"title": "Smoking cessation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "In nicotine-dependent smokers, quitting smoking can lead to symptoms of nicotine withdrawal such as nicotine cravings, anxiety, irritability, depression, and weight gain. Professional smoking cessation support methods generally attempt to address nicotine withdrawal symptoms to help the person break free of nicotine addiction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mtr5w
|
If the sun suddenly disappeared from the center of the solar system, how long would it take the Earth to freeze and for life on Earth to die off? Minutes? Days? Weeks?
|
[
{
"answer": "There would be no gravitational interaction with the Sun, for the planets to orbi, so they would continue in a straight line in the velocity direction of when the gravitation interaction stopped, they would no longer be \"falling\" towards the Sun. Though if any of the planet's got close enough to eachother they could create their own system - such as an Earth > Jupiter system as opposed to an Earth > Sun system. Hopefully we would avoid crashing through material from the asteroid belt. \n \nAs far as what would happen to life: \n_URL_2_ \n_URL_0_ \n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everything would be fine for about 8 and a half minutes because it would take that long for the light to stop reaching earth. In fact, as strange as it may seem, the Sun's gravity would keep earth in orbit for 8.5 minutes after the sun disappears. The changes in effects of gravity can't travel faster than the speed of light. I think surface life would start to die within days, living for a short time on the heat stored in the earth's crust. The life around the sulfur vents in the bottom of the ocean I think would keep going for decades until the core lost its heat. If I'm not mistaken, the earths core gets its heat because the changes in the suns gravitational effects causes the molten iron to churn and create heat from the friction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There would be no gravitational interaction with the Sun, for the planets to orbi, so they would continue in a straight line in the velocity direction of when the gravitation interaction stopped, they would no longer be \"falling\" towards the Sun. Though if any of the planet's got close enough to eachother they could create their own system - such as an Earth > Jupiter system as opposed to an Earth > Sun system. Hopefully we would avoid crashing through material from the asteroid belt. \n \nAs far as what would happen to life: \n_URL_2_ \n_URL_0_ \n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everything would be fine for about 8 and a half minutes because it would take that long for the light to stop reaching earth. In fact, as strange as it may seem, the Sun's gravity would keep earth in orbit for 8.5 minutes after the sun disappears. The changes in effects of gravity can't travel faster than the speed of light. I think surface life would start to die within days, living for a short time on the heat stored in the earth's crust. The life around the sulfur vents in the bottom of the ocean I think would keep going for decades until the core lost its heat. If I'm not mistaken, the earths core gets its heat because the changes in the suns gravitational effects causes the molten iron to churn and create heat from the friction.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6139438",
"title": "Formation and evolution of the Solar System",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "In roughly 5 billion years, the Sun will cool and expand outward to many times its current diameter (becoming a red giant), before casting off its outer layers as a planetary nebula and leaving behind a stellar remnant known as a white dwarf. In the far distant future, the gravity of passing stars will gradually reduce the Sun's retinue of planets. Some planets will be destroyed, others ejected into interstellar space. Ultimately, over the course of tens of billions of years, it is likely that the Sun will be left with none of the original bodies in orbit around it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24179592",
"title": "Future of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Solar evolution.:Post-red giant stage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "If Earth is not destroyed by the expanding red giant Sun in 7.6 billion years, then on a time scale of 10 (10 quintillion) years the remaining planets in the Solar System will be ejected from the system by violent relaxation. If this does not occur to the Earth, the ultimate fate of the planet will be that it collides with the black dwarf Sun due to the decay of its orbit via gravitational radiation, in 10 (Short Scale: 100 quintillion, Long Scale: 100 trillion) years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6139438",
"title": "Formation and evolution of the Solar System",
"section": "Section::::Future.:The Sun and planetary environments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "As the Sun dies, its gravitational pull on the orbiting bodies such as planets, comets and asteroids will weaken due to its mass loss. All remaining planets' orbits will expand; if Venus, Earth, and Mars still exist, their orbits will lie roughly at , , and . They and the other remaining planets will become dark, frigid hulks, completely devoid of any form of life. They will continue to orbit their star, their speed slowed due to their increased distance from the Sun and the Sun's reduced gravity. Two billion years later, when the Sun has cooled to the 6000–8000K range, the carbon and oxygen in the Sun's core will freeze, with over 90% of its remaining mass assuming a crystalline structure. Eventually, after roughly 1 quadrillion years, the Sun will finally cease to shine altogether, becoming a black dwarf.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24179592",
"title": "Future of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Solar evolution.:Loss of oceans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "By 2.8 billion years from now, the surface temperature of the Earth will have reached , even at the poles. At this point, any remaining life will be extinguished due to the extreme conditions. If all of the water on Earth has evaporated by this point, the planet will stay in the same conditions with a steady increase in the surface temperature until the Sun becomes a red giant. If not, then in about 3–4 billion years the amount of water vapour in the lower atmosphere will rise to 40% and a \"moist greenhouse\" effect will commence once the luminosity from the Sun reaches 35–40% more than its present-day value. A \"runaway greenhouse\" effect will ensue, causing the atmosphere to heat up and raising the surface temperature to around . This is sufficient to melt the surface of the planet. However, most of the atmosphere will be retained until the Sun has entered the red giant stage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9228",
"title": "Earth",
"section": "Section::::Chronology.:Future.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "The Sun will evolve to become a red giant in about . Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly , about 250 times its present radius. Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius. Most, if not all, remaining life will be destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5,000 times its present level). A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will eventually decay due to tidal effects and drag, causing it to enter the Sun's atmosphere and be vaporized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26944827",
"title": "Aftermath (2010 TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.:Red Giant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Life on Earth is dependent on the Sun's light and heat in order to survive, but our Sun won't live forever and eventually it will die one day. However, the Sun's death will not happen for billions of years. What if the Sun started aging rapidly at an accelerated rate?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8111079",
"title": "Gravitational wave",
"section": "Section::::Sources.:Binaries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "In theory, the loss of energy through gravitational radiation could eventually drop the Earth into the Sun. However, the total energy of the Earth orbiting the Sun (kinetic energy + gravitational potential energy) is about 1.14 joules of which only 200 watts (joules per second) is lost through gravitational radiation, leading to a decay in the orbit by about 1 meters per day or roughly the diameter of a proton. At this rate, it would take the Earth approximately 1 times more than the current age of the Universe to spiral onto the Sun. This estimate overlooks the decrease in \"r\" over time, but the majority of the time the bodies are far apart and only radiating slowly, so the difference is unimportant in this example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
qyu3n
|
Why is it that I can see both Venus and Jupiter in the night sky at the same time?
|
[
{
"answer": "You may enjoy [this.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine being on the surface of Earth and looking in the direction of [Venus and Jupiter]( _URL_0_). Also, this gives you a good idea why we can currently see them for just a few hours around sunset right now (in the US at least).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Draw a line from the Earth through Venus and notice that Jupiter is very close as well. [Hopefully this picture explains it all!](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "602678",
"title": "Extraterrestrial skies",
"section": "Section::::Jupiter.:The skies of Jupiter's moons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Because the inner moons of Jupiter are in synchronous rotation around Jupiter, the planet always appears in nearly the same spot in their skies (Jupiter would wiggle a bit because of the non-zero eccentricities). Observers on the sides of the Galilean satellites facing away from the planet would never see Jupiter, for instance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49434",
"title": "Conjunction (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::Notable conjunctions.:2008.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "A conjunction of Venus and Jupiter occurred on 1 December 2008, and several hours later both planets separately reached conjunction with the crescent Moon. An occultation of Venus by the Moon was visible from some locations. The three objects appeared close together in the sky from any location on the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "602678",
"title": "Extraterrestrial skies",
"section": "Section::::Venus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The atmosphere of Venus is so thick that the Sun is not distinguishable in the daytime sky, and the stars are not visible at night. Color images taken by the Soviet Venera probes suggest that the sky on Venus is orange. If the Sun could be seen from Venus's surface, the time from one sunrise to the next (a solar day) would be 116.75 Earth days. Because of Venus's retrograde rotation, the Sun would appear to rise in the west and set in the east.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4323846",
"title": "Identification studies of UFOs",
"section": "Section::::Common causes of misidentification and UFOs.:Venus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Venus is the brightest object in the sky (except for the sun, the moon and the International Space Station), and is often visible in the early evening and morning sky. Even experienced witnesses, especially when they are in unfamiliar surroundings or unusual atmospheric conditions, can fail to identify Venus correctly. However, the location of Venus is easily calculable, and professional astronomers report that many of the phone calls they receive from concerned citizens reporting the presence of a UFO are due to observations of the planet. Astronomer Phil Plait, in particular, has suggested that Venus is responsible for a majority of all UFO reports\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38930",
"title": "Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Observation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, the phase angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth never exceeds 11.5°: Jupiter always appears nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was only during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained. A small telescope will usually show Jupiter's four Galilean moons and the prominent cloud belts across Jupiter's atmosphere. A large telescope will show Jupiter's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49434",
"title": "Conjunction (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::Notable conjunctions.:2002.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Venus, Mars and Saturn appeared close together in the evening sky in early May 2002, with a conjunction of Mars and Saturn occurring on 4 May. This was followed by a conjunction of Venus and Saturn on 7 May, and another of Venus and Mars on 10 May when their angular separation was only 18 arcminutes. A series of conjunctions between the Moon and, in order, Saturn, Mars and Venus took place on 14 May, although it was not possible to observe all these in darkness from any single location on the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58948411",
"title": "Venus in culture",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Near-East.:Mesopotamia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "Because the movements of Venus appear to be discontinuous (it disappears due to its proximity to the Sun, for many days at a time, and then reappears on the other horizon), some cultures did not recognize Venus as single entity; instead, they assumed it to be two separate stars on each horizon: the morning and evening star. Nonetheless, a cylinder seal from the Jemdet Nasr period indicates that the ancient Sumerians already knew that the morning and evening stars were the same celestial object. The Sumerians associated the planet with the goddess Inanna, who was known as Ishtar by the later Akkadians and Babylonians. She had a dual role as a goddess of both love and war, thereby representing a deity that presided over birth and death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6njlvs
|
how is the price of a book determined?
|
[
{
"answer": "Supply and demand. Books with small publishers and high demand are expensive. Famous authors are expensive. Books that are considered up-and-coming stars are given better jackets and priced higher than new books that the publisher has deemed serviceable but not amazing. However, new books cost more than old books because there is more demand for them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "286903",
"title": "Book collecting",
"section": "Section::::Prices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Book prices generally depend on the demand for a given book, the number of copies available for purchase, and the condition of a given copy. As with other collectibles, prices rise and fall with the popularity of a given author, title, or subject.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211295",
"title": "Price",
"section": "Section::::Price point.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "The price of an item is also called the \"price point\", especially where it refers to stores that set a limited number of price points. For example, Dollar General is a general store or \"five and dime\" store that sets price points only at even amounts, such as exactly one, two, three, five, or ten dollars (among others). Other stores will have a policy of setting most of their prices ending in 99 cents or pence. Other stores (such as dollar stores, pound stores, euro stores, 100-yen stores, and so forth) only have a single price point ($1, £1, €1, ¥100), though in some cases this price may purchase more than one of some very small items.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "241629",
"title": "Marketing mix",
"section": "Section::::McCarthy's 4 Ps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Price refers to decisions surrounding \"list pricing, discount pricing, special offer pricing, credit payment or credit terms\". Price refers to the total cost to customer to acquire the product, and may involve both monetary and psychological costs such as the time and effort spent in acquisition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211295",
"title": "Price",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "A price is the quantity of payment or compensation given by one party to another in return for one unit of goods or services.. A price is influenced by both production costs and demand for the product. A price may be determined by a monopolist or may be imposed on the firm by market conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32266803",
"title": "Customer cost",
"section": "Section::::Total consumer cost in contrast to price.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "The term price usually refers to the amount of money charged for a product or service. It represents the payment made by the consumer and received by the producer when the ownership of the product or service is transferred from the seller to the buyer. The price of a product has different functions: for the producer, the most important one is to produce revenues and to cover the costs of production, distribution and sale of a product. Price also signals quality and reflects existing supply and demand. It can promote competitive advantages by helping to achieve various marketing objectives and allowing for market segmentation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8788317",
"title": "Food marketing",
"section": "Section::::Marketing mix.:Price.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Price encompasses the amount of money paid by the consumer in order to purchase the food product. When pricing the food products, the manufacturer must bear in mind that the retailer will add a particular percentage to the price on the wholesale product. This percentage amount differs globally. The percentage is used to pay for the cost of producing, packaging, shipping, storing and selling the food product. For example, the purchasing of a food product in a supermarket selling for $3.50 generates an income of $2.20 for the manufacturer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43371533",
"title": "Indian Sale of Goods Act 1930",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Events and Participants.:Buyer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "\"Price\"refers to money considered for sale of goods. The price in a contract of sale may be fixed by the contract, or may be left to be fixed in manner thereby agreed, or may be determined by the course of dealing between the parties. Where the price is not determined in accordance with the foregoing provisions, the buyer shall pay the seller a reasonable price. Where there is an agreement to sell goods on the terms that- the price is to be fixed by the valuation of a third party, and such third party cannot or does not make such valuation, the agreement is thereby avoided, provided the goods or any part thereof have been delivered to the buyer, and appropriated by the buyer, the buyer shall pay a reasonable price.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
53ua2z
|
Why are face transplants so rough?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are so many nerve endings. Not like with most plastic surgery, where it's one area of the face that is fixed. This is an *entire face*. \n\nI would assume there's a lot of tissue damage/tissue death involved as well. It's just a really difficult task.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi, I'm new to /r/askscience.\nCan we continue asking relevant questions? \nFor instance, what if someone responds to the OP saying \"What could make the job easier? Do you know of any current methods used to partially deal with the issues?\" Or \"are partial skin grafts...\"\nAnd so on... \nI figure someone can help. \nPlease, don't ban. Lol. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1000053",
"title": "Face transplant",
"section": "Section::::Beneficiaries of face transplant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "An alternative to a face transplant is facial reconstruction, which typically involves moving the patient's own skin from their back, buttocks, thighs, or chest to their face in a series of as many as 50 operations to regain even limited functionality, and a face that is often likened to a mask or a living quilt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "224101",
"title": "Moustache",
"section": "Section::::Development and care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "In the Middle East, there is a growing trend for moustache transplants, which involves undergoing a procedure called follicular unit extraction in order to attain fuller, and more impressive facial hair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19760103",
"title": "Isabelle Dinoire",
"section": "Section::::Partial face transplant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "The first partial face transplant surgery on a living human was performed on Dinoire on 27 November 2005 by Professor Bernard Devauchelle, assisted by Professor Jean-Michel Dubernard at the Centre hospitalier Universitaire Nord in Amiens, France. A triangle of face tissue, including the nose and mouth, was taken from a brain-dead female donor and grafted onto the patient. Scientists elsewhere had performed scalp and ear transplants, but the claim was the first for the transplant of a mouth and nose, the most difficult parts of the face to transplant. Dinoire was also given bone marrow cells to prevent rejection of the tissue. According to \"The Times\", she had signed a contract with British documentary maker Michael Hughes before the operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31272598",
"title": "Bohdan Pomahač",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Face transplants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Although face transplants were not the centre of his research work, by 2004 he became increasingly interested in the subject and devoted much of his free time to it. Great incentive came when Pomahač met Isabelle Dinoire, the first person to undergo partial face transplant in 2005 in France. Dinoire told him that if the face had not been accepted, she was ready to undergo the procedure again. When Pomahač asked another patient why he sought repeated surgery, he told the doctor: “I just want a cab to stop when I’m at the curb.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1000053",
"title": "Face transplant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "A face transplant is a medical procedure to replace all or part of a person's face using tissue from a donor. The world's first partial face transplant on a living human was carried out in France in 2005. The world's first full face transplant was completed in Spain in 2010. Turkey, France, the United States and Spain (in order of total number of successful face transplants performed) are considered the leading countries in the research into the procedure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1000053",
"title": "Face transplant",
"section": "Section::::History.:Full face transplant.:In the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "The first full face transplant performed in the US was done on a construction worker named Dallas Wiens in March 2011. He was burned in an electrical accident in 2008. This operation, performed by Bohdan Pomahač and Jeffrey Janis, was paid for with the help of the US defense department. They hope to learn from this procedure and use what they learn to help soldiers suffering from facial injuries. One of the top benefits of the surgery was that Dallas has regained his sense of smell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7635760",
"title": "Peter Butler (surgeon)",
"section": "Section::::Face transplantation, tissue engineering and stem cell research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "Some news outlets speculated at the time that their team was likely to be the first to perform such a transplant. However, Butler stated in a 27 October press release that their team \"will not be rushed\" and \"It may be some time before we are ready to carry out an operation.\" The costs of the operation is funded by a charity, the Face Trust, set up by Butler in 2006. Patient selection for facial transplantation is ongoing. It has been reported by Butler that there has been significant difficulty in obtaining facial tissue donation in the UK but with more facial transplants performed worldwide that it may become more acceptable in the UK in the future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ffh5o
|
How effective were ironclad warships?
|
[
{
"answer": "As /u/Superplaner pointed out, the lack of many notable clashes in the short span where Ironclad Battleships were the Queen of the Seas makes judging their effectiveness a little hard to manage. One of the few we have is the Battle of Hampton Roads, and all the evidence points to the Union Fleet's Dahlgren guns being especially ineffective for the purpose of armor penetration, while other guns available at the time might very well have torn the CSS Virginia to pieces.\n\nI got into a friendly debate on just this matter only last week in another thread, and while I don't think we reached a truly satisfactory conclusion to it, [the chain may at least highlight some of the issues](_URL_0_). \n\nAs you can see, it was mainly centered around the states of the Royal Navy and American Navy in the mid to late 1860s, so is not terribly applicable for later developments seen in the 1880s and 1890s, when breech-loaders in turrets became the norm. One of the most notable incidents we have of wood v. iron is the Battle of Hampton Roads, and all the evidence points to the Union Fleet's Dahlgren guns being especially ineffective for the purpose of armor penetration, while other guns available at the time might very well have torn the CSS Virginia to pieces. As I quoted in the linked thread, this section from a British publication in 1869 entitled \"Our Iron-clad Ships\" has this to say on the merits of American guns vis-a-vis British:\n\n > The Americans, as is well known, have followed a different system in the development of their naval guns, preferring to have a heavy projectile of large size with a comparatively low velocity, instead of an elongated projectile of less weight moving at a high velocity. The American system has been well termed the 'racking' or \"battering\" system, in opposition to our own method, which is known as the \"punching\" system. In carrying out their plan, the Americans have adopted guns of 9, 11, 13, 15, and even 20-inch calibre, and guns of 25-inch calibre and upwards are said to be contemplated. These large guns are almost without exception of cast iron, and nearly all are smooth-bores throwing cast-iron spherical shot. [...] Great differences of opinion prevail with respect to the comparative merits of our own and American guns. [...] Captain Noble shows that the American 15-inch gun, charged with 50 lbs. of our powder, and throwing a spherical steel shot weighing 484 lbs., would fail to penetrate the Lord Warden's side at any range' while our 9-inch 12-ton gun, with a 43-lb. charge, would send its 250-lb. shot through her at a range of 1000 yards. He also states that the 15-inch gun would not penetrate the 'Warrior' beyond a distance of 500 yards, while our 7-inch 6-ton guns (weighing about one-third as much as the 15-inch gun) would do the same with a charge of 22 lbs. of powder and a 115-lb. shot ; and the 12-ton gun would penetrate up to 2000 yards. It must be remembered that, instead of the steel shot hero supposed to be used with the 15-inch gun, cast-iron shot are really employed by the Americans; and this tends to increased superiority in our guns as respects penetrating power. There can be little or no doubt that the American guns have greater battering power; the real question at issue is, as before stated, the relative merits of penetration, and racking or battering.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For the American Civil War part.\n\nI think the battle at Hampton Roads made it clear that wooden ships would not stand an Ironclad. Keep always in mind the different scenarios, it is very difficult to generalize because what happened in the American Civil War would not necessary apply to the scenarios that British and French would encounter, for instance intensive river warfare in the American Civil War as opposed to open seas operations for British and French; still clear that wood could not stand iron.\n\nThe debate provided by Georgy_K_Zhukov is in fact quite interesting an often forgotten. I will add few things on top of him however. At Hampton Roads the CSS Virginia had installed both smooth bore and rifled artillery while the USS Monitor used just 2 smooth bore cannons in its single revolving turret. Accounts says that the USS Monitor salvos would many times bounce off Virginia plated hull although it managed to inflict other damage. However we know that USS Monitor gunners loaded the guns with a powder charge almost half the power of the recommended one in fear of explosions, noise and recoil in such a confined space (and the turret so new technology too still to be proved). Later tests seem to have shown that have the gunners used the right load of powder the solid shot would have pierced the Virginia protection given the close range at which the engagement took place, at that range the Dahlgren pieces must have delivered a very powerful punch.\n\nIn the last part of the war a naval engagement at the English Channel off the French coast brought together the USS Kearsarge (with both smooth bores and rifled cannons) and the CSS Alabama. Although not an ironclad the USS vessel had an armor clad in its midsections, all experts seem to agree that this provided a decisive advantage over the CSS vessel ending in its destruction.\n\nSources.\n\n- Reign of Iron: The Story of the First Battling Ironclads, the Monitor and the Merrimack by James Nelson\n\n- Blue & Gray at Sea: Naval Memoirs of the Civil War by Brian M Thomsen and Brian Thomsen\n\n- _URL_0_\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25112450",
"title": "Italia-class ironclad",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "They were very large and fast warships for their time, displacing over 15,000 tons at full load; could make , while could achieve . Other ironclads of the era could not make more than . Their high speed, powerful main battery, and thin armor protection has led to many naval historians to characterize the ships as proto-battlecruisers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2147",
"title": "Armour",
"section": "Section::::Vehicle.:History.:Ships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Ironclads were designed for several roles, including as high seas battleships, coastal defence ships, and long-range cruisers. The rapid evolution of warship design in the late 19th century transformed the ironclad from a wooden-hulled vessel which carried sails to supplement its steam engines into the steel-built, turreted battleships and cruisers familiar in the 20th century. This change was pushed forward by the development of heavier naval guns (the ironclads of the 1880s carried some of the heaviest guns ever mounted at sea), more sophisticated steam engines, and advances in metallurgy which made steel shipbuilding possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251489",
"title": "Ironclad warship",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Ironclads were designed for several roles, including as high seas battleships, coastal defense ships, and long-range cruisers. The rapid development of warship design in the late 19th century transformed the ironclad from a wooden-hulled vessel that carried sails to supplement its steam engines into the steel-built, turreted battleships and cruisers familiar in the 20th century. This change was pushed forward by the development of heavier naval guns (the ironclads of the 1880s carried some of the heaviest guns ever mounted at sea at the time), more sophisticated steam engines, and advances in metallurgy which made steel shipbuilding possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "5235058",
"title": "HMS Defence (1861)",
"section": "Section::::Design and description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "The \"Defence\"-class ironclads were designed as smaller and cheaper versions of the armoured frigates. This meant that they could not fit the same powerful engines of the \"Warrior\"-class ships and were therefore slower and had far fewer guns. The naval architect Sir Nathaniel Barnaby, a future Constructor of the Navy, considered that in terms of combat a \"Defence\"-class ship was worth one quarter of a \"Warrior\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5236214",
"title": "HMS Resistance (1861)",
"section": "Section::::Design and description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The \"Defence\"-class ironclads were designed as smaller and cheaper versions of the armoured frigates. This meant that they could not fit the same powerful engines of the \"Warrior\"-class ships and were therefore slower and had far fewer guns. The naval architect Sir Nathaniel Barnaby, a future Constructor of the Navy, considered that, in terms of combat, a \"Defence\"-class ship was worth one quarter of a \"Warrior\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7034",
"title": "Cruiser",
"section": "Section::::Steam cruisers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "Unarmored cruising warships, built out of wood, iron, steel or a combination of those materials, remained popular until towards the end of the 19th century. The ironclad's armor often meant that they were limited to short range under steam, and many ironclads were unsuited to long-range missions or for work in distant colonies. The unarmored cruiser – often a screw sloop or screw frigate – could continue in this role. Even though mid- to late-19th century cruisers typically carried up-to-date guns firing explosive shells, they were unable to face ironclads in combat. This was evidenced by the clash between , a modern British cruiser, and the Peruvian monitor \"Huáscar\". Even though the Peruvian vessel was obsolete by the time of the encounter, it stood up well to roughly 50 hits from British shells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "251489",
"title": "Ironclad warship",
"section": "Section::::Armament and tactics.:Development of naval guns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
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"text": "The armament of ironclads tended to become concentrated in a small number of powerful guns capable of penetrating the armor of enemy ships at range; calibre and weight of guns increased markedly to achieve greater penetration. Throughout the ironclad era navies also grappled with the complexities of rifled versus smoothbore guns and breech-loading versus muzzle-loading.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
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] | null |
2mdtnf
|
At roughly what time in history did European weapons become technologically superior to those found in the rest of the world?
|
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"answer": "Why were the comments deleted? ",
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"answer": "So, apparently the people who answered you removed all their comments. So I'll try and give you some basic guidelines, but this is pretty far from my expertise:\n\n1) First of all, the level of technology did and still does vary drastically across the world.\n\nAn important thing to realise is that technology is not just knowledge, it's also the infrastructure to use that knowledge. People like the steppe nomads wouldn't have much advanced technology, because the climate they lived in and the way of life that climate required did not support the development of the complex chains of trade and industry necessary to create more advanced technology. Not because they'd be too dumb or culturally backward to learn it if necessary. *(EDIT: or maybe it's more complicated than that, see /u/siqr below)*\n\nAlso, while I'll leave the why to actual experts, size matters. Eurasia+North Africa was one continuously connected cultural sphere, and because of its size it was generally technologically ahead of the unconnected Americas.\n\n2) Second, technology is not one behemoth. Different people could excel in different things. When it came to shipbuilding I believe the Europeans were ahead of the rest of the world from around the 16th century. But part of this was simply that only the Europeans were interested in building large complex ocean-going vessels. For example the Japanese build a Western-style ship under Jesuit guidance, and [sailed to Mexico in 1614](_URL_0_). But never had any interest in trading with and exploring the world like the Europeans did.\n\n3) This also moves to the heart of your question. In general, this question is difficult to answer because for a long time what was one of the centres of technology in the Eurasian sphere, East-Asia, was simply not interested in developing the same technologies Europe did. If you're talking general scientific knowledge, then assuming there weren't any highly developed scientific communities I'm not aware of, Europe began pulling ahead from the start of the Renaissance, and you could probably jot down 1600 as a year when Europe's scientific knowledge is the best. The reason I'm picking it is because around then we have the invention of the microscope and telescope, which are the easiest examples I could think of where Western inventions are reaching new horizons in human knowledge.\n\n4) But if you want a clear and simple answer regarding European military superiority: The moment when Europe gained a truly vast and insurmountable lead over the rest of the world is the Industrial Revolution. It is no coincidence that the [Opium Wars](_URL_1_), the first time China was humiliated by a Western power, happened in 1839. Before the industrial revolution, even though the Europeans were ahead in certain respects, they were not so far ahead that China could not kick them out of their own country if they pleased.\n\nAfterwards, European powers could do essentially what they want, as it was virtually impossible for an unindustrialised nation to withstand an industrialised one.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "15316",
"title": "Imperialism",
"section": "Section::::Justification.:Age of Imperialism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "Along with advancements in communication, Europe also continued to advance in military technology. European chemists made new explosives that made artillery much more deadly. By the 1880s, the machine gun had become a reliable battlefield weapon. This technology gave European armies an advantage over their opponents, as armies in less-developed countries were still fighting with arrows, swords, and leather shields (e.g. the Zulus in Southern Africa during the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879).. Some exceptions of armies that managed to get nearly on par with the European expeditions and standards include the Ethiopian armies at the Battle of Adwa, the Chinese Ever Victorious Army and the Japanese Imperial Army of Japan, but these still relied heavily on weapon imports from Europe and often on European military advisors and adventurers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "9240851",
"title": "Renaissance technology",
"section": "Section::::Basic technology.:15th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "The technologies that developed in Europe during the second half of the 15th century were commonly associated by authorities of the time with a key theme in Renaissance thought: the rivalry of the Moderns and the Ancients. Three inventions in particular — the printing press, firearms, and the nautical compass — were indeed seen as evidence that the Moderns could not only compete with the Ancients, but had surpassed them, for these three inventions allowed modern people to communicate, exercise power, and finally travel at distances unimaginable in earlier times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1390149",
"title": "Medieval technology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "European technical advancements from the 12th to 14th centuries were either built on long-established techniques in medieval Europe, originating from Roman and Byzantine antecedents, or adapted from cross-cultural exchanges through trading networks with the Islamic world, China, and India. Often, the revolutionary aspect lay not in the act of invention itself, but in its technological refinement and application to political and economic power. Though gunpowder along with other weapons had been started by Chinese, it was the Europeans who developed and perfected its military potential, precipitating European expansion and eventual imperialism in the Modern Era.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "31169992",
"title": "Military-digital complex",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1089,
"text": "Technology has been a part of war since the dawn of warfare. Neolithic tools such as daggers were used as weaponry and clan rivalry long before recorded history. The bronze age and iron age saw technological improvements namely in the advancements of weaponry and subsequently the arrival of complex industries. It was not until the late 19th and early 20th Century that weaponry advanced in leaps and bounds to the armaments mankind witnesses today, however even then industry was relatively independent of the government and military. World War I and World War II were two important factors that led to the consequent military-industrial complex. Eric Hobsbawm in his book \"Age of Extremes\" outlines how categorically countries like Japan, USA and Russia had to develop their own military industry to support their militaristic efforts, creating a complex whereby the economies then straddled on this arms industry. Consequently, the procurement of missiles, ballistics, nuclear weapons, destroyers and submarines shows a marked difference between the ancient acquisitions of countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "1012887",
"title": "Early modern warfare",
"section": "Section::::Use of gunpowder before the 16th century.:Spread of gunpowder weapons.:Gunpowder revolution or evolution?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "The advances in gunpowder technology experienced by Western Europe around the 1500s sparks scholarly debate on whether this was a major military revolution or just an element in wider military evolutions. The debates usually focus on Western Europe but scholars such as Tonio Andrade assert that this involves other civilizations as well, noting that along with European civilizations, the 14th century Ottoman civilization constructed different gunpowder weaponry from those initial produced by the Chinese. Scholars such Andrade explain that the knowledge of guns and gunpowder alone was not what gave Western Europe an advantage in warfare; it was due to many elements, involving warfare culture, difference in fortification, and frequency of warfare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32831625",
"title": "Royal Burmese armed forces",
"section": "Section::::Military technology.:Widening technology gap with European powers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "The quality gap between locally manufactured guns and European arms continued to widen as new rapid advances in technology and mass production in Europe quickly outstripped the pace of developments in Asia. Important developments were the invention of the flintlock musket and mass production of cast-iron cannon in Europe. The flintlock was much faster, more reliable and more user-friendly than the unwieldy matchlock, which required one hand to hold the barrel, and another to adjust the match and pull the trigger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1323516",
"title": "Military history of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Colonial era.:Frontier warfare, 1788–1934.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1255,
"text": "Central to the success of the Europeans was the use of firearms. However, the advantages afforded by firearms have often been overstated. Prior to the late 19th century, firearms were often cumbersome muzzle-loading, smooth-bore, single shot muskets with flint-lock mechanisms. Such weapons produced a low rate of fire, while suffering from a high rate of failure and were only accurate within . These deficiencies may have initially given the Aborigines an advantage, allowing them to move in close and engage with spears or clubs. Yet by 1850 significant advances in firearms gave the Europeans a distinct advantage, with the six-shot Colt revolver, the Snider single shot breech-loading rifle and later the Martini-Henry rifle, as well as rapid-fire rifles such as the Winchester rifle, becoming available. These weapons, when used on open ground and combined with the superior mobility provided by horses to surround and engage groups of Aborigines, often proved successful. The Europeans also had to adapt their tactics to fight their fast-moving, often hidden enemies. Tactics employed included night-time surprise attacks, and positioning forces to drive the natives off cliffs or force them to retreat into rivers while attacking from both banks.\n",
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] | null |
2bdgtw
|
what are the major differences between aerobic and anaerobic exercise?
|
[
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"answer": "Aerobic exercises are often classified as cardio and endurance work outs. They focus on doing light exercises for long periods of time to help the blood flow and help muscle groups learn to work for extended periods of time. This is what's most often recommended for people who are working out just to lose weight, because it consumes lots of calories. Aerobic exercises literally mean \"pertaining to the freedom of oxygen\" meaning that you are getting enough oxygen through your system to keep going for long periods of time.\n\nThe most simple aerobic exercise is jogging/running, not sprinting, not dashes, but taking the dog for a walk or going for a jog around the block. Other ones include steppers, light swimming and cycling. These are designed to get your heart racing, and leave you breathing heavy, but not cause you to pant, heave or feel dizzy.\n\nAnaerobic exercise means \"pertaining to the lack of oxygen\" these are shorter, more intense work outs designed to build muscle, speed and strength. The lack of oxygen to your body causes lactic acid build up, which is what causes \"the burn\". If you are trying to do a power workout and don't feel it, you may need to step it up, but in contrast, if you are running and feel it, take a breather.\n\nSome widely done anaerobic workouts are push-ups, sprints, bench press, etc. Which are done in sets which are subdivided into reps. Sets should not exceed a minute or two, with a break in between.\n\n\nIn all, it depends on what you want to do. If you just want to trim some fat, throw on the running shoes and start running, but if you want to build muscle you grab some weights and start pumping.",
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"wikipedia_id": "309208",
"title": "Aerobic exercise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Aerobic exercise (also known as cardio) is physical exercise of low to high intensity that depends primarily on the aerobic energy-generating process. \"Aerobic\" means \"relating to, involving, or requiring free oxygen\", and refers to the use of oxygen to adequately meet energy demands during exercise via aerobic metabolism. Generally, light-to-moderate intensity activities that are sufficiently supported by aerobic metabolism can be performed for extended periods of time. What is generally called aerobic exercise might be better termed \"solely aerobic\", because it is designed to be low-intensity enough so that all carbohydrates are aerobically turned into energy.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "34760961",
"title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "Aerobic exercise induces short- and long-term effects on mood and emotional states by promoting positive affect, inhibiting negative affect, and decreasing the biological response to acute psychological stress. Over the short-term, aerobic exercise functions as both an antidepressant and euphoriant, whereas consistent exercise produces general improvements in mood and self-esteem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "166394",
"title": "Aerobics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Aerobics is a form of physical exercise that combines rhythmic aerobic exercise with stretching and strength training routines with the goal of improving all elements of fitness (flexibility, muscular strength, and cardio-vascular fitness). It is usually performed to music and may be practiced in a group setting led by an instructor (fitness professional), although it can be done solo and without musical accompaniment. With the goal of preventing illness and promoting physical fitness, practitioners perform various routines comprising a number of different dance-like exercises. Formal aerobics classes are divided into different levels of intensity and complexity.Will have five components: warm-up (5–10 minutes), cardiovascular conditioning (25–30 minutes), muscular strength and conditioning (10–15 minutes), cool-down (5–8 minutes) and stretching and flexibility (5–8 minutes). Aerobics classes may allow participants to select their level of participation according to their fitness level. Many gyms offer a variety of aerobic classes. Each class is designed for a certain level of experience and taught by a certified instructor with a specialty area related to their particular class.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2012158",
"title": "Aerobic conditioning",
"section": "Section::::Effect of aerobic conditioning on maximum oxygen intake (Vo2).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "Aerobic conditioning has many advantages over anaerobic as it can increase physical endurance and lifespan. During aerobic training, the aim is to improve the blood flow to the lungs, heart, and blood vessels. This particular type of training targets large muscle groups so that as the intensity of physical activity is increased, overall fitness is improved. There are many benefits to aerobic training, and the outcomes can be very rewarding. Aerobic conditioning can increase the duration that one can endure physical activity. This type of conditioning can help with heart disease, diabetes, or anxiety. Aerobic conditioning also has many non-medical benefits, such as improving mood, alleviating fatigue and stabilizing sleeping patterns. This overall type of conditioning has the most longevity to its practice and can improve a person's health and general well being immensely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "309208",
"title": "Aerobic exercise",
"section": "Section::::What qualifies as aerobic exercise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
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"text": "Aerobic exercise comprises innumerable forms. In general, it is performed at a moderate level of intensity over a relatively long period of time. For example, running a long distance at a moderate pace is an aerobic exercise, but sprinting is not. Playing singles tennis, with near-continuous motion, is generally considered aerobic activity, while golf or two person team tennis, with brief bursts of activity punctuated by more frequent breaks, may not be predominantly aerobic. Some sports are thus inherently \"aerobic\", while other aerobic exercises, such as fartlek training or aerobic dance classes, are designed specifically to improve aerobic capacity and fitness. It is most common for aerobic exercises to involve the leg muscles, primarily or exclusively. There are some exceptions. For example, rowing to distances of 2,000 meters or more is an aerobic sport that exercises several major muscle groups, including those of the legs, abdominals, chest, and arms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "892484",
"title": "Anaerobic exercise",
"section": "Section::::Metabolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "In contrast, aerobic exercise includes lower intensity activities performed for longer periods of time. Activities such as walking, long slow runs, rowing, and cycling require a great deal of oxygen to generate the energy needed for prolonged exercise (i.e., aerobic energy expenditure). In sports which require repeated short bursts of exercise however, the anaerobic system enables muscles to recover for the next burst. Therefore, training for many sports demands that both energy producing systems be developed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "189037",
"title": "Exercise",
"section": "Section::::Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 406,
"text": "BULLET::::- Aerobic exercise is any physical activity that uses large muscle groups and causes the body to use more oxygen than it would while resting. The goal of aerobic exercise is to increase cardiovascular endurance. Examples of aerobic exercise include running, cycling, swimming, brisk walking, skipping rope, rowing, hiking, dancing, playing tennis, continuous training, and long distance running.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
k9zbq
|
please explain me why some people believe the world trade center catastrophy was a conspiracy act
|
[
{
"answer": "There are conspiracy theories on every subject imaginable (the most ridiculous within the past 30 days would probably be [this](_URL_1_) ), so it shouldn't be particularly surprising that there are conspiracy theories about 9/11. My experience arguing with \"truthers\" is that they generally don't understand the physics of what happened that day.\n\nFor instance, a common argument tends to be that the fires within the towers could not have been hot enough to melt steel; however, you don't need to completely melt a chunk of metal in order to compromise its strength. Another argument is that traces of thermite were found in the rubble of the towers; however, thermite isn't a particularly exotic material, since it is composed of aluminum powder and rust.\n\nIf I had more time, I'd go into a lot more detail, but the [Loose Change Viewer Guide](_URL_0_) debunks much of Loose Change, which is the bible of conspiracies for a lot of truthers.\n\n",
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"answer": "I don't want to get into a huge flame war, so I'm not going to try and explain myself. I'll instead leave you [this link](_URL_0_).",
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"answer": "Because people in the US (including myself) aren't used to seeing buildings turned into piles of debris. That *shouldn't* happen.\n",
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"answer": "The human mind is very good at finding patterns. It was necessary for survival, being able to pick out someone in a dense forest or hear someone sneaking up on you over background noise.\n\nBut sometimes it works too well, and people see patterns that aren't really there, like when you see a ducky and a bunny rabbit in the clouds.\n\nSome people refuse to believe the patterns they see aren't real. They pick out the 2 or 3 facts that support their view, and ignore the 100 that don't. The fall in love with their idea, and refuse to let it go, and when challenged, it becomes less about the truth and more about being right. And the more they fight, the harder it is to admit they are wrong, so they just keep on fighting, no matter what.\n\nThis is why people believe things that are not true.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Because if 9/11 was not committed by our Govt. It would be one of the first times our country did not attack us to get us involved with a conflict we have no reasoning to get involved with. Is the Gulf of Tonkin incident a conspiracy theory to you? Or was FDR ignoring the reports of an oncoming fleet of Japanese war planes heading for the U.S. that would get us involved in WWII a conspiracy to you? What about our actions in Panama? All of these were sited as \"Conspiracy\" when they were mentioned in the times they took place. Now we know the truth. The fact that there are so many questionable events on that day causes overally rational people to question things. Jesus building 7 is enough to make you wonder. Some people don't believe everything their Govt. tells them. Time will tell. ",
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{
"answer": "LIHOP theory - our government Let It Happen On Purpose",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "No one here actually explained anything about why people believe its a conspiracy act. I, myself, **do not** believe any of this, but this is what is said. Whether any of it is true, I do not know.\n\n1. There have been only 6 times in history that a steel building has fallen due to fires. 4 of them happened the WTC buildings. 2 were poorly constructed buildings.\n2. Building 7 was located across the street from the twin towers, and also fell due to controllable fires apparently. It was hit with debris from the towers collapsing. Going back to #1 this is hard to believe given that no plane hit this building. Would a fire get spread when a building falls and rubble hits another building? WTC 7 is also said to have been the control center where all the planning was done and was taken down to destroy the evidence. Some of the floors were government controlled.\n3. If you watch the videos, you can see people standing in the holes left by the plane. If people were there, the fire must not have been that strong. Combine that with #1 and #2.\n4. The designer of the towers said specifically that both buildings were designed to withstand 2 planes hitting them.\n5. The head of security at the WTC buildings was the younger brother of George W. Bush, whose 2 year contract ended on the day of the attacks. Also someone claimed a multimillion dollar insurance policy afterwards.\n6. Some people looked at the moment the buildings were collapsing and noticed small explosions that looked like controlled demolition .\n7. The Pentagon was said to have been hit by the same type of plane, a 767, yet there is no lawn damage in front of the building at all. Also some windows right next to the damaged portion of the building are in tact. Also the hole in the pentagon is smaller the width of the wings of a 767.\n8. A passport was found for Mohammed Atta, one of the attackers outside the rubble of the collapsed towers. A paper passport from inside the plane, that exploded with enough fire and heat to bring down a building survived after the towers collapsed.\n9. The steel after the towers collapsed was quickly destroyed. People would have liked it to have been saved so it could have been studied to find the cause of the collapse.\n\nI'm sure there are more, but thats is all I can remember off the top of my head.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "There is nothing really special about 9/11 with regard to conspiracy theories.\n\nConspiracy theories exploit a general weakness in the human mind for seeking patterns and explanations for things in excess of a corresponding regard for the validity of such explanations. This is especially true of events that have had a large emotional impact on people, such as the various events of 9/11/01.\n\nAs people start to question the theory, people who feel the need to perpetuate it, start devising elaborate explanations for all the missing pieces and holes in the theory. A lot of energy and effort can go into this. Very often these explanations will be shown to be false, but rather than resetting their bearings and rethinking their original theory some of the conspiracy theorists will typically double down, by simply discarding any explanation that was unconvincing and replacing them with different explanations. They keep iterating this process doing it over and over again until they get theories that are not easily or obviously rejected/debunked on first examination.\n\nConspiracy theorists hold their theory constant, and just keep varying the explanations to find the one most convincing and most consistent with their theory. The key problem with this is that they don't proceed from an objective intent to test their theory -- anything which contradicts their theory is discarded, it is not taken as evidence against their theory.\n\nFor people who don't normally buy into conspiracy theories or dismiss the early versions of them, they are usually not as motivated to continue to test the conspiracy theory and so don't build up counter claims or critical tests to debunk them -- after all, they were never convinced by them in the first place. So over time this imbalance of effort creates an *artificial appearance* of robust support for the conspiracy theory while counter-claims don't seem as credible. This leads to the theory becoming very attractive to people who don't realize this is happening.\n\nThe key fallacy that most conspiracy theories embrace is a failure to fairly consider alternative explanations for their observations. So for example, one of the key claims of the 9/11 \"truthers\" is that the towers collapsed in a way that is \"consistent with a controlled demolition\". They literally ignore and are hoping their audience also ignores the fact that the \"official story\" (i.e.: burning + melting + pancake collapse theory) might also happen to appear consistent with a controlled demolition (as might *any* critical structural building collapse). This very simple possibility is never addressed by \"truthers\". By ignoring this, they are hoping their audience ignores it and therefore makes their own argument look much stronger than it is.\n\nYou have to have a somewhat logical mind, or be familiar with core scientific principles in order to catch problems with conspiracy theories that are constructed this way. And you have to put an effort into following the threads in the first place. Failing that, popular conspiracy theories (including crop circles, JFK assassination, Saddam's so called WMDs, the idea that the scientific community censor creationist papers and are fooling people with \"evolution\" etc) grow a life of their own with adherents that accumulate because they don't know better, or have an emotional investment in the theory.",
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"answer": "I'm surprised no one has brought up [operation northwoods]( _URL_0_). A proposed series of false flag terrorist attacks on the U.S. in the mid 1960's that would be blamed on Cuba giving the government an excuse to invade Cuba. \n\nI'm still on the fence when it comes to my opinion on whether or not 9/11 was an inside job. But the evidence is pretty compelling. ",
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"answer": "Even the official explanation is a story of conspiracy.\n\nNo one disputes that the attacks of sept. 11th were the result of a conspiracy.\n\nA better request would be, \"Please explain to me why the sept. 11th attacks could only have happened with the cooperation of the US Government\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are conspiracy theories on every subject imaginable (the most ridiculous within the past 30 days would probably be [this](_URL_1_) ), so it shouldn't be particularly surprising that there are conspiracy theories about 9/11. My experience arguing with \"truthers\" is that they generally don't understand the physics of what happened that day.\n\nFor instance, a common argument tends to be that the fires within the towers could not have been hot enough to melt steel; however, you don't need to completely melt a chunk of metal in order to compromise its strength. Another argument is that traces of thermite were found in the rubble of the towers; however, thermite isn't a particularly exotic material, since it is composed of aluminum powder and rust.\n\nIf I had more time, I'd go into a lot more detail, but the [Loose Change Viewer Guide](_URL_0_) debunks much of Loose Change, which is the bible of conspiracies for a lot of truthers.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't want to get into a huge flame war, so I'm not going to try and explain myself. I'll instead leave you [this link](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because people in the US (including myself) aren't used to seeing buildings turned into piles of debris. That *shouldn't* happen.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The human mind is very good at finding patterns. It was necessary for survival, being able to pick out someone in a dense forest or hear someone sneaking up on you over background noise.\n\nBut sometimes it works too well, and people see patterns that aren't really there, like when you see a ducky and a bunny rabbit in the clouds.\n\nSome people refuse to believe the patterns they see aren't real. They pick out the 2 or 3 facts that support their view, and ignore the 100 that don't. The fall in love with their idea, and refuse to let it go, and when challenged, it becomes less about the truth and more about being right. And the more they fight, the harder it is to admit they are wrong, so they just keep on fighting, no matter what.\n\nThis is why people believe things that are not true.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because if 9/11 was not committed by our Govt. It would be one of the first times our country did not attack us to get us involved with a conflict we have no reasoning to get involved with. Is the Gulf of Tonkin incident a conspiracy theory to you? Or was FDR ignoring the reports of an oncoming fleet of Japanese war planes heading for the U.S. that would get us involved in WWII a conspiracy to you? What about our actions in Panama? All of these were sited as \"Conspiracy\" when they were mentioned in the times they took place. Now we know the truth. The fact that there are so many questionable events on that day causes overally rational people to question things. Jesus building 7 is enough to make you wonder. Some people don't believe everything their Govt. tells them. Time will tell. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "LIHOP theory - our government Let It Happen On Purpose",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No one here actually explained anything about why people believe its a conspiracy act. I, myself, **do not** believe any of this, but this is what is said. Whether any of it is true, I do not know.\n\n1. There have been only 6 times in history that a steel building has fallen due to fires. 4 of them happened the WTC buildings. 2 were poorly constructed buildings.\n2. Building 7 was located across the street from the twin towers, and also fell due to controllable fires apparently. It was hit with debris from the towers collapsing. Going back to #1 this is hard to believe given that no plane hit this building. Would a fire get spread when a building falls and rubble hits another building? WTC 7 is also said to have been the control center where all the planning was done and was taken down to destroy the evidence. Some of the floors were government controlled.\n3. If you watch the videos, you can see people standing in the holes left by the plane. If people were there, the fire must not have been that strong. Combine that with #1 and #2.\n4. The designer of the towers said specifically that both buildings were designed to withstand 2 planes hitting them.\n5. The head of security at the WTC buildings was the younger brother of George W. Bush, whose 2 year contract ended on the day of the attacks. Also someone claimed a multimillion dollar insurance policy afterwards.\n6. Some people looked at the moment the buildings were collapsing and noticed small explosions that looked like controlled demolition .\n7. The Pentagon was said to have been hit by the same type of plane, a 767, yet there is no lawn damage in front of the building at all. Also some windows right next to the damaged portion of the building are in tact. Also the hole in the pentagon is smaller the width of the wings of a 767.\n8. A passport was found for Mohammed Atta, one of the attackers outside the rubble of the collapsed towers. A paper passport from inside the plane, that exploded with enough fire and heat to bring down a building survived after the towers collapsed.\n9. The steel after the towers collapsed was quickly destroyed. People would have liked it to have been saved so it could have been studied to find the cause of the collapse.\n\nI'm sure there are more, but thats is all I can remember off the top of my head.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is nothing really special about 9/11 with regard to conspiracy theories.\n\nConspiracy theories exploit a general weakness in the human mind for seeking patterns and explanations for things in excess of a corresponding regard for the validity of such explanations. This is especially true of events that have had a large emotional impact on people, such as the various events of 9/11/01.\n\nAs people start to question the theory, people who feel the need to perpetuate it, start devising elaborate explanations for all the missing pieces and holes in the theory. A lot of energy and effort can go into this. Very often these explanations will be shown to be false, but rather than resetting their bearings and rethinking their original theory some of the conspiracy theorists will typically double down, by simply discarding any explanation that was unconvincing and replacing them with different explanations. They keep iterating this process doing it over and over again until they get theories that are not easily or obviously rejected/debunked on first examination.\n\nConspiracy theorists hold their theory constant, and just keep varying the explanations to find the one most convincing and most consistent with their theory. The key problem with this is that they don't proceed from an objective intent to test their theory -- anything which contradicts their theory is discarded, it is not taken as evidence against their theory.\n\nFor people who don't normally buy into conspiracy theories or dismiss the early versions of them, they are usually not as motivated to continue to test the conspiracy theory and so don't build up counter claims or critical tests to debunk them -- after all, they were never convinced by them in the first place. So over time this imbalance of effort creates an *artificial appearance* of robust support for the conspiracy theory while counter-claims don't seem as credible. This leads to the theory becoming very attractive to people who don't realize this is happening.\n\nThe key fallacy that most conspiracy theories embrace is a failure to fairly consider alternative explanations for their observations. So for example, one of the key claims of the 9/11 \"truthers\" is that the towers collapsed in a way that is \"consistent with a controlled demolition\". They literally ignore and are hoping their audience also ignores the fact that the \"official story\" (i.e.: burning + melting + pancake collapse theory) might also happen to appear consistent with a controlled demolition (as might *any* critical structural building collapse). This very simple possibility is never addressed by \"truthers\". By ignoring this, they are hoping their audience ignores it and therefore makes their own argument look much stronger than it is.\n\nYou have to have a somewhat logical mind, or be familiar with core scientific principles in order to catch problems with conspiracy theories that are constructed this way. And you have to put an effort into following the threads in the first place. Failing that, popular conspiracy theories (including crop circles, JFK assassination, Saddam's so called WMDs, the idea that the scientific community censor creationist papers and are fooling people with \"evolution\" etc) grow a life of their own with adherents that accumulate because they don't know better, or have an emotional investment in the theory.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm surprised no one has brought up [operation northwoods]( _URL_0_). A proposed series of false flag terrorist attacks on the U.S. in the mid 1960's that would be blamed on Cuba giving the government an excuse to invade Cuba. \n\nI'm still on the fence when it comes to my opinion on whether or not 9/11 was an inside job. But the evidence is pretty compelling. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even the official explanation is a story of conspiracy.\n\nNo one disputes that the attacks of sept. 11th were the result of a conspiracy.\n\nA better request would be, \"Please explain to me why the sept. 11th attacks could only have happened with the cooperation of the US Government\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1077137",
"title": "9/11 conspiracy theories",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The most prominent conspiracy theory is that the collapse of the Twin Towers and 7 World Trade Center were the result of controlled demolitions rather than structural failure due to impact and fire. Another prominent belief is that the Pentagon was hit by a missile launched by elements from inside the U.S. government or that a commercial airliner was allowed to do so via an effective stand-down of the American military. Possible motives claimed by conspiracy theorists for such actions include justifying the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq (even though the U.S. government concluded Iraq was not involved in the attacks) to advance their geostrategic interests, such as plans to construct a natural gas pipeline through Afghanistan. Other conspiracy theories revolve around authorities having advance knowledge of the attacks and deliberately ignoring or assisting the attackers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1077137",
"title": "9/11 conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1068,
"text": "Between 2004 and the fifth anniversary of the September 11 attacks in 2006, mainstream coverage of the conspiracy theories increased. The U.S. government issued a formal analysis by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) of the collapse of the World Trade Center. To address the growing publicity of the theories, the State Department revised a webpage in 2006 to debunk them. A 2006 national security strategy paper declared that terrorism springs from \"subcultures of conspiracy and misinformation,\" and that \"terrorists recruit more effectively from populations whose information about the world is contaminated by falsehoods and corrupted by conspiracy theories. The distortions keep alive grievances and filter out facts that would challenge popular prejudices and self-serving propaganda.\" Al-Qaeda has repeatedly claimed responsibility for the attacks, with chief deputy Ayman al-Zawahiri accusing Shia Iran and Hezbollah of denigrating Sunni successes in hurting America by intentionally starting rumors that Israel carried out the attacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1077137",
"title": "9/11 conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::Media reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 155,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 155,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "On September 5, 2011, \"The Guardian\" published an article entitled, \"9/11 conspiracy theories debunked\". The article noted that unlike the collapse of World Trade Centers 1 and 2 a controlled demolition collapses a building from the bottom and explains that the windows popped because of collapsing floors. The article also said there are conspiracy theories that claim that 7 World Trade Center was also downed by a controlled demolition, that the Pentagon being hit by a missile, that the hijacked planes were packed with explosives and flown by remote control, that Israel was behind the attacks, that a plane headed for the Pentagon was shot down by a missile, that there was insider trading by people who had foreknowledge of the attacks were all false.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48312744",
"title": "FEMA camps conspiracy theory",
"section": "Section::::About FEMA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Proponents of the conspiracy theory argue FEMA's mission is a cover up for real purpose — to assume control of the United States following a major disaster or threat — and that the organization is 'the executive arm of the coming police state'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49515166",
"title": "Crisis actor",
"section": "Section::::Conspiracy theories and defamation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Popularizers of the conspiracy theory include commentators such as Alex Jones and outlets such as \"True Pundit\". In April 2018, the parents of two children killed in the Sandy Hook shooting launched a lawsuit against Alex Jones for defamation \"accusing him and his website InfoWars of engaging in a campaign of 'false, cruel, and dangerous assertions'\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1077137",
"title": "9/11 conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::Theories.:Foreknowledge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Conspiracy theorists claim that action or inaction by U.S. officials with foreknowledge was intended to ensure that the attacks took place successfully. For example, Michael Meacher, former British environment minister and member of Tony Blair's government, said that the United States knowingly failed to prevent the attacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1077137",
"title": "9/11 conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 168,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 168,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "The hosts of \"The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe\" (the \"SGU\") have spoken repeatedly about the \"absurdity of 9/11 conspiracy theories\". In addition to critiquing the theories using the same or similar arguments as the above, the \"SGU\" hosts say that, like most conspiracy theories, this one collapses under its own weight and contradicts itself. In order for the 9/11 conspiracy theories to be correct, the U.S. government would not only have to orchestrate the claimed false flag operation regarding the airplanes that crashed into the World Trade Center, but they would also have to orchestrate a superfluous controlled demolition and cover their tracks so flawlessly that it becomes indistinguishable to physicists from the \"official story,\" yet the plan would have to be flawed enough so that \"losers in their mothers' basement\" will discover the conspiracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
uoy08
|
My uncles were born identical twins, yet their personalities seem to contrast each other. Is this a known thing?
|
[
{
"answer": "If they're identical (monozygotic) twins then technically they were the same ball of cells at some point. Monoamniotic/monochorionic monozygotic twins split at around day 10ish post-fertilization (just past the blastocyst stage), but most other twins split prior to that. Depending on when you define the start of life, that may or may not qualify for 'one person split in two.' \n\nBut in all seriousness, there's no mechanism for different personality traits to be apportioned out to each twin. It's just the interplay of various nature/nurture effects.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10638611",
"title": "Gora Aur Kala",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Conjoined twin brothers are born in a royal family, but are separated at birth. Though they are twins, one has a blood disorder so his skin discolors and his left arm is paralyzed. Years later they discover each other and unite to free their kingdom from the traitors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14600170",
"title": "List of Alex Rider characters",
"section": "Section::::Main antagonists.:Grimaldi Twins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "In terms of appearances, the twins are identical in every respect, wearing the same clothes, eating the same food at the same time, sleeping at the same time for the same time, and owning the same cars and the same guns. The only way they can be told apart is that they have different dominant hands: Giovanni is left-handed, whilst Eduardo is right-handed, which can add to the illusion that they are mirror images of one another, as shown in their first scene in \"Never Say Die\" where they eat breakfast by the swimming pool at their villa, sitting opposite one another, appearing like one man and his reflection. Both are described as being very \"neat and delicate, almost like schoolboys, with very round heads and black hair that could have been painted on, coming down in cowlicks over their foreheads\", but very unattractive, with dark \"always suspicious\" eyes, very small mouths and permanent dark stubble across their faces, \"like sandpaper\", giving them an almost devilish appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "480673",
"title": "The Broons",
"section": "Section::::Characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Twins – Although one is called Eck (short for \"Alexander\"), they are always referred to collectively, with few exceptions (such as Granpaw calling them \"ae twin\" and \"the ither twin\"). They are rambunctious youngsters and usually add to the chaos with a fistfight or a good game of cowboys and Indians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5062457",
"title": "Captain Triumph",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "In 1919 twin brothers Michael and Lance Gallant are born in New York City. They are so alike, even down to a T-shaped birthmark on their left wrists, that their own mother cannot tell them apart. The two remain close, even for twins, as they grow up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1908779",
"title": "Henry Brandon, 1st Earl of Lincoln",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "He and his older brother (1516–1522) are often mistakenly thought to be the same person, because both died as children and bore the same name. It was not unusual in Tudor times to name a child after a deceased sibling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14707611",
"title": "Ulta Palta (1997 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Two sets of identical twins are lost in their childhood. None of them are aware of their twin being alive. One set of twins arrive to a town on work, which is where the other set of twins live and make their living. The people of the town confuse them for the latter, who is a famous industrialist in the town. a series of misunderstandings, misplaces and confusions about the characters turn in to Hilarious situations and chaos in their lives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3273564",
"title": "First-degree relatives",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "If a parent is an identical twin, then the aunt or uncle who serves as the other twin, is also considered a first-degree relative because being genetically identical to the parent ultimately makes them the children's parent as well, genetically speaking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5hwxb1
|
if older cartoons and animated movies were drawn by hand, how did they get the coloring so even and clean, unlike paintings for example?
|
[
{
"answer": "It all depends on the medium used. For example, paintings often use canvas (usually with a rough surface for better paint adherence) and acrylic or oils, which tends to be thick and don't evenly mix throughout all the layers an artist applies.\n\nFor early animators, however, the medium used in earlier animations was often black and colored ink or watercolor, which tends to blend much more evenly, and are able to be applied more evenly across the layers the animators apply. The surface was usually paper or transparent slides in order to create multiple layers, a method that Disney introduced for the first time ever in Snow White",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You mean how they stay perfectly inside the lines? It's because the sheets the animation is drawn on are transparent. They draw the lines on one side, then paint on the backside, so even if they're off slightly, filmed from the front, the color is perfectly inside the lines.\n\nIf you mean how uniform the colors are... You can make paintings like that too if you want, but painters often go for more nuance, shading, gradients, textures, etc. So they don't paint it as flat, uniform spans of color.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To add to what everyone else has listed here as far as frames go they painted far less background frames and body frames. You've noticed the background loop I'm sure. You'll also see that most cartoon characters have some form of break at their neck, sometimes its a tie, or a collar or something along those lines. That allowed to them to use the same body frames but just paint new head frames .",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "499545",
"title": "Xerography",
"section": "Section::::Uses in animation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Ub Iwerks adapted xerography to eliminate the hand-inking stage in the animation process by printing the animator's drawings directly to the cels. The first animated feature film to use this process was \"One Hundred and One Dalmatians\" (1961), although the technique was already tested in \"Sleeping Beauty\", released two years earlier. At first, only black lines were possible, but in the 1980s, colored lines were introduced and used in animated features like \"The Secret of NIMH\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8329897",
"title": "Théâtre Optique",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "The animated segment in Winsor McCay's \"Little Nemo\" (1911) was probably the first animation to use more hand-drawn images than the 700 images of Reynaud's \"Un Bon Bock\". While most early animations were black and white, a version of \"Little Nemo\" was hand-colored by McCay. Winsor McCay also used short loops of repeated images in several films, which is quite similar to Reynaud's technique of moving the film back and forth during projection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13359663",
"title": "Blue Puppy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The film was unique in utilizing a non-traditional animation technique where spots of colorful India ink were used to form the characters. This gave a great deal of plasticity to the animated characters. For example, the Black Cat would vanish from the foreground only to reappear immediately in the back, or the evil Pirate would transform into a thundercloud by inflating himself with his own malice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "323858",
"title": "History of animation",
"section": "Section::::1888-1908: Earliest animations on film.:Standard picture film.:J. Stuart Blackton.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Blackton's 1906 film \"Humorous Phases of Funny Faces\" is often regarded as the oldest known drawn animation on standard film. It features a sequence made with blackboard drawings that are changed between frames to show two faces changing expressions and some billowing cigar smoke, as well as two sequences that feature cutout animation. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "169186",
"title": "Onion skinning",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "In traditional cartoon animation, the individual frames of a movie were initially drawn on thin onionskin paper over a light source. The animators (mostly inbetweeners) would put the previous and next drawings exactly beneath the working drawing, so that they could draw the 'in between' to give a smooth motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43151763",
"title": "Ink wash animation",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "In late 1950s, inspired by China's legendary painter Qi Baishi's water-ink painting, Chinese animation industry pioneers began to explore ways to turn Chinese traditional paintings into cartoon form. The first ink-wash animation film, \"Tadpoles Searching for Mother\", received the Best Animated Film Prize at the First Hundred Flowers Awards, as well as several international prizes. Since then, more ink-wash film were produced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17148503",
"title": "The Bell System Science Series",
"section": "Section::::The Capra films.:Casting and production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "The films were done in Technicolor, and marked Capra's first use of color in filmmaking. Cartoon animation was an important feature; the animated characters in the films interact directly with the live-action characters, which was an innovation at the time. Capra worked with United Productions of America (UPA) for the first film, \"Our Mr. Sun\". At UPA, Bill Hurtz directed the animation for \"Our Mr. Sun\"; Hurtz had been the designer for the Oscar-winning cartoon short of Dr. Seuss' \"Gerald McBoing-Boing\" (1950) and would later direct animation for Jay Ward. In 1954, Hurtz moved to Shamus Culhane Productions, and the animation contract for the next three Capra films followed him there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b67wqp
|
why does tea taste sweeter after it cools down?
|
[
{
"answer": "You generally tastes less when drinking really hot things or really cold things, partially due to how fast you tend to move it to parts of your mouth that are less sensitive, and others are signals being mixed with how hot/cold/pain you are feeling.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "929761",
"title": "Iced tea",
"section": "Section::::Varieties.:Sweet tea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "Sweet tea is tea that is brewed very strong with a large amount of sugar added while the tea is hot. The mixture of sugar and tea is then diluted with water, served over ice, and occasionally garnished with lemon. Sometimes the diluted mixture is allowed to cool to room temperature. Other times the sugar and tea mixture is diluted by pouring the hot tea and sugar over a full tumbler of ice to cool it instantly. Sweet tea is traditionally the most common variety of iced tea in the American South; elsewhere in the United States, unsweetened iced tea is more common, although there has been a growing trend of offering both sweetened and plain since the early 2000s. Because of the popularity of sweet tea in the south, plain iced tea is often called unsweet tea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28551",
"title": "Sweet tea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Sweet tea is a popular style of iced tea commonly consumed in the United States, but especially common in the Southern United States. Sweet tea is most commonly made by adding sugar or simple syrup to black tea either while the tea is brewing or still hot, although artificial sweeteners are also frequently used. Sweet tea is almost always served ice cold. It may sometimes be flavored, most commonly with lemon but also with peach, raspberry, or mint. The drink is sometimes tempered with baking soda to reduce its acidity. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25369822",
"title": "Sakurayu",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "In order to produce sakurayu, a few such dried, salt-pickled blossoms must be sprinkled into a cup of hot water. Once covered in hot water, the collapsed petals unfurl and float. The herbal tea is then allowed to steep until the flavor reaches its desired intensity. The resulting drink tastes slightly salty.The tea is a very light slightly sweet brew\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29969",
"title": "Tea",
"section": "Section::::Processing and classification.:Additional processing and additives.:Flavouring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Flavoured and scented teas add new aromas and flavours to the base tea. This can be accomplished through directly adding flavouring agents, such as ginger or dried ginger, cloves, mint leaves, cardamom, bergamot (found in Earl Grey), vanilla, and spearmint. Alternatively, because tea easily retains odours, it can be placed in proximity to an aromatic ingredient to absorb its aroma, as in traditional jasmine tea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3516378",
"title": "American tea culture",
"section": "Section::::U.S. regional tea traditions.:Sweet tea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "\"Sweet tea\", with sugar or corn syrup added (usually while the tea is still hot from brewing), the mixture then being cooled with ice, is ubiquitous in the Southeastern United States. In these states, when a person says \"tea\", they normally mean sweetened iced tea. The unsweetened variant is often called \"unsweet\" tea instead of unsweetened or plain. The consumption of sweet tea with many meals leads to it sometimes called the \"table wine of the South\", and this trait is considered an important marker of the culture of the Southern United States. Southern sweet tea is made by brewing tea at double strength, adding a large amount of sugar to the freshly brewed hot tea, and diluting to the proper strength. It is served over a glass full of ice cubes and is often garnished with a slice of lemon. While high fructose corn syrup is commonly used as a sweetener for commercially manufactured tea, more often consumers are unaware of this, and when made at home, refined sugar is used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3516378",
"title": "American tea culture",
"section": "Section::::Iced tea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "In restaurants, iced tea is usually served unsweetened except in the Southeastern United States where iced tea is much more common and is available both sweet and unsweetened and \"iced tea\" is often considered to be \"sweet tea\" unless otherwise specified. The reason for the presweetening is that it may be difficult to dissolve sugar in iced tea, even with constant stirring. The result can be insufficiently sweetened tea or gritty, undissolved sugar crystals in the tea. Some restaurants have begun serving iced tea that has been pre-flavored with fruit essences, particularly passion fruit, often as the only iced tea made available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8444939",
"title": "Canned tea",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Black tea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "BULLET::::- Iced tea (sweetened) is popular mainly in the southern United States where it is ubiquitous and available freshly made, in bottles and cans or at self-serve soda fountains. Sweet tea (also known as southern table wine) is brewed very strong with a large amount of sugar added while the tea is still hot. The mixture of sugar and tea is cooled, diluted with water and served over ice garnished with lemon. Alternatively, the sugar and tea mixture is not diluted but rather poured hot over a full tumbler of ice to cool and dilute it. Due mainly to its high sugar content, canned sweet tea has been proven to cause tooth decay.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ell91
|
What would happen if two faults on opposite sides of a tectonic plate shifted simultaneously?
|
[
{
"answer": "First, the Cascadia subduction zone is on the western edge of the North American plate, but the New Madrid seismic zone is an intra-continental feature, i.e. it is in the middle of the North American plate. The eastern edge of the North American plate is the [Mid-Atlantic Ridge](_URL_1_). \n\nGoing with the spirit of the question though, the short answer is nothing different than if the two earthquakes happened at different times. We can look at a [simulated scenario for a magnitude 9 event on the Cascadia subduction zone](_URL_0_) and see that the area that experiences shaking, while certainly large on a societal scale, is small compared to the entire plate. This is because seismic waves dissipate as they travel outward. An earthquake releases a set amount of energy (this amount of energy is what the magnitude is measuring) that is released as seismic waves. As those waves expand out, roughly as a half sphere from the earthquake location on a fault plane, the amount of energy gets spread out so the intensity of shaking decreases. Thus, by the time you're a few 100 km's away, let along on the other side of a plate, the earthquake waves are detectable by a seismometer, but certainly not felt. So, if you had two simultaneous earthquakes on either side of the North American plate, the only effect might be the weird behavior of a seismometer that happened to be positioned such that the arrival time of both earthquakes were exactly the same.\n\nObviously from a societal perspective, two large events simultaneoulsy in the same country would have lots of effects in terms of resource deployment, etc, but I think you were more asking about the geology aspects of things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10106",
"title": "Earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Naturally occurring earthquakes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1581,
"text": "Tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the fault surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick-slip behavior. Once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface, and cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's available elastic potential energy and raise its temperature, though these changes are negligible compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from the Earth's deep interior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44322831",
"title": "Analogue modelling (geology)",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Strike-slip tectonics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Strike-slip tectonics differ from the dominantly vertical crust movements associated with shortening and extension, being dominantly horizontal in character (in relative terms sinistral or dextral). This kind of horizontal movement will create a shear zone and several types of fractures and faults. A typical model used for strike-slip tectonics has two (or more) horizontal basal plates moving in opposite directions (or only move one of the plates, other are fixed). The visual results are shown from bird's-eye view. Scientists used CT-analysis to collect the cross-section images for the observation of the most influenced area during the simulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27622223",
"title": "Thiviers-Payzac Unit",
"section": "Section::::Structural evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The tectonic movements didn't stop at the close of the ductile deformations. For instance in the brittle realm lots of small, mainly NE-SW-striking strike-slip faults were initiated with left-lateral displacements in the order of about 500 meters – an exception being the Dussac Fault north of Lanouaille which has a left-lateral displacement of nearly 6 kilometers!\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59493072",
"title": "1982 Ometepec earthquake",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The interruption of the main rupture that results in a doublet earthquake has been attributed to \"asperities\", patches in the fault where harder rock resists immediate rupture. However, study of this earthquake's aftershocks shows a discontinuity in their spatial distribution. This has been interpreted as indicating a split in the subducting plate, where the plate is subducting at slightly different down angles on either side of the split.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16215818",
"title": "Fault gouge",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Fault gouge forms by tectonic movement along a localized zone of brittle deformation (a fault zone) in a rock. The grinding and milling that results when the two sides of the fault zone move along each other results in a material that is made of loose fragments. First a fault breccia will form, but if the grinding continues the rock becomes fault gouge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11353408",
"title": "Earthquake forecasting",
"section": "Section::::Methods for earthquake forecasting.:Seismic gaps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "At the contact where two tectonic plates slip past each other every section must eventually slip, as (in the long-term) none get left behind. But they do not all slip at the same time; different sections will be at different stages in the cycle of strain (deformation) accumulation and sudden rebound. In the seismic gap model the \"next big quake\" should be expected not in the segments where recent seismicity has relieved the strain, but in the intervening gaps where the unrelieved strain is the greatest. This model has an intuitive appeal; it is used in long-term forecasting, and was the basis of a series of circum-Pacific (Pacific Rim) forecasts in 1979 and 1989–1991.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "231137",
"title": "Earthquake prediction",
"section": "Section::::Prediction methods.:Trends.:Seismic gaps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "At the contact where two tectonic plates slip past each other every section must eventually slip, as (in the long-term) none get left behind. But they do not all slip at the same time; different sections will be at different stages in the cycle of strain (deformation) accumulation and sudden rebound. In the seismic gap model the \"next big quake\" should be expected not in the segments where recent seismicity has relieved the strain, but in the intervening gaps where the unrelieved strain is the greatest. This model has an intuitive appeal; it is used in long-term forecasting, and was the basis of a series of circum-Pacific (Pacific Rim) forecasts in 1979 and 1989–1991.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3p28b7
|
canadian's election are really close. can you explain what we should know? (young guy that knows nothing and want to make the best decision)
|
[
{
"answer": "As a fellow first Time voter, I have the dilemma of listening to the politicians speak agreeing with somethings they say, then they say something else and I think \"and YOU want to lead this country\". I am told to vote for the person I cringe the least at. Like the good ole saying \"politicians are like diapers, full of shit and should be changed regularly\". ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Read through the party platforms and websites to see which party you most agree with. \nPersonally I won't vote conservative, because they have blocked research scientist from speaking about publicly funded research results without political approval. \nThey also closed many research libraries, getting rid of decades wortn of research data, including climate data, and made stats-can useless for econimic planning. (Can you tell I don't like them?)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Please don't ask Redditors for help on this one. Go to [Vote Compass](_URL_0_) and answer the questions honestly. It will help show you the party(ies) which best represent your political beliefs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47196487",
"title": "Choosing Wisely Canada",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "\"Choosing Wisely Canada\" leads an international community, made up of nations who are implementing similar programs in their respective countries. At present, this community includes representation from Australia, Austria, Brazil, Denmark, England, France, Germany, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, South Korea, Switzerland, United States and Wales.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4492635",
"title": "Canada's Next Great Prime Minister",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Canada's Next Great Prime Minister (formerly \"The Next Great Prime Minister\") is a national contest for young Canadians who wish to share their ideas for making Canada a better, stronger and more prosperous country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22645353",
"title": "Election (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.:The Final.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "All ten candidates reunite; the final two present their policies in front of an assembly of young people at the House of Commons in the hope of winning the title of 'Winner of Election' and the personal meeting with Prime Minister Gordon Brown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "630526",
"title": "Canadian electoral system",
"section": "Section::::Right to vote.:Information to voters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "During an election, Elections Canada informs Canadians about their right to vote, how to get on the National Register of Electors and the voters list, and where and how they can vote. Its public information activities include\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3965637",
"title": "2006 Liberal Party of Canada election ads",
"section": "Section::::The ads.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Gilles Duceppe and Stephen Harper worked together to bring down the government. Lots of late night secret meetings. Apparently, they're quite a team. Which is great. Because if Harper wins this election? He'll have to work very, very closely with Duceppe. Unfortunately, their unity won't do much for Canada's unity.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34945391",
"title": "2011 Canadian federal election voter suppression scandal",
"section": "Section::::Voter suppression across Canada.:Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "By mid-November 2012 the very slow pace of progress by Elections Canada in investigating the matter was causing concern among the Canadian public and the opposition parties. Interim Liberal leader Bob Rae said, \"I don't have an explanation as to why it would be taking Elections Canada so long to indicate where it's going and how it's proceeding with this investigation. I'm increasingly hearing concerns from Canadians that Elections Canada is not moving with the kind of clarity and the kind of speed that they would expect of an organization which is intended to ensure Canadians that the electoral process in Canada is fair.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293340",
"title": "1993 Canadian federal election",
"section": "Section::::National results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "This election, like all previous Canadian elections, was conducted under a single-member plurality (or first past the post) system in which the country was carved into 295 electoral districts, or ridings, with each one electing one representative to the House of Commons. Those eligible to vote cast their ballot for a candidate in their electoral district and the candidate with the most votes in that district became that riding's Member of Parliament. The party that elects the most candidates forms the government by appointing its party leader as Prime Minister and its Members of Parliament to the Cabinet of Canada.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8rbt5l
|
why can't we build a car that generates its power from the wheels turn like a windmill
|
[
{
"answer": "Because energy transfer isn't perfect, and the energy you'd expend getting the wheels to turn is WAYYY more than the energy you'd get back trying to use the spinning wheels to turn a generator. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15685099",
"title": "PAL-V",
"section": "Section::::PAL-V Liberty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "On the ground, the propeller and rotor are stopped and power is diverted to the wheels, allowing it to travel as a three-wheeled car. Unusually, it leans into turns like a motorcycle, a solution pioneered by the Carver vehicle, also produced by a Dutch company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305992",
"title": "Regenerative brake",
"section": "Section::::Conversion to electric energy: the motor as a generator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Electric motors, when used in reverse function as generators, convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Vehicles propelled by electric motors use them as generators when using regenerative braking, braking by transferring mechanical energy from the wheels to an electrical load.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "681774",
"title": "Freewheel",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Engine starters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1329,
"text": "A freewheel assembly is also widely used on engine starters as a kind of protective device. Starter motors usually need to spin at 3,000 RPM to get the engine to turn over. When the key is held in the start position for any amount of time after the engine has started, the starter can not spin fast enough to keep up with the flywheel. Because of the extreme gear ratio between starter gear and flywheel (about 15 or 20:1) it would spin the starter armature at dangerously high speeds, causing an explosion when the centripetal force acting on the copper coils wound in the armature can no longer resist the outward force acting on them. In starters without the freewheel or overrun clutch this would be a major problem because, with the flywheel spinning at about 1,000 RPM at idle, the starter, if engaged with the flywheel, would be forced to spin between 15,000 and 20,000 RPM. Once the engine has turned over and is running, the overrun clutch releases the starter from the flywheel and prevents the gears from re-meshing (as in an accidental turning of the ignition key) while the engine is running. A freewheel clutch is now used in many motorcycles with an electric starter motor. It is used as a replacement for the Bendix drive used on most auto starters because it reduces the electrical needs of the starting system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12604168",
"title": "Continual power system",
"section": "Section::::Turbines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "A turbine is a set of blades that are forced to turn from an external force. When the blades start turning, the shaft which this is connected to starts to spin, and the connecting generator then creates electricity. Examples of external forces that can be used to get the turbines going include wind, water, steam and gas. Turbines can be used in creating a continual power system because as long as the turbine blades turn, electricity is being created.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51462",
"title": "Machine",
"section": "Section::::Power sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Windmill: Early windmills captured wind power to generate rotary motion for milling operations. Modern wind turbines also drives a generator. This electricity in turn is used to drive motors forming the actuators of mechanical systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "82330",
"title": "Electric generator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor, and motors and generators have many similarities. Many motors can be mechanically driven to generate electricity and frequently make acceptable manual generators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24974",
"title": "Pelton wheel",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Because water is nearly incompressible, almost all of the available energy is extracted in the first stage of the hydraulic turbine. Therefore, Pelton wheels have only one turbine stage, unlike gas turbines that operate with compressible fluid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4rufmx
|
In medieval Europe how often would you encounter people who carry either a sword or bow?
|
[
{
"answer": "Medieval Europe is a vast area and time. People you could meet in England in the 1100s would be different than France in the 1250s, and Italy in the 1300s. Can you narrow it down a bit?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In European medieval cities (with the exception of a few German and Italian ones) it was illegal to be armed unless you were either just entering the city, leaving it, or if you were a city official or a knight. And when I say knight I mean an actual knight, someone who has been knighted, not just any old guy in armour on a horse that we tend to all call knights today. So if you were visiting a city and staying in an inn it was often the responsibility of the inn keeper to look after your weapons for you. Just like today they didn't want it to be a bloodbath in public areas whenever a fight broke out so people were limited to only certain types of daggers for eating and so on. \n\nThis is a record of a law that was passed in 1393 dealing with arms in the city of London. [Calendar of Close Rolls, Richard II: volume 5: 1392-1396](_URL_0_)\n\n > To the mayor and sheriffs of London. Order to cause proclamation to be made, forbidding any man of whatsoever estate or condition to make unlawful assemblies in the city or suburbs of London, to go armed, girt with a sword or arrayed with unwonted harness, carry with him such arms, swords or harness, or do aught whereby the peace may be broken or the statutes concerning the bearing of arms contrary to the peace, or any of the people be disturbed or put in fear, under pain of losing his arms etc. and of imprisonment at the king's will, except lords, great men, knights and esquires of good estate, other men upon entering or leaving the city, and the king's officers and ministers appointed to keep the peace; and order after such proclamation to arrest all whom they shall find acting contrary to the same with the exceptions aforesaid, their followers, the arms, swords etc. found with them, and to keep them in custody in prison until further order, causing their arms etc. to be appraised and answer to be made to the king for them, and certifying in chancery from time to time the names of those arrested and the price and value of their arms etc. and so behaving that henceforward no more mischief be there done by their default; as it has now newly come to the king's ears that there are evildoers and breakers of the peace, some armed, some girt about the midst with swords, and some arrayed as aforesaid, who lurk in divers places within the city and suburbs and run to and fro committing batteries, mayhems, robberies, manslaughters etc., and hindering and disturbing the ministers and officers of the city from the exercise of their offices, in contempt of the king and breach of the peace, to the disturbance and terror of the people and contrary to the said statutes, which the king will not and ought not to endure.\n\nLaws like this were quite often reissued so its clear people breaking these laws was a bit of problem. \n\nIf you're asking about how common swords were then it depends on the time you're looking at. Before the 12th Century swords were more rare among the normal population. But in the 13th Century the blast furnace made making sword blades much easier and they therefore became much more affordable. Swords would also often outlive their owners so as time went on in the medieval era you had an ever growing number of old second hand swords in addition to the new ones being made. So by the 14/15th Century basically anyone who wanted a sword could get one. The price of swords of course would vary greatly. In wills from the time we can see that they valued an old rusty sword at about 2 pence. And to give you an idea of this value an English foot archer fighting in the 100 years war would have earned 3 pence a day. On the other end of the spectrum in about 1412 Henry V had 12 swords made to be diplomatic gifts and each one of these swords was valued at 2,000 pounds and at this time there were 240 pennies to a pound. So that English foot archer would have to work every day for about 438 years to afford that. \n\nAs for bows you would only really see people with them who intended to use them for hunting or practice. Bows are big and cumbersome, they're a pain to just go about your daily business with. And that thing they all do in movies where they sling them across their back isn't really possible since it is extremely uncomfortable and annoying, if you've ever tried it with a bow you'll know this. The reason why swords were so popular as a weapon in daily life was because they were so easy to wear. Their effectiveness as a battlefield weapon wasn't the best and their capabilities are vastly over-exaggerated in movies. But their ability to function as a reliable self defence weapon without being a burden is what sets them apart. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22552643",
"title": "Italian folk dance",
"section": "Section::::Folk dances by region.:Northern Italy.:Weapon dances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "BULLET::::- Spadonari di Venaus: Sword dance from Venaus in the Val di Susa done for the feast of San Biagio. Four men clothed in a fastastic imitation of medieval warriors perform with large two-handed swords. The dance lasts about an hour and has only a few figures: raising the sword in salute, circling the sword in the air, striking the sword of their adversary and throwing the swords in the air in exchange.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8972",
"title": "Dagger",
"section": "Section::::History.:Renaissance and Early Modern era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "The dagger was very popular as a fencing and personal defense weapon in 17th- and 18th-century Spain, where it was referred to as the \"daga\" or \"puñal\". During the Renaissance Age the dagger was used as part of everyday dress, and daggers were the only weapon commoners were allowed to carry on their person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23289836",
"title": "Claymore",
"section": "Section::::References and further reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "BULLET::::- Ross Cowan, \"Halflang and Tua-Handit: Late Medieval Scottish Hand-and-a-Half and Two-Handed Swords\". Updated version of two articles originally published in \"Medieval Warfare\" 1.2 & 1.3 (2011).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2943",
"title": "Dual wield",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The use of weapon combinations in each hand has been mentioned for close combat in western Europe during the Byzantine, Medieval, and Renaissance era. The use of a parrying dagger such as a main gauche along with a rapier is common in historical European martial arts. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11302663",
"title": "Black Army of Hungary",
"section": "Section::::Branches, tactics, equipments.:Heavy cavalry.:Weaponry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "BULLET::::- Swords: the most common swords of the era originated from southern Europe. They were one metre long, designed to cut rather than thrust, with an \"S\"-shaped crossguard. As in many medieval swords, the heavy pommel balanced the blade and could be used for striking in close combat. The other version, which became popular in the second half of the century. was of similar design except for the quillon, which was curved towards the blade for the purpose of breaking or clinching the enemy's blade. The 130–140 cm long bastardswords also came into use. As a companion weapon, daggers of saw-toothed and flame-form type were applied (both with ring-guard) and a misericordia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "773812",
"title": "Yabusame",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The use of the bow had been on foot until around the 4th century when elite soldiers took to fighting on horseback with bows and swords. In the 10th century, samurai would have archery duels on horseback. They would ride at each other and try to shoot at least three arrows. These duels did not necessarily have to end in death, as long as honor was satisfied.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "85846",
"title": "Longsword",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Use of the two-handed Great Sword or \"Schlachtschwert\" by infantry (as opposed to their use as a weapon of mounted and fully armoured knights) seems to have originated with the Swiss in the 14th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b8dxyd
|
why are illicit drugs cut with dangerous chemicals?
|
[
{
"answer": "When you're making drugs \"at home' (ie - not a professional lab), you tend to cut corners and not buy everything from the most reputable chemical suppliers. Maybe you need a strong acid, why not grab battery acid or concrete cleaner? A strong base means you use lye-based drain cleaner. A solvent has you use gasoline.\n\nSince there's no real standards or testing, these things get left in there. You then have anti-drug propaganda giving it the scariest possible description when they say what it is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "610329",
"title": "Clandestine chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Suppliers of precursor chemicals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "Historically, chemicals critical to the synthesis or manufacture of illicit drugs are introduced into various venues via legitimate purchases by companies that are registered and licensed to do business as chemical importers or handlers. Once in a country or state, the chemicals are diverted by rogue importers or chemical companies, by criminal organizations and individual violators, or acquired as a result of coercion and/or theft on the part of drug traffickers. In response to stricter international controls, drug traffickers have increasingly been forced to divert chemicals by mislabeling the containers, forging documents, establishing front companies, using circuitous routing, hijacking shipments, bribing officials, or smuggling products across international borders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "610329",
"title": "Clandestine chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Precursor chemicals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Because many legitimate industrial chemicals such as anhydrous ammonia and iodine are also necessary in the processing and synthesis of most illicitly produced drugs, preventing the diversion of these chemicals from legitimate commerce to illicit drug manufacturing is a difficult job. Governments often place restrictions on the purchase of large quantities of chemicals that can be used in the production of illicit drugs, usually requiring licenses or permits to ensure that the purchaser has a legitimate need for them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "610329",
"title": "Clandestine chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Enforcement of controls on precursor chemicals.:Cocaine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "In countries where strict chemical controls have been put in place, illicit drug production has been seriously affected. For example, few of the chemicals needed to process coca leaf into cocaine are manufactured in Bolivia or Peru. Most are smuggled in from neighbouring countries with advanced chemical industries or diverted from a smaller number of licit handlers. Increased interdiction of chemicals in Peru and Bolivia has contributed to final product cocaine from those countries being of lower, minimally oxidized quality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185896",
"title": "Club drug",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Risks and adverse effects.:\"Cutting\", adulteration and \"spiking\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 992,
"text": "With the exception of marijuana, which typically is uncut and unlaced, many illegal drugs, especially those which come in a powder or pill form are \"cut\" with other substances or \"spiked\" with other drugs. Cocaine, amphetamines and other stimulants often have caffeine powder added, as this increases the dealer's profit by bulking out the powder, so that less expensive cocaine or amphetamine has to be used in making the product. Some substances used to \"cut\" illegal drugs are not inherently harmful, as they are just used to \"pad\" or \"bulk out\" a quantity of the illegal drug and increase profits, such as lactose (milk sugar), a white powder often added to heroin. Even fairly innocuous powders that are added to illegal drugs, though, can have adverse effects with some routes of illegal drug administration, such as injection. With some drugs, adulterants are sometimes added to make the product more appealing. For example, \"flavoured cocaine\" has flavoured powder added to the drug.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60901743",
"title": "Environmental Effects of Illicit Drug Production",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1216,
"text": "The environmental impacts caused by the production of illicit drugs is an often neglected topic when analysing the effects of such substances. However, due to the clandestine nature of illicit drug production, its effects can be highly destructive yet difficult to detect and measure. The consequences differ depending upon the drug being produced but can be largely categorised into impacts caused by natural drugs or caused by synthetic/semi-synthetic drugs. Natural drugs refer to drugs which are primarily extracted from a natural source such as cocaine or cannabis. Synthetic drugs are produced from material that can’t be found in nature and semi-synthetic drugs are made from both natural and synthetic materials such as methamphetamines and MDMA. Drug policy is a large determinant on how organisations produce drugs and thereby, how their processes affect the environment, thus prompting Government bodies to analyse the current drug policy. It is inevitable that solutions to such environmental impacts are synonymous with solutions to overall illicit drug production, however many have noted the reactionary measures undertaken by government bodies and elevate the need of preventative measures instead. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2471575",
"title": "Controlled substance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Some precursor chemicals used for the production of illegal drugs are also controlled substances in many countries, even though they may lack the pharmacological effects of the drugs themselves. Substances are classified according to schedules and consist primarily of potentially psychoactive substances. The controlled substances do not include many prescription items such as antibiotics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10940802",
"title": "Precursor (chemistry)",
"section": "Section::::Illicit drug precursors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "In 1988, the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances introduced detailed provisions and requirements relating the control of precursors used to produce drugs of abuse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12ihbi
|
Why does the temperature drop just before sunrise?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not sure what you mean. Excluding outside factors like cold fronts, the temperature doesn't suddenly drop just before sunrise.\n\nJust before sunrise is the coldest part of the day because cooling takes place throughout the night while the sun is not up (again, excluding fronts), but there's no sudden drop just before dawn.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The earth radiates heat back into the atmosphere during the night. As the earth loses heat, the ground temperature drops until the sun rises and begins warming again.\n\nEdit: Forgot to mention that this means its coldest before dawn, not that there is a sudden drop.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Here is a figure](_URL_0_) that shows generally what the heating from the sun is. During the day, the heating is basically sinusoidal, due to incident thermal radiation, but at night, cooling occurs exponentially, basically following Newton's law of cooling. You can see that the temperature reaches its lowest point just before dawn. Naturally, the surface has no \"knowledge\" that the sun is coming up soon, if the sun never rose, it would continue to get colder. This is true on any planetary body. Of course, it is GREATLY affected by clouds, humidity, atmosphere, latitude, etc. so it's not nearly so clear on Earth. However, during the winter when a lot of atmospheric moisture has condensed out and you get those crystal clear nights good for star viewing, it gets super cold at night because the earth can radiate into space without the blanketing effect of clouds, you will see something closer to this pattern.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22416553",
"title": "Tropospheric propagation",
"section": "Section::::Tropospheric ducting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Temperature inversions occur most frequently along coastal areas bordering large bodies of water. This is the result of natural onshore movement of cool, humid air shortly after sunset when the ground air cools more quickly than the upper air layers. The same action may take place in the morning when the rising sun warms the upper layers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20020609",
"title": "Mirage of astronomical objects",
"section": "Section::::Novaya Zemlya effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Due to a normal atmospheric refraction, sunrise occurs shortly before the Sun crosses above the horizon. Light from the Sun is bent, or refracted, as it enters earth's atmosphere. This effect causes the apparent sunrise to be earlier than the actual sunrise. Similarly, apparent sunset occurs slightly later than actual sunset.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1446490",
"title": "Temperature gradient",
"section": "Section::::Physical processes.:Meteorology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Clearly, the temperature gradient may change substantially in time, as a result of diurnal or seasonal heating and cooling for instance. This most likely happens during an inversion. For instance, during the day the temperature at ground level may be cold while it's warmer up in the atmosphere. As the day shifts over to night the temperature might drop rapidly while at other places on the land stay warmer or cooler at the same elevation. This happens on the West Coast of the United States sometimes due to geography.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "190919",
"title": "Sunrise",
"section": "Section::::Measurement.:Angle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Sunrise actually occurs \"before\" the Sun truly reaches the horizon because Earth's atmosphere refracts the Sun's image. At the horizon, the average amount of refraction is 34 arcminutes, though this amount varies based on atmospheric conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "190933",
"title": "Sunset",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Sunset, also known as sundown, is the daily disappearance of the Sun below the horizon due to Earth's rotation. As viewed from the Equator, the equinox Sun sets exactly due west in both spring and fall. As viewed from the middle latitudes, the local summer Sun sets to the northwest for the Northern Hemisphere, but to the southwest for the Southern Hemisphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "190919",
"title": "Sunrise",
"section": "Section::::Measurement.:Time of day.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "In late winter and spring, sunrise as seen from temperate latitudes occurs earlier each day, reaching its earliest time near the summer solstice; although the exact date varies by latitude. After this point, the time of sunrise gets later each day, reaching its latest sometime around the winter solstice. The offset between the dates of the solstice and the earliest or latest sunrise time is caused by the eccentricity of Earth's orbit and the tilt of its axis, and is described by the analemma, which can be used to predict the dates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "190919",
"title": "Sunrise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Sunrise (or Sun up) is the moment when the upper limb of the Sun appears on the horizon in the morning. The term can also refer to the entire process of the solar disk crossing the horizon and its accompanying atmospheric effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5cienk
|
How Do I find out who is buried on my parents' old property when some of the graves are marked only with stones?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not asking you to dox yourself at all, but depending on the county it might be worth contacting the county historical society and/or the local newspaper, to see if they have archives going back to the early era of when the area was settled. If I remember correctly, UNC in Chapel Hill has a newspaper archive, and some of the older newspapers in the state have microfilm going back farther than you would think and from predecessor papers as well. (I worked at the Wilmington *Morning Star/Star-News* for awhile out of college and our archives were back to the 1860s.) If you can get an idea of which family owned the land, you may be able to research tax bills or something similar to see what (and who) they owned. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42976813",
"title": "La Belle Cemetery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "The oldest recorded stones in the cemetery have been there since the early 1800s. Some graves have no headstone and there are no records of who is buried there, just a little X marking a burial spot. The most common symbols found on the headstones are religious crosses. The two mausoleums people visit are the ones for the Kohl family and the Sheldon family. In the cemetery, there is a section for infants and children younger than six years old. Another section was specified for the newest style headstones, which are black marble with pictures and drawings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23298856",
"title": "Monumental masonry",
"section": "Section::::Cultural significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "In Christian cultures, many families choose to mark the site of a burial of a family member with a gravestone. Typically the gravestone is engraved with information about the deceased person, usually including their name and date of death. Additional information may include date of birth, place of birth and relationships to other people (usually parents, spouses and/or children). Sometimes a verse from the Bible or a short poem is included, generally on a theme relating to love, death, grief, or heaven. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51590406",
"title": "Royal Navy Burying Ground (Halifax, Nova Scotia)",
"section": "Section::::Women and children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "There are also grave stones for women (9) and children (18). Many of the children were infants. The most prominent of these grave markers was erected by Charles Stubbing who was the Admiralty Clerk between 1867 and 1893. He created a grave stone that lists his first and second wife and five of his children. He lost two of his children and his second wife in the same year (1882). He created another gravestone for the loss of his third wife.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43514507",
"title": "St Luke's Church, Formby",
"section": "Section::::Associated features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1096,
"text": "The oldest gravestone in the churchyard is dated 1666. To the south of the church is a cross base of unknown age that was moved here from Cross Green in 1879. It consists of three square steps with a socket for the stem of a cross, and is designated as a Grade II listed building. There had been a wooden cross in the socket, but by 1985 it had been removed. It was replaced by a new wooden cross as a Millennium project in 2000. Further to the south is an inscribed stone about 420 mm high of unknown age that has been traditionally associated with funeral rites. It has an irregular shape with one flat face inscribed with a cross on a stepped base surmounted by a circle. It is also listed at Grade II. The third object to be designated at Grade II are the old village stocks dating from the 18th century, which were moved from a site near Cross Green to the west side of the churchyard. The stocks consist of two stone piers with slots for wooden boards, and between the piers is an iron bar. Also in the churchyard is the grave of Percy French (1854–1920), Irish songwriter and entertainer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7664374",
"title": "St John the Baptist, Egglescliffe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "It is part of a long history and many more are buried in the church yard than there are gravestones for - some graves marked with just one name actually contain up to four people, since people have been buried there for hundreds and hundreds of years, grave stones only being introduced recently. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5378438",
"title": "Old Jewish Cemetery, Prague",
"section": "Section::::Gravestones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "The oldest gravestones on Old Jewish cemetery are plain, yet very soon the number of ornaments (pilasters, volutes, false portals, etc.) began to increase. Most decorated gravestones come from 17th century. However, on every gravestone there are Hebrew letters that inform about the name of the deceased person and the date of his or her death or burial. Copious praise of deceased' virtues appears beside brief eulogy (\"of blessed memory\") in Renaissance time. From 16th century the gravestones characterize the deceased also through various symbols, hinting at the life, character, name or profession of the people (see the tables below for details).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44396912",
"title": "St Patrick's Church, Rosevale",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1175,
"text": "Most of the marked graves in the church graveyard are grouped together in rows and aligned east-west. Approximately 68 names are recorded and dates range from the earliest in 1887 (an infant, Willy Hogan, whose name is included on a headstone with other family members) to the most recent in 2009. Dates on the headstones indicate that burials were taking place consistently from when the graveyard was first opened, peaking in the 1920s and 1930s, before declining in use after World War II; however since the 1990s burial numbers have been increasing. Headstones are made in a variety of styles and materials, some elaborate. Of note are an elaborately carved Celtic cross and several plots enclosed with wrought iron fencing. Older headstones tend to be made from marble and several have been broken. Families are generally buried together in a family plot or adjacent separate plots. Stonemasons recorded on some of the headstone include Ziegler of Toowoomba and F Williams of Ipswich. Recent burials are located along the western edge of the graveyard or in reserved family plots, and are usually marked with sandstone or concrete blocks with a granite plaque attached.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1atygi
|
Was there ever a more global language than English?
|
[
{
"answer": "English is widely spoken throughout the world, but isn't nearly as dominant as you might think. It's second to Mandarin in terms of total speakers, and Spanish (a very global language), Arabic, and Russian aren't very far behind. A solid tip in the economy that lasted a few generations could totally upset our perception that English is the language of business in favor of, say, Mandarin. We have never had a more communicative, networked planet, and no other language has enjoyed this advantage. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8569916",
"title": "English language",
"section": "Section::::Geographical distribution.:English as a global language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1140,
"text": "Modern English, sometimes described as the first global lingua franca, is also regarded as the first world language. English is the world's most widely used language in newspaper publishing, book publishing, international telecommunications, scientific publishing, international trade, mass entertainment, and diplomacy. English is, by international treaty, the basis for the required controlled natural languages Seaspeak and Airspeak, used as international languages of seafaring and aviation. English used to have parity with French and German in scientific research, but now it dominates that field. It achieved parity with French as a language of diplomacy at the Treaty of Versailles negotiations in 1919. By the time of the foundation of the United Nations at the end of World War II, English had become pre-eminent and is now the main worldwide language of diplomacy and international relations. It is one of six official languages of the United Nations. Many other worldwide international organisations, including the International Olympic Committee, specify English as a working language or official language of the organisation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60622381",
"title": "Linguistic capital",
"section": "Section::::Linguistic capital and lingua franca.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 967,
"text": "English is often considered to be the lingua franca of the world today due to the diversity of countries and communities that have adopted English as a national, commercial, or social form of communication. Globalization, colonialism, and the capitalist system have all helped promote English as the world's dominant language, supplemented by years of British and American hegemony on the world stage. Today, nearly 1.39 billion people speak English according to the World Economic Forum, with its prominence over other languages highlighted through the geographic diversity of where it is spoken. According to Arwen Armbrecht, Mandarin Chinese is the most spoken first language in the world, however its influence lags behind English due to its limited use outside of Mandarin-speaking nations. As a result, the linguistic capital of Mandarin Chinese cannot be fully compared to that of English, which allows English to have such an important role around the globe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1214877",
"title": "Universal language",
"section": "Section::::Modern history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "English remains the dominant language of international business and global communication through the influence of global media and the former British Empire that had established the use of English in regions around the world such as North America, Africa, Australia and New Zealand. However, English is not the only language used in global organizations such as in the EU or the UN, because many countries do not recognize English as a universal language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8569916",
"title": "English language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, and later the United States, Modern English has been spreading around the world since the 17th century. Through all types of printed and electronic media, and spurred by the emergence of the United States as a global superpower, English has become the leading language of international discourse and the \"lingua franca\" in many regions and professional contexts such as science, navigation and law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8569916",
"title": "English language",
"section": "Section::::History.:Spread of Modern English.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1204,
"text": "By the late 18th century, the British Empire had spread English through its colonies and geopolitical dominance. Commerce, science and technology, diplomacy, art, and formal education all contributed to English becoming the first truly global language. English also facilitated worldwide international communication. England continued to form new colonies, and these later developed their own norms for speech and writing. English was adopted in parts of North America, parts of Africa, Australasia, and many other regions. When they obtained political independence, some of the newly independent nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as the official language to avoid the political and other difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others. In the 20th century the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States and its status as a superpower following the Second World War has, along with worldwide broadcasting in English by the BBC and other broadcasters, caused the language to spread across the planet much faster. In the 21st century, English is more widely spoken and written than any language has ever been.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17507588",
"title": "English as a lingua franca",
"section": "Section::::Globalization and ELF.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "Extensive technological advances in the 21st century have enabled instant global communication, breaking the barriers of space and time, thereby changing the nature of globalization. With the world turned into an interconnected global system, there is a need for a mutual language. English has fulfilled this need by becoming the global lingua franca of the 21st century. Its presence in large parts of the world due to colonisation has led to it becoming the main language in which global trade, business, and cultural interactions take place. ELF is a unique lingua franca because of its global spread, its highly diverse nature, and its interactions which include native speakers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33256286",
"title": "Demographics of the world",
"section": "Section::::Languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "Worldwide, English is used widely as a lingua franca and can be seen to be the dominant language at this time. The world's largest language by native speakers is Mandarin Chinese which is a first language of around 960 million people, or 12.44% of the population, predominantly in Greater China. Spanish is spoken by around 330 to 400 million people, predominantly in the Americas and Spain. Arabic is spoken by around 280 million people. Bengali is spoken by around 250 to 300 million people worldwide, predominantly in Bangladesh and India. Hindi is spoken by about 200 million speakers, mostly in India. Portuguese is spoken by about 230 million speakers in Portugal, Brazil, East Timor, and Southern Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6g1wth
|
What are the origins of playing cards?
|
[
{
"answer": "Follow-up question:\nHow did certain cards in various games gather their names, such as the left and right \"bauers\" of Euchre or the \"vixer\" and \"old lady\" of Solo?\n\nIf I understand correctly, the games I gave as example are historically of German origin, which could have a role in the naming of the specific cards. In fact, \"Bauer\" means farmer in German, but how did the cards get these names?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This might possibly already get answered with the original question, but Id like to put it out there as a follow up just in case:\n\nDepending on how far back this goes, were card games more common among wealthier or poorer class people? Or for everyone like it is now? It seems like Poker (for example) nowadays is portrayed in a \"classier\" way(betting money, got the cigars and scotch going and all that as a cliche), but it being such a simple, inexpensive activity, cards seem like something the more lower class would play to have fun and pass the time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23083",
"title": "Playing card",
"section": "Section::::History.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1017,
"text": "Playing cards may have been invented during the Tang dynasty around the 9th century AD as a result of the usage of woodblock printing technology. The first possible reference to card games comes from a 9th-century text known as the \"Collection of Miscellanea at Duyang\", written by Tang dynasty writer Su E. It describes Princess Tongchang, daughter of Emperor Yizong of Tang, playing the \"leaf game\" in 868 with members of the Wei clan, the family of the princess' husband. The first known book on the \"leaf\" game was called the \"Yezi Gexi\" and allegedly written by a Tang woman. It received commentary by writers of subsequent dynasties. The Song dynasty (960–1279) scholar Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) asserts that the \"leaf\" game existed at least since the mid-Tang dynasty and associated its invention with the development of printed sheets as a writing medium. However, Ouyang also claims that the \"leaves\" were pages of a book used in a board game played with dice, and that the rules of the game were lost by 1067.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47514872",
"title": "Chinese playing cards",
"section": "Section::::Earliest references.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1028,
"text": "Playing cards may have been invented during the Tang dynasty around the 9th century AD as a result of the usage of woodblock printing technology. The first possible reference to card games comes from a 9th-century text known as the \"Collection of Miscellanea at Duyang\", written by Tang dynasty writer Su E. It describes Princess Tongchang, daughter of Emperor Yizong of Tang, playing the \"leaf game\" in 868 with members of the clan of Wei Baoheng, the family of the princess' husband. The first known book on the \"leaf\" game was called the \"Yezi Gexi\" and allegedly written by a Tang woman. It received commentary by writers of subsequent dynasties. The Song dynasty (960–1279) scholar Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) asserts that the \"leaf\" game existed at least since the mid-Tang dynasty and associated its invention with the development of printed sheets as a writing medium. However, Ouyang also claims that the \"leaves\" were pages of a book used in a board game played with dice, and that the rules of the game were lost by 1067.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31641740",
"title": "Science and technology of the Tang dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Woodblock printing.:Playing cards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1028,
"text": "Playing cards may have been invented during the Tang dynasty around the 9th century AD as a result of the usage of woodblock printing technology. The first possible reference to card games comes from a 9th-century text known as the \"Collection of Miscellanea at Duyang\", written by Tang dynasty writer Su E. It describes Princess Tongchang, daughter of Emperor Yizong of Tang, playing the \"leaf game\" in 868 with members of the clan of Wei Baoheng, the family of the princess' husband. The first known book on the \"leaf\" game was called the \"Yezi Gexi\" and allegedly written by a Tang woman. It received commentary by writers of subsequent dynasties. The Song dynasty (960–1279) scholar Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) asserts that the \"leaf\" game existed at least since the mid-Tang dynasty and associated its invention with the development of printed sheets as a writing medium. However, Ouyang also claims that the \"leaves\" were pages of a book used in a board game played with dice, and that the rules of the game were lost by 1067.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47514872",
"title": "Chinese playing cards",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Playing cards () were most likely invented in China during the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279). They were certainly in existence by the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271-1368). Chinese use the word \"pái\" (), meaning \"plaque\", to refer to both playing cards and tiles. Many early sources are ambiguous if they don't specifically refer to paper \"pái\" (cards) or bone \"pái\" (tiles). In terms of game play, there is no difference; both serve to hide one face from the other players with identical backs. Card games are examples of imperfect information games as opposed to Chess or Go.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21293270",
"title": "History of graphic design",
"section": "Section::::Calligraphy.:Playing cards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1165,
"text": "It is believed that playing cards were invented in China. Chinese playing cards, as we understand the term today, date from at least 1294, when Yen Sengzhu and Zheng Pig-Dog were apparently caught gambling in Enzhou (in modern Shandong Province). Cards entered Europe from the Islamic empire. The earliest authentic references to playing cards in Europe date from 1377. Europe changed the Islamic symbols such as scimitars and cups into graphical representations of kings, queens, knights and jesters. Different European countries adopted different suit systems. For instance, some Italian, Spanish and German decks of cards even today do not have queens. During the 15th century, German printers introduced a woodblock printing technique to produce playing cards. Lower production costs enabled the printed playing cards' quick exportation throughout Europe. The substitution of wood-block printing and hand coloring with copper-plate engraving during the 16th century was the next significant innovation in the manufacture of playing cards. The mass printing of playing cards was revolutionized by the introduction of color lithography in the early 19th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23083",
"title": "Playing card",
"section": "Section::::History.:Egypt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "By the 11th century, playing cards were spreading throughout the Asian continent and later came into Egypt. The oldest surviving cards in the world are four fragments found in the Keir Collection and one in the Benaki Museum. They are dated to the 12th and 13th centuries (late Fatimid, Ayyubid, and early Mamluk periods).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5360",
"title": "Card game",
"section": "Section::::Playing cards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Playing cards first appeared in Europe in the last quarter of the 14th century. The earliest European references speak of a Saracen or Moorish game called \"naib\", and in fact an almost complete Mamluk Egyptian deck of 52 cards in a distinct oriental design has survived from around the same time, with the four suits \"swords\", \"polo sticks\", \"cups\" and \"coins\" and the ranks \"king\", \"governor\", \"second governor\", and \"ten\" to \"one\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xl4ih
|
what happens to fines paid to government?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm sure there are a million and two different stories if you followed any of the money, but generally speaking it counts as revenue for that level of government. Like taxes and bond sales and then it gets allocated in some budget limited only by the administration's imagination and spent/wasted/buried in the backyard. Any court-appointed settlement could also come with its own strings attached, like \"this money can only be spent on a national hairstyle museum.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Broadly speaking, it's treated as income. In that respect, you can think of it like cutting Uncle Sam a check; it's no different than paying taxes.\n\nIt might help to think of the government^1 as a big corporation: there's a highly visible point person, a 538-person board of directors, and a whole bunch of subsidiary corporations. They're all owned by the same company, they all answer to the same CEO, but they all do different things and keep track of their own business — including what they make and what they spend.\n\nEach individual government agency has its own budget; each agency is responsible for keeping tabs on how much money comes in and how much comes out. Fines are generally paid to their relevant agencies — the DOJ would impose criminal and civil penalties, while regulatory agencies like the SEC might also impose their own fines.^2 Those incomes are accounted for in each agency's budget as a separate line item.^3 As for what the agency does with it then? Well, it's kind of up to them; after all, they're the ones who \"made\" the money. Usually, though, the money will stay within the agency in order to fund its operations.^4\n\nSome specific fines are earmarked for special purposes: criminal fines and penalties are earmarked to go towards the [Crime Victims Fund](_URL_1_), a rather large^5 fund used to compensate victims of crimes.^6 The decision of what to do with the money is really on an agency level, but usually it will go to agency operations.^8\n\nLastly, it's worth noting that all of these supplemental sources of income are just that: supplemental. Taxes, in their various forms, make up about 91% of all federal revenue, with the bulk of that coming from income and payroll taxes. ([Here](_URL_4_) are some pretty graphs for that!)\n******\n^1 This is all for federal information. I presume state-level budget management is much the same. State agencies rarely levy massive fines like the DOJ does, but of course state budgets are proportionally smaller.\n\n^2 Many agencies have the power to assess fines for violations of their rules, and I would speculate that most rule violators would rather pay a fine than take it to court and *then* pay a fine. DOJ and SEC are just the poster children for throwing down billion-dollar bills.\n\n^3 Literally! You know how much the government loves paperwork, so you can bet your tax return it's all out there... somewhere. They key is finding it. [Here](_URL_3_) is a set of high-level budget spreadsheets which contain some examples of literal line items for different incomes.\n\nIf you take a look at the [Receipts](_URL_0_) document, you can see how the various agencies track their money. In that document, you can see that rows 149–46 represent receipts for the DOJ — and since the DOJ doesn't tax people, all of their money comes from fines and fees. 140 and 143–46 represent fee income, while 139 and 141–42 represent fines. \nVarious other agencies also have more interesting fees. Line 187 represents assets the Treasury seized from Iraqis — and you'll note that, farther over to the right, that only happened in FY 2003 and 2004. Big settlements might have their own line items; line 195 is the EPA's income from the Exxon Valdez settlement fund.\n\n^4 The exception, of course, being the IRS. They're in the business of making money for everyone else to spend it.\n\n^5 In the [above-linked spreadsheet](_URL_0_), you can see this line item on 142. According to [Wikipedia](_URL_1_), the CVF is currently sitting on about $4B.\n\n^6 More information about the CVF, including their specific financial breakdown, is available [online](_URL_2_). I should note here that, as a general rule, victims of crime can also usually file a civil lawsuit for compensation; the CVF is designed as a gap-filler to provide compensation when the criminal^7 cannot.\n\n^7 Well. Since the civil burden of proof is preponderance, but the criminal standard is of course beyond a reasonable doubt, you can win a civil lawsuit even if a person was not convicted of the crime... but that's a bit beyond the scope of this explanation.\n\n^8 Agencies can't rely on fines for any significant part of their operating budget, of course; they're irregular incomes. Nevertheless, it's reasonable for an agency to expect a range of income based on those fines and to budget around that. Billion-dollar windfalls are just that: windfalls.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "146699",
"title": "Fine (penalty)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "One common example of a fine is money paid for violations of traffic laws. Currently in English common law, relatively small fines are used either in place of or alongside community service orders for low-level criminal offences. Larger fines are also given independently or alongside shorter prison sentences when the judge or magistrate considers a considerable amount of retribution is necessary, but there is unlikely to be significant danger to the public. For instance, fraud is often punished by very large fines since fraudsters are typically banned from the position or profession they abused to commit their crimes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35875649",
"title": "Bill 78",
"section": "Section::::Provisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "According to the provisions of the bill, any infraction against its prohibitions require offenders to pay fines, which are paid for each day of infraction. Those fines amount to $1,000–$5,000 for individuals, $7,000–$35,000 for student or union leaders, and $25,000–$125,000 per day for student or labor organizations. Fines are doubled for second and subsequent offences. Universities or institutions which do not comply with the provisions of Bill 78 are subject to the daily fees paid by student or labor organizations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32191",
"title": "Patriot Act",
"section": "Section::::Titles.:Title III: Anti-money-laundering to prevent terrorism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "The Act also introduced criminal penalties for corrupt officialdom. An official or employee of the government who acts corruptly—as well as the person who induces the corrupt act—in the carrying out of their official duties will be fined by an amount that is not more than three times the monetary equivalent of the bribe in question. Alternatively they may be imprisoned for not more than 15 years, or they may be fined and imprisoned. Penalties apply to financial institutions who do not comply with an order to terminate any corresponding accounts within 10 days of being so ordered by the Attorney General or the Secretary of Treasury. The financial institution can be fined $US10,000 for each day the account remains open after the 10-day limit has expired.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3582734",
"title": "Law of Papua New Guinea",
"section": "Section::::Courts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "In remote regions in which few people have paid employment it might seem that large fines would be unlikely to be paid. The system is usually extremely effective; many people will work in town at some stage in their life and then have savings. Fines are levied against the transgressor and family, who then join together to pay the fine. The victim’s family generally feel satisfied that they have received restitution when they receive the fine, reducing the risk of subsequent fighting. Having paid the fine, the transgressor’s family usually make very sure that he behaves and may well make him slowly work to pay them back. The Committee Man is paid a fee for his time, generally by the person bringing the case. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7697801",
"title": "Day-fine",
"section": "Section::::Finland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The fines are subject to recovery proceedings. If the fines are still not paid, the court may convert them to a prison sentence. Three day-fines will be converted to one day of imprisonment, ignoring the remainder for any amount of day-fines not divisible by three, and the length of the sentence must be between 4 and 60 days. This \"conversion punishment\" (, ) is only ever applied to court-ordered fines, not those issued by police.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3956010",
"title": "Patriot Act, Title III",
"section": "Section::::Subtitle A—International Counter Money Laundering and Related Measures.:Corruption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Section 329 introduced criminal penalties for corrupt officialdom. An official or employee of the government who acts corruptly — as well as the person who induces the corrupt act — in the carrying out of their official duties will be fined by an amount that is not more than three times the monetary equivalent of the bribe in question. Alternatively they may be imprisoned for not more than 15 years, or they may be fined and imprisoned. Penalties apply to financial institutions who do not comply with an order to terminate any corresponding accounts within 10 days of being so ordered by the Attorney General or the Secretary of Treasury under Section 319. The financial institution can be fined $US10,000 for each day the account remains open after the 10-day limit has expired.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81682",
"title": "Social control",
"section": "Section::::Formal.:Sanctions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Formal sanctions are usually imposed by the government and organizations in the form of laws to reward or punish behavior. Some formal sanctions include fines and incarceration in order to deter negative behavior. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3omehk
|
I read that caffeine in coffee has a half life of about 4 hours. It's this true? If so, why dies it only decay at this rate after the coffee is brewed?
|
[
{
"answer": "4-5 hours. The half life is only in regards to the metabolic half life inside the body. A lot of enzymes break down caffeine into other compounds and this process takes time. Some is also expelled through the urine. \n\nNatural degrading of compounds does not happen in the same way. It is a totally different process and it usually takes way longer depending on the enviroment. A dry coffee bean will not lose its caffeine so easily. A wet one however would be subject to bacterial processes. Or one in a very hot place could destroy the caffeine gradually though heat. Or pure caffeine in sunlight could slowly break down the molecular bounds. Some compounds can resist enviromental hazards better than others and some break down quite quickly if they are not kept in an ideal enviroment. Caffeine is on that side of compounds that can take a beating.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45588500",
"title": "Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder",
"section": "Section::::Caffeine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "The structure of caffeine allows the molecule to pass freely through biological membranes including the blood-brain barrier. Absorption in the gastrointestinal tract reaches near completion at about 99% after only 45 minutes. Half-life of caffeine for most adults is between 2.5 and 4.5 hours when consumption is limited to less than 10 mg/kg. However, during neonatal development, half-life for the fetus is significantly longer and decreases exponentially after birth to reach a normal rate at about 6 months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6868",
"title": "Caffeine",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Caffeine's biological half-life – the time required for the body to eliminate one-half of a dose – varies widely among individuals according to factors such as pregnancy, other drugs, liver enzyme function level (needed for caffeine metabolism) and age. In healthy adults, caffeine's half-life is between 3 and 7 hours. Smoking decreases the half-life by 30–50%, while oral contraceptives can double it and pregnancy can raise it to as much as 15 hours during the third trimester. In newborns the half-life can be 80 hours or more, dropping very rapidly with age, possibly to less than the adult value by age 6 months. The antidepressant fluvoxamine (Luvox) reduces the clearance of caffeine by more than 90%, and increases its elimination half-life more than tenfold; from 4.9 hours to 56 hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21241554",
"title": "5-hour Energy",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "A March 2011 article in Consumer Reports reported that, according to a lab test, a 5-Hour Energy contained 207 milligrams of caffeine, slightly more than an serving of Starbucks coffee which contains 180 mg of caffeine. (It is not clear whether the \"Original\" or \"Extra Strength\" product was tested.) The directions on the 5-Hour bottle recommend taking half of the contents (103 mg of caffeine) for regular use, and the whole bottle for extra energy. A regular cup of coffee has less than 100 mg/250 ml cup.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "273700",
"title": "French press",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "It is believed that the optimum time for brewing the coffee is around four minutes, and some consider the coffee spoiled after about 20 minutes. Other approaches, such as cold brewing, require several hours of contact between the water and the grounds to achieve the desired extraction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1345085",
"title": "Acetaminophen/butalbital",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism of action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Butalbital has a half-life of about 35 hours. Acetaminophen has a half-life of about 1.25 to 3 hours, but may be increased by liver damage and after an overdose. Caffeine has a half-life of about 2.5 to 4.5 hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8100608",
"title": "Coca-Cola BlāK",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "In 2019, it was reported that Coca-Cola have started to plan an introduction of coffee releated products across 25 markets by the end of the year. The coffee has been planned to combine Coke with coffee, which will contain less caffeine than a regular cup of coffee but more than a regular can of coke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215424",
"title": "Instant coffee",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "The caffeine content of instant coffee is generally less than that of brewed coffee. One study comparing various home-prepared samples came to the result that regular instant coffee (not decaffeinated) has a median caffeine content of 66 mg per cup (range 29–117 mg per cup), with a median cup size of 225 ml (range 170-285 ml) and a caffeine concentration of 328 µg/ml (range 102-559 µg/ml). In comparison, drip or filter coffee was estimated to have a median caffeine content of 112 mg, with a median concentration of 621 µg/ml for the same cup size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1j0cmu
|
How can Orcas jump so high?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's all about velocity, the faster you can approach the surface of the water, the higher you can jump. However it's not an issue of being better swimmers in general, sharks are neutral buoyancy, orcas are positive buoyancy. This means orcas store energy as they dive, and this gets converted into velocity as they ascend. It makes sense from a survival perspective, sharks don't have to surface to breathe, but if orcas were neutral buoyancy and overestimated their dive endurance, they'd drown. Similarly, but less extreme, if sharks were positive buoyancy, they'd have to waste energy to maintain their depth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For some context, the minimum speed required to jump 15 feet is about 20 miles an hour.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10222737",
"title": "Taiwan serow",
"section": "Section::::Life style and behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "Taiwan serows can jump as high as 2 m and run as fast as 20 km per hour. Among all mammals in Taiwan, they are the best high jumpers. They can be found at an elevation as low as 50 meters, but are mostly seen at 1000 meters and as high as 3500 meters. Their habitats include conifer forest, mixed broad-leaved forests, and the steep slopes of bare rocks and gravel cliffs. They are sometimes spotted on top of Nanhu Mountain (南湖大山), Hsuehshan (雪山), Yushan (玉山), and Siouguluan Mountain (秀姑巒山). They also live in the Taroko National Park. Their hoofs separate to two sides and can easily hold on to rocks on steep slopes. They are also good tree climbers. They are solitary and territorial. They use tears to smear branches or stones as markers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37278",
"title": "Galago",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Jumping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1099,
"text": "Galagos have remarkable jumping abilities. The highest reliably reported jump for a galago is 2.25 m. According to a study published by the Royal Society, given the body mass of each animal and the fact that the leg muscles amount to about 25% of this, galago's jumping muscles should perform six to nine times better than those of a frog. This is thought to be due to elastic energy storage in tendons of the lower leg, allowing far greater jumps than would otherwise be possible for an animal of their size. In mid-flight, they tuck their arms and legs close to the body; they are then brought out at the last second to grab the branch. In a series of leaps, a galago can cover ten yards in mere seconds. The tail, which is longer than the length of the head and body combined, assists the powerful leg muscles in powering the jumps. They may also hop like a kangaroo or simply run/walk on four legs. Such strong, complicated, and coordinated movements are due to the rostral half of the posterior parietal cortex that is linked to the motor, premotor, and visuomotor areas of the frontal cortex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42154097",
"title": "Myrmecia nigrocincta",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour and ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "\"M. nigrocincta\" is an accomplished jumper with leaps ranging from . It has good vision and can be observed running amongst plants and leaves, occasionally jumping from one branch to another. It is mostly found foraging on plants, trees, and other vegetation, but it sometimes forages on the ground. It propels its jumps by a sudden extension of its middle and hind legs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4876985",
"title": "Harpegnathos saltator",
"section": "Section::::Habits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Their leaps are accomplished by synchronized abduction of the middle and hind pairs of legs. They can jump up to 2 cm high and 10 cm long. These leaps are made not only to escape, but also to catch flying prey. The workers forage only during the cool hours of the morning and afternoon with a lull in activity during mid day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43609",
"title": "Jumping",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Aquatic species rarely display any particular specializations for jumping. Those that are good jumpers usually are primarily adapted for speed, and execute moving jumps by simply swimming to the surface at a high velocity. A few primarily aquatic species that can jump while on land, such as mud skippers, do so via a flick of the tail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26553004",
"title": "Many-scaled anole",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "They are athletic creatures that run fast, and jump many times their length. They can also climb straight up almost any surface at blinding speed. They usually sit downward. Seeing a potential prey they dart down towards it. They display their dewlap and bob their head to attract sexual partners and to mark their territory. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30064168",
"title": "Brachaspis robustus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "The New Zealand entomologist Dr Tara Murray told North & South magazine in 2019: “They can actually jump, they just don’t land very well. On a hot day, an adult male can jump up to 1.5m, multiple times. Females are bulkier, so they don’t jump as far. These grasshoppers freeze as a first defence. If they do jump, it often ends as a back flop, belly flop or general ‘thock’ on the ground.” \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
15wcnt
|
how do the rsa securids work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Normally, when you log into a server your user credentials are stored in some kind of database. This may be a *nix based system, or in Windows this will typically be Active Directory (AD).\n\nTo overly simplify things, the database would just have a list of username:password, you enter your username and the correct password for that username - voila! You get in!\n\nThe RSA SecurIDs add a 2nd level of protection, otherwise known as 2-phase authentication. There is additional software installed on the authentication server (i.e.: the server where that username:password database is stored) which adds a 3rd item you have to enter in order to get logged in successfully.\n\nEach keyfob (the grey keychain thing shown in that post) has a unique serial number written on the back. If you'll notice one of the top comments said \"DO NOT POST THE BACK OF IT!!\"\n\nThat unique serial number is stored on the authentication server, and matched against your username. There is an algorithm used to generate a code on the keyfob, which is the same one used inside the server side software. With the same algorithm on each side, the authentication software knows what code should be displayed on your keyfob at any given time.\n\nTo add **another** layer of security, you typically have to provide a personal pin on TOP of what's displayed on the keyfob. This is typically a 4-6 digit number that you choose yourself. So now your pin is something like 1234 + whatever is on the keyfob\n\nSo... when you go to log in you can only get in with YOUR pin, with what is listed on YOUR keyfob, with YOUR username, and YOUR password.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's say that I own a house. I'm going to go on vacation and I trust you to come into my home and take care of my cats. Now I could just give you a key to my home and then we wouldn't have to worry about much else.\n\nBut If you accidentally lose the key, and someone apprehends it, they have access to my house! AND MY CATS D:\n\nSo I decided to up my security at home. A simple explanation would be that I installed a deadbolt and gave you a second special key. Let's look at a little bit more accurate description.\n\nI have my normal door key and also a pin pad. You can enter my house if you have the key, as well as the secret code on the pinpad.\n\nHere's where the fun starts.\n\nIf i just told you \"the pin is 12345\" (that's the combination to my luggage!) then anyone could just extract that information from your head (a la inception style) and would have the same problem as me giving you the key.\n\nSo I give you a mathematical equation. I tell you that y = x^2 + 2x + 3 (irreverent equation, just to get a point across) where x is the current date and time (ex: 1/3/2013 10:45 would be formatted like 1320131045) and we'd plug that into the equation we agreed on. The value I get at the end would be the number that you put into the pinpad.\n\nThe great thing is that the key is never set on one value, the pin changes every minute. \n\nThe RSA SecurID works in the same way by being connected to a server and agreeing upon an equation and several other things. It uses AES-128 to generate the key (iirc) so it's secure. Every minute (or whatever interval is set) it generates a new value, and at the same time, so does the server. Because they're following the same guidelines, the values will be the same on both ends.\n\nIt's a two-factor authentication method so if anyone gets your password, they would still need that unique securID",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine you had two matched devices that generated a series of numbers, 1 every minute, based on a secret formula. You give me one, and keep one for yourself. Later on, I text you, but you aren't sure that it is me, so you ask for the number on my device. If it matches yours, you can be pretty sure it is really me.\n\nThat's basically what is going on. The secret formula is designed so that every device can have its once unique version, and that is it is very, very hard to figure out the formula from just the numbers. One device is your key fob, and the other is a program running on the computer you are trying to connect to. This way, even if someone gets your password, they still need the device to log in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "293363",
"title": "RSA SecurID",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "RSA SecurID, formerly referred to as SecurID, is a mechanism developed by Security Dynamics (later RSA Security and now RSA, The Security Division of EMC) for performing two-factor authentication for a user to a network resource.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301240",
"title": "RSA Security",
"section": "Section::::Products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "RSA is most known for its SecurID product that provides two-factor authentication to hundreds of technologies utilizing hardware tokens, software tokens, and one time codes. In 2016, RSA re-branded the SecurID platform as RSA SecurID Access. This release added Single-Sign-On capabilities and cloud authentication for resources using SAML 2.0 and other types of federation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8571835",
"title": "Self-certifying File System",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "In computing, Self-certifying File System (SFS) is a global and decentralized, distributed file system for Unix-like operating systems, while also providing transparent encryption of communications as well as authentication. It aims to be the universal distributed file system by providing uniform access to any available server, however, the usefulness of SFS is limited by the low deployment of SFS clients. It was developed in the June 2000 doctoral thesis of David Mazières.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8824684",
"title": "Administration (law)",
"section": "Section::::Australia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "In Australia, an external administrator, also called an insolvency practitioner, is an independent person that is formally appointed to control an insolvent company's affairs. External administrators can be appointed either by the company's directors, a secured creditor, or by a court, and include: provisional liquidators, liquidators, voluntary administrators, deed administrators, controllers, and receivers. A receivership is when an external administrator known as a \"receiver\" is appointed by a secured creditor to sell off a company's assets in order to repay the secured debt, or by the court to protect the company's assets or carry out other tasks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24786891",
"title": "Distributed Access Control System",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Released under an open-source license, DACS provides a modular authentication framework that supports an array of common authentication methods and a rule-based authorization engine that can grant or deny access to resources, named by URLs, based on the identity of the requestor and other contextual information. Administrators can configure DACS to identify users by employing authentication methods and user accounts already available within their organization. The resulting DACS identities are recognized at all DACS jurisdictions that have been federated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1277761",
"title": "Acronis",
"section": "Section::::Software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Acronis Backup and Acronis Backup Advanced are a disk-based backup and recovery programs. Aside from backup software, Acronis also created Acronis Disk Director which is a shareware application that partitions a machine and allows it to run multiple operating systems, Acronis Snap Deploy which creates a standard configuration to easily organize new machines, Acronis Access Advanced which secures access to files that are synced between devices, and Acronis Access Connect, which is designed for Mac clients and runs on Windows servers. Acronis Data Protection Platform includes backup, disaster recover, and secure file sync and share.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22305973",
"title": "Revulytics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Revulytics (formerly V.I. Labs) is a privately held business intelligence company headquartered in Waltham, Massachusetts, United States. The company acquired Trackerbird Software Analytics, based in Malta, and re-branded on November 15, 2016. Revulytics provides business-to-business solutions to independent software vendors for software usage and software compliance reporting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b3zf68
|
why are the french riots with the yellow vest protestors not being reported at all in u.s. media?
|
[
{
"answer": "A combination of the fact that many people in the US don't care about foreign affairs to begin with and don't understand the reason for the Yellow Vest protests / riots and are therefore not interested, and that even if people did understand what the protests were about, they've been going on for so long that the media would have a hard time marketing it as clickable material.\n\nThe conspiracy part of me thinks it's because France is a NATO ally and revered democratic nation and the media doesn't want to glorify mass protests against a publicly elected government. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They were when they started.\n\nNow it's old news, and not terribly interesting to anyone in the US. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59100122",
"title": "Yellow vests movement",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.:2 February: \"Act XII\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "Earlier in the week, France's highest court denied a request to ban police from using \"flash balls\" or \"defensive ball launchers\", known as LBDs, that shoot rubber projectiles, which have been blamed for a number of serious injuries. French Interior Minister Christophe Castaner admitted in media interviews that the weapon could cause injuries and had been used more than 9,000 times since yellow vests demonstrations began. The day before the Act XII protests, the government warned the public that police would not hesitate to use the weapons to combat violence by demonstrators, since they had been authorized by the court. On Saturday, thousands in Paris participated in a \"march of the injured\" calling for the weapon to be banned. Injured protesters marched at the front, some wearing eye patches with a target sign on them. Jerome Rodrigues, a well-known participant in the movement who lost an eye in the previous week's demonstrations, was received warmly with applause by the crowds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60215749",
"title": "Timeline of the yellow vests movement",
"section": "Section::::February 2019.:2 February: \"Act XII\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "Earlier in the week, France's highest court denied a request to ban police from using \"flash balls\" or \"defensive ball launchers\", known as LBDs, that shoot rubber projectiles, which have been blamed for a number of serious injuries. French Interior Minister Christophe Castaner admitted in media interviews that the weapon could cause injuries and had been used more than 9,000 times since yellow vests demonstrations began. The day before the Act XII protests, the government warned the public that police would not hesitate to use the weapons to combat violence by demonstrators, since they had been authorized by the court. On Saturday, thousands in Paris participated in a \"march of the injured\" calling for the weapon to be banned. Injured protesters marched at the front, some wearing eye patches with a target sign on them. Jerome Rodrigues, a well-known participant in the movement who lost an eye in the previous week's demonstrations, was received warmly with applause by the crowds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5397982",
"title": "1980 St. Pauls riot",
"section": "Section::::Riot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "It is unclear why the riot started; some sources suggest that it was as a result of police ripping a customer's trousers and refusing to pay, others that they were attacked as they removed alcohol from the café which did not have a drinks licence. According to \"The Guardian\" newspaper, 100–200 black and white youths were involved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1126818",
"title": "1995 Brixton riot",
"section": "Section::::The Riots.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1241,
"text": "The BBC reported that \"hundreds\" of black and white youths participated in the riot. Rioters attacked police, ransacked shops and burned cars. According to the police \"Officers were wearing protective clothing because we had reports of missiles being thrown.\" In an attempt to contain the riot around 50 police officers in riot gear formed lines to close Brixton's main road (Brixton Road), preventing anyone from entering the area. The street had been the scene of rioting in 1981. Police also sealed off a two-mile area around the centre of Brixton and closed Brixton and Stockwell stations. A police helicopter was dispatched over Brixton. It was reported that shots were fired as the centre of the demonstration moved into the area of the Ritzy Cinema. It was also reported that a crowd of at least ten rioters pulled a police motorcyclist from his machine. The Dogstar, Coldharbour Lane was among the businesses attacked by the rioters. Formerly The Atlantic, a predominantly black pub, and recently refurbished. The riot later developed into what police called \"sporadic pockets of trouble in the area around Brixton town centre\". The police stated that \"We gave them every opportunity to move off peacefully but they hadn't done so.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40034474",
"title": "2013 Trappes riots",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Riots broke out in Trappes, a suburb (\"banlieue\") of Paris, France on 19 July 2013 after the police arrested a man who assaulted a police officer, who tried to check the identity of his wife wearing a Muslim veil on 18 July 2013.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60215749",
"title": "Timeline of the yellow vests movement",
"section": "Section::::February 2019.:2 February: \"Act XII\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "The twelfth week of protests occurred as the French parliament was considering a new law proposed by Macron's governing party restricting the right to protest. The proposed law would outlaw covering one's face during a street demonstration (whether with a helmet, mask, or scarf), punishable by a €15,000 fine or imprisonment, and allow local police to establish blacklists of people not allowed to participate in street protests. The proposed law was opposed by some members of parliament inside and outside Macron's party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59100122",
"title": "Yellow vests movement",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.:2 February: \"Act XII\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "The twelfth week of protests occurred as the French parliament was considering a new law proposed by Macron's governing party restricting the right to protest. The proposed law would outlaw covering one's face during a street demonstration (whether with a helmet, mask, or scarf), punishable by a €15,000 fine or imprisonment, and allow local police to establish blacklists of people not allowed to participate in street protests. The proposed law was opposed by some members of parliament inside and outside Macron's party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
765op1
|
during the war of the currents, tesla and edison battled over superiority between alternating current (ac) and direct current (dc). why is alternating current regarded as more superior than direct current?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is not really superior. Automobiles use direct current.\n\nThe one really important difference up to now is that transformers can be used to step up and down the voltage with alternating current.\n\nAt the power plant the voltage is stepped up tremendously to be carried on high overhead wires. High voltage means low current. Low current means more power transmitted over same size wires with less loss due to resistance.\n\nThe voltage is stepped down before use in residential and most commercial buildings. Only alternating current can do this using transformers. \n\nThere may also be advantages in industry where triple phase alternating current can be made available.\n\nDirect current is actually less dangerous if people connect across the voltage.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Power needs to be transmitted at high voltages to minimize losses in the system. You don't use high voltage so it needs to be \"stepped down.\" AC can be stepped down easily and efficiently with a transformer circuit. Before semiconductors, there was no efficient way to step down DC. Or at least nowhere near as efficient as a transformer with AC. \n\nBecause AC has fewer losses when it was stepped down, it was cheaper for power companies to adopt AC generators and transmit that instead of DC. \n\nThere were additional problems, for example it was easier to convert AC to DC for applications than convert DC to AC reliably. \n\nSo that's why we use AC in our power grids. \n\nThat said, things aren't the same today as they were a century ago. High voltage DC has fewer losses in the wire than AC, and modern electronics has made efficient DC/DC and DC/AC conversion possible. Over new and long distance transmission, DC is used today instead of AC. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The reason is because of long transmission lines. The transmission lines themselves also have resistance, i.e. some of the power that is being sent through them is lost to resistance.\n\nHowever, the higher the voltage is you send through, the less power you lose this way. BUT very high voltage is dangerous and you want much lower voltages to actually use the electricity.\n\nWith AC it's rather easy to change the voltage through a transformer.\n\nWith DC it's not so easy to adapt the voltage.\n\nAnd that is why the electricity grid is AC.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Misnomer there - War of the Currents was Edison and **Westinghouse**, not Tesla and Edison. Tesla did not get into the AC biz until after the \"War' was already on and his poly-phase motor did not hit the market until after \"War\" was over. He had no roll in the War of the Currents. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAs other have said, AC's main advantage was it could be converted to a higher voltage using a transformer to allow it to be transmitted much longer distances in the same diameter wire. The cost of wire (copper) was everything back then so if you did not have to buy big thick conductors you could undercut the other guy (Edison) who did. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "212253",
"title": "Electric power distribution",
"section": "Section::::History.:Introduction of the transformer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "In the US the competition between direct current and alternating current took a personal turn in the late 1880s in the form of a \"War of Currents\" when Thomas Edison started attacking George Westinghouse and his development of the first US AC transformer systems, pointing out all the deaths caused by high voltage AC systems over the years and claiming any AC system was inherently dangerous. Edison's propaganda campaign was short lived with his company switching over to AC in 1892.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2108765",
"title": "Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti",
"section": "Section::::Professional career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "In the late 1880s, there was a debate within the industry about the transmission of electrical power, known as the War of the Currents. Thomas Edison supported a direct current (DC) based system, largely due to his holding many key patents and having set up some power plants supplying DC power. The rival Westinghouse Electric Corporation supported an alternating current (AC) system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "342086",
"title": "War of the currents",
"section": "Section::::The current war ends.:Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 968,
"text": "Even though the institutional war of currents had ended in a financial merger the technical difference between direct and alternating current systems followed a much longer technical merger. Due to innovation in the US and Europe, alternating current's economy of scale with very large generating plants linked to loads via long distance transmission was slowly being combined with the ability to link it up with all of the existing systems that needed to be supplied. These included single phase AC systems, poly-phase AC systems, low voltage incandescent lighting, high voltage arc lighting, and existing DC motors in factories and street cars. In the engineered \"universal system\" these technological differences were temporarily being bridged via the development of rotary converters and motor–generators that allowed the large number of legacy systems to be connected to the AC grid. These stopgaps were slowly replaced as older systems were retired or upgraded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29778",
"title": "Thomas Edison",
"section": "Section::::Menlo Park laboratory (1876–1886).:War of currents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "Thomas Edison's staunch anti-AC tactics were not sitting well with his own stockholders. By the early 1890s, Edison's company was generating much smaller profits than its AC rivals, and the War of Currents would come to an end in 1892 with Edison forced out of controlling his own company. That year, the financier J.P. Morgan engineered a merger of Edison General Electric with Thomson-Houston that put the board of Thomson-Houston in charge of the new company called General Electric. General Electric now controlled three-quarters of the US electrical business and would compete with Westinghouse for the AC market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "342086",
"title": "War of the currents",
"section": "Section::::The current war ends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "The fifteen electric companies that existed 5 years before had merged down to two; General Electric and Westinghouse. The war of currents came to an end and this merger of the Edison company, along with its lighting patents, and the Thomson-Houston, with its AC patents, created a company that controlled three quarters of the US electrical business. From this point on General Electric and Westinghouse were both marketing alternating current systems. Edison put on a brave face noting to the media how his stock had gained value in the deal but privately he was bitter that his company and all of his patents had been turned over to the competition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38824",
"title": "Electric power transmission",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1172,
"text": "The late 1880s and early 1890s would see the financial merger of smaller electric companies into a few larger corporations such as Ganz and AEG in Europe and General Electric and Westinghouse Electric in the US. These companies continued to develop AC systems but the technical difference between direct and alternating current systems would follow a much longer technical merger. Due to innovation in the US and Europe, alternating current's economy of scale with very large generating plants linked to loads via long distance transmission was slowly being combined with the ability to link it up with all of the existing systems that needed to be supplied. These included single phase AC systems, poly-phase AC systems, low voltage incandescent lighting, high voltage arc lighting, and existing DC motors in factories and street cars. In what was becoming a \"universal system\", these technological differences were temporarily being bridged via the development of rotary converters and motor-generators that would allow the large number of legacy systems to be connected to the AC grid. These stopgaps would slowly be replaced as older systems were retired or upgraded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "342086",
"title": "War of the currents",
"section": "Section::::The current war ends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 1627,
"text": "With Thomas Edison no longer involved with Edison General Electric, the war of currents came to a close with a financial merger. Edison president Henry Villard, who had engineered the merger that formed Edison General Electric, was continually working on the idea of merging that company with Thomson-Houston or Westinghouse. He saw a real opportunity in 1891. The market was in a general downturn causing cash shortages for all the companies concerned and Villard was in talks with Thomson-Houston, which was now Edison General Electric's biggest competitor. Thomson-Houston had a habit of saving money on development by buying, or sometimes stealing, patents. Patent conflicts were stymieing the growth of both companies and the idea of saving on some 60 ongoing lawsuits as well as saving on profit losses of trying to undercut each other by selling generating plants below cost pushed forward the idea of this merger in financial circles. Edison hated the idea and tried to hold it off but Villard thought his company, now winning its incandescent light patent lawsuits in the courts, was in a position to dictate the terms of any merger. As a committee of financiers, which included J.P. Morgan, worked on the deal in early 1892 things went against Villard. In Morgan's view Thomson-Houston looked on the books to be the stronger of the two companies and engineered a behind the scenes deal announced on April 15, 1892, that put the management of Thomson-Houston in control of the new company, now called General Electric (dropping Edison's name). Thomas Edison was not aware of the deal until the day before it happened.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
34kgn7
|
Are there any measurable differences between two hydrogen atoms?
|
[
{
"answer": "No. :)\n\nThat's a quite significant feature of quantum mechanics. They are completely indistinguishable. And this is a relevant feature when doing calculations in thermodynamics (more precisely in statistical mechanics). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nope. A hydrogen atom is one electron and one proton. All protons are identical, and all electrons are identical, so we expect all hydrogen atoms are identical.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are several areas where there can be differences.\n\nOne hydrogen atom can have a different speed or direction from another hydrogen atom.\n\nHydrogen atoms have a spin which can be up or down. NMR uses this to investigate the properties of materials.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nYou can have various spin isomers of H2 due to this.\n\nThe hydrogen can have varying numbers of electrons attached or interacting with it. This affects the NMR, and we can tell what environment a hydrogen atom is in using NMR.\n\nThe electrons and protons within hydrogen materials can be vibrating, rotating, and twisting and bending in space. We study this with UV-Vis spectroscopy and rotational vibrational spectroscopy.\n\nIt's relatively easy to interconvert hydrogen from one of these to another though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't think the question is about whether two hydrogen (or whatever) atoms can be in different states from each other. The question is if you teleport the complete state of one atom to another, would there be inherent properties of underlying particles that would distinguish the original from the copy\n\nIt seems like the answer would be no, two atoms of the same element are exactly identical and exchangeable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13609",
"title": "Hydrogen bond",
"section": "Section::::Hydrogen bonds in small molecules.:Bifurcated and over-coordinated hydrogen bonds in water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "A single hydrogen atom can participate in two hydrogen bonds, rather than one. This type of bonding is called \"bifurcated\" (split in two or \"two-forked\"). It can exist, for instance, in complex natural or synthetic organic molecules. It has been suggested that a bifurcated hydrogen atom is an essential step in water reorientation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "997715",
"title": "Spin isomers of hydrogen",
"section": "Section::::Other substances with spin isomers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Other molecules and functional groups containing two hydrogen atoms, such as water and methylene, also have ortho- and para- forms (e.g. orthowater and parawater), but this is of little significance for their thermal properties. Their ortho-para ratios differ from that of dihydrogen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "99426",
"title": "Naphthalene",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Molecular geometry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Because of this resonance, the molecule has bilateral symmetry across the plane of the shared carbon pair, as well as across the plane that bisects bonds C2-C3 and C6-C7, and across the plane of the carbon atoms. Thus there are two sets of equivalent hydrogen atoms: the \"alpha\" positions, numbered 1, 4, 5, and 8, and the \"beta\" positions, 2, 3, 6, and 7. Two isomers are then possible for mono-substituted naphthalenes, corresponding to substitution at an alpha or beta position. Bicyclo[6.2.0]decapentaene is a structural isomer with a fused 4–8 ring system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1222839",
"title": "Free-radical halogenation",
"section": "Section::::Control of halogenation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "Because all six \"a\" hydrogens, both \"c\" hydrogens, and the three \"d\" hydrogens are chemically equivalent with the others in their three classifications (i.e., any \"a\" hydrogen is equivalent with any other \"a\" hydrogen), these rates accurately reflect where a single chlorination may take place for 2-methylbutane. The single tertiary hydrogen \"b\" is nearly as susceptible as the six, primary \"a\" hydrogens, and almost doubly susceptible as any of the three, also primary \"d\" hydrogens, illustrating the radical stability differences between tertiary and primary hydrogens (the secondary \"c\" hydrogens also follow the radical stability order as previously mentioned).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15462098",
"title": "Reducing equivalent",
"section": "Section::::Lone electrons.:Hydrogen atom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 984,
"text": "A neutral hydrogen atom consists of one electron and one proton. Hydrogen's electronegativity value of 2.2 is less than the electronegativity of the atoms that hydrogen is commonly bound to, such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, or fluorine. When a hydrogen atom forms a covalent bond with a more electronegative atom, the more electronegative atom will have a greater affinity for the electrons and pull the electrons away from hydrogen. When a highly electronegative atom binds to a hydrogen atom it is reduced because it gains the electrons involved in the covalent bond. Conversely, when an atom loses a hydrogen atom it is oxidized because it loses electrons. For example, consider the reaction involving Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD) and succinate. In this reaction FAD is reduced to FADH2 because it accepts two hydrogen atoms from succinate. Succinate serves as the reducing equivalent because it donates electrons to FAD in the form of hydrogen atoms and is itself oxidized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "53264410",
"title": "Multipole density formalism",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Hydrogen positioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "However, hydrogen atoms possess a feature unique among all the elements - they possess exactly one electron, which additionally is located on their valence shell and therefore is involved in creating strong covalent bonds with atoms of various other elements. While a bond is forming, the maximum of the electron density function moves significantly away from the nucleus and towards the other atom. This prevents any spherical approach from determining hydrogen position correctly by itself. Therefore, usually the hydrogen position is estimated basing on neutron crystallography data for similar molecules, or it is not modelled at all in the case of low-quality diffraction data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102193",
"title": "Nonmetal",
"section": "Section::::Categories.:Alternative categories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "In scheme (5), hydrogen is placed by itself on account of it being \"so different from all other elements\". The remaining nonmetals are divided into \"nonmetals\", \"halogens\", and \"noble gases\", with the unnamed category being distinguished by including nonmetals with relatively strong interatomic bonding, and the metalloids being effectively treated as a third super-category alongside metals and nonmetals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
2y5804
|
a breakdown of the marvel universe leading up to avengers: age of ultron.
|
[
{
"answer": "They were once all separate heroes but they were eventually all recruited by S.H.I.E.L.D., a US government agency dedicated to detecting and neutralizing threats, both on earth and elsewhere.\n\nIt is a lot to go into so I agree with homeboi in saying check out /r/marvel or /r/marvelstudios ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36484254",
"title": "Avengers: Age of Ultron",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Avengers: Age of Ultron is a 2015 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team the Avengers, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the sequel to 2012's \"The Avengers\" and the eleventh film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film was written and directed by Joss Whedon and features an ensemble cast that includes Robert Downey Jr., Chris Hemsworth, Mark Ruffalo, Chris Evans, Scarlett Johansson, Jeremy Renner, Don Cheadle, Aaron Taylor-Johnson, Elizabeth Olsen, Paul Bettany, Cobie Smulders, Anthony Mackie, Hayley Atwell, Idris Elba, Stellan Skarsgård, James Spader, and Samuel L. Jackson. In the film, the Avengers fight Ultron, an artificial intelligence obsessed with causing human extinction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38289484",
"title": "Age of Ultron",
"section": "Section::::Publication history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1185,
"text": "In mid-November, 2012, Marvel Comics released a cryptic teaser written \"Age of Ultron\" in binary code. Three days later the event was officially announced, although by this point it had been over a year since the event had been originally announced. Neil Gaiman's Angela character was introduced into the Marvel Universe in the last issue of the \"Age of Ultron\" miniseries, although the issue was shipped in a polybag to prevent other details of the story's ending from being publicized too early. An \"Age of Ultron\" #10 A.I. one-shot by writer Mark Waid and artist Andre Lima Araujo will delve into the repercussions of the storyline for Hank Pym. Following the conclusion of \"Age of Ultron\", a new ongoing series titled \"Avengers A.I.\" by writer Sam Humphries and Andre Lima Araujo will launch in July. In addition, a miniseries originally solicited as \"Age of Ultron #10 U.C.\" but now titled \"The Hunger\" will round out the event, dealing with the implications of the changes in the Marvel Universe status quo. For example, \"The Hunger\" serves as a catalyst for the \"Cataclysm\" event in the \"Marvel\" \"Ultimate Comics\" universe, which involves its Universe's war against \"Galactus\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "479132",
"title": "What If (comics)",
"section": "Section::::Publication history.:Volume 11.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "In April 2014, Marvel released the five-part \"What If? Age of Ultron\" which spun out of the 2013 event and examined the consequences of Wolverine going back in time to kill Hank Pym before creating Ultron. Each issue explored what a new universe would be like which arose from the removal of another core Avenger, with Wasp in #1, Iron Man in #2, Thor in #3 and Captain America in #4. The series was concluded in #5 with a world where Hank Pym never created Ultron in the first place and thus a universe without Ultron's creation of the Vision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "22114132",
"title": "The Avengers (2012 film)",
"section": "Section::::Sequels.:\"Avengers: Age of Ultron\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "A sequel, titled \"Avengers: Age of Ultron\", written and directed by Whedon, was released on May 1, 2015. Much of the cast returns, with the addition of Elizabeth Olsen as Scarlet Witch, Aaron Taylor-Johnson as Quicksilver, Paul Bettany as Vision, and James Spader as Ultron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "988786",
"title": "List of What If issues",
"section": "Section::::\"What If: Age of Ultron\" (2014).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 371,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 371,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "In April 2014 Marvel released a five-issue limited series for the 2013 event \"Age of Ultron\", focusing on Wolverine and Invisible Woman's trip back in time to kill Hank Pym in order to prevent him creating Ultron and showing the effects for the Marvel Universe if one of the other four founding Avengers had died, or if Hank had simply elected not to create Ultron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23122244",
"title": "Avengers (comics) in other media",
"section": "Section::::Film.:Live action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "BULLET::::- A sequel, \"Avengers: Age of Ultron\", written and directed by Whedon, was released on May 1, 2015. The film features all the Avengers returning from the first film, and introduce new team members the Scarlet Witch, portrayed by Elizabeth Olsen, Quicksilver, played by Aaron Taylor-Johnson, and the Vision, played by Paul Bettany. At the end of \"Age of Ultron\", a new roster of Avengers is established which includes Captain America, the Black Widow, the Scarlet Witch, the Falcon (portrayed by Anthony Mackie), the Vision, and War Machine (portrayed by Don Cheadle).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "403512",
"title": "The Avengers (comic book)",
"section": "Section::::Publication history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Between 1996 and 2004, Marvel relaunched the primary Avengers title three times. In 1996, the \"Heroes Reborn\" line, in which Marvel contracted outside companies to produce four titles, included a new volume of \"The Avengers\". It took place in an alternate universe, with a revamped history unrelated to mainstream Marvel continuity. \"The Avengers\" vol. 2 was written by Rob Liefeld and penciled by Jim Valentino, and ran for 13 issues (Nov. 1996–Nov. 1997). The final issue, which featured a crossover with the other \"Heroes Reborn\" titles, returned the characters to the main Marvel Universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
an4bli
|
Is CBD oil effective at treating anxiety/depression?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is not a homeopathy type cure because there is actual science to support it's use, although there has not been a lot of research into the area until fairly recently. A systematic review (including studies up to 2015) found that:\n\n & #x200B;\n\n*Existing preclinical evidence strongly supports CBD as a treatment for generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, obsessive–compulsive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder when administered acutely; however, few studies have investigated chronic CBD dosing. \\[...\\] Overall, current evidence indicates CBD has considerable potential as a treatment for multiple anxiety disorders, with need for further study of chronic and therapeutic effects in relevant clinical populations.* \n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThere are a couple of things that you should look into / be aware of: \n\n1) As you mentioned, it's not regulated, which means (much like \"nutraceuticals\") that you don't necessarily know what you're getting (dosage / concentration, what it was derived from, etc.).\n\n2) It may or may not be legal in your jurisdiction. ",
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},
{
"answer": "Neuroscience PhD here. \n\nIt might be useful for anxiety, but the evidence is nowhere near as clear as people are making it out to be in this thread. More importantly, the side effects and long term effects of chronic is are completely un-studied. \n\nIf anxiety is inhibiting your ability to live the way you would like, please see a doctor. I promise that the century of research on the treatment of anxiety will serve you better than trying CBD oil.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the past six years or so, CBD has made headlines around the world as a potential treatment for anxiety disorders, ranging from mild to severe. Studies suggest that CBD counteracts many of THC’s adverse effects. Numerous animal studies and human studies indicate that [CBD hemp oil](_URL_1_) has powerful anti-anxiety properties. CBD oil is safe, non-toxic and may be beneficial to treat a number of anxiety-related disorders, including:\n\n* Panic disorder\n* Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)\n* Social phobia\n* Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)\n* Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)\n* Mild to moderate depression\n\nEven the [National Institute on Drug Abuse](_URL_0_) – no fan of cannabis – says that CBD has been shown to reduce stress and alleviate depression. Study subjects were observed as having lower behavioral signs of anxiety. Their physiological symptoms of anxiety, like increased heart rate, also improved.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5750",
"title": "Cognitive behavioral therapy",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "Emerging evidence suggests a possible role for CBT in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); hypochondriasis; coping with the impact of multiple sclerosis; sleep disturbances related to aging; dysmenorrhea; and bipolar disorder, but more study is needed and results should be interpreted with caution. CBT can have a therapeutic effects on easing symptoms of anxiety and depression in people with Alzheimer's disease. CBT has been studied as an aid in the treatment of anxiety associated with stuttering. Initial studies have shown CBT to be effective in reducing social anxiety in adults who stutter, but not in reducing stuttering frequency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "5750",
"title": "Cognitive behavioral therapy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "When compared to psychoactive medications, review studies have found CBT alone to be as effective for treating less severe forms of depression and anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), tics, substance abuse, eating disorders and borderline personality disorder. It is often recommended in combination with medications for treating other conditions, such as severe obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and major depressive disorder, opioid use disorder, bipolar disorder and psychotic disorders. In addition, CBT is recommended as the first line of treatment for majority of psychological disorders in children and adolescents, including aggression and conduct disorder. Researchers have found that other \"bona fide\" therapeutic interventions were equally effective for treating certain conditions in adults. Along with interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), CBT is recommended in treatment guidelines as a psychosocial treatment of choice, and CBT and IPT are the only psychosocial interventions that psychiatry residents are mandated to be trained in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "318049",
"title": "Fibromyalgia",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Therapy.:Cognitive behavioural therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "A 2010 systematic review of 14 studies reported that CBT improves self-efficacy or coping with pain and reduces the number of physician visits at post-treatment, but has no significant effect on pain, fatigue, sleep or health-related quality of life at post-treatment or follow-up. Depressed mood was also improved but this could not be distinguished from some risks of bias.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "641696",
"title": "Generalized anxiety disorder",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "Both cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and medications (such as SSRIs) have been shown to be effective in reducing anxiety. A comparison of overall outcomes of CBT and medication on anxiety did not show statistically significant differences (i.e. they were equally effective in treating anxiety). However, CBT is significantly more effective in reducing depression severity, and its effects are more likely to be maintained in the long term, whereas the effectiveness of pharmacologic treatment tends to lessen if medication is discontinued. A combination of both CBT and medication is generally seen as the most desirable approach to treatment. Use of medication to lower extreme anxiety levels can be important in enabling patients to engage effectively in CBT.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5750",
"title": "Cognitive behavioral therapy",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.:Schizophrenia, psychosis and mood disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 616,
"text": "In long-term psychoses, CBT is used to complement medication and is adapted to meet individual needs. Interventions particularly related to these conditions include exploring reality testing, changing delusions and hallucinations, examining factors which precipitate relapse, and managing relapses. Several meta-analyses suggested that CBT is effective in schizophrenia, Cochrane reviews reported CBT had \"no effect on long‐term risk of relapse\" and no evidence that CBT had an additional effect above standard care. There is also limited evidence of effectiveness for CBT in bipolar disorder and severe depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "641696",
"title": "Generalized anxiety disorder",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Therapy.:Cognitive behavioral therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "CBT is a psychological method of treatment that involves a therapist working with the person to understand how thoughts and feelings influence behaviour. Elements of the therapy include exposure strategies to allow the patient to confront their anxieties gradually and feel more comfortable in anxiety-provoking situations, as well as to practice the skills they have learned. CBT can be used alone or in conjunction with medication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5750",
"title": "Cognitive behavioral therapy",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "In adults, CBT has been shown to have effectiveness and a role in the treatment plans for anxiety disorders, body dysmorphic disorder, depression, eating disorders, chronic low back pain, personality disorders, psychosis, schizophrenia, substance use disorders, in the adjustment, depression, and anxiety associated with fibromyalgia, and with post-spinal cord injuries.\n",
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65kcsz
|
How did hunting wild animals in Africa change after the introduction of firearms?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, first I should note that there was quite a bit of variation. Firearms were being traded to the states of West Africa in the early 1600s, but in interior Central Africa they were still fairly rare and recent introductions in the 1830s. By the same token, use of firearms for hunting varied in different societies.\n\nI'll also note that although the question specifically asks about hunting, firearms were also sought for use in warfare, and many African kings/chiefs were quick to appreciate the military applications. Furthermore, the practice of hunting and specialized hunting fraternities have been seen as having application as training for warfare, even before the introduction of firearms.^1\n\n Though many scholars will point out that the firearms that Europeans traded to Africans in the 18th and 19th centuries were either worn out, outmoded, or otherwise of low quality. \n\nIn the Grassfields area along the modern day Cameroon-Nigeria border, flintlock muskets known as Dane guns were traded from the port at Calabar, and were used in warfare and ceremonial functions into the 20th century. Quoting Jan-Pierre Warnier-^2\n\n > According to many informants, guns were seldom used in hunting. Instead, traps nets and spears were used. They only exception may have been that of the leopard- the noblest and most valued game. Many oral accounts report leopard-hunting with guns. However, the actual tactics used in such hunts is not clear. It might be the leopard, once sighted, was lured into attacking a group of gunmen. But even this way of hunting would have been highly dangerous because of the risk of misfiring, though the discharge of an 11 or 12 gauge smoothbore at close range must have been quite effective at stopping a leopard in full _URL_0_ may be that hunters were willing to run high risks to win the rewards associated with the killing of a leopard. Often, it was the gift of a wife by the chief- an invaluable reward in a society where titled men monopolized the women and forced many junior men to remain bachelors for life.\nIn Central and Eastern Africa (DRC, Tanzania, Zambia), the introduction of firearms was intimately tied to trade in Slaves and trade in Ivory.\n\nThough on the other hand, Warnier also mentions that percussion guns began to be introduced to the region between WWI and WWII, and that flintlock owners had local blacksmiths turn their guns into percussion guns, making them much more reliable and better hunting weapons.\n\nAmong societies in Central Africa like the Luba or the Lozi, access to firearms was a symbol of elite status. Guns were procured by long-distance trade, either from Angola through Ovimbundu traders, or from the Swahili coast through Swahili or Nyamwezi trade caravans. The early-mid 19th century saw an expansion of trading networks from the coast deep to the interior of the continent. As I noted above, in 1830 firearms would have been a recent introduction among the Lozi or the Lunda, and there were initially few, and a chief's prestige would be reflected in the number of firearms or even cannons they could display.\n\nAt the same time, firearms were deeply connected to the trades in ivory and the trade in slaves. In this era, Nyamwezi and Swahili trader-adventurers like Mirambo, Msiri and Tippu Tip were establishing what I would call \"warlord states\" in eastern and southern DRC and in central Tanzania, relying on musket armed followers to enforce their usurpation, but also to collect ivory for trade to the coast, or else enforce tribute from local hunters.\n\nThis intrusion of Big Men in mid-nineteenth century Central Africa also had profound effects on societies outside of these warlord states. To quote David Gordon-^3\n\n > Ivory became the symbol of the new ruling class, the most prestigious and valued trading item. Warlord chiefs demanded all or a significant portion of ivory from the hunt or employed their own hunters to procure tusks. Indeed, the definition of chieftancy revolved around the ability to impos claims for tribute in ivory....\n\n > Guns were used to procure both slaves and ivory. But it was especially with the ascendance of the ivory trade that guns became a necessary factor of production. Guns were increasingly used to hunt elephants. The hunting of elephants had previously been undertaken by brave men organized in guilds with specialized techniques that included trapping, poisons, and specially manufactured spears. But this changed in the second half of the century. Renowned Chikunda and Bisa elephant hunters gained access to or began to manufacture primitive guns and abandoned their old hunting techniques. they had little choice if they were to compete with the gun-wielding followers of coastal caravans. When, for example, Tippu Tip's followers encountered herds of elephants, they could slaughter 'countless numbers' of elephants.\n\n > But the use of guns to kill elephants was only one aspect of the connection between guns and ivory. The export of ivory became linked to a violent regional trade in slaves. Although exhausted and famished slaves were not effective porters for ivory, the slave and ivory trades developed together as predominantly male ivory hunters desired slaves, often women, as worker and as concubines. The Lunda-Chokwe in the west of the region, for example, purchased female slaves from the Ovimbundu caravans that reached the interior and previously supplied slaves for the Atlantic trade. In exchange they sold ivory destined for the international markets. Farther north, the Kuba ppurchased slaves for ivory. Chikunda hunters in the east also purchased slave women to expand their lineages.\n\nAs guns flowed into the region, the earliest European explorers often remarked about how guns quickly depleted the local game population. For instance, Emil Holub visited the Lozi in 1875 and witnessed a royal hunt where he says perhaps 10,000 shots were fired. By 1886, the next Lozi king Lubosi Lewanika forbade the use of guns during the annual royal hunt.^4\n\nSimilarly, while living among the Kololo 1853, David Livingstone wrote in his private diary that their recent adoption of firearms to hunt elephants would mean \"very soon, none will appear in this part of the country. They retire before the gun sooner tan any other animal\". ^5 His prediction was borne out, since the ivory trade in that region of Malawi was exhausted soon after.\n\nIncidentally, with greater European presence in the colonial era, some hunting safari expeditions were seized upon by missionaries as opportunities for evangelization. These hunting expeditions could take a crude form of humanitarian relief, as food providing expeditions in time of local famine. In such circumstances, missionaries could present a successful hunt as a homily on God's gracious provision of food in time of need.\n\nIn other circumstances, missionaries armed with the latest firearms could be called upon to use them for the protection of their mission station or local communities against man-killing predators.^6\n\nIn Southern Africa, Griqua and Khoikhoi groups introduced firearms to the highveld in the 1820s and 1830s. Many Tswana and other Ngoni chiefs were quick to appreciate the military application of firearms, reasoning that through the getting of firearms, they would become militarily superior to their neighbors and equal to Griqua and whites. The Tswana were also quick to appreciate the effectiveness of firearms for hunting, which made up an essential part of Tswana food strategy until the 20th century. \n\nAs in Central Africa, the ivory trade was deeply tied to the trade in firearms. But, in the specific context of Southern Africa, firearms could come from British or Boer traders. By the 1870s, firearms had so proliferated among the Xhosa, the Sotho and the Tswana that Cape Colony officers fighting in the Ninth Cape-Xhosa war (1877-79) and the Sotho Gun War (1880-81) would complain that their foes had superior rifles than their own troops. Additionally, the Gun War was fought over Cape Colony efforts to disarm the Sotho, ending in a de-facto Sotho victory. \n\nSimilar settler unease would lead Cape Colony officials to demand Tswana disarmament in 1895. However, Tswana chiefs supported by London Missionary Society missionaries resisted these demands, arguing that firearms had become 'vital to their customary economic activity of hunting'.^7\n\nAll of that was a long-walk to say that firearms became a vital part of Tswana hunting strategy and led to a loss of traditional hunting techniques within 60 years of their introduction in Southern Africa.\n\n---\nSources!\n\n1) \"The Shirts that Mande Hunters Wore\" by Patrick Mcnaughton in *African Arts* Vol 15, no 3 (May 1982) pp54-91\n\n2) *The Cameroon Grassfields Civilization* by Jean-Paul Warnier. pp 65\n\n3) \"Wearing Cloth, Wielding Guns: Consumption, Trade and Politics in the South Central African Interior during the Ninteenth Century\" by David M Gordon in *the Objects of Life in Central Africa* pp 30\n\n4) *The Gun in Central Africa: A History of Technology and Politics* by Giacomo Macola pp53-72\n\n5)\"Reassessing the Significance of Firearms in Central Africa: the case of North-Western Zambia to the 1920s\" by Giacomo Macola in *Journal of African History* vol 51 no 3 pp 311\n\n6) \"Fishers of Men and Hunters of Lion:British Big Game Hunting in Colonial Africa\" by Jason Bruner in *A Cultural History of Firearms in the Age of Empire* pp 60 \n\n7) \"Firearms in South Central Africa\" by Anthony Atmore, J. M. Chirenje and S.I. Mudenge in *Journal of African History* Vol 12 no 4 pp 550",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "12859048",
"title": ".416 Remington Magnum",
"section": "Section::::History and origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "As former European colonies in Africa gained independence, safari hunting on the continent began a slow decline due to resource mismanagement and political factors. This, in turn, led to a decline in interest in big bore rifles and cartridges used to hunt dangerous African game species. However, by the 1980s African nations recognizing the potential benefits, began developing areas as hunting and safari destinations. As interest in safari hunting in Africa increased so did interest in dangerous game rifles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3599795",
"title": "White hunter",
"section": "Section::::Hunting in Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "There were many factors that led to the spread of big-game hunting in East Africa, but two were foremost among them: first, a romantic European conception of hunting that combined aristocratic privilege and sportsmanship, and second, the desire by the colonizing powers to create new agricultural economies, to which unchecked animal populations posed a serious threat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "771717",
"title": "Game (hunting)",
"section": "Section::::By continent and region.:Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "In some parts of Africa, wild animals hunted for their meat are called bushmeat; see that article for more detailed information on how this operates within the economy (for personal consumption and for money) and the law (including overexploitation and illegal imports). Animals hunted for bushmeat include, but are not limited to:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3599795",
"title": "White hunter",
"section": "Section::::Rise of the hunting safari.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "The British colonial government also turned big-game hunting into a source of revenue, charging the tourists and hunters licensing fees for permission to kill the game animals. In 1909, a £50 hunting license in the East Africa Protectorate entitled its purchaser to kill 2 buffaloes, 2 hippos, 1 eland, 22 zebras, 6 oryxes, 4 waterbucks, 1 Greater Kudu, 4 Lesser Kudus, 10 topis, 26 hartebeests, 229 other antelope, 84 colobus monkeys, and unlimited lions and leopards. (lions and leopards killed livestock and were classified as vermin.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "802149",
"title": "Indian rhinoceros",
"section": "Section::::Threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Sport hunting became common in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Indian rhinos were hunted relentlessly and persistently. Reports from the middle of the 19th century claim that some British military officers in Assam individually shot more than 200 rhinos. By 1908, the population in Kaziranga had decreased to around 12 individuals. In the early 1900s, the species had declined to near extinction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38791",
"title": "Hunting",
"section": "Section::::History.:Upper Paleolithic to Mesolithic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Hunting was a crucial component of hunter-gatherer societies before the domestication of livestock and the dawn of agriculture, beginning about 11,000 years ago in some parts of the world. In addition to the spear, hunting weapons developed during the Upper Paleolithic include the atlatl (a spear-thrower; before 30,000 years ago) and the bow (18,000 years ago). By the Mesolithic, hunting strategies had diversified with the development of these more far-reaching weapons and the domestication of the dog about 15,000 years ago. Evidence puts the earliest known mammoth hunting in Asia with spears to approximately 16,200 years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38791",
"title": "Hunting",
"section": "Section::::Conservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 188,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 188,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Hunters have been driving forces throughout history in the movement to ensure the preservation of wildlife habitats and wildlife for further hunting. However, excessive hunting and poachers have also contributed heavily to the endangerment, extirpation and extinction of many animals, such as the quagga, the great auk, Steller's sea cow, the thylacine, the bluebuck, the Arabian oryx, the Caspian and Javan tigers, the markhor, the Sumatran rhinoceros, the bison, the North American cougar, the Altai argali sheep, the Asian elephant and many more, primarily for commercial sale or sport. All these animals have been hunted to endangerment or extinction. Poaching currently threatens bird and mammalian populations around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
78zg82
|
what is this warm feeling that starts from the top of my face and goes down towards my body.
|
[
{
"answer": "Are you an alcoholic by any chance?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "691224",
"title": "Hot flash",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "Hot flashes, a common symptom of menopause and perimenopause, are typically experienced as a feeling of intense heat with sweating and rapid heartbeat, and may typically last from two to thirty minutes for each occurrence, ending just as rapidly as they began. The sensation of heat usually begins in the face or chest, although it may appear elsewhere such as the back of the neck, and it can spread throughout the whole body. Some women feel as if they are going to faint. In addition to being an internal sensation, the surface of the skin, especially on the face, becomes hot to the touch. This is the origin of the alternative term \"hot flush\", since the sensation of heat is often accompanied by visible reddening of the face. Excessive flushing can lead to rosacea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20573523",
"title": "Blood Bank (EP)",
"section": "Section::::Information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "As much as \"Emma\" is about the cold, the \"Blood Bank\" collection is about the warmth that gets you through it. You can feel the air move. Like a fire you've been stoking for hours and finally got to sustain itself, the heat blisters your face while your back is frozen solid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51604833",
"title": "Morris Warman",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Warman's feeling for people was evident in his personal life as well as his photographs. When he saw an intoxicated man fall off a subway platform, he jumped onto the tracks and dragged the victim to safety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1047067",
"title": "Withdrawal reflex",
"section": "Section::::Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "When a person touches a hot object and withdraws their hand from it without actively thinking about it, the heat stimulates temperature and pain receptors in the skin, triggering a sensory impulse that travels to the central nervous system. The sensory neuron then synapses with interneurons that connect to motor neurons. Some of these send motor impulses to the flexors that lead to the muscles in the arm to contract, while some motor neurons send inhibitory impulses to the extensors so flexion is not inhibited. This is referred to as reciprocal innervation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14668576",
"title": "San healing practices",
"section": "Section::::Healing energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "“You dance, dance, dance. Then n/um lifts you up in your belly and lifts you in your back, and then you start to shiver. [N/um] makes you tremble, it's hot. . . . Your eyes are open but you don't look around; you hold your eyes still and look straight ahead. But when you get into !kia, you're looking around because you see everything, because you see what's troubling everybody . . . n/um enters every part of your body right to the tip of your feet and even your hair.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12676084",
"title": "Cathedral of Light",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Speer described the effect: \"The feeling was of a vast room, with the beams serving as mighty pillars of infinitely light outer walls\". The British Ambassador to Germany, Sir Nevile Henderson, described it as \"both solemn and beautiful... like being in a cathedral of ice\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "758763",
"title": "Cold-stimulus headache",
"section": "Section::::Cause and frequency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "A cold-stimulus headache is the direct result of the rapid cooling and rewarming of the capillaries in the sinuses leading to periods of vasoconstriction and vasodilation. A similar but painless blood vessel response causes the face to appear \"flushed\" after being outside on a cold day. In both instances, the low temperature causes the capillaries in the sinuses to constrict and then experience extreme rebound dilation as they warm up again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6f4fep
|
Why do some stars produce four lines that protrude from the star whenever a photograph is taken from them?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is actually because the telescope that images the star has a secondary mirror that is held in place with four support beams, and that causes an interference pattern that looks like what you're describing. [See here](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33748122",
"title": "Star trail",
"section": "Section::::Earth's rotation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "Star trail photographs are possible because of the rotation of Earth about its axis. The apparent motion of the stars is recorded as mostly curved streaks on the film or detector. For observers in the Northern Hemisphere, aiming the camera northward creates an image with concentric circular arcs centered on the north celestial pole (very near Polaris). For those in the Southern Hemisphere, this same effect is achieved by aiming the camera southward. In this case, the arc streaks are centered on the south celestial pole (near Sigma Octantis). Aiming the camera eastward or westward shows straight streaks on the celestial equator, which is tilted at angle with respect to the horizon. The angular measure of this tilt depends on the photographer's latitude (), which is equal to .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59695080",
"title": "Blue loop",
"section": "Section::::Instability strip.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Stars which are executing blue loops cross the yellow portion of the H-R diagram above the main sequence, so that many of them cross a region called the instability strip because the outer layers of stars in that region are unstable and pulsate. Stars from the asymptotic giant branch that cross the instability strip during a blue loop are thought to become W Virginis variables. More massive stars, crossing the instability strip during a blue loop from the red giant branch, are thought to make up the δ Cephei variables. Both types of star have luminous and unstable photospheres at this stage of their lives and often have the spectra of supergiants, although most are not massive enough to ever fuse carbon or reach a supernova.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "809979",
"title": "Blink comparator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "In photographs taken a few days apart, rapidly moving objects such as asteroids and comets would stand out, because they would appear to be jumping back and forth between two positions, while all the other fixed stars remained stationary. Photographs taken at longer intervals could be used to detect stars with large proper motion, or variable stars, or to distinguish binary stars from optical doubles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2870581",
"title": "Rossiter–McLaughlin effect",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "As the main star rotates on its axis, one quadrant of its photosphere will be seen to be coming towards the viewer, and the other visible quadrant to be moving away. These motions produce blueshifts and redshifts, respectively, in the star's spectrum, usually observed as a broadening of the spectral lines. When the secondary star or planet transits the primary, it blocks part of the latter's disc, preventing some of the shifted light from reaching the observer. This causes the observed mean redshift of the primary star as a whole to vary from its normal value. As the transiting object moves across to the other side of the star's disc, the redshift anomaly will switch from being negative to being positive, or vice versa. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40240218",
"title": "Operation Phototrack",
"section": "Section::::Time exposure photographs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "The photographs produced were time exposures in which a satellite's track appeared as a long, usually slightly curved, line seen against a background of stars. If the camera were stationary, the tracks of the much more slowly moving stars appeared as much shorter lines, which were portions of arcs about the pole. If the volunteer had a motor-driven polar-axis camera mount that countered the earth's rotation, the stars were represented by dots whose sizes depended on the resolution of the camera lens and the magnitude of the star.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33748122",
"title": "Star trail",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "A star trail is a type of photograph that uses long exposure times to capture the apparent motion of stars in the night sky due to Earth's rotation. A star-trail photograph shows individual stars as streaks across the image, with longer exposures yielding longer arcs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12350617",
"title": "Color–color diagram",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "In the stellar locus, stars tend to align in a more or less straight feature. If stars were perfect black bodies, the stellar locus would be a pure straight line indeed. The divergences with the straight line are due to the absorptions and emission lines in the stellar spectra. These divergences can be more or less evident depending on the filters used: narrow filters with central wavelength located in regions without lines, will produce a response close to the black body one, and even filters centered at lines if they are broad enough, can give a reasonable blackbody-like behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
as2lsq
|
how is it possible that the world collective debt is bigger than world collective wealth? can't we just annul all of the debt that shouldn't be there and go on?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think that debt IS wealth. If you got rid of the debt, it would remove all the wealth, because the wealth is made up of receivables. That’s one reason why you wouldn’t get a lot of support for this idea from the wealthy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Theoretically that would be great. \n\nBut doing that would reset the entire foundation of economics and we'd have to rebuild our entire infrastructure. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Who doesn’t get paid? Because that’s the question. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "666269",
"title": "Debt of developing countries",
"section": "Section::::Debt abolition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1650,
"text": "There is much debate about whether the richer countries should be asked for money which has to be repaid. The Jubilee Debt Campaign gives six reasons why the third world debts should be cancelled. Firstly, several governments want to spend more money on poverty reduction but they lose that money in paying off their debts. Economist Jeff Rubin agrees with this stance on the basis that the money could have been used for basic human needs and says it is Odious Debt. Secondly, the lenders knew that they gave to dictators or oppressive regimes and thus, they are responsible for their actions, not the people living in the countries of those regimes. For example, South Africa has been paying off $22 billion which was lent to stimulate the apartheid regime.They have yet to recover from this, their external debt has increased to $136.6 billion while the number of people in the housing backlog has increased to 2.1 million from 1994's 1.5 million. Also, many lenders knew that a great proportion of the money would sometime be stolen through corruption. Next, the developing projects that some loans would support were often unwisely led and failed because of the lender's incompetence. Also, many of the debts were signed with unfair terms, several of the loan takers have to pay the debts in foreign currency such as dollars, which make them vulnerable to world market changes. The unfair terms can make a loan extremely expensive, many of the loan takers have already paid the sum they loaned several times, but the debt grows faster than they can repay it. Finally, many of the loans were contracted illegally, not following proper processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28842198",
"title": "Peak debt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Some observers such as Professor Steve Keen of University of Western Sydney, believe that many countries are hurtling towards peak debt, fueled by excess borrowing and an addiction to credit. To such observers, it appears illogical to take on ever increasing debt just to bid against each other for the same assets. Nations must at some stage reach their maximum debt limit. The timeframe for reaching this limit is always unknown but some believe we are at that limit already, or very close, in many countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "535650",
"title": "External debt",
"section": "Section::::External debt sustainability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "The World Bank and IMF hold that \"a country can be said to achieve external debt sustainability if it can meet its current and future external debt service obligations in full, without recourse to debt rescheduling or the accumulation of arrears and without compromising growth\". According to these two institutions, \"bringing the net present value (NPV) of external public debt down to about 150 percent of a country's exports or 250 percent of a country's revenues\" would help eliminating this \"critical barrier to longer-term debt sustainability\". High external debt is believed to be harmful for the economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "666269",
"title": "Debt of developing countries",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "The debt of developing countries refers to the external debt incurred by governments of developing countries, generally in quantities beyond the governments' ability to repay. \"Unpayable debt\" is external debt with interest that exceeds what the country's politicians think they can collect from taxpayers, based on the nation's gross domestic product, thus preventing it from ever being repaid. The debt can result from many causes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "666269",
"title": "Debt of developing countries",
"section": "Section::::Debt abolition.:Consequences of debt abolition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Some people argue against forgiving debt on the basis that it would motivate countries to default on their debts, or to deliberately borrow more than they can afford, and that it would not prevent a recurrence of the problem. Economists refer to this as a moral hazard. It would also be difficult to determine which debt is odious. Moreover, investors could stop lending to developing countries entirely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2410012",
"title": "Debt-to-GDP ratio",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "The World Bank and the IMF hold that “a country can be said to achieve external debt sustainability if it can meet its current and future external debt service obligations in full, without recourse to debt rescheduling or the accumulation of arrears and without compromising growth.” According to these two institutions, external debt sustainability can be obtained by a country “by bringing the net present value (NPV) of external public debt down to about 150 percent of a country’s exports or 250 percent of a country’s revenues.” High external debt is believed to have harmful effects on an economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "322221",
"title": "National debt of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Risks and debates.:Definition of public debt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "There is debate regarding the economic nature of the intragovernmental debt, which was approximately $4.6 trillion in February 2011. For example, the CBPP argues: that \"large increases in [debt held by the public] can also push up interest rates and increase the amount of future interest payments the federal government must make to lenders outside of the United States, which reduces Americans' income. By contrast, intragovernmental debt (the other component of the gross debt) has no such effects because it is simply money the federal government owes (and pays interest on) to itself.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ayw89
|
How long does it actually take to form a 'habit'? (Or, is there any truth to the '21 days to form a habit' axiom?)
|
[
{
"answer": "Habit formation for eating, drinking, and exercise behaviors [has been shown to vary greatly](_URL_0_), taking anywhere from 18 to 254 days. Moreover, in this study, it tended to follow an asymptotic curve, and \"the median time to reach 95% of asymptote was 66 days.\"\n\nWhile this isn't neuroscience, the study nonetheless suggests that the time it takes to form a habit does not follow some axiom or absolute rule. \n\nEDIT: Incidentally, the source of the 21 day thing is *Psycho-cybernetics* by Maltz (1960).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Habit formation is a great example of the brain learning and then efficiently giving out resources for a behavior. Something that is done by habit is the result of making a conscious, voluntary action into an automatic one, which is intimately tied to motivation. \n\nThis process in the brain can be attributed significantly to the [basal ganglia](_URL_0_). This structure integrates signals related to reward and motivation with the movement and cognitive capabilities of the brain by forming many [connective loops with the cortex](_URL_2_). It has been suggested that habit formation is the result of the basal ganglia taking control of driving sequences of movements. \n\nOne potentially direct way of getting at your question has been looked at when training rats in a [t-maze](_URL_1_). In this experiment, rats are given an audio cue when travelling down the straight arm of the maze which tells them which way to turn at the end. If you record what cells in the basal ganglia are doing during this task, they start out being active at the turn, and end up being active at the start and end of the task. In addition to this, the number of responsive cells peaks during learning, and then goes down with more training. This may be evidence showing that the basal ganglia is taking over initiation of the whole movement sequence, and that it figures out the minimum amount of resources to dedicate to this function. This was a continual process, but the rats reached peak performance in the task in general with 5 sessions of 40 runs per day, and basal ganglia responses continued to change over the course of 7 more sessions.\n\nA bit more than the 19-28 repetitions you suggest, but it's sure to be highly variable depending on the task!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nope, I would say there is no truth to that axiom. Think about drug addiction. Biologically, drugs are simply very strong reinforcers of behavior.\n\nTheories of operant conditioning say that if a behavior is followed by a reward (e.g. dopamine release), that behavior will be reinforced and will be more likely to occur again. Habit formation occurs when a behavior is repetitively reinforced. So, how long it takes to form a habit depends on how strong the reinforcer is. Another answer already posted [this picture of loops](_URL_1_), showing direction of this information through the basal ganglia. When a behavior is reinforced the first few times, before it has become a habit, it is referred to as a goal-directed behavior, or a motivated behavior. These are mediated mainly by the nucleus accumbens (NAc), in the ventral striatum. The NAc has both emotional and motor components, and dopamine release here leads to stimulus-response learning. As it begins to become a habit, it begins to be transitioned from more limbic/emotional, to more motor loops. Neuroanatomically, this is characterized as a shift between dependence on the ventral striatum/NAc, to a dependence on the dorsal striatum.\n\n\nThe dorsal striatum mediates habit behaviors. With a very strong reinforcer, like cocaine, this shift from ventral-dorsal dependence [has been shown after 15 days](_URL_0_) in rats. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16598952",
"title": "Bad habit",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 970,
"text": "There is a theory that it takes an average of 66 days to break a habit. The amount of time it takes to break a habit is generally between 18 and 254 days. This should often be repeated once or maybe twice depending on what the habit is, something small like chewing fingernail should only have to be done once. Larger habits like smoking should be repeated at twice but every one is different so it could be less. There are sources that phrase the breaking of bad habits under habit-formation and that an individual acquires a new habit within 66 days. A study found that this process is marked by an asymptomatic increase of the behavior, with the initial acceleration slowing to a plateau after the said time period. There are several variations regarding the period of development. For instance, a source stated that breaking a bad habit or changing an unhealthy behavioral pattern such as smoking takes 90 days while forming a new habit that stick requires 66 days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13149599",
"title": "Habit",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Habit formation is the process by which a behavior, through regular repetition, becomes automatic or habitual. This is modelled as an increase in automaticity with number of repetitions up to an asymptote. This process of habit formation can be slow. Lally \"et al.\" (2010) found the average time for participants to reach the asymptote of automaticity was 66 days with a range of 18–254 days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "599837",
"title": "Habituation",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Some habituation procedures appear to result in a habituation process that last days or weeks. This is considered long-term habituation. It persists over long durations of time (i.e., shows little or no spontaneous recovery). Long-term habituation can be distinguished from short-term habituation which is identified by the nine characteristics listed above.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13149599",
"title": "Habit",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "There are three main components to habit formation: the context cue, behavioral repetition, and the reward.The context cue can be a prior action, time of day, location, or any thing that triggers the habitual behavior. This could be anything that one's mind associates with that habit and one will automatically let a habit come to the surface. The behavior is the actual habit that one exhibits, and the reward, such as a positive feeling, therefore continues the \"habit loop\". A habit may initially be triggered by a goal, but over time that goal becomes less necessary and the habit becomes more automatic. Intermittent or uncertain rewards have been found to be particularly effective in promoting habit learning. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1625862",
"title": "Bengali grammar",
"section": "Section::::Verbs.:Tense.:Habitual past tense.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "The habitual past tense has a few different uses. It is used for events that happened regularly, such as \"I used to eat out every day\" or \"He wrote poems when he was young\", the equivalent of an imperfect. It may also be used as a sort of conditional, such as the following: \"If you asked I would come\" or \"If you had asked I would have come\". It is easy to form the habitual past tense: simply start with the simple past tense and change the \"l\" to \"t\" (except in the \"tui\" [2 VF] form). The endings are \"-tam\", \"-tish\", \"-te\", \"-to\", \"-ten\". For example: \"ami dekhtam\", \"tui dekhtish\", \"tumi dekhte\", \"she dekhto\", \"apni dekhten\". In less standard varieties of Bengali, \"a\" is substituted for \"e\" in second-person familiar forms; thus \"tumi bolta, khulta, khelta,\" etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "599837",
"title": "Habituation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1395,
"text": "Habituation is a form of non-associative learning in which an innate (non-reinforced) response to a stimulus decreases after repeated or prolonged presentations of that stimulus. Responses that habituate include those that involve the intact organism (e.g., full-body startle response) or those that involve only components of the organism (e.g., habituation of neurotransmitter release from \"in vitro\" Aplysia sensory neurons). The broad ubiquity of habituation across all biologic phyla has resulted in it being called \"the simplest, most universal form of learning...as fundamental a characteristic of life as DNA.\" Functionally-speaking, by diminishing the response to an inconsequential stimulus, habituation is thought to free-up cognitive resources to other stimuli that are associated with biologically important events (i.e., punishment/reward). For example, organisms may habituate to repeated sudden loud noises when they learn these have no consequences. A progressive decline of a behavior in a habituation procedure may also reflect nonspecific effects such as fatigue, which must be ruled out when the interest is in habituation. Habituation may also be clinically relevant, as a number of neuropsychiatric conditions, including autism, schizophrenia, migraine, and Tourette's, show reductions in habituation to a variety of stimulus-types both simple (tone) and complex (faces).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13291",
"title": "Habitus (sociology)",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "The concept of habitus has been used as early as Aristotle but in contemporary usage was introduced by Marcel Mauss and later Maurice Merleau-Ponty. However, it was Pierre Bourdieu who turned it into a cornerstone of his sociology, and used it to address the sociological problem of agency and structure: the habitus is shaped by structural position and generates action, thus when people act and demonstrate agency they simultaneously reflect and reproduce social structure. Bourdieu elaborated his theory of the habitus while borrowing ideas on cognitive and generative schemes from Noam Chomsky and Jean Piaget dependency on history and human memory. For instance, a certain behaviour or belief becomes part of a society's structure when the original purpose of that behaviour or belief can no longer be recalled and becomes socialized into individuals of that culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
h7o7w
|
In medicine can 400mg vs. 600mg of some medicine actually mean they are stronger, not just quantity ?
|
[
{
"answer": "The activity of the drug molecule is unchanged.\n\nI think the biggest concern is accidental overdose - doubling up on a 600 mg pill has a bigger impact than doubling up on a 400 mg pill.\n\nOn the flip side of things, I can see 3x 400 mg pills dissolving much faster than 2x 600 mg pill, even though the total amount is identical. However, unless we're talking about time-release formulations, it's unlikely that the solvation of the pill is the rate-limiting step in absorption.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The dose level that gives a therapeutic effect and the dose level that may start creating toxicities can be very very close. That's the point of measuring therapeutic drug levels, we like to make sure the dose is actually above therapeutic level, but below toxic levels in drugs where the margin for error between these states can be very small in certain drugs. \n\nIn general, NSAIDs (which is the family ibuprofen belongs to) all have the possibility of having crappy side effects and over a certain dosage level it is important for a doctor to evaluate your situation, eg: other drugs you maybe on, your overall health, any bleeding disorders you might have, liver function, etc.\n\n\nThis is the downside to OTC meds. I'm not pointing fingers at you but in general people tend to think of OTCs as innocuous because, hey, you don't need a prescription! The more is better philosophy is very common. What people need to remember is that OTCs need to be taken seriously. The dosage directions aren't just there to protect the manufacturers from lawsuits, they're also there to keep you healthy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40969005",
"title": "Topological drugs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "At the same time, only limited number of the middle-weight compounds with a molecular weight from 500 to 2000 Da is used as the therapeutics or is now under study as potent chemical compounds for drug therapy and diagnostics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4248332",
"title": "Biopharmaceutics Classification System",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Solubility class boundaries are based on the highest dose strength of an immediate release product. A drug is considered highly soluble when the highest dose strength is soluble in 250 ml or less of aqueous media over the pH range of 1 to 7.5. The volume estimate of 250 ml is derived from typical bioequivalence study protocols that prescribe administration of a drug product to fasting human volunteers with a glass of water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37708369",
"title": "Broselow tape",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Accuracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Although some medications are best dosed by actual body weight (e.g., succinylcholine), most resuscitation medications are distributed in lean body mass (e.g., epinephrine, sodium bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium, etc.) so that IBW as accurately predicted by length, not the actual body weight, would appear preferable for dosing. For most resuscitation medications, the optimal dose is not known and doses based on IBW or actual weight are likely equally effective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10856249",
"title": "Druglikeness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "BULLET::::- Molecular weight: The smaller the better, because diffusion is directly affected. The great majority of drugs on the market have molecular weights between 200 and 600 Daltons, and particularly <500; they belong to the group of small molecules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14848284",
"title": "Table of volume of distribution for drugs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "This is a table of volume of distribution (V) for various medication. For comparison, those with a V L/kg body weight of less than 0.2 are mainly distributed in blood plasma, 0.2-0.7 mostly in the extracellular fluid and those with more than 0.7 are distributed throughout total body water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252712",
"title": "Safety",
"section": "Section::::Measures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "BULLET::::- Safety margins/Safety factors. For instance, a product rated to never be required to handle more than 200 pounds might be designed to fail under at least 400 pounds, a safety factor of two. Higher numbers are used in more sensitive applications such as medical or transit safety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5274976",
"title": "Airsoft pellets",
"section": "Section::::Pellet mass.:6 mm airsoft pellets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "BULLET::::- 0.20 g — Second-most common weight. Standard for all chronograph tests in regions, where gun power output is measured in feet per second (FPS). AEGs are able to use these, however, most players will use heavier masses due to the increased accuracy and range. Biodegradable versions made by Green Devil or G&G being one of the most popular makes in the Scandinavian countries and many other parts of Europe & UK.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ghll7
|
how does an old hospital get sanitized before being turned into another kind of institution?
|
[
{
"answer": "Would I be correct in understanding that you feel hospitals are DIRTIER than restaurants?\n\nThis seems to be a pretty strange thought, could you explain why you believe there needs to be extra steps taken other than the cleaning they do anyway?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not. It's just a building. It's not like there are germs all over the surfaces and biological waste in every corner. If anything, hospitals are already cleaner than most buildings. Plus no germs would survive more than a couple of days anyways. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19452043",
"title": "Health facility",
"section": "Section::::Types of health facility.:Hospital.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 983,
"text": "A hospital is an institution for healthcare typically providing specialized treatment for inpatient (or overnight) stays. Some hospitals primarily admit patients suffering from a specific disease or affliction, or are reserved for the diagnosis and treatment of conditions affecting a specific age group. Others have a mandate that expands beyond offering dominantly curative and rehabilitative care services to include promotional, preventive and educational roles as part of a primary healthcare approach. Today, hospitals are usually funded by the state, health organizations (for profit or non-profit), by health insurances or by charities and by donations. Historically, however, they were often founded and funded by religious orders or charitable individuals and leaders. Hospitals are nowadays staffed by professionally trained doctors, nurses, paramedical clinicians, etc., whereas historically, this work was usually done by the founding religious orders or by volunteers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18994221",
"title": "Hospital",
"section": "Section::::Funding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Modern hospitals are either funded by the government of the country in which they are situated, or survive financially by competing in the private sector (a number of hospitals also are still supported by the historical type of charitable or religious associations).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6999014",
"title": "Tung Wah Group of Hospitals Wong Tai Sin Hospital",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "The hospital was established in 1965 and became a public hospital in 1991. The hospital was first developed as an infirmary to treat chronically ill elderly people. It has gradually expanded its role as an extended care institution in which intensive trans-disciplinary rehabilitative training programmes are designed for patients to facilitate their early reintegration into society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "436825",
"title": "Geriatrics",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Hospital Elder Life Program.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The Hospital Elder Life Program (HELP) is an model of hospital care developed at the Yale University School of Medicine. It is designed to prevent delirium and functional decline among elderly individuals in the hospital inpatient setting. HELP uses a core team of interdisciplinary staff and targeted intervention protocols to improve patients' outcomes and to provide cost-effective care. Unique to the program is the use of specially trained volunteers who carry out the majority of the non-clinical interventions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31586848",
"title": "Pennsylvania State Hospitals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "As the number of institutionalized mentally ill dwindled many state hospitals have been, in whole or in part, converted to other uses. Many have remained state-operated facilities, such as office buildings or correctional centers. A few former state hospitals have been completely demolished.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1581682",
"title": "Elderly care",
"section": "Section::::Cultural and geographic differences.:In developed nations.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "One relatively new service in the United States that can help keep older people in their homes longer is respite care. This type of care allows caregivers the opportunity to go on a vacation or a business trip and to know that their family member has good quality temporary care. Also, without this help the elder might have to move permanently to an outside facility. Another unique type of care cropping in U.S. hospitals is called acute care of elder units, or ACE units, which provide \"a homelike setting\" within a medical center specifically for older adults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33317447",
"title": "Elder law in India",
"section": "Section::::Governmental concessions and facilities.:Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Many government and private hospitals provide concessions to the older persons in the treatment of the diseases like cardiac problems, diabetes, kidney problems, blood pressure, joint problems and eye problems. There is also a condition for separate queuing of reservations for hospital beds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
rv67z
|
Is there ever a case where a noble gas does react
with something?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sure. It's more common for the ones with higher atomic number. The outer electrons are shielded by the inner ones, so they're more free to form bonds.\n\nWikipedia has its own article on [noble gas compounds](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The weakest bond in chemistry is the He-He bond and it is only possible at temperatures near absolute zero. the bond length is about 60 angstroms, which is huge for an intramolecular bond. \n_URL_1_\ncompare the strength of a H-H bond (435kJ/mol) to a He-He bond (3.8kJ/mol) \n_URL_2_\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "248159",
"title": "Inert gas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Unlike noble gases, an inert gas is not necessarily elemental and is often a compound gas. Like the noble gases the tendency for non-reactivity is due to the valence, the outermost electron shell, being complete in all the inert gases. This is a tendency, not a rule, as noble gases and other \"inert\" gases can react to form compounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21140",
"title": "Noble gas",
"section": "Section::::Chemical properties.:Compounds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "The noble gases show extremely low chemical reactivity; consequently, only a few hundred noble gas compounds have been formed. Neutral compounds in which helium and neon are involved in chemical bonds have not been formed (although some helium-containing ions exist and there is some theoretical evidence for a few neutral helium-containing ones), while xenon, krypton, and argon have shown only minor reactivity. The reactivity follows the order Ne He Ar Kr Xe Rn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39292926",
"title": "Compounds of fluorine",
"section": "Section::::Nonmetal fluorides.:Noble gas compounds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "The noble gases are generally non-reactive because they have fully filled electronic shells, which are extremely stable. Until the 1960s, no chemical bond with a noble gas was known. In 1962, Neil Bartlett used fluorine-containing platinum hexafluoride to react with xenon. He called the compound he prepared xenon hexafluoroplatinate, but since then the product has been revealed to be mixture of different chemicals. Bartlett probably synthesized a mixture of monofluoroxenyl(II) pentafluoroplatinate, [XeF][PtF], monofluoroxenyl(II) undecafluorodiplatinate, [XeF][PtF], and trifluorodixenyl(II) hexafluoroplatinate, [XeF][PtF]. Bartlett's fluorination of xenon has been called one of the ten most beautiful experiments in the history of chemistry. Later in 1962, xenon was reported to react directly with fluorine to form the di- and tetrafluorides. Since then, chemists have made extensive efforts to form other noble gas fluorides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21140",
"title": "Noble gas",
"section": "Section::::Chemical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "The noble gases are colorless, odorless, tasteless, and nonflammable under standard conditions. They were once labeled \"group 0\" in the periodic table because it was believed they had a valence of zero, meaning their atoms cannot combine with those of other elements to form compounds. However, it was later discovered some do indeed form compounds, causing this label to fall into disuse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21140",
"title": "Noble gas",
"section": "Section::::Chemical properties.:Compounds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "In addition to the compounds where a noble gas atom is involved in a covalent bond, noble gases also form non-covalent compounds. The clathrates, first described in 1949, consist of a noble gas atom trapped within cavities of crystal lattices of certain organic and inorganic substances. The essential condition for their formation is that the guest (noble gas) atoms must be of appropriate size to fit in the cavities of the host crystal lattice. For instance, argon, krypton, and xenon form clathrates with hydroquinone, but helium and neon do not because they are too small or insufficiently polarizable to be retained. Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon also form clathrate hydrates, where the noble gas is trapped in ice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2283222",
"title": "Endohedral fullerene",
"section": "Section::::Non-metal doped fullerenes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "While noble gases are chemically very inert and commonly exist as individual atoms, this is not the case for nitrogen and phosphorus and so the formation of the endohedral complexes N@C, N@C and P@C is more surprising. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21140",
"title": "Noble gas",
"section": "Section::::Chemical properties.:Compounds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "Noble gases can form endohedral fullerene compounds, in which the noble gas atom is trapped inside a fullerene molecule. In 1993, it was discovered that when , a spherical molecule consisting of 60 carbon atoms, is exposed to noble gases at high pressure, complexes such as can be formed (the \"@\" notation indicates He is contained inside but not covalently bound to it). As of 2008, endohedral complexes with helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon have been created. These compounds have found use in the study of the structure and reactivity of fullerenes by means of the nuclear magnetic resonance of the noble gas atom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
frdy0
|
Why will two pendulum clocks mounted on a common wall synchronise? i.e. How does coupled oscillation work?
|
[
{
"answer": "The second pendulum will make the wall move slightly, this movement is transmitted to the first pendulum. It's broadly like [two pendulums joined by a spring](_URL_0_) (a coupled oscillator), but with the wall playing the role of an extremely stiff \"spring\". \n\nThe fact that pendulums are \"inanimate\" has *absolutely* no bearing on anything. Also, I don't know how you're linking this subject with \"the healing nature of sleep\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42709",
"title": "Pendulum",
"section": "Section::::Other uses.:Coupled pendulums.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "The cause of this behavior was that the two pendulums were affecting each other through slight motions of the supporting mantlepiece. This process is called entrainment or mode locking in physics and is observed in other coupled oscillators. Synchronized pendulums have been used in clocks and were widely used in gravimeters in the early 20th century. Although Huygens only observed out-of-phase synchronization, recent investigations have shown the existence of in-phase synchronization, as well as \"death\" states wherein one or both clocks stops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59732566",
"title": "List of Dutch discoveries",
"section": "Section::::Discoveries.:Mechanics.:Coupled oscillation (spontaneous synchronization) (1665).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 917,
"text": "Christiaan Huygens observed that two pendulum clocks mounted next to each other on the same support often become synchronized, swinging in opposite directions. In 1665, he reported the results by letter to the Royal Society of London. It is referred to as \"an odd kind of sympathy\" in the Society's minutes. This may be the first published observation of what is now called \"coupled oscillations\". In the 20th century, \"coupled oscillators\" took on great practical importance because of two discoveries: lasers, in which different atoms give off light waves that oscillate in unison, and superconductors, in which pairs of electrons oscillate in synchrony, allowing electricity to flow with almost no resistance. \"Coupled oscillators\" are even more ubiquitous in nature, showing up, for example, in the synchronized flashing of fireflies and chirping of crickets, and in the pacemaker cells that regulate heartbeats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13623185",
"title": "Injection locking",
"section": "Section::::Entrainment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens, the inventor of the pendulum clock, introduced the concept after he noticed, in 1666, that the pendulums of two clocks mounted on a common board had synchronized, and subsequent experiments duplicated this phenomenon. He described this effect as \"odd sympathy\". The two pendulum clocks synchronized with their pendulums swinging in opposite directions, 180° out of phase, but in-phase states can also result. Entrainment occurs because small amounts of energy are transferred between the two systems when they are out of phase in such a way as to produce negative feedback. As they assume a more stable phase relationship, the amount of energy gradually reduces to zero. In the realm of physics, Huygens' observations are related to resonance and the resonant coupling of harmonic oscillators, which also gives rise to sympathetic vibrations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16071070",
"title": "Shortt–Synchronome clock",
"section": "Section::::Reason for accuracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "A pendulum swinging in a vacuum without friction, at a constant amplitude free of external disturbances, theoretically keeps perfect time. However, pendulums in clocks have to be linked to the clock's mechanism, which disturbs their natural swing, and this was the main cause of error in precision clocks of the early 20th century. An ordinary clock's mechanism interacts with the pendulum each swing to perform two functions: first, the pendulum must activate some kind of linkage to record the passage of time. Second, the clock's mechanism, triggered by the linkage, must give the pendulum a push (impulse) to replace the energy the pendulum loses to friction, to keep it swinging. These two functions both disturb the pendulum's motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "821611",
"title": "Complex harmonic motion",
"section": "Section::::Different Types of Complex Harmonic Motion.:Double Pendulum.:Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "A double pendulum is a simple pendulum hanging under another one, which is an epitome of the compound pendulum system. It shows an abundant dynamic behavior. The motion of a double pendulum seems chaotic. We can hardly see a regulated routine that it is going, which makes it complicated. Also, whether the lengths and masses of the two arms are equal to each other, makes it hard to identify the centers of the two rods. Moreover, a double pendulum may exert motion without the restriction of only two-dimension (usually vertical) plane. In other words, the complex pendulum can move to anywhere within the sphere, which has the radius of the total length of the two pendulums. However, for a small angle, the double pendulum can act similar to the simple pendulum because the motion is determined by sine and cosine functions as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24989",
"title": "Pendulum clock",
"section": "Section::::Gravity-swing pendulum.:Leveling and \"beat\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1058,
"text": "To keep time accurately, pendulum clocks must be absolutely level. If they are not, the pendulum swings more to one side than the other, upsetting the symmetrical operation of the escapement. This condition can often be heard audibly in the ticking sound of the clock. The ticks or \"beats\" should be at precisely equally spaced intervals to give a sound of, \"tick...tock...tick...tock\"; if they are not, and have the sound \"tick-tock...tick-tock...\" the clock is \"out of beat\" and needs to be leveled. This problem can easily cause the clock to stop working, and is one of the most common reasons for service calls. A spirit level or watch timing machine can achieve a higher accuracy than relying on the sound of the beat; precision regulators often have a built in spirit level for the task. Older freestanding clocks often have feet with adjustable screws to level them, more recent ones have a leveling adjustment in the movement. Some modern pendulum clocks have 'auto-beat' or 'self-regulating beat adjustment' devices, and don't need this adjustment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5419984",
"title": "Torsion pendulum clock",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Torsion clocks are capable of running much longer between windings than clocks with an ordinary pendulum, because the torsion pendulum rotates slowly and takes little energy. However they are difficult to set up and are usually not as accurate as clocks with ordinary pendulums. One reason is that the oscillation period of the torsion pendulum changes with temperature due to temperature-dependent change in elasticity of the spring. The rate of the clock can be made faster or slower by an adjustment screw mechanism on the torsion pendulum that moves the weight balls in or out from the axis. The closer in the balls are, the smaller the moment of inertia of the torsion pendulum and the faster it will turn, like a spinning ice skater who pulls in her arms. This causes the clock to speed up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
88hvdq
|
Why wasn't Australia conquered and split by European powers as Africa was?
|
[
{
"answer": "You may find this thread useful, particularly the response from /u/agentdcf:\n\n_URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39582",
"title": "History of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Early European exploration.:Others.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "With the exception of further Dutch visits to the west, however, Australia remained largely unvisited by Europeans until the first British explorations. John Callander put forward a proposal in 1766 for Britain to found a colony of banished convicts in the South Sea or in Terra Australis to enable the mother country to exploit the riches of those regions. He said: \"this world must present us with many things entirely new, as hitherto we have had little more knowledge of it, than if it had lain in another planet\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1815296",
"title": "Decolonisation of Africa",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1125,
"text": "The \"Scramble for Africa\" between 1870 and 1900 ended with almost all of Africa being controlled by a small number of European states. Racing to secure as much land as possible while avoiding conflict amongst themselves, the partition of Africa was confirmed in the Berlin Agreement of 1885, with little regard to local differences. By 1905, control of almost all African soil was claimed by Western European governments, with the only exceptions being Liberia (which had been settled by African-American former slaves) and Ethiopia (then occupied by Italy in 1936). Britain and France had the largest holdings, but Germany, Spain, Italy, Belgium, and Portugal also had colonies. As a result of colonialism and imperialism, a majority of Africa lost sovereignty and control of natural resources such as gold and rubber. The introduction of imperial policies surfacing around local economies led to the failing of local economies due to an exploitation of resources and cheap labor. Progress towards independence was slow up until the mid-20th century. By 1977, 54 African countries had seceded from European colonial rulers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61163932",
"title": "Detribalization",
"section": "Section::::Regional detribalized histories.:In Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "Because Indigenous nations were deemed to be \"uncivilized,\" European powers declared the territorial sovereignty of Africa as openly available, which initiated the Scramble for Africa in the late nineteenth century. With the continent of Africa conceptualized as effectively \"ownerless\" territory, Europeans positioned themselves as its redeemers and rightful colonial rulers. In the European colonial mindset, Africans were inferior and incapable of being \"civilized\" because they had failed to properly manage or exploit the natural resources available to them. As a result, they were deemed to be obstacles to capitalist investment, extraction, and production of natural resources in the construction of a new colonial empire and built environment. The immense diversity of the Indigenous peoples of Africa was flattened by this colonial perception, which labeled them instead as an \"unrepresentable nomadic horde of apprehensions that ran across European territories.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18949284",
"title": "Constitutional history of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Settlement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Prior to European settlement of Australia in 1788, Europeans had been to the land merely as explorers. The only exception was James Cook who in 1770 sailed up most of the east coast of Australia and then claimed the entire coastline he had just explored as British territory. The basis of the claim is not clear, but it is clear that the indigenous peoples were not consulted and no treaty was entered into. In later years the doctrine of \"terra nullius\" was invoked in justification of the act.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "302084",
"title": "Decolonization",
"section": "Section::::History.:After 1945.:Decolonization of Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "By 1977 European colonial rule in mainland Africa had ended. Most of Africa's island countries had also become independent, although Réunion and Mayotte remain part of France. However the black majorities in Rhodesia and South Africa were disenfranchised until 1979 in Rhodesia, which became Zimbabwe-Rhodesia that year and Zimbabwe the next, and until 1994 in South Africa. Namibia, Africa's last UN Trust Territory, became independent of South Africa in 1990.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58721244",
"title": "Burke, Wills, King and Yandruwandha National Heritage Place",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early Exploration in the centre of Australia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "By the middle of the 19th century Europeans had explored large parts of the Australian continent but had failed to cross the country from south to north. The need to connect the isolated settlements of the north coast, facilitate trade and communication with the rest of the world and secure grazing land culminated in a race between South Australia and Victoria across the continent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4689264",
"title": "Australia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "Indigenous Australians inhabited the continent for about 65,000 years prior to European discovery with the arrival of Dutch explorers in the early 17th century, who named it New Holland. In 1770, Australia's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain and initially settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788, a date which became Australia's national day. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the time of an 1850s gold rush, most of the continent had been explored and an additional five self-governing crown colonies established. On 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a stable liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy, comprising six states and ten territories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vjxmo
|
why can't spinal discs be "re-hydrated" later in life?
|
[
{
"answer": "If your doctor didn't explain why, get a new one. He/she obviously doesn't care",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yeah sure you'd have to expect an explanation for treatment. Sadly I csn offer no bearing of expertise on such a matter but it came across in your question that your doctor disregarded your query about why it can't be done. For anybody unaware if why disks can't be rehydrated (most people I imagine) then it's important for their doctor to inform them of why certain treatments aren't possible so as to rule out possible false hope. However, more importantly, I hope somebody can answer your question and that your spine heals in good time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1280779",
"title": "Degenerative disc disease",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "This water loss makes the discs less flexible and results in the gradual collapse and narrowing of the gap in the spinal column. As the space between vertebrae gets smaller, extra pressure can be placed on the discs causing tiny cracks or tears to appear in the anulus. If enough pressure is exerted, it's possible for the nucleus pulposus material to seep out through the tears in the anulus and can cause what is known as a herniated disc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210269",
"title": "Intervertebral disc",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Herniation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 983,
"text": "A spinal disc herniation, commonly referred to as a slipped disc, can happen when unbalanced mechanical pressures substantially deform the anulus fibrosus, allowing part of the nucleus to obtrude. These events can occur during peak physical performance, during traumas, or as a result of chronic deterioration, typically accompanied with poor posture and has been associated with a \"Propionbacterium acnes\" infection. Both the deformed anulus and the gel-like material of the nucleus pulposus can be forced laterally, or posteriorly, distorting local muscle function, and putting pressure on the nearby nerve. This can give the symptoms typical of nerve root entrapment. These symptoms can vary between parasthaesia, numbness, chronic and/or acute pain, either locally or along the dermatome served by the entrapped nerve, loss of muscle tone and decreased homeostatic performance . The disc is not physically slipped; it bulges, usually in just one direction. Risk of Cauda Equina.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29856945",
"title": "Disc protrusion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "A disc protrusion is a disease condition which can occur in some vertebrates, including humans, in which the outermost layers of the anulus fibrosus of the intervertebral discs of the spine are intact, but bulge when one or more of the discs are under pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "618631",
"title": "Low back pain",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Back structures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "An intervertebral disc has a gelatinous core surrounded by a fibrous ring. When in its normal, uninjured state, most of the disc is not served by either the circulatory or nervous systems – blood and nerves only run to the outside of the disc. Specialized cells that can survive without direct blood supply are in the inside of the disc. Over time, the discs lose flexibility and the ability to absorb physical forces. This decreased ability to handle physical forces increases stresses on other parts of the spine, causing the ligaments of the spine to thicken and bony growths to develop on the vertebrae. As a result, there is less space through which the spinal cord and nerve roots may pass. When a disc degenerates as a result of injury or disease, the makeup of a disc changes: blood vessels and nerves may grow into its interior and/or herniated disc material can push directly on a nerve root. Any of these changes may result in back pain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1280779",
"title": "Degenerative disc disease",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "There is a disc between each of the vertebrae in the spine. A healthy, well-hydrated disc will contain a great deal of water in its center, known as the nucleus pulposus, which provides cushioning and flexibility for the spine. Much of the mechanical stress that is caused by everyday movements is transferred to the discs within the spine and the water content within them allows them to effectively absorb the shock. At birth, a typical human nucleus pulposus will contain about 80% water. However natural daily stresses and minor injuries can cause these discs to gradually lose water as the anulus fibrosus, or the rigid outer shell of a disc, weakens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4793282",
"title": "Failed back syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Pathology.:Recurrent or persistent disc herniation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1811,
"text": "Removal of a disc at one level can lead to disc herniation at a different level at a later time. Even the most complete surgical excision of the disc still leaves 30-40% of the disc, which cannot be safely removed. This retained disc can re-herniate sometime after surgery. Virtually every major structure in the abdomen and the posterior retroperitoneal space has been injured, at some point, by removing discs using posterior laminectomy/discectomy surgical procedures. The most prominent of these is a laceration of the left internal iliac vein, which lies in close proximity to the anterior portion of the disc. In some studies, recurrent pain in the same radicular pattern or a different pattern can be as high as 50% after disc surgery. Many observers have noted that the most common cause of a failed back syndrome is caused from recurrent disc herniation at the same level originally operated. A rapid removal in a second surgery can be curative. The clinical picture of a recurrent disc herniation usually involves a significant pain-free interval. However, physical findings may be lacking, and a good history is necessary. The time period for the emergence of new symptoms can be short or long. Diagnostic signs such as the straight leg raise test may be negative even if real pathology is present. The presence of a positive myelogram may represent a new disc herniation, but can also be indicative of a post operative scarring situation simply mimicking a new disc. Newer MRI imaging techniques have clarified this dilemma somewhat. Conversely, a recurrent disc can be difficult to detect in the presence of post op scarring. Myelography is inadequate to completely evaluate the patient for recurrent disc disease, and CT or MRI scanning is necessary. Measurement of tissue density can be helpful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6737633",
"title": "Spinal disc herniation",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Some authors favour degeneration of the intervertebral disc as the major cause of spinal disc herniation and cite trauma as a minor cause. Disc degeneration occurs both in degenerative disc disease and aging. With degeneration, the disc components – the \"nucleus pulposus\" and \"anulus fibrosus\" – become exposed to altered loads. Specifically, the nucleus becomes fibrous and stiff and less able to bear load. Excess load is transferred to the \"anulus\", which may then develop fissures as a result. If the fissures reach the periphery of the \"anulus\", the nuclear material can pass through as a disc herniation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2euv49
|
how does this .jpg file move like a .gif but when downloaded shows up as a .jpeg
|
[
{
"answer": "It's lies.\n\nThe filetype isn't determined by the extension - not in this context anyway - it's determined by metadata in the file that says it's a gif.\n\nMy image reader on the desktop chokes trying to read it because it naively trusts file extensions, but the file utility shows clearly it's marked as a GIF in the metadata.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16009",
"title": "JPEG",
"section": "Section::::Syntax and structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 942,
"text": "A JPEG image consists of a sequence of \"segments\", each beginning with a \"marker\", each of which begins with a 0xFF byte, followed by a byte indicating what kind of marker it is. Some markers consist of just those two bytes; others are followed by two bytes (high then low), indicating the length of marker-specific payload data that follows. (The length includes the two bytes for the length, but not the two bytes for the marker.) Some markers are followed by entropy-coded data; the length of such a marker does not include the entropy-coded data. Note that consecutive 0xFF bytes are used as fill bytes for padding purposes, although this fill byte padding should only ever take place for markers immediately following entropy-coded scan data (see JPEG specification section B.1.1.2 and E.1.2 for details; specifically \"In all cases where markers are appended after the compressed data, optional 0xFF fill bytes may precede the marker\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31815567",
"title": "Glitch art",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Data manipulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Like all files, image files (.jpg .bmp .gif etc) are all made up of text. Unlike some other files, like .svg (vectors) or .html (web pages), when an image is opened in a text editor all that comes up is gobbldygook!\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12702",
"title": "GIF",
"section": "Section::::File format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Conceptually, a GIF file describes a fixed-sized graphical area (the \"logical screen\") populated with zero or more \"images\". Many GIF files have a single image that fills the entire logical screen. Others divide the logical screen into separate sub-images. The images may also function as animation frames in an animated GIF file, but again these need not fill the entire logical screen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174812",
"title": "Motion JPEG",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "In multimedia, Motion JPEG (M-JPEG or MJPEG) is a video compression format in which each video frame or interlaced field of a digital video sequence is compressed separately as a JPEG image. Originally developed for multimedia PC applications, M-JPEG is now used by video-capture devices such as digital cameras, IP cameras, and webcams, as well as by non-linear video editing systems. It is natively supported by the QuickTime Player, the PlayStation console, and web browsers such as Safari, Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox and Microsoft Edge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2679981",
"title": "Image file formats",
"section": "Section::::Major graphic file formats.:Raster formats.:JPEG/JFIF.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 912,
"text": "JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) is a lossy compression method; JPEG-compressed images are usually stored in the JFIF (JPEG File Interchange Format) file format. The JPEG/JFIF filename extension is JPG or JPEG. Nearly every digital camera can save images in the JPEG/JFIF format, which supports eight-bit grayscale images and 24-bit color images (eight bits each for red, green, and blue). JPEG applies lossy compression to images, which can result in a significant reduction of the file size. Applications can determine the degree of compression to apply, and the amount of compression affects the visual quality of the result. When not too great, the compression does not noticeably affect or detract from the image's quality, but JPEG files suffer generational degradation when repeatedly edited and saved. (JPEG also provides lossless image storage, but the lossless version is not widely supported.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16009",
"title": "JPEG",
"section": "Section::::JPEG files.:JPEG filename extensions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The most common filename extensions for files employing JPEG compression are .jpg and .jpeg, though .jpe, .jfif and .jif are also used. It is also possible for JPEG data to be embedded in other file types – TIFF encoded files often embed a JPEG image as a thumbnail of the main image; and MP3 files can contain a JPEG of cover art in the ID3v2 tag.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71624",
"title": "JPEG File Interchange Format",
"section": "Section::::File format structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "A JFIF file consists of a sequence of markers or marker segments (for details refer to JPEG, Syntax and structure). The markers are defined in part 1 of the JPEG Standard. Each marker consists of two bytes: an codice_1 byte followed by a byte which is not equal to codice_2 or codice_1 and specifies the type of the marker. Some markers stand alone, but most indicate the start of a marker segment that contains data bytes according to the following pattern:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17csvr
|
Can somebody build up a tolerance to electricity?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is a difference between \"not being in pain from x\" and \"being immune to x.\"\n\nPain tolerance is one thing, but a taser works by using electricity to create physical convulsions. This is direct stimulation of the muscles we're talking about. Adapting to THAT would require evolution to provide us with electrical insulation to sheath our skins/muscles/organs.\n\nJust get a heavy jacket with metallic filaments in it attached to a capacitor. Put that electricity to USE. :-) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "389836",
"title": "G-force",
"section": "Section::::Human tolerance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "To some degree, g-tolerance can be trainable, and there is also considerable variation in innate ability between individuals. In addition, some illnesses, particularly cardiovascular problems, reduce g-tolerance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "295909",
"title": "Zero tolerance",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Zero tolerance policies violate principles of health and human services, and standards of the education and healthy growth of children, families and communities. Even traditional community service providers in the 1970s aimed for \"services for all\" (e.g., zero reject) instead of 100% societal exclusion(zero tolerance). Public administration and disability has supported principles which include education, employment, housing, transportation, recreation and political participation in the community. which zero tolerance groups claim are not a right in the US.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4552421",
"title": "Zero tolerance (schools)",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 831,
"text": "There is no credible evidence that zero tolerance reduces violence or drug abuse by students. Furthermore, school suspension and expulsion result in a number of negative outcomes for both schools and students. The American Bar Association finds that the evidence indicates that minority children are the most likely to suffer the negative consequences of zero tolerance policies. Analysis of the suspension rate of students show that black females and other racial minorities are suspended at a greater rate. The American Psychological Association concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of zero tolerance policies as defined and implemented, that there is a clear need to modify such policies, and that the policies create a number of unintended negative consequences, including making schools \"less safe\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "295909",
"title": "Zero tolerance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Little evidence supports the claimed effectiveness of zero-tolerance policies. One underlying problem is that there are a great many reasons why people hesitate to intervene, or to report behavior they find to be unacceptable or unlawful. Zero-tolerance policies address, at best, only a few of these reasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25409684",
"title": "Paradox of tolerance",
"section": "Section::::Discussions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1063,
"text": "Less well known is the \"paradox of tolerance\": Unlimited tolerance must lead to the disappearance of tolerance. If we extend unlimited tolerance even to those who are intolerant, if we are not prepared to defend a tolerant society against the onslaught of the intolerant, then the tolerant will be destroyed, and tolerance with them. — In this formulation, I do not imply, for instance, that we should always suppress the utterance of intolerant philosophies; as long as we can counter them by rational argument and keep them in check by public opinion, suppression would certainly be unwise. But we should claim the right to suppress them if necessary even by force; for it may easily turn out that they are not prepared to meet us on the level of rational argument, but begin by denouncing all argument; they may forbid their followers to listen to rational argument, because it is deceptive, and teach them to answer arguments by the use of their fists or pistols. We should therefore claim, in the name of tolerance, the right not to tolerate the intolerant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "295909",
"title": "Zero tolerance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Zero-tolerance policies are studied in criminology and are common in formal and informal policing systems around the world. The policies also appear in informal situations where there may be sexual harassment or Internet misuse in educational and workplace environments. In 2014, the mass incarceration in the United States based upon minor offenses has resulted in an outcry on the use of zero tolerance in schools and communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7195971",
"title": "Asylum in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Child separation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "The recent U.S. Government policy known as \"Zero-tolerance\" was implemented in April 2018. In response, a number of scientific organizations released statements on the negative impact of child separation, a form of childhood trauma, on child development, including the American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association, the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Medical Association, and the Society for Research in Child Development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
381u8z
|
difference between nightmares and night terrors
|
[
{
"answer": "The basics are that nightmares you wake up from and remember.\n\nNight Terrors you don't wake up, can call out / yell in your sleep, yet you won't remember that particular dream ( although you can remember the feeling the dream gave you )\n\nSource: Have had both Nightmares and Night Terrors consistently for years. I was explained this concept this simply the first time I asked.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A nightmare is a dream with scary elements, whereas in a night terror there is no dream component. Only a fear reaction. It's a weird state of consciousness that one cannot usually be woken up from. Parents are advised to simply wait them out, since trying to console a kid experiencing a night terror usually only makes it worse. They don't recognize you as mom/dad in that situation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44785",
"title": "Dream",
"section": "Section::::Other associated phenomena.:Night terror.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 161,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 161,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "A night terror, also known as a sleep terror or \"pavor nocturnus\", is a parasomnia disorder that predominantly affects children, causing feelings of terror or dread. Night terrors should not be confused with nightmares, which are bad dreams that cause the feeling of horror or fear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426404",
"title": "Night terror",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "We have to distinguish night terrors from nightmares. In fact, in nightmares there are almost never vocalization or agitation, and if there are any, they are less strong in comparison to night terrors. In addition, nightmares appear ordinarily during REM sleep in contrast to night terrors, which occur in NREM sleep. Finally, individuals with nightmares can wake up completely and easily and have clear and detailed memories of their dreams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426404",
"title": "Night terror",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Adults.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "Night terrors in adults have been reported in all age ranges. Though the symptoms of night terrors in adolescents and adults are similar, the cause, prognosis and treatment are qualitatively different. These night terrors can occur each night if the sufferer does not eat a proper diet, get the appropriate amount or quality of sleep (e.g. sleep apnea), is enduring stressful events, or if he or she remains untreated. Adult night terrors are much less common, and often respond to treatments to rectify causes of poor quality or quantity of sleep. Night terrors are classified as a mental and behavioral disorder in the ICD. A study done about night terrors in adults showed that other psychiatric symptoms were prevalent in most patients experiencing night terrors hinting at the comorbidity of the two. There is some evidence of a link between night terrors and hypoglycemia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426404",
"title": "Night terror",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "Though the symptoms of night terrors in adolescents and adults are similar, their causes, prognoses, and treatments are qualitatively different. There is some evidence that suggests that night terrors can occur if the sufferer does not eat a proper diet, does not get the appropriate amount or quality of sleep (e.g., because of sleep apnea), or is enduring stressful events. Adults who have experienced sexual abuse are more likely to receive a diagnosis of sleep disorders, including night terrors. Overall, though, adult night terrors are much less common and often respond best to treatments that rectify causes of poor quality or quantity of sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426404",
"title": "Night terror",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Sleep terrors usually begin in childhood and usually decrease with age. Factors which may lead to sleep terrors are young age, sleep deprivation, medications, stress, fever and intrinsic sleep disorders. Though the frequency and severity vary between individuals, the episodes can occur in intervals of days or weeks, but can also occur over consecutive nights or multiple times in one night. This has created a situation in which any type of nocturnal attack or nightmare may be confused with and reported as a night terror.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426404",
"title": "Night terror",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "While nightmares (bad dreams that cause feelings of horror or fear) are relatively common during childhood, night terrors occur less frequently. The prevalence of sleep terrors in general is unknown. Sleep terror episodes (not similar to sleep terror disorder which is recurrent and causes distress or impairment ) are estimated at 36.9% at 18 months of age and at 19.7% at 30 months of age. In adults the prevalence is lower, and rises up to 2.2%. Night terrors have been known since ancient times, although it was impossible to differentiate them from nightmares until rapid eye movement was discovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426404",
"title": "Night terror",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Night terrors tend to happen during periods of arousal from delta sleep, also known as slow-wave sleep. Delta sleep occurs most often during the first half of a sleep cycle, which indicates that people with more delta sleep activity are more prone to night terrors. However, they can also occur during daytime naps. Night terrors can often be mistaken for confusional arousal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4mv8ek
|
how do we know that gravity curves spacetime and is not a force?
|
[
{
"answer": "The theory which describes gravity as the curvature of spacetime (Einstein's general theory of relativity) makes a lot of predictions. And many of those predictions [have been verified](_URL_0_), which lends support to the theory.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "U/robusetceleritus covered it pretty well in the link. The way I've always explained it is as follows:\n\nGravity is classically seen as a force of attracting masses. That means, Gravity operates on massive objects.\n\nWe have also noted that light bends around supermassive objects. Light has no mass; it can't mass. So the big question is, how does light curve due to the force of gravity?\n\nThe answer; it doesn't. Light travels on a geodesic, or the straightest path it possibly can travel on. GR theorizes that the very presence of mass distorts spacetime itself, curving spacetime. This way, a supermassive object will literally bend spacetime until a 'straight line' appears as a 'curved line' from far enough away. Gravity isn't actually causing mass to interact with light, but rather causing mass to interact with *space*, which then 'interacts' with light",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The difference between gravity and EM is the the force is proportional to the mass rather than the charge. The fact that it is linear is a huge tell tale sign to its nature because the acceleration due to gravity is, therefore, independent of the mass.\n\nThis leads to the equivalence principle: if you were in a system falling under a uniform gravitational field, there would be no *local* experiment that you could do to prove that you were accelerating because everything would be accelerating at exactly the same rate. This is unique to the gravitational force. It is this principle that leads to the idea that the cause of the acceleration is a property of space itself. \n\nOf course, there's a bit more to it but that's the first thing you learn about when you're starting on general relativity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2037563",
"title": "Geodesics in general relativity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "In general relativity, gravity can be regarded as not a force but a consequence of a curved spacetime geometry where the source of curvature is the stress–energy tensor (representing matter, for instance). Thus, for example, the path of a planet orbiting a star is the projection of a geodesic of the curved 4-D spacetime geometry around the star onto 3-D space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6719257",
"title": "Introduction to the mathematics of general relativity",
"section": "Section::::Geodesics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "In general relativity, gravity can be regarded as not a force but a consequence of a curved spacetime geometry where the source of curvature is the stress–energy tensor (representing matter, for instance). Thus, for example, the path of a planet orbiting around a star is the projection of a geodesic of the curved 4-dimensional spacetime geometry around the star onto 3-dimensional space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1411100",
"title": "Introduction to general relativity",
"section": "Section::::Geometry and gravitation.:Probing the gravitational field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "In order to map a body's gravitational influence, it is useful to think about what physicists call probe or test particles: particles that are influenced by gravity, but are so small and light that we can neglect their own gravitational effect. In the absence of gravity and other external forces, a test particle moves along a straight line at a constant speed. In the language of spacetime, this is equivalent to saying that such test particles move along straight world lines in spacetime. In the presence of gravity, spacetime is non-Euclidean, or curved, and in curved spacetime straight world lines may not exist. Instead, test particles move along lines called geodesics, which are \"as straight as possible\", that is, they follow the shortest path between starting and ending points, taking the curvature into consideration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301670",
"title": "Anti-de Sitter space",
"section": "Section::::Non-technical explanation.:Spacetime in general relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Some of the differences between the familiar Newtonian equation of gravity and the predictions of general relativity flow from the fact that gravity in general relativity bends both time and space, not just space. In normal circumstances, gravity bends time so slightly that the differences between Newtonian gravity and general relativity are detectable only with precise instruments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244611",
"title": "Newton's law of universal gravitation",
"section": "Section::::Problematic aspects.:Einstein's solution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "These objections were explained by Einstein's theory of general relativity, in which gravitation is an attribute of curved spacetime instead of being due to a force propagated between bodies. In Einstein's theory, energy and momentum distort spacetime in their vicinity, and other particles move in trajectories determined by the geometry of spacetime. This allowed a description of the motions of light and mass that was consistent with all available observations. In general relativity, the gravitational force is a fictitious force due to the curvature of spacetime, because the gravitational acceleration of a body in free fall is due to its world line being a geodesic of spacetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8111079",
"title": "Gravitational wave",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "In Einstein's general theory of relativity, gravity is treated as a phenomenon resulting from the curvature of spacetime. This curvature is caused by the presence of mass. Generally, the more mass that is contained within a given volume of space, the greater the curvature of spacetime will be at the boundary of its volume. As objects with mass move around in spacetime, the curvature changes to reflect the changed locations of those objects. In certain circumstances, accelerating objects generate changes in this curvature, which propagate outwards at the speed of light in a wave-like manner. These propagating phenomena are known as gravitational waves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12100",
"title": "Graviton",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:Comparison with other forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1034,
"text": "Like the force carriers of the other forces (see charged black hole), gravitation plays a role in general relativity, in defining the spacetime in which events take place. In some descriptions energy modifies the \"shape\" of spacetime itself, and gravity is a result of this shape, an idea which at first glance may appear hard to match with the idea of a force acting between particles. Because the diffeomorphism invariance of the theory does not allow any particular space-time background to be singled out as the \"true\" space-time background, general relativity is said to be background-independent. In contrast, the Standard Model is \"not\" background-independent, with Minkowski space enjoying a special status as the fixed background space-time. A theory of quantum gravity is needed in order to reconcile these differences. Whether this theory should be background-independent is an open question. The answer to this question will determine our understanding of what specific role gravitation plays in the fate of the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fb82n
|
How similar are modern day version of the Torah when compared to the oldest known versions?
|
[
{
"answer": "Let me clarify a few terms: (1) by \"Torah\" I am going to assume you mean the entire Hebrew Bible/Old Testament rather than only the Pentateuch, (2) by \"versions\" I'm assuming you either mean \"manuscripts\" or a more esoteric scholarly concept of \"the earliest attainable text\" - I'll address both, and (3) I don't know which \"modern day version of the Torah\" you're referring to so I'm going to choose for you - the current NRSV translation of the Bible. \n\nThe question you have asked is, of course, subjective. It is hard to quantify degrees of similarity, and what would be \"very similar\" by one person's standard would be \"very different\" to others. I'll just lay out a bunch of data and let you decide. \n\nWhat we have in terms of old manuscripts can be broken down into a variety of ways but I'll keep things simple. The current NRSV translation (and most others) of the Old Testament are based on the *Biblia Hebraica Stuttgardtensia,* (BHS for short) a scholarly reconstruction of the \"earliest attainable text.\" The BHS uses as its base the Leningrad Codex from 1008 CE. The Leningrad Codex is the earliest complete Masoretic Text manuscript of the Old Testament. The Masoretic Text refers to a group of manuscripts produced by a group of Jews called the Masoretes. The masoretic tradition is important for its addition of vowel points to the otherwise only consonantal (abjad) Hebrew script, which provides clarity for numerous otherwise ambiguous readings, and for the reputation of the Masoretes for carefully preserving their text probably beginning in the 600s CE or so. As I mentioned, the Leningrad Codex serves as the base text to which various manuscripts, ancient translations, and textual reconstructions are compared in order to correct the Leningrad Codex to the “earliest attainable text.” Here is [the beginning of Genesis](_URL_0_) in the BHS. The main body text is an exact reproduction of what is in the Leningrad Codex while the bottom of the page contains the various different readings from ancient sources when they are different, among other things.\n\nThat brings us to ancient sources. You might be thinking to yourself, \"wow, 1008 CE is really late for our earliest manuscripts.\" This is why the Dead Sea Scrolls were such a big deal! Dating from ca. 200 BCE - 70 CE, they effectively knocked back our earliest Hebrew manuscripts of the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible by 1,000 years when they were discovered in the 1940s. The Dead Sea Scrolls are 8-900 texts, many of which are books now in the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible, and are the earliest manuscripts we have of them in Hebrew.\n\nI should also mention a couple other relevant means to get at readings more ancient than the Masoretic Text. (1) The Samaritan Pentateuch, preserved by the eponymous Samaritans in Israel, also represents an ancient independent text which scholars compare to the Masoretic Text. (2) Scholars also use ancient versions (that is, translations) of the Old Testament such as the various Greek translations often conflated as “The Septuagint,” ancient Syriac translations, and occasionally translations from Latin or texts quoted from early Church fathers, all of which can be compared to the Hebrew by back-translating or making speculations about the Hebrew text behind their translation.\n\nSo how close are the Dead Sea Scrolls and the other ancient translations and versions to the Masoretic Text? Well, it’s really a mixed bag. Two of the Dead Sea Scrolls which contain Isaiah will serve as a good comparison, 1QIsa^a and 1QIsa^b , the latter being the famous Isaiah Scroll; both found at the same site. The former matches the Masoretic Text practically word for word; the latter, however, contains about 1,000 textual variants from the Masoretic Text version, including entire verses missing or added at several points. Another interesting example is the book of Jeremiah. The Septuagint version, which scholars had long before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, was significantly shorter than the Masoretic Text, some 15%. It was presumed that the Hebrew was superior to the Greek in preserving a more original form, but when we found a manuscript of Jeremiah among the Dead Sea Scrolls (4QJer^b ), it matched the Septuagint version instead of the Masoretic Text version! This demonstrated that, in fact, the Greek version preserved by the Septuagint was more ancient than the one preserved in the Masoretic Text. There are numerous examples of such differences, and I would highly recommend Eugene Ulrich, “Our Sharper Focus on the Bible and Theology Thanks to the Dead Sea Scrolls” *Catholic Biblical Quarterly* Jan 2004, Vol. 66 Issue 1 for a superb summary of this and its implications for layfolk.\n\nA question you didn’t ask but which I should propose anyway is, given the differences we can observe in the texts, can we reconstruct anything close to the original, or undo the changes later scribes made to the text? For the New Testament this is a much easier enterprise, but even with the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible the field of textual criticism has accomplished some amazing feats in reaching earlier forms of the text. The original versions are lost forever, there is little doubt about that, but I am continually impressed by the prodigious work in the field of textual criticism to dig further and further back. \n\nEdit: clarification of some jargon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1120048",
"title": "Scroll",
"section": "Section::::Recent discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "The oldest complete Torah scroll was discovered stored in an academic library in Bolonia, Italy by Professor Mauro Perani in 2013. It had been mislabeled in 1889 as dating from the 17th century, but Perani suspected it was actually older as it was written in an earlier Babylonian script. Two tests conducted by laboratories at Italy’s University of Salento and at the University of Illinois confirmed that the scroll dates from the second half of the 12th century to the first quarter of the 13th century. Ancient Torah scrolls are rare because when they are damaged they stop being used for liturgies and are buried. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35954219",
"title": "History of scrolls",
"section": "Section::::Eastern Mediterranean, West Asia and Europe.:Israel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Following Jewish tradition, since that time scrolls, which are very durable with examples known to be hundreds of years old such as the 800-year-old Sephardic Sefer Torah from Spain, are copied from one to another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66537",
"title": "Masoretic Text",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "The oldest extant manuscripts date from around the 9th century. The Aleppo Codex (once the oldest-known complete copy but since 1947 missing the Torah) dates from the 10th century. The Masoretic Text defines the Jewish canon and its precise letter-text, with its vocalization and accentuation known as the Masorah.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77712",
"title": "Dead Sea Scrolls",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Biblical texts older than the Dead Sea Scrolls have been discovered only in two silver scroll-shaped amulets containing portions of the Priestly Blessing from the Book of Numbers, excavated in Jerusalem at Ketef Hinnom and dated c. 600 BCE. The third-oldest surviving known piece of the Torah, the En-Gedi Scroll, consists of a portion of Leviticus found in the Ein Gedi synagogue, burnt in the 6th century CE and analyzed in 2015. Research has dated it palaeographically to the 1st or 2nd century CE, and using the C14 method to sometime between the 2nd and 4th centuries CE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11660222",
"title": "Bible of St Louis",
"section": "Section::::Similar Manuscripts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "The oldest Bibles Moralisées are the ones kept in Vienna (Codex Vindobonensis 1179 and 2554) which are very similar to each other. However ÖNB 2554 is much shorter (129 folia ) than ÖNB 1179 ( 246 folia ), it contains only the books Genesis to Kings 4 and it is written in Old French while ÖNB 1179 is in Latin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3390",
"title": "Bible",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.:Textual history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, and it is known as the Codex Vaticanus. The oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin (Vulgate) Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, dating from the 8th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3056180",
"title": "Mandaeism",
"section": "Section::::Beliefs.:Scriptures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "The oldest texts are lead amulets from about the third century AD, followed by magic bowls from about AD 600. The important religious manuscripts are not older than the sixteenth century, with most coming from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6eizt0
|
what do doctors do with the empty space after a half brain removing surgery
|
[
{
"answer": "The procedure is called a hemispherectomy (hemi = half, sphere, ectomy = removal) and they don't do anything with the empty space. It ends up filling up with cerebrospinal fluid. It's not like they are going to put a prosthetic brain in there for cosmetic purposes, haha.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13267877",
"title": "Lobectomy (lung)",
"section": "Section::::Administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "Another way a lobectomy can be performed is through a video assisted surgery. With this type the surgeon does not need to pry the two ribs open in order to get in. A few small incisions are made and surgical tools are inserted into the chest cavity. A small camera with a light will then be inserted. What the camera sees will be projected onto a screen that the surgeon can see. Once the problem area is located the small tools that were previously inserted will be utilized to perform the surgery. Once the surgery is complete, the patient will remain in the intensive care unit of the hospital for a day. They will then remain in a regular hospital room for about 4 to 7 days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "623686",
"title": "Brain–computer interface",
"section": "Section::::Future directions.:Functional brain mapping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 180,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 180,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "Each year, about 400,000 people undergo brain mapping during neurosurgery. This procedure is often required for people with tumors or epilepsy that do not respond to medication. During this procedure, electrodes are placed on the brain to precisely identify the locations of structures and functional areas. Patients may be awake during neurosurgery and asked to perform certain tasks, such as moving fingers or repeating words. This is necessary so that surgeons can remove only the desired tissue while sparing other regions, such as critical movement or language regions. Removing too much brain tissue can cause permanent damage, while removing too little tissue can leave the underlying condition untreated and require additional neurosurgery. Thus, there is a strong need to improve both methods and systems to map the brain as effectively as possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2853212",
"title": "Carpenter syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "In surgery the doctor breaks the fused sutures to allow for brain growth. Doctors remove the cranial plates of the skull, reshape them and replace them back onto the skull in an attempt to reshape the head to appear more normal. Although the sutures are broken during surgery they will quickly refuse, and in some cases holes form in the plates allowing cerebral spinal fluid to escape into cyst like structures on the external surface of the head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1410061",
"title": "Crouzon syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Surgery is typically used to prevent the closure of sutures of the skull from damaging the brain's development. Without surgery, blindness and intellectual disability are typical outcomes. To move the orbits forward, surgeons expose the skull and orbits and reshape the bone. To treat the midface deficiency, surgeons can move the lower orbit and midface bones forward.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2638422",
"title": "Oligoastrocytoma",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "If resected, the surgeon will remove as much of this tumor as possible, without disturbing eloquent regions of the brain (speech/motor cortex) and other critical brain structure. Thereafter, treatment may include chemotherapy and radiation therapy of doses and types ranging based upon the patient's needs. Subsequent MRI examination are often necessary to monitor the resection cavity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1514889",
"title": "Apert syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Treatments.:Craniosynostosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Surgery is needed to prevent the closing of the coronal sutures from damaging brain development. In particular, surgeries for the LeFort III or monobloc midface distraction osteogenesis which detaches the midface or the entire upper face, respectively, from the rest of the skull, are performed in order to reposition them in the correct plane. These surgeries are performed by both plastic and oral and maxillofacial (OMS) surgeons, often in collaboration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5539379",
"title": "Decompressive craniectomy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Decompressive craniectomy (\"crani-\" + \"-ectomy\") is a neurosurgical procedure in which part of the skull is removed to allow a swelling brain room to expand without being squeezed. It is performed on victims of traumatic brain injury, stroke and other conditions associated with raised intracranial pressure. Use of the surgery is controversial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
19wlxx
|
the different types of pencils 2b,b,whatever else there is
|
[
{
"answer": "Pencil leads come in a variety of hardnesses, obtained by altering the ratio of clay to graphite in the pencil. More clay makes the lead harder, but also means it makes a lighter mark. They are often used for engineering drawings because they produce a sharp, clean line without much variation in the darkness of the line.\n\nPencils with less clay are darker (blacker) & softer. They smudge easier, & can produce a range of darkness. They're often popular with artists because they can produce a variety of marks.\n\nPencils are often graded using the HB system in much of the world. B stands for Black, & H stands for Hard. The higher H numbers have more clay, & are lighter & harder, & the higher B numbers have less clay & are darker & softer. HB is a balance between the two. Sometimes you see F too, which is between HB & H, & is used for fine details in drawings. [Here's a diagram of the various shades.](_URL_0_)\n\nAmerican pencils use a number system, with #1 equal to B, #2 equal to HB, #3 equal to H, & #4 equal to 2H. The tests you hear about are filled out by colouring in bubbles corresponding to answers, & are marked by computers. The pencil used needs to be dark enough for the computer to be able to recognise which bubble was filled out, yet hard enough not to smudge outside the bubble & confuse the computer, so they use a pencil in the middle of the range.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1049521",
"title": "Dixon Ticonderoga Company",
"section": "Section::::Ticonderoga pencil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Dixon Ticonderoga makes a variety of pencils, including the Classic, Black, Noir, Tri-Conderoga, Microban, Laddie, My First (formerly Beginners), SenseMatic, and colored pencils. The pencils are available in different grades: #1 (Extra Soft), #2 (Soft), #2½ (Medium), #3 (Hard), and #4 (Extra Hard).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1298450",
"title": "Mechanical pencil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "A mechanical pencil (US English) or propelling pencil (UK English), also clutch pencil, is a pencil with a replaceable and mechanically extendable solid pigment core called a \"lead\" . The lead, often made of graphite, is not bonded to the outer casing, and can be mechanically extended as its point is worn away as it is being used. Other names include microtip pencil, automatic pencil, drafting pencil, technical pencil, click pencil, pump pen, pump pencil, leadholder, pacer (Australian English), pen pencil (Indian English), and lead pencil (Bangladeshi and American English).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24508",
"title": "Pencil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "The most common pencil casing is thin wood, usually hexagonal in section but sometimes cylindrical or triangular, permanently bonded to the core. Casings may be of other materials, such as plastic or paper. To use the pencil, the casing must be carved or peeled off to expose the working end of the core as a sharp point. Mechanical pencils have more elaborate casings which are not bonded to the core; instead, they support separate, mobile pigment cores that can be extended or retracted through the casing's tip as needed. These casings can be reloaded with new cores (usually graphite) as the previous ones are exhausted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2220159",
"title": "Writing implement",
"section": "Section::::Autonomous.:With inherent pigment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "However, most modern \"lead pencils\" have a nonpoisonous core of greyish-black graphite mixed with various proportions of clay for consistency, enclosed within an outer wooden casing to protect the fragile graphite from being snapped apart or from leaving marks on the user's hand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40516793",
"title": "Colored pencil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "A colored pencil (American English), coloured pencil (Commonwealth English), pencil crayon, lead or coloured/colouring lead (Canadian English, Newfoundland English) is an art medium constructed of a narrow, pigmented core encased in a wooden cylindrical case. Unlike graphite and charcoal pencils, colored pencils’ cores are wax- or oil-based and contain varying proportions of pigments, additives, and binding agents. Water-soluble (watercolor) pencils and pastel pencils are also manufactured as well as colored leads for mechanical pencils.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24508",
"title": "Pencil",
"section": "Section::::Types.:By marking material.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "BULLET::::- Solid graphite pencils: These are solid sticks of graphite and clay composite (as found in a 'graphite pencil'), about the diameter of a common pencil, which have no casing other than a wrapper or label. They are often called \"woodless\" pencils. They are used primarily for art purposes as the lack of casing allows for covering larger spaces more easily, creating different effects, and providing greater economy as the entirety of the pencil is used. They are available in the same darkness range as wood-encased graphite pencils.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24508",
"title": "Pencil",
"section": "Section::::Types.:By marking material.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "BULLET::::- Graphite pencils: These are the most common types of pencil, and are encased in wood. They are made of a mixture of clay and graphite and their darkness varies from light grey to black. Their composition allows for the smoothest strokes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qbk8m
|
LCD screens and Duck Hunt
|
[
{
"answer": "As you already know, light guns need a CRT to work. Using a silicon (or any other covering) sadly wouldn't help at all.\n\nWhen a CRT screen draws the image, it draws each pixel at a time - usually starting at the top, working left to right and then down a line until the whole screen is drawn. It then starts again. The whole time taken is called the 'refresh rate' and this is commonly done around 50 times a second*.\n\nThe light gun only 'sees' when a pixel is lit up on the screen that you're aiming at.\n\nThe time difference is calculated between you pulling the trigger. and the 'pixel' you're aiming at is lit up. The computer then calculates how long it has been since the screen was drawn and works out which pixel you were aiming at.\n\nLCD/Plasma and other screens do still draw pixel-by-pixel, but the pixel is never completely off, so there is no single pixel that the light gun can see.\n\nThere's plenty of other alternatives, such as the infrared bulbs and camera that the Nintendo Wii has, but the old Zapper light guns need a CRT screen, sadly.\n\nThis is a slight simplification, but [Wikipedia](_URL_0_)'s is a bit weirdly worded but should fill in any further questions you might have.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8993",
"title": "Duck Hunt",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "\"Duck Hunt\" is a shooter game in which the objective is to shoot moving targets on the television screen in mid-flight. The game is played from a first-person perspective and requires the NES Zapper light gun, which the player aims and fires at the screen. It also requires a CRT television screen since the Zapper gun will not work with LCD or HDTV's. Each round consists of a total of ten targets to shoot. Depending on the game mode the player selects prior to beginning play, one or two targets will appear on the screen at any given time and the player has three attempts to hit them before they disappear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5700236",
"title": "Ultimate Duck Hunting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Ultimate Duck Hunting is a duck hunting video game developed by American studio Mid Carolina Media for Windows. The goal of the game is to shoot ducks and then collect them with hunting dogs, a concept similar to that of the classic NES game, \"Duck Hunt\". On October 19, 2007 a Nintendo Wii version was released by publisher Detn8, it was originally planned for release on July 10, 2007, but it was delayed to October due to the E3 announcement of the Wii port.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8993",
"title": "Duck Hunt",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "\"Duck Hunt\" has three different game modes to choose from. In \"Game A\" and \"Game B\", the targets are flying ducks in a woodland area, and in \"Game C\" the targets are clay pigeons that are launched away from the player's perspective into the distance. In \"Game A\", one duck will appear on the screen at a time while in \"Game B\" two ducks will appear at a time. \"Game A\" allows a second player to control the movement of the flying ducks by using a normal NES controller. The gameplay starts at Round 1 and may continue up to Round 99. If the player completes Round 99, he or she will advance to Round 0, which is a kill screen (in \"Game A\") where the game behaves erratically, such as targets that move haphazardly or do not appear at all, and eventually ends.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8993",
"title": "Duck Hunt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "In \"Duck Hunt\", players use the NES Zapper in combination with a CRT television to shoot ducks that appear on the screen. The ducks appear one or two at a time, and the player is given three shots to shoot them down. The player receives points upon shooting each duck. If the player shoots the required number of ducks in a single round, the player will advance to the next round; otherwise, the player will receive a game over.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5700236",
"title": "Ultimate Duck Hunting",
"section": "Section::::Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Despite the game box's assurances that Ultimate Duck Hunting is \"the most realistic duck-hunting game ever made\", it has earned harsh criticisms both based on the game itself and the professionalism shown by its publisher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8993",
"title": "Duck Hunt",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:\"Vs. Duck Hunt\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "\"Duck Hunt\" was released as an arcade game in the \"Nintendo Vs.\" series in 1984 as \"Vs. Duck Hunt\", and is included in the PlayChoice-10 arcade console. The console supports two light guns, allowing two players at once.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7012175",
"title": "Wii Play",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Games.:Shooting Range.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "A shooting game similar to \"Duck Hunt\" in which players go through several consecutive rounds of shooting objects that appear on the screen, including balloons, bullseye targets, clay disks, tin cans, and UFOs which descend from the sky and attempt to abduct tiny copies the player's Mii, by pointing the Wii Remote at the Wii's sensor bar to aim and firing with the controller's trigger button. Extra points can be earned by shooting several objects consecutively without missing, and ducks also occasionally fly across the screen which can be shot for additional points. The game's multiplayer mode has two players competing to earn the highest number of points; conversely, a second player can join during single player mode and help player one earn points.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3nkwok
|
How do you tell how long has a person been dead?
|
[
{
"answer": "One way is by measuring body temperature. Given someone's weight and the temperature of their surroundings and their current temperature one can extrapolate how long the body has been cooling down from normal body temperature. Hopefully others can step in and explain other methods.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Take a measurement of temperature, then wait a bit and measure again. As long as you know the time between the two measurements, the ambient temperature and the starting temperature you can calculate the time of death. This only works before the body reaches room temperature. After that they need other indicators, I know one way is to look at what bugs are eating them for example if there are maggots then you know the body has been there long enough for a fly to come and lay eggs and those eggs to hach. \n\nThere is a research facility I believe in Tennessee that has been studying human body decay in different environments as well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends of the environment in which the body has died and remained.\n\nIn a standard environment (temperature, humidity), the body will lose temperature and go through [different phases](_URL_1_). Obviously, these process will go faster or slower if it's hotter or colder in the environment. These phases are well documented in different environments and can be determined by a [Medical Examiner](_URL_0_).\n\nDepending of these indicators, you can somewhat find the approximative time of death.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a known process of body decomposition immediatly following death.\n\nCell death, blood coagulation, rigor mortis (before, during, and after), bloating, temperature, presents of parasites, maggots, etc, state of body decay.\n\nThese are adjusted for the environment of course.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Time of death analysis will get some good answers.\n\nLong term time of death typically involves forensic entomology, by looking at the state of the body an the life cycle of insects that are on it (blowflies, typically) it's possible to estimate the time of death from tens of hours out to a few months. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43751157",
"title": "Legal death",
"section": "Section::::Presumption of death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "In some cases, a person will be declared dead even without any remains or doctor's declaration. This is under one of two circumstances. First, if a person was known to be in mortal peril when last seen, they can often be declared dead shortly after. Examples would be the passengers of the \"Titanic\" that were not rescued after the ship sank. Second, if a person has not been seen for a certain period of time and there has been no evidence that they are alive. The amount of time that has passed varies by jurisdiction, from as little as four years in the US state of Georgia to twenty years in Italy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28788144",
"title": "Tatarka common graves",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "BULLET::::- medico-legal researches have demonstrated that the age of the corpses is 3.5–5 years. From the study of several identity papers found, it follows that some of the victims were from 4.5–5 years (1938)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50547234",
"title": "Traité sur les apparitions des esprits et sur les vampires ou les revenans de Hongrie, de Moravie, &c.",
"section": "Section::::Themes.:Vampirism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "The count also received other information of another man dead for more than thirty years that was reported by family to have come back to his house on three separate occasions during meal time. On the first he had sucked the blood from the neck of his brother, the second time from one of his sons, and the third from one of the servants in the house; all three of which had died immediately after. Upon this disposition, the commissary took the suspected corpse from the grave finding it to be like the first corpse discovered with a living blood-flow and he ordered them to run a large nail through the temple then placed back into the grave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "852721",
"title": "Actuarial notation",
"section": "Section::::Example notation.:Life tables.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "formula_42 is the starting point for formula_40: the number of people alive at age 0. This is known as the radix of the table. Some mortality tables begin at an age greater than 0, in which case the radix is the number of people assumed to be alive at the youngest age in the table.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47239489",
"title": "Murder of Martha Morrison",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Examination indicated the victims were deceased for at least two weeks prior. Decomposition and animal activity had made it difficult to estimate the time or cause of death, although authorities presumed they were murdered. The remains may have also been deposited at the location at different times. Several missing persons at the time were considered, including Patty Hearst (who was later found alive). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5058783",
"title": "Death in Singapore",
"section": "Section::::Treatment of the body after death.:Registration of death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "When a person dies in a place which is not a house, or a dead body is found elsewhere than in a house, every relative of the deceased person having knowledge of any particulars required to be registered concerning the death, and every person present at the death, and every person taking charge of the body, and, if the death occurs in a ship or vessel the master or other person having charge of the ship or vessel, and the person causing the body to be buried must, within 24 hours after the death or finding of the body, give to the authorities such information that the informant has concerning the death that is required to be registered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1998642",
"title": "Declared death in absentia",
"section": "Section::::Legal aspects.:Italy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "It takes 20 years in Italy to declare a missing person dead. After ten years from somebody's disappearance, a motion to declare the person legally dead can be filed in a court of law. After that, another ten years must pass before the person can eventually be declared legally dead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fhvw8
|
What's the difference between Deep Blue's algorithm and Monte Carlo Tree Search?
|
[
{
"answer": "The difference is in how they decide which move to take. \n\nDeep Blue has a function to tell how good the board is for him. He uses this function to decide which move to take.\n\nOn the other hand, for some games no well working function to rate a board is known (like go). For such one uses the MCTS. Each legal play is done and then the game is finished n-times with both sides taking random moves. The play that has the highest number of wins will be taken.\n\nSo, Monte Carlo Tree Search is purly \"random\" while Deep Blue depends on a rating function.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40528449",
"title": "Monte Carlo tree search",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "In computer science, Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS) is a heuristic search algorithm for some kinds of decision processes, most notably those employed in game play. MCTS was introduced in 2006 for computer Go. It has been used in other board games like chess and shogi, games with incomplete information such as bridge and poker, as well as in real-time video games (such as 's implementation in the high level campaign AI).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40528449",
"title": "Monte Carlo tree search",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Although it has been proven that the evaluation of moves in Monte Carlo tree search converges to minimax, the basic version of Monte Carlo tree search converges very slowly. However Monte Carlo tree search does offer significant advantages over alpha–beta pruning and similar algorithms that minimize the search space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40528449",
"title": "Monte Carlo tree search",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "The game tree in Monte Carlo tree search grows asymmetrically as the method concentrates on the more promising subtrees. Thus it achieves better results than classical algorithms in games with a high branching factor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "597584",
"title": "Tree traversal",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Other types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "There are also tree traversal algorithms that classify as neither depth-first search nor breadth-first search. One such algorithm is Monte Carlo tree search, which concentrates on analyzing the most promising moves, basing the expansion of the search tree on random sampling of the search space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8244667",
"title": "Tarjan's strongly connected components algorithm",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "The basic idea of the algorithm is this: a depth-first search begins from an arbitrary start node (and subsequent depth-first searches are conducted on any nodes that have not yet been found). As usual with depth-first search, the search visits every node of the graph exactly once, declining to revisit any node that has already been visited. Thus, the collection of search trees is a spanning forest of the graph. The strongly connected components will be recovered as certain subtrees of this forest. The roots of these subtrees are called the \"roots\" of the strongly connected components. Any node of a strongly connected component might serve as the root, if it happens to be the first node of the component that is discovered by the search.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "97034",
"title": "Depth-first search",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Depth-first search (DFS) is an algorithm for traversing or searching tree or graph data structures. The algorithm starts at the root node (selecting some arbitrary node as the root node in the case of a graph) and explores as far as possible along each branch before backtracking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1533767",
"title": "Interval tree",
"section": "Section::::Medial- or length-oriented tree.:Searching for all overlapping intervals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "This algorithm is expected to be faster than a traditional interval tree (augmented tree) for search operations. Adding elements is a little slower in practice, though the order of growth is the same.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8dc2tx
|
given the fragmented instant messaging market and the failure to create a standard protocol, why aren't there email clients that make using email more like instant messaging?
|
[
{
"answer": "Huh? \n\nEmail essentially already is instant messaging, if the user utilizes it in that way. You can get notifications that pop up on your computer that tell you that you just got an email, and it's essentially instance. Your phone can tell you that you just got an email, and it's essentially instant.\n\nI sometimes use email like that with my less Tech Savvy family members. I will have a 10 or 20 email long chain in only a few minutes, because we are just emailing back one or two sentences to each other.\n\nToday, I don't think there is an issue with email clients or technology. It's simply how the users utilize it.\n\nAlso, instant messaging it's probably not as popular as it once was, since the Advent and popularity of phones and texting has taken over from that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54305815",
"title": "Communication in Distributed Software Development",
"section": "Section::::Tools.:Asynchronous tools.:Email.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Empirical studies demonstrated that all team members on a software development team used this tool effectively. Unlike instant messaging, email messages are intended to be more stand-alone and less sensitive to the context of communication, and thus producing email messages requires more time than traditional IM messages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55951",
"title": "Instant messaging",
"section": "Section::::Interoperability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "The use of proprietary protocols has meant that many instant messaging networks have been incompatible and users have been unable to reach users on other networks. This may have allowed social networking with IM-like features and text messaging an opportunity to gain market share at the expense of IM.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59986398",
"title": "JSON Meta Application Protocol",
"section": "Section::::Motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "According to the developers the current standards for email protocols, namely IMAP and SMTP (for client-server communication, since server-server communication is not part of JMAP), are too complicated and are not well-suited for modern mobile networks and in high-latency scenarios. They believe that this has additionally led to stagnation in the quality of (especially free) e-mail clients, as well as to a proliferation of proprietary protocols developed by market-leading companies, e.g. for Google’s Gmail or Microsoft Outlook, all of which are meant to mitigate the various shortcomings of the current generation of protocols.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55464554",
"title": "Reception and criticism of WhatsApp security and privacy features",
"section": "Section::::2016.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "WhatsApp is not the only messaging service that provides end-to-end encryption; among others, Threema, Wickr, Signal, Silent Phone, and Line also provide such encryption by default. iMessage and Viber provide it under special circumstances. Telegram provides end-to-end encryption as an opt-in feature, but does not support end-to-end encrypted group messaging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8909996",
"title": "SMTP proxy",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Inbound SMTP proxying.:Advantages of SMTP proxying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Because SMTP proxies do not store messages like a mail transfer agent (MTA) does, they can reject SMTP connections or message content in real-time, doing away with the need for out-of-band non delivery reports (NDRs), which are the cause of backscatter email, a serious problem in the Internet email system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41501305",
"title": "Telegram (software)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Critics have also disputed claims by Telegram that it is \"more secure than mass market messengers like WhatsApp and Line\", because WhatsApp applies end-to-end encryption to all of its traffic by default and uses the Signal Protocol, which has been \"reviewed and endorsed by leading security experts\", while Telegram does neither and insecurely stores all messages, media and contacts in their cloud. Since July 2016, Line has also applied end-to-end encryption to all of its messages by default.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1065362",
"title": "End-to-end encryption",
"section": "Section::::Modern usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "As of 2016, typical server-based communications systems do not include end-to-end encryption. These systems can only guarantee the protection of communications between clients and servers, meaning that users have to trust the third parties who are running the servers with the original texts. End-to-end encryption is regarded as safer because it reduces the number of parties who might be able to interfere or break the encryption. In the case of instant messaging, users may use a third-party client to implement an end-to-end encryption scheme over an otherwise non-E2EE protocol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3y3if0
|
Zebras in the middle east?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Horses actually originated in the Balkan region, with the oldest fossils found in present day Ukraine.](_URL_1_) Regardless, the common ancestor was likely found on the Supercontinent of [Pangea](_URL_0_), and when the division of the continent occured, the old common ancestor was split into two groups; one isolated in Africa, and one isolated in Eurasia, but only in the Europe portion. From here, these two isolated groups would have evolved into different species. The horses became less exotic due to their woodland and grassland environment, making the brown color become better camo. Zebras were in a land of yellow grass lands and jungle and desert, making the black and white illusion pattern suitable for all terrain",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are some zebra-like fossils known from Asia, but it's obviously hard to know if they had stripes!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You might be interested in reading Gould's essay *[What, if anything, is a zebra?](_URL_6_)*. Good read, even if probably outdated by now.\n\n**Relation of Horses and Zebras**\nThere are three species of zebras:\n\n1) Mountain Zebra (*[Equus zebra](_URL_1_)*) in SW Africa\n2) Plains Zebra (*[Equus quagga](_URL_5_)*) in southern and eastern Africa\n3) Grévy's Zebra (*[Equus grevyi](_URL_2_)*) in Ethiopia and Kenya\n\nAll three zebras are African, striped members of the genus *Equus*, the same that includes horses (*Equus ferus*), donkeys (*Equus africanus*) and onagers (*Equus hemionus*).\n\nMountain and Plains zebras are very similar and traditionally share a subgenus, *Hippotigris*. Grévy's zebra on the other hand, is larger, more robust, has a noticeably larger and differently shaped skull, thinner and more numerous stripes, and makes different vocalizations than the other zebras. So it is put in its own different subgenus, *Dolichohippus*. In the 19th and 20th centuries, it was a matter of discussion if Grévy's was more related to the other zebras, to asses or even horses. [Modern genetics seems to settle this in favor of Grévy's being actually more related to the other zebras.](_URL_3_)\n\n**Have zebras always lived in Africa?**\n\nThat depends of what you mean by \"always\".\n\nThe genus *Equus* originated in North America and crossed over into Eurasia during the Pliocene. This was before it divided in zebra, donkey and horse lineages. The early Eurasian members of the genus *Equus*, the \"stenonin horses\" have a dentition more similar to that of modern zebras than donkeys or horses, and are sometimes referred to as \"zebra-like horses\". However, this is just because the dentition of zebras has changed less from the primitive configuration of these equids than the dentition of horses and donkeys did. There is no way, obviously, to know if these equids were closer to modern zebras in either behavior or appearance.\n\nIf we only consider the relatively modern times, in which modern species are recognizable in the fossil record (so roughly Middle Pleistocene to Holocene), then the three species of zebra have always been confined to south and eastern Africa, while wild African donkeys inhabited north, west and the more desertic parts of eastern Africa, and Asian wild asses or onagers occupied Central Asia and the Middle East. The animal you have read about is probably the westernmost, Syrian subspecies of onager, which is now extinct (*[Equus hemionus hemippus](_URL_7_)*), or the Persian subspecies, which is critically endangered (*[Equus hemionus onager](_URL_0_)*). However, Grévy's zebra was also known as an exotic import in the Mediterranean in Ancient and Medieval times. Baibars, Sultan of Egypt gifted one to King Alfonso X of Castile in 1261. It is described in his *[Crónica](_URL_4_)* as a 'a she-ass that was striped, with one white stripe and another black'.\n\n**Other sources**\n\n- Jonathan Kingdon's *The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals* (1997)\n- Jordi Agustí & Mauricio Antón's *Mammoths, Sabertooths and Hominids: 65 Million Years of Mammalian Evolution in Europe* (2002). *Evolving Eden*\n\n*Evolving Eden: An Illustrated Guide to the Evolution of the African Large Mammal Fauna* (2004) by Alan Turner and Mauricio Anton is most likely better, but I will not receive it until a few more days.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "249530",
"title": "Plains zebra",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.:Range and habitat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "The plains zebra's range stops short of the Sahara from South Sudan and southern Ethiopia extending south along eastern Africa, as far as Zambia, Mozambique, and Malawi, before spreading into most southern African countries. They may have lived in Algeria in the Neolithic era. Plains zebras generally live in treeless grasslands and savanna woodlands, but can be found in a variety of habitats, both tropical and temperate. However, they are generally absent from deserts, dense rainforests, and permanent wetlands. They generally prefer Acacieae woodlands over \"Commiphora\". They are water-dependent and live in more mesic environments than other African equids. They seldom wander from a water source. Zebras also live in elevations from sea level to on Mount Kenya.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "249530",
"title": "Plains zebra",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "The plains zebra (\"Equus quagga\", formerly \"Equus burchellii\"), also known as the common zebra, is the most common and geographically widespread species of zebra. Its range is fragmented, but spans much of southern and eastern Africa south of the Sahara. Six subspecies have been recognised including the extinct quagga which was thought to be a separate species. However, more recent research supports variations in zebra populations being clines rather than subspecies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34460",
"title": "Zebra",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Zebras ( , ) are several species of African equids (horse family) united by their distinctive black-and-white striped coats. Their stripes come in different patterns, unique to each individual. They are generally social animals that live in small harems to large herds. Unlike their closest relatives, horses and donkeys, zebras have never been truly domesticated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "249530",
"title": "Plains zebra",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "The plains zebra is intermediate in size between the larger Grévy's zebra and the smaller mountain zebra; and tends to have broader stripes than both. Great variation in coat patterns exists between clines and individuals. The plain zebra's habitat is generally, but not exclusively, treeless grasslands and savanna woodlands, both tropical and temperate. They generally avoid desert, dense rainforest, and permanent wetlands. Zebras are preyed upon by lions and spotted hyenas and to a lesser extent crocodiles, cheetahs, and African wild dogs. The plains zebra is a highly social species, forming harems with a single stallion, several mares, and their recent offspring; bachelor groups also form. Groups may come together to form herds. The animals keep watch for predators; they bark or snort when they see a predator, and the harem stallion attacks predators to defend his harem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22029038",
"title": "Crawshay's zebra",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Crawshay's zebra (\"Equus quagga crawshayi\") is a subspecies of the plains zebra native to eastern Zambia, east of the Luangwa River, Malawi, southeastern Tanzania, and northern Mozambique south to the Gorongoza District. Crawshay's zebras can be distinguished from other subspecies of plains zebras in that its lower incisors lack an infundibulum. Crawshay's zebra has very narrow stripes compared to other forms of the plains zebra.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34460",
"title": "Zebra",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomy and evolution.:Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "The plains zebra (\"Equus quagga\", formerly \"Equus burchelli\") is the most common, and has or had about six subspecies distributed across much of southern and eastern Africa. It, or particular subspecies of it, have also been known as the common zebra, the dauw, Burchell's zebra (actually the subspecies \"Equus quagga burchellii\"), Chapman's zebra, Wahlberg's zebra, Selous' zebra, Grant's zebra, Boehm's zebra and the quagga (another extinct subspecies, \"Equus quagga quagga\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34875526",
"title": "Maneless zebra",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "The maneless zebra (\"Equus quagga borensis\") is a subspecies of the plains zebra, spread over the northern parts of eastern Africa. It ranges in north-west Kenya, from Uasin Gishu and Lake Baringo to the Karamoja district of Uganda. It is also found in eastern South Sudan, east of the Nile River, for example in Boma National Park. It is the northernmost subspecies of the plains zebra.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14vppq
|
Is it better for a computer to never turn it off, or to turn it off regularly?
|
[
{
"answer": "Every piece of the board is engineered to last a certain number of cycles, so to some extent it's true.\n\nThat number of cycles is far more than the number a normal user would hit before the hardware becomes obsolete though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The TL;DR on all of the responses is essentially \"If you build a System correctly, it doesn't matter whether you leave it on or off, it will outlive its usefulness long before it stops working\".\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am really interested in how this affects laptop batteries?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Others have covered the hardware point of view but there is a software point of view as well. You want to turn your computer off every now and then to free up memory that may have been left over from programs performing poor garbage collection. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "most of the issues with heat related expansion and contraction have been taken care of, chip creep generally no longer is an issue, and most motherboards come with solid state capacitors and modern components\n\nolder motherboards however do not have these features and it is better to keep them running, but typically you are only seeing this on much older boards, such as those with SIMM ram and ISA slots\n\nif you have an older motherboard (socket 775 and 939 or older) when a fail happens it is more often during a cold boot, however, often these parts are old enough that they will be failing soon enough reguardless, \n\nthe older they get the less efficient they get, in particular, the capacitors on the motherboard and the power supplies get worse over time, and typically should be replaced at or around the 5 year mark\n\nso, should you keep your computer on all the time? you don't have to, but keeping it on all the time (or in an different S state like S3) is generaly better from a user wait time standpoint, \n\nTL:DR the risk of a cold boot causing damage is primarily on an older computers and parts that are near failure already",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm actually wondering more about the hard disk. Wouldn't leaving it on all the time cause more wear on its mechanical components and cause it to fail earlier?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's another point that hasn't been mentioned much. A computer that is powered off cannot be hacked into, get exploited with remote vulns, get infected with viruses, have data remotely extracted from it, run malware and botnets, etc. It's one of the few times that is guaranteed.\n\nYou *can't* say for sure what the threats will be in a few years time. But you can say that they will all require the machine to powered up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In extension to this question: When turning the computer off should you just shut down, or shut down and then turn the power off by the wall? (This is assuming a fancy powerful computer with several USB devices in at all times using power) \n\nAlso: I once read that solid state drives have a life span of about 10,000 read/rewrites... What exactly does this mean in practical terms? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Holy Shit, a question i am simi-qualified to answer.\n\nHardware: \nYes, turning it on and off again can cause issues from the expansion and contraction. Example: The HP/Nvidia DV6000 class action lawsuit. The use of poor solder mixed with expansion and contraction caused hairline factors in the solder for the video chip, this effect was more notable seen with more reboot cycles.\n\nHowever: in a perfect world, the hardware is suppose to outlast the usefulness of the device, regardless of heat cycles. As you'll note with the DV6000 case, is that *poor* solder was used. Hardware made to any kind of reasonable standard wouldn't have an issue as quickly, with the goal being the hardware would outlive its usefulness before this became an issue. So this technically correct, (The best kind of correct).\n\nPersonally: i standby my computer when i'm not using it, (so it would cool down). saving power, yet i still get quick access. Really personal preference is going to play more of a role then hardware care unless you own a HP laptop from 2006 or other extreme cases. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Never turning off your PC wears out the power supply significantly faster. Doesn't matter which power supply you buy. The lifetime will be shorter than it would have if it weren't worked constantly. The power supply is super important because if it loses it's ability to regulate the MOBO voltage properly, the small voltage fluctuations can easily damage components like capacitors. And if your PC runs hot, your GPU could become unseated (assuming it's one of those integrated GPUs) or the thermal paste will dry up much faster than normal, reducing it's ability to take the heat away from the chip, which could cause a whole host of other problems. And also, nobody's perfect in maintaining the applications they download and run, and if you don't terminate these properly, your RAM would get cluttered as hell and really slow down your PC. I'm being realistic here. Computers such as servers are strategically built and designed to tackle these problems head on. Unless you are running a server farm, I don't think you'll be able to run your PC all the time and expect the same lifespan. It's much, much better to turn it off regularly.\n\n**EDIT 1:** Also, to even ensure that your PC is running optimally, you need to do routine cleanings. You can't do this if it's on all the time.\n\n**EDIT 2:** If you guys have been following research lately, you'll know about the tin whiskers phenomenon explained [here](_URL_1_) and [here](_URL_0_). Of course this depends on the types of metals used in your PC, but most solder alloys include Tin, which can cause the tin whiskers phenomenon.\n\n**TL;DR** What your friend said is an old folktale.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've actually heard its cheaper to leave a computer on. The initial jolt when you power it on takes in all the power your power supply can handle, and then tones it down to the necessary levels. That alone is more power than your computer uses in an idle state over the course of several days.\n\nNo idea where I saw/heard it, but either way I've never noticed a significant change in my power bills. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you're running Windows a restart at least once a day is good practice. This clears out the memory cache, resets registries, and in general gives it a fresh start. Windows gets gunked up the longer you run it without a restart. For power usage putting it into Sleep mode when you're not using it is sufficient.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So this is a little bit off topic but ... my dad always used to yell at me to turn off my computer to conserve energy. that leaving it on would seriously hurt his electric bill.. I mean obviously it is using resources but.. If left on all the time.. How much could it possibly cost? I hope this doesn't get buried :/ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think my computer has been on since December of 2006 maybe 2007",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I put mine to sleep for few reasons.\n\n1. Everything cuts power except RAM which really uses next to no electricity \n\n2. Wakes up fast (even though I'm on SSD already), but with all your stuff still there if you want to continue doing something\n\n3. The initial boot from off is most stressful for the hard drive and in reality does shorten lifespan. (Just like how starting up a car in cold condition with cold engine oil is most harmful to engine. ...but too bad we can't put our cars to sleep mode) \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Leave on all the time, run [Folding At Home](_URL_0_) or another distributed computing project when not it use.\n\n > You can help scientists studying Alzheimer's, Huntington's, and many cancers by simply running a piece of software on your computer or game console.\n\n\n > Join others around the world to form the world's largest distributed supercomputer. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From a software perspective, it's nice to give your OS a fresh boot on occasion. Programs with memory leaks, abandoned background processes, etc. don't always get cleaned up and a fresh boot can help your system get back up to speed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45273",
"title": "Infinite loop",
"section": "Section::::Intended vs unintended looping.:Intentional looping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Modern interactive computers require that the computer constantly be monitoring for user input or device activity, so at some fundamental level there is an infinite processing [[idle loop]] that must continue until the device is turned off or reset. In the [[Apollo Guidance Computer]], for example, this outer loop was contained in the Exec program, and if the computer had absolutely no other work to do it would loop run a dummy job that would simply turn off the \"computer activity\" indicator light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21774285",
"title": "Double boot",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Changing some parameters in the BIOS will cause this issue, even for items as simple as initializing the current CPU and memory clocks. At such times, a reboot will be required. If the computer did not have any power and had just been plugged in, the same parameters would need to be implemented again, and since these parameters require a reboot, the computer will do a quick reset to implement the parameters that are set in the BIOS. Even after the computer is turned off, these parameters will not need to be re-entered for as long as the power supply is still receiving power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6999096",
"title": "Reset (computing)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "Most computers have a reset line that brings the device into the startup state and is active for a short time after powering on. For example, in the x86 architecture, asserting the RESET line halts the CPU; this is done after the system is switched on and before the power supply has asserted \"power good\" to indicate that it is ready to supply stable voltages at sufficient power levels. Reset places less stress on the hardware than power cycling, as the power is not removed. Many computers, especially older models, have user accessible \"reset\" buttons that assert the reset line to facilitate a system reboot in a way that cannot be trapped (i.e. prevented) by the operating system. Out-of-band management also frequently provides the possibility to reset the remote system in this way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16395908",
"title": "Leaf (Israeli company)",
"section": "Section::::Products.:Digital camera backs.:Current models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "BULLET::::- Turning on/off: Tethered Aptus automatically turns on when the computer is turned on, and autocratically turns off when the computer is turned off. Credo must be turned on and off manually, and also turns off automatically after a period of idle time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33879",
"title": "Windows XP",
"section": "Section::::New and updated features.:User interface.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Fast user switching allows additional users to log into a Windows XP machine without existing users having to close their programs and logging out. Although only one user at the time can use the console (i.e. monitor, keyboard and mouse), previous users can resume their session once they regain control of the console.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1324867",
"title": "Message passing",
"section": "Section::::Synchronous versus asynchronous message passing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Imagine a busy business office having 100 desktop computers that send emails to each other using synchronous message passing exclusively. Because the office system does not use asynchronous message passing, one worker turning off their computer can cause the other 99 computers to freeze until the worker turns their computer back on to process a single email.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45273",
"title": "Infinite loop",
"section": "Section::::Intended vs unintended looping.:Intentional looping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Modern computers also typically do not halt the processor or motherboard circuit-driving clocks when they crash. Instead they fall back to an error condition displaying messages to the operator, and enter an infinite loop waiting for the user to either respond to a prompt to continue, or to reset the device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5wt455
|
why are saltwater aquariums so hard to maintain, but the fish can live in the ocean with a lot more variables?
|
[
{
"answer": "The oceans are very large. The food or waste from a fish is a super tiny fraction. In only 100 gallons of water, it can build up and cause problems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because fish have evolved to live in the conditions of the ocean, and these conditions hardly fluctuate. Consider the amount of water and ions used by a single fish. Now consider this amount to the size of the ocean. Even though the ocean has more than one fish (duh) most fish don't change their environmental conditions enough to displace the effect of how big the ocean is and so their local environment keeps very similar conditions all year.\n\nTL;DR: the conditions in the ocean don't change very much but aquarium conditions do, due to the size difference",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's largely *because* there are so many variables that are typically present in the ocean, but not in an aquarium. There are a million different chemicals that are present in the ocean in specific concentrations that won't be present in the aquarium, often because we don't know which of them is important or not. Even when they're not directly related to fish health, simply *changing* that environment is stressful. Reefs, mostly, don't change. They haven't changed significantly in tens of thousands of years\\*. Because of that, marine life isn't accustomed to dealing with changes.\n\nThey're also part of hugely complex web of resources - every fish on the reef has a specialized diet. You can replicate that diet, but only to a degree. For instance, most marine angels eat corals, which is undesirable in an aquarium because corals are *expensive*. On the reef, the angel could graze from place to place, eating a few polyps on a colony of thousands and move onto another colony while the first recovers - in an aquarium, there's only so many corals to munch on so they're all going to get munched on all the time. Ok, so don't keep angels with corals. Except that some angels are obligate corallivores - their diet *must* include coral. Tangs, like [blue regal tangs](_URL_1_), eat algae, specifically macroalgae (seaweed), which means you *have* to include seaweed in their diet. Except your angels, even if they don't need coral, still want meaty foods. So you have to feed two different things. Puffer fish have a fused tooth like a beak, which they use to scrape meat out of shells - they eat clams and snails. If their diet does not include clams and snails, their beak doesn't get worn down and, just like a rabbit, it will continue to grow until it hurts them. Every single fish in your aquarium will have a specialized diet, and often we don't know what all is in that diet. Not to mention the rest of the food web, from phytoplankton, zooplankton, diatoms, copepods, amphipods... Some foods may not be available in your tank without feeding *those*, and so on.\n\nAll of that assumes your fish will eat prepared foods *at all*. Except for *basically* most clownfish, seahorses, and a very, *very* small group of other fish, literally every other saltwater fish you see in an aquarium was wild caught. All of them. You may be offering them a high quality food pellet with every nutrient they need to survive, but they may never recognize that as food. It doesn't *look* like food to them, because even if it's made of shrimp and seaweed, it doesn't look like shrimp and seaweed. Some saltwater fish are very picky eaters and will never take to prepared foods, like [seahorses](_URL_0_) (that's my tank!). They will *only* eat live food, or frozen food like thawed mysis shrimp, even if they're captive bred!\n\nThe ocean is also big enough to absorb problems. Consider the [nitrogen cycle](_URL_3_): fish produce ammonia during their metabolic processes, which is broken down by bacteria, then broken down again until it becomes nitrate. In nature, that nitrate is absorbed by plants for the nitrogren, converted back, eat by the fish, converted into ammonia...etc. In your aquarium, you are always adding nitrogen via the food, but it's not *going* anywhere. Once it enters your tank, it stays there until you remove it. In the ocean, that's millions of gallons of water to absorb and spread out the nitrate while the plants absorb it, plus there's tons of plankton also absorbing it, *plus* there's tons of surface area for the nitrogen to evaporate into the air. None of that exists for your aquarium, so nitrate can build up very quickly. The same applies to things that mess with your pH (which has to be very consistent at 8.3 to 8.4) - the pH of the ocean doesn't change\\*, it's too big, but your teeny tiny tank may see pretty big swings in pH, or salinity, or temperature, which the fish are not equipped to deal with. There are so many factors to keep track of in your aquarium and not a whole lot of time to do it before it's changed enough to be stressful for the fish.\n\nThere's also the problem of space: even small reef fish that pick one hole and live there, or one small territory are used to a *lot* of space around them. Nomadic fish like tangs are used to having huge amounts of room to swim through. Being stuck in a small tank can be very stressful, especially if you make the mistake of overcrowding your tank or not having an appropriately sized tank (adult tangs need tanks in the hundreds of gallons to feel comfortable). Along with space, they're used to having features to hide in or hide around, and having big open spaces with no rocks or corals can make them feel unsafe. *They* don't know there aren't any sharks around, so they're looking for a place to hide, just in case, and there aren't any. Which often leaves you with a catch 22: less rock so your fish have more room to swim, but no place to hide, or places to hide but no room to swim. Finding that balance can be difficult.\n\nThere's more I could go into, like compatibility (which fish will eat each other or fight each other), how stressful transportation is, some of the questionable methods used to catch aquarium fish (like using cyanide - yes it's exactly as dangerous as it sounds, for both the fish and the diver), the deplorable conditions some of them are kept in before they make it to your tank...some of the absolutely, hideously deplorable conditions people try to keep them in at home...believe it or not, even saltwater fish are hardier than people give them credit for, you just would not believe how many people do it *wrong*, and how pants-on-head stupidly wrong they do it (\"I just set my 10g up yesterday, the ammonia is reading at 4ppm, the pH is at 7.2, and the salinity is at 1.030...can I get three blue tangs, four clownfish, two angelfish, eight damsels, an eel, and a puffer? Thanks...\"). (Seriously, if you want to set up an aquarium, fresh or salt, awesome! Go to /r/Aquariums and ask questions, or just PM me, aquariums are literally my job; I'm more than happy to help! Do your research, do it right, be patient, and take care of the animals you're bringing into your home.)\n\n*Global climate change is having an effect: see [ocean acidification](_URL_4_). Along with rising temperatures and changes to salinity, the effects are [not good](_URL_2_). Marine life is having a really tough time dealing with the changes going on in their environments for many of the same reasons they have trouble dealing with aquariums. Their ecosystems have evolved a very delicate balance, and they all fit very carefully inside that balance, so when one thing gets out of whack the whole reef suffers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47623288",
"title": "Recirculating aquaculture system",
"section": "Section::::Special types of RAS.:Aquariums.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "Home aquaria and inland commercial aquariums are a form of RAS where the water quality is very carefully controlled and the stocking density of fish is relatively low. In these systems the goal is to display the fish rather than producing food. However, biofilters and other forms of water treatment are still used to reduce the need to exchange water and to maintain water clarity. Just like in traditional RAS water must be removed periodically to prevent nitrate and other toxic chemicals from building up in the system. Coastal aquariums often have high rates of water exchange and are typically not operated as a RAS due to their proximity to a large body of clean water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1163643",
"title": "Marine aquarium",
"section": "Section::::Modern fishkeeping.:Types of marine aquariums.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Marine aquarists typically divide saltwater aquariums into those housing fish only, those housing fish with live rock, and those primarily designed to house corals and other invertebrates (also known as reef aquariums). Many fish hobbyists also divide the types of saltwater tanks based on the water temperatures at which they are kept.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1833705",
"title": "Tropical fish",
"section": "Section::::Aquarium fish.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Tropical fish is a term commonly used to refer to fish that are kept in heated aquariums. Freshwater tropical fish are more commonly kept than saltwater tropical fish due to the common availability of fresh water sources, such as tap water, whereas salt water is not commonly available and has to be recreated by using fresh water with sea salt additions. Salt water has to be monitored to maintain the correct salinity because of the effects of evaporation. Freshwater tropical aquariums can be maintained by simply topping up with fresh water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "440359",
"title": "Salton Sea",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.:Fish population.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Due to the high salinity, very few fish species can tolerate living in the Salton Sea. Introduced tilapia are the main fish that can tolerate the high salinity levels and pollution. Other freshwater fish species live in the rivers and canals that feed the Salton Sea, including threadfin shad, carp, red shiner, channel catfish, white catfish, largemouth bass, mosquitofish, sailfin molly, and the vulnerable desert pupfish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10399667",
"title": "Aquarium filter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Aquarium filters are critical components of both freshwater and marine aquaria. Aquarium filters remove physical and soluble chemical waste products from aquaria, simplifying maintenance. Furthermore, aquarium filters are necessary to support life as aquaria are relatively small, closed volumes of water compared to the natural environment of most fish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1163643",
"title": "Marine aquarium",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Marine fishkeeping is different from its freshwater counterpart because of the fundamental differences in the constitution of saltwater and the resulting differences in the adaptation of its inhabitants. A stable marine aquarium requires more equipment than freshwater systems, and generally requires more stringent water quality monitoring. The inhabitants of a marine aquarium are often difficult to acquire and are usually more expensive than freshwater aquarium inhabitants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37205436",
"title": "Saltwater fish",
"section": "Section::::Captivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "Saltwater aquariums are a multi-million dollar industry in the United States. About 10 million marine fish are imported into the United States each year for aquarium use. The United States imports more saltwater fish than any other country in the world. There are approximately 2,000 different species of saltwater fish that are imported and used in captivity. In many circumstances, fish used for marine trade are collected using harmful tactics such as cyanide. One way that people are trying to protect the coral reefs is by breeding marine fish in captivity. Captive-bred fish are known to be healthier and likely to live longer. Captive-bred fish are less susceptible to disease because they have not been exposed to the wild and they have not been damaged during the shipment process. Fish that are bred in captivity are already accustomed to aquarium habitats and food. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
873t09
|
what is an elementary function?
|
[
{
"answer": "The elementary functions are a set of well known functions such as powers of x, roots of x, exponentials, trigonometric functions and their inverses, and most importantly any combinations of them, for example e^sinx + x^(2).\n\nNon elementary functions are those that can't be written like that. For example if I define the function:\n\nf(x) = 1 if x is rational and f(x) = 0 otherwise\n\nThen f is a non elementary function. This function has a specific name - Dirichlet function - but most non elementary functions don't have a name or an easy way to describe them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An elementary function is a function which you can write using a finite number of mathematical operations, which include any combination of the arithmetic operations (+,-,*,/), exponentials, logarithms, constant numbers, roots (and nth roots), trig, inverse trig and hyperbolic trig functions.\n\nBasically, if you write an equation/function just using those things mentioned, it's an elementary function. It's important to note infinite sums, limits and integral don't count.\n\nA non-elementary function is a function that cannot be written that way. An example of this is the integral of e^(-x^2). This function is called the error function. No matter what you do, there is no way you can write its anti derivative using a finite number of the aforementioned operations. A few other integrals also turn out the same way (such as the integral of e^(e^x) )",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10412",
"title": "Elementary function",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "In mathematics, an elementary function is a function of one variable which is the composition of a finite number of arithmetic operations , exponentials, logarithms, constants, trigonometric functions, and solutions of algebraic equations (a generalization of \"n\"th roots).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21258076",
"title": "A. Philip Randolph Career Academy",
"section": "Section::::Academics.:Mathematics.:Twelfth Grade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Elementary Functions- a study of the elementary functions (power functions, polynomials, rational, exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric) with an emphasis on their behavior and applications. Some analytic geometry and elements of the calculus as well as the application of matrices to the solution of linear systems is also included.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6497220",
"title": "Computational complexity of mathematical operations",
"section": "Section::::Special functions.:Elementary functions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "The elementary functions are constructed by composing arithmetic operations, the exponential function (exp), the natural logarithm (log), trigonometric functions (sin, cos), and their inverses. The complexity of an elementary function is equivalent to that of its inverse, since all elementary functions are analytic and hence invertible by means of Newton's method. In particular, if either exp or log in the complex domain can be computed with some complexity, then that complexity is attainable for all other elementary functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1567386",
"title": "Elementary arithmetic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Elementary arithmetic is the simplified portion of arithmetic that includes the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It should not be confused with elementary function arithmetic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4778133",
"title": "Elementary number",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "An elementary number is one formalization of the concept of a closed-form number. The elementary numbers form an algebraically closed field containing the roots of arbitrary equations using field operations, exponentiation, and logarithms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28037920",
"title": "Elementary function arithmetic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "In proof theory, a branch of mathematical logic, elementary function arithmetic, also called EFA, elementary arithmetic and exponential function arithmetic, is the system of arithmetic with the usual elementary properties of 0, 1, +, ×, \"x\", together with induction for formulas with bounded quantifiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1567386",
"title": "Elementary arithmetic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Elementary arithmetic starts with the natural numbers and the written symbols (digits) that represent them. The process for combining a pair of these numbers with the four basic operations traditionally relies on memorized results for small values of numbers, including the contents of a multiplication table to assist with multiplication and division.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5jvdb4
|
if temperature affects air pressure, would the temperature on a planet with a thinner atmosphere feel different than the same temperature on a planet with a thicker atmosphere?
|
[
{
"answer": "How temperature feels is subjective because it is a feeling. Factors such as humidity may impact how temperature feels but humidity is related to much more than how thick the atmosphere is and its quite localized. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49278818",
"title": "David Catling",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "In the field of planetary atmospheres, David Catling and Tyler Robinson have proposed a general explanation for a curious observation: the minimum air temperature between the troposphere (the lowest atmospheric layer where temperature declines with altitude) and stratosphere (where temperature increases with altitude in an 'inversion') occurs a pressure of about 0.1 bar on Earth, Titan, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. This level is the tropopause. Robinson and Catling used the physics of radiation to explain why the tropopause temperature minimum in these extremely different atmospheres occurs at a common pressure. They propose that a pressure around 0.1 bar could be a fairly general rule for planets with stratospheric temperature inversions. This rule could constrain the atmospheric structure on exoplanets and hence their surface temperature and habitability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6410946",
"title": "Atmosphere of Venus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Despite the harsh conditions on the surface, the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth, making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System, even more so than the surface of Mars. Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air (21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth, the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2906879",
"title": "Air current",
"section": "Section::::Horizontal currents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Pressure differences depend, in turn, the average temperature in the air column. As the sun does not heat the Earth evenly, there is a temperature difference between the poles and the equator, creating air masses with more or less homogeneous temperature with latitude. Differences in atmospheric pressure are also at the origin of the general atmospheric circulation while the air masses are separated by ribbons where temperature changes rapidly. These are the fronts. Along these areas, higher winds aloft form. These horizontal jets (jet streams) can reach speeds of several hundred kilometers per hour and can span thousands of kilometers in length, but can only have a few tens or hundreds of kilometers of width.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177602",
"title": "Outer space",
"section": "Section::::Environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "Stars, planets, and moons retain their atmospheres by gravitational attraction. Atmospheres have no clearly delineated upper boundary: the density of atmospheric gas gradually decreases with distance from the object until it becomes indistinguishable from outer space. The Earth's atmospheric pressure drops to about Pa at of altitude, compared to 100,000 Pa for the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) definition of standard pressure. Above this altitude, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the Sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar wind. The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to space weather.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32502",
"title": "Vacuum",
"section": "Section::::Outer space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "Stars, planets, and moons keep their atmospheres by gravitational attraction, and as such, atmospheres have no clearly delineated boundary: the density of atmospheric gas simply decreases with distance from the object. The Earth's atmospheric pressure drops to about at of altitude, the Kármán line, which is a common definition of the boundary with outer space. Beyond this line, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the Sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar winds, so the definition of pressure becomes difficult to interpret. The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to space weather. Astrophysicists prefer to use number density to describe these environments, in units of particles per cubic centimetre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41822",
"title": "Troposphere",
"section": "Section::::Pressure and temperature structure.:Pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The pressure of the atmosphere is maximum at sea level and decreases with altitude. This is because the atmosphere is very nearly in hydrostatic equilibrium so that the pressure is equal to the weight of air above a given point. The change in pressure with altitude can be equated to the density with the hydrostatic equation\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59211",
"title": "Altitude",
"section": "Section::::In atmospheric studies.:High altitude and low pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "At high altitude, atmospheric pressure is lower than that at sea level. This is due to two competing physical effects: gravity, which causes the air to be as close as possible to the ground; and the heat content of the air, which causes the molecules to bounce off each other and expand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5twwla
|
where does water pressure come from?
|
[
{
"answer": "In short, pumping stations and water towers.\n\nWater is pumped from it's source, which could be a well, river, lake, etc. It's usually then treated/cleaned, then pumped up to a water tower. Gravity takes it from there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pressure is created by throttling volume. Pressure and volume have an inverse relationship, meaning as one increases the other decreases. Imagine you taking a garden hose and putting your thumb over the end. You are restricting the volume and in turn increasing the pressure. Same goes for air. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll just try to elaborate a bit. There are only 2 common ways to increase the pressure of any fluid (including water). Pressure is equal to the density of the liquid times the height, it doesn't matter how wide or deep the pipe is, the water pressure at the bottom of a 2 inch diameter tube that's 100 feet tall will be the same as a 2000 inch diameter tube that is 100 feet tall. So water is either collected at high elevation (rain collecting) or pumped to a higher elevation (tank at the top of a tower). Pumping is the second method to increase pressure, which is pretty obvious, using electrical power, to turn mechanical parts that apply force to the fluid to increase pressure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18779111",
"title": "Faucet aerator",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Perceived water pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "The perception of water pressure is actually the speed of the water as it hits a surface, (the hands, in the case of hand washing). When an aerator is added to the faucet (or fluid stream), there is a region of high pressure created behind the aerator. Because of the higher pressure behind the aerator and the low pressure in front of it (outside the faucet), due to Bernoulli's Principle there is an increase in velocity of the fluid flow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23619",
"title": "Pressure",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Formula.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Pressure is distributed to solid boundaries or across arbitrary sections of fluid \"normal to\" these boundaries or sections at every point. It is a fundamental parameter in thermodynamics, and it is conjugate to volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31428107",
"title": "Oil well control",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental concepts and terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Pressure is a very important concept in the oil and gas industry. Pressure can be defined as: the force exerted per unit area. Its SI unit is newtons per square metre or pascals. Another unit, bar, is also widely used as a measure of pressure, with 1 bar equal to 100 kilopascals. Normally pressure is measured in the U.S. petroleum industry in units of pounds force per square inch of area, or psi. 1000 psi equals 6894.76 kilo-pascals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42989561",
"title": "Pressure prism",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid at rest – for example, on the sides of a swimming pool, a glass of water or the bottom of the ocean. Its value at any given location within the fluid is the product of the fluid density (\"ρ\"), the depth (\"d\"), and the forces applied by gravity (\"g\") plus any background pressures, such as atmospheric pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "461654",
"title": "Scalar potential",
"section": "Section::::Pressure as buoyant potential.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Since buoyant force points upwards, in the direction opposite to gravity, then pressure in the fluid increases downwards. Pressure in a static body of water increases proportionally to the depth below the surface of the water. The surfaces of constant pressure are planes parallel to the surface, which can be characterized as the plane of zero pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23619",
"title": "Pressure",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Formula.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Pressure is a scalar quantity. It relates the vector area element (a vector normal to the surface) with the normal force acting on it. The pressure is the scalar proportionality constant that relates the two normal vectors:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4414104",
"title": "Turgor pressure",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 910,
"text": "It is also called \"hydrostatic pressure\", and defined as the pressure measured by a fluid, measured at a certain point within itself when at equilibrium. Generally, turgor pressure is caused by the osmotic flow of water and occurs in plants, fungi, and bacteria. The phenomenon is also observed in protists that have cell walls. This system is not seen in animal cells, seeing how the absence of a cell wall would cause the cell to lyse when under too much pressure. The pressure exerted by the osmotic flow of water is called turgidity. It is caused by the osmotic flow of water through a selectively permeable membrane. Osmotic flow of water through a semipermeable membrane is when the water travels from an area with a low-solute concentration, to one with a higher-solute concentration. In plants, this entails the water moving from the low concentration solute outside the cell, into the cell's vacuole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6ovlzj
|
why does an emergency door have a grill / bars inside its window?
|
[
{
"answer": " > I'm almost certain that every emergency door have a window and a grill in it.\n\nMany do not, but it is a common feature in such doors to allow some vision of what is past them. You can avoid walking into a fire or smoke hazard with such a feature.\n\n > Why does it have those? It doesn't mean like the grill will make the door stronger, right?\n\nThe grid of wire does not make the door stronger. It does however make the *window* stronger. Wire mesh can keep even shattered glass mostly in place, and keep both debris and intruders from passing through.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is to prevent burglars from smashing the glass, reaching through, and opening the door. This is valuable since these doors are often in obscure locations that would be pretty good for burglary.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wired glass is not stronger. The inclusions in the glass from the wire significantly weaken it.\n\nWhat wired glass does is stay in the frame even if a fire causes huge pressure differences, and it can also withstand being blasted by a fire hose. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6055849",
"title": "Safe room",
"section": "Section::::Construction techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "The U.S. State Department often uses steel grillwork much like a jail to seal off parts of a home used by U.S. Foreign Service members overseas when they are living in cities with a high crime threat. In some cities, the entire upstairs area is grilled off, as well as every window and door to the home. Other homes have steel doors to one or more bedrooms that can be bolted closed to provide time for security forces to arrive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "720452",
"title": "Dead bolt",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "The double cylinder design raises a safety issue. In the event of a fire, occupants will be prevented from escaping through double-cylinder locked doors unless the correct key is used. This is often an avoidable cause of death in house fires. The risk can be mitigated by locking the deadlock only when there are no occupants inside the building, or leaving the key near the keyhole. Some fire departments suggest putting the key on a small nail or screw near the door at floor level, since the cleanest air is at floor level and you may be crawling to get to the exit, thus placing the key where it is easiest to find. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "753323",
"title": "Chicago Fire Department",
"section": "Section::::Communications.:Alarm assignments.:Box Alarms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Box Alarms are the other main assignment utilized by the Chicago Fire Department. A Box Alarm is the standard protocol response for fire alarm activations in a hospital, nursing home, theater or other potentially high risk structure. If the fire is reported to have persons trapped or the Fire Alarm Office receives numerous calls for the same location, then a \"Still & Box Alarm\" is automatically transmitted by Fire Alarm Office.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2198731",
"title": "Latch",
"section": "Section::::Common types.:Cabin hook.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Many buildings are built with fire-resistant doors to separate different parts of buildings and to allow people to be protected from fire and smoke. When using a cabin hook in such a situation, one should keep in mind that a fire-resistant door is an expensive and heavy item, and it only works as a fire door if it is always closed. To open the often heavy fire door easily, magnetic door holders are used that are released when the buildings electrical fire alarm system is activated by a fire. As cabin hooks must be activated manually, they are impractical for fire doors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41079673",
"title": "Grille",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "A grille or grill (French word from Latin \"craticula\", small grill) is an opening of several slits side-by-side in a wall, metal sheet or another barrier, usually to allow air or water to enter and/or leave and prevent larger objects (such as animals) from going in or out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11856423",
"title": "Charleston Sofa Super Store fire",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Some fire experts have questioned why the exterior front windows were taken out by firefighters while crews were committed inside, an action that could have increased the amount of oxygen being fed to the fire and drawn flames to the front of the store. Assistant Fire Chief Larry Garvin stated that fire blew out the windows, at which time firefighters broke open more windows to allow firefighters to escape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49400",
"title": "Window",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Emergency exit/egress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "An emergency exit window is a window big enough and low enough so that occupants can escape through the opening in an emergency, such as a fire. In many countries, exact specifications for emergency windows in bedrooms are given in many building codes. Specifications for such windows may also allow for the entrance of emergency rescuers. Vehicles, such as buses and aircraft, frequently have emergency exit windows as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xbu86
|
- the recent hate on nbc
|
[
{
"answer": "Only speaking from personal experience, but I'm not happy with the lack of online viewing available. \n\nI get my tv through an antenna, and nbc doesn't broadcast in my area. So I am out of luck, and have no (legal) way of watching the games. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From the sounds of it, their coverage has been somewhat uneven, between cuts, camerawork and adverts. \n\nHowever it seems the most notable culmination that has got people riled is the replacement a tribute to victims of a terrorist incident in the UK on the 7th of July in 2005 that took place during the opening ceremony. As the replacement was seen as somewhat trivial in comparison (an interview with Michael Phelps by Ryan Seacrest, if what I'm hearing is correct?), some people are disappointed and offended at NBC's broadcast choices.\n\nFor a contextual comparison, some choose to parallel it with the outcry that might follow a national broadcaster sidelining a 9/11 tribute to cover something trivial instead.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Olympics represent a spirit of inclusiveness, community, and support for ones nation. NBC, which owns the broadcasting rights to the 2012 Olympics within the US, has made a decision to monetize their holdings, or to use their rights for profit. In many countries, the companies that own the broadcasting rights have decided to make viewing as easy as possible for as many people as possible, embracing the qualities that the International Olympic Committee stands for. By requiring that viewers have cable/satellite subscriptions for online viewing, NBC has chosen to leave those of us who don't pay for these services to find other ways to watch.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine if, say, during the coverage of 2002 Winter Olympics, the BBC had chosen to cut away from a 9/11 memorial tribute to showcase Ant and Dec interviewing a British athlete.\n\nAlso, Community.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another thing that I hate about NBC's coverage is the media monopoly of universal. After merging with comcast, people with dishes or other cable carriers are SOL for coverage. My mom and I pay about the same amount of money for cable a month. I have comcast, she has dish. The only Olympic channels she can watch are NBC and CNBC. I have almost every channel. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the biggest issues is the refusal to show many of the most hyped events live, because they want to save them for US primetime.\n\nFor instance, the Michael Phelps/Ryan Lochte 400 IM, which NBC had hyped mercilessly, was not shown live on tv in the us, and viewers had to watch it on tape delay. In the era of twitter/online news/etc, a large number of people found out the results of the event before they could even watch it on TV.\n\nIn fact, if you did nothing but watch NBC all day, NBC nightly news with Brian Williams, which aired before the olympics coverage reported the event results...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "With all this said, is there a way to watch the olympics online/without NBC bias? (I don't have any cable but I am moving in 2 days and my new apt will have it)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The commentators don't know when to shut the fuck up",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1335873",
"title": "WFLA-TV",
"section": "Section::::Controversy and criticism.:\"Silencing Christians\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "General manager Mike Pumo refused to elaborate on the decision, other than the show's content did not \"raise the red flag\" during pre-screening. Stratton Pollitzer, deputy director of Equality Florida, considered the show hate speech, saying, \"I think this program is a piece of homophobic propaganda and it has no place on a major network like NBC\" despite the fact that NBC is merely the network that WFLA is affiliated with.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1822599",
"title": "AFL on NBC",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "NBC's coverage received sharp criticism from some longtime AFL fans and owners such as Jon Bon Jovi. The complaints were mostly because the network had severely cut back from their initial promotion of the AFL in 2003 and 2004, to barely promoting it at all in 2005 and 2006. NBC also tended to massively advertise select teams such as the Philadelphia Soul, Chicago Rush, Colorado Crush and the Dallas Desperados, while smaller-market teams such as the Austin Wranglers, San Jose Sabercats, Grand Rapids Rampage and the then-Columbus Destroyers were massively underpromoted or not broadcast at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "854457",
"title": "Question Time (TV programme)",
"section": "Section::::Famous editions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The programme broadcast on 13 September 2001, which was devoted to the political implications of the 11 September 2001 attacks, featured many contributions from members of the audience who were anti-American, expressing the view that \"the United States had it coming\". The BBC received more than 2,000 complaints and later apologised to viewers for causing offence, stating that the edition should not have been broadcast live, but rather should have been recorded and edited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22190443",
"title": "2001 in British television",
"section": "Section::::Events.:September.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 182,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 182,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "BULLET::::- 13 September – An edition of the political debate show \"Question Time\" devoted to the political implications of the 9/11 attacks, features many contributions from members of the audience expressing strong anti-American views. The BBC receives more than 2,000 complaints in the show's aftermath and later apologises to viewers for causing offence, stating that the edition should not have been broadcast live, but rather should have been recorded and edited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21027776",
"title": "United States cable news",
"section": "Section::::\"Big Three\" news channels.:Channels.:MSNBC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "Notable personalities on the network include \"Morning Joe\" co-hosts Joe Scarborough and Mika Brzezinski, daytime anchors Chuck Todd and Andrea Mitchell, and evening commentators Chris Matthews and Rachel Maddow. The network was noted in the mid-2000s for its harsh criticism of then-President George W. Bush, most notably the 'special comment' segment of former anchor Keith Olbermann's show, \"Countdown\". This, combined with accusations of support for then-President Barack Obama, have led to MSNBC being criticized for a liberal bias, a reputation it has increasingly embraced with its \"Lean Forward\" slogan (which it adopted in 2011) and open promotion of progressive and liberal ideas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12080696",
"title": "Television Watch",
"section": "Section::::Mission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "The Parents Television Council, a media watchdog group noted for filing the majority of FCC complaints for controversial programs like the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show that featured the brief exposure of one of Janet Jackson's breasts, is a frequent target of criticism by the group for inaccurate reporting on the media, support of increased government regulation of television, and using \"sensationalism\" in their reporting to reinforce their views. TV Watch has also objected to the PTC's annual list of the \"Best and Worst Shows for Primetime Viewing\". In June 2007, the organization released an in-depth survey that concluded that most parents take their own responsibility for their children's TV viewing, thus challenging the PTC's views that most parents want increased government regulation of TV.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159846",
"title": "MSNBC",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "In the aftermath of September 11, MSNBC began calling itself \"America’s NewsChannel\" and hired opinionated hosts like Alan Keyes, Phil Donahue, Pat Buchanan, and Tucker Carlson; This branding makeover, however, was followed by declining ratings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9irq21
|
Why can't people with O-Negative blood donate platelets?
|
[
{
"answer": "O- is in short supply due to the demand as universal donor.\n\nB- is just an insanely rare blood type, less than 1% in caucasians if I remember right. Important because the only 2 types this type can receive (without risking sensitization to D) is b neg and o neg. \n\nTheres no reason they couldnt donate platelets, but since platelet type is mostly a non issue these days it's much more useful to donate red blood cells. However, platelets are also in demand because of their short date, so I hadn't realized they were refusing those platelet donations though",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1494752",
"title": "Plateletpheresis",
"section": "Section::::Platelet collection.:Apheresis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Platelets are the clotting cells of the blood, and when donated, frequently go to cancer patients, because due to chemotherapy many cancer patients are unable to generate enough platelets of their own.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1494752",
"title": "Plateletpheresis",
"section": "Section::::Platelet transfusion.:Whole blood platelets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Problems with apheresis include the expense of the equipment used for collection. Whole blood platelets also do not require any additional donor recruitment, as they can be made from blood donations that are also used for packed red blood cells and plasma components.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3516857",
"title": "Blood donation in England",
"section": "Section::::Donations.:Blood Component donations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "Most platelet donations are given to patients who are unable to make enough platelets in their bone marrow. For example, patients with leukaemia or other cancers may have too few platelets as the result of their disease or treatment. Also after major surgery or extensive injury, patients may need platelet transfusions to replace those lost through bleeding. Platelets are often life-saving and special in that they can help up to 3 adults or even 12 children. As platelets can only be stored for a few days, regular and frequent donors are in great demand and that is why platelet donors are asked to attend at least 8 - 10 times per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196121",
"title": "Platelet",
"section": "Section::::Therapy with platelets.:Transfusion.:Collection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 169,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 169,
"end_character": 1428,
"text": "Apheresis platelets are collected using a mechanical device that draws blood from the donor and centrifuges the collected blood to separate out the platelets and other components to be collected. The remaining blood is returned to the donor. The advantage to this method is that a single donation provides at least one therapeutic dose, as opposed to the multiple donations for whole-blood platelets. This means that a recipient is not exposed to as many different donors and has less risk of transfusion-transmitted disease and other complications. Sometimes a person such as a cancer patient who requires routine transfusions of platelets will receive repeated donations from a specific donor to further minimize the risk. Pathogen reduction of platelets using for example, riboflavin and UV light treatments can also be carried out to reduce the infectious load of pathogens contained in donated blood products, thereby reducing the risk of transmission of transfusion transmitted diseases. Another photochemical treatment process utilizing amotosalen and UVA light has been developed for the inactivation of viruses, bacteria, parasites, and leukocytes that can contaminate blood components intended for transfusion. In addition, apheresis platelets tend to contain fewer contaminating red blood cells because the collection method is more efficient than “soft spin” centrifugation at isolating the desired blood component.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3516857",
"title": "Blood donation in England",
"section": "Section::::Donations.:Blood Component donations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Platelets are very small cells. They work with the clotting factors in plasma to form a mesh \"plug\" to stop or prevent bleeding. Plasma is the fluid part of the blood. It contains protein, salts and clotting factors. White cells fight harmful bacteria and help prevent infection. Red cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18945023",
"title": "Karl Landsteiner",
"section": "Section::::Discovery of the blood groups.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "These donor-recipient relationships arise due to the fact that type O-negative blood possesses neither antigens of blood group A nor of blood group B. Therefore, the immune systems of persons with blood group A, B or AB do not refuse the donation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196121",
"title": "Platelet",
"section": "Section::::Therapy with platelets.:Transfusion.:Delivery to recipients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 174,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 174,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Platelets do not need to belong to the same A-B-O blood group as the recipient or be cross-matched to ensure immune compatibility between donor and recipient unless they contain a significant amount of red blood cells (RBCs). The presence of RBCs imparts a reddish-orange color to the product, and is usually associated with whole-blood platelets. An effort is sometimes made to issue type specific platelets, but this is not critical as it is with RBCs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xx7gn
|
If you can't hear thunder (but can see distant bolts of lightning) are you still in danger?
|
[
{
"answer": "The odds of getting hit by lightning are pretty low no matter the conditions, but if you're super scared of things, it is very remotely possible to be struck by a [bolt from the blue](_URL_0_) 15 or 20 miles from a thunderhead.\n\nI've been a lightning watcher all my life (56 y) and so was my dad. Neither of us ever even got close to being struck by it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "According [to this](_URL_2_):\n\n > Thunder is rarely heard at points farther than 15 miles from the lightning discharge, but occasionally can be heard up to 25 miles away.\n\nand\n\n > it is not possible to have lightning without thunder. Thunder is a direct result of lightning. However, it IS possible that you could not hear the thunder because it was too far away. Sometimes it is called \"heat lightning\" because it occurs most often in the summer.\n\nAlso, [from here](_URL_1_)\n\n > because light travels much faster than sounds of thunder, it is possible to see lightning from thunderstorms over 100 miles away.\n\nAs for safety, [from here](_URL_0_)\n\n > **There is no safe place outside when thunderstorms are in the area. If you hear thunder, you are likely within striking distance of the storm.**\n\n\nIt is a well practiced measure to wait 30 minutes from the last sound of thunder before it is safe to go outdoors.\n\nEdit- format\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you hear the thunder, you were most likely not struck by it, and should be safe. If you go temporarily blind and deaf, and/or experience a burning sensation in your body, you were likely struck by the lightning, and were not safe.\n\nOn a serious note... Lightning comes from certain types of cloud activity, and follows the rain down to the ground, making use of better conductors like trees or other tall objects when it can. If you are not significantly shorter than most objects around you, and you stand in the rain, you are at risk. It does not matter how far away the lightning you saw/heard was. It only matters wether the cloud above you is likely to fry your ass. its perfectly possible to be safe from lightning a km away, or unsafe 100km away, if for example you have one thunderous cloud 100km away and a second lightning-prone cloud over your head.\n\nAnecdotal rules like \"you're safe if its this far away\" are at best based on statistics. An abundance of lightning conductors that are better than you (say for example the lightning rods of buildings in a city), or a lack of rain, are your only *certain* signs of safety.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2449741",
"title": "Lightning strike",
"section": "Section::::Prevention and mitigations.:Personal safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "The U.S. National Lightning Safety Institute advises American citizens to have a plan for their safety when a thunderstorm occurs and to commence it as soon as the first lightning is seen or thunder heard. This is important as lightning can strike without rain actually falling. If thunder can be heard at all, then there is a risk of lightning. The safest place is inside a building or a vehicle. Risk remains for up to 30 minutes after the last observed lightning or thunder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "169319",
"title": "Necessity and sufficiency",
"section": "Section::::Sufficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "BULLET::::- Example 3: An occurrence of thunder is a sufficient condition for the occurrence of lightning in the sense that hearing thunder, and unambiguously recognizing it as such, justifies concluding that there has been a lightning bolt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61344",
"title": "Lightning",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Thunder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Lightning at a sufficient distance may be seen and not heard; there is data that a lightning storm can be seen at over 100 miles whereas the thunder travels about 20 miles. Anecdotally, there are many examples of people saying 'the storm was directly overhead or all-around and yet there was no thunder'. There is no coherent data available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "94858",
"title": "Thunder",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The shockwave in thunder is sufficient to cause property damage and injury, such as internal contusion, to individuals nearby. Thunder can rupture the eardrums of people nearby, leading to permanently impaired hearing. Even if not, it can lead to temporary deafness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1168",
"title": "Anaximander",
"section": "Section::::Theories.:Meteorological phenomena.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Anaximander attributed some phenomena, such as thunder and lightning, to the intervention of elements, rather than to divine causes. In his system, thunder results from the shock of clouds hitting each other; the loudness of the sound is proportionate with that of the shock. Thunder without lightning is the result of the wind being too weak to emit any flame, but strong enough to produce a sound. A flash of lightning without thunder is a jolt of the air that disperses and falls, allowing a less active fire to break free. Thunderbolts are the result of a thicker and more violent air flow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2449741",
"title": "Lightning strike",
"section": "Section::::Prevention and mitigations.:Monitoring and warning systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Although commonly associated with thunderstorms at close range, lightning strikes can occur on a day that seems devoid of clouds. This occurrence is known as \"A Bolt From the Blue\"; lightning can strike up to 10 miles from a cloud.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "169319",
"title": "Necessity and sufficiency",
"section": "Section::::Necessity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "BULLET::::- Example 3: Consider thunder, the sound caused by lightning. We say that thunder is necessary for lightning, since lightning never occurs without thunder. Whenever there's lightning, there's thunder. The thunder \"does not cause\" the lightning (since lightning causes thunder), but because lightning always comes with thunder, we say that thunder is necessary for lightning. (That is, in its formal sense, necessity doesn't imply causality.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3t10pn
|
Why did some areas of Africa quickly convert to Islam, some convert slowly to Christianity, and others keep worshipping tribal gods?
|
[
{
"answer": "The answer is that they didn't convert all that quickly at all. Those areas that did convert to Islam did so quite gradually. Much of Northern Africa, as former Roman provinces, were Christian during the Arab conquests, but gradually became more Muslim over time, often thanks in part to economic pressures. Similarly, non-Roman city states in East Africa with deep connections to Muslim areas through trade over the Indian Ocean gradually converted to Islam over centuries. It's no mere accident of history that Islam's spread mirrors trade routes: it was easier to find trust and economic security between trading partners when they shared a religion.\n\nHowever, you are mistaken in saying that Christianity has been slow to spread in Africa. There are hundreds of millions of African Christians thanks to heavy-handed and concerted evangelism efforts. Native religions are much less common. Of course, as with Europe, native beliefs are often incorporated into the way they practice Christianity. Typically, Christianity is more prevalent in areas that never developed strong Muslim communities and received heavy evangelism efforts, while Islam is found spread out along ancient trade routes. This isn't to discount communities like the Christians in Egypt, who have been there since Roman times.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Islam someone simply had to *submit* and they were in. Islam means submission in Arabic and a Muslim is simply a believer. If a person in a newly conquered part of 7th century north Africa thew down their idol and approached the warriors saying \"I am a believer.\" They would have to accept that person into the *community of believers*. \n\nThis is polar opposite to many many religions. The barrier to entry in Islam was so low anybody could get in. Unlike other faiths it was not restricted to one ethnicity or language group. Because all of Islam had to study it in Arabic it forced a kind of integration into greater Arab culture. But because Islam had to gain converts form so many diverse peoples it developed different flavors,if you will, as it spread.\n\nSo in Islam we have a eastern expansion to all the way to Indonesia. And a western expansion all the way to Spain. Then later beginning in the 14th C. the Turkic expansion into the Balkans which follows a similar pattern to the early movement into Christian Egypt. \n\nIn Persia in the 6th century Zoroastrianism was the predominant faith. Zoroastrianism is a religion which warships the supreme god Aurora Mazda, and has very clear good and evil motifs. They took right to Islam and the Ideas proposed in the Abrahamic ideals. The tenements of Zoroastrianism had striking parallels to early Jewish interpretations of the Torah. As an aside, some like Dr. Patricia Crone have theorized a common ancient Sumerian origin for both faiths, Judaism and Zoroastrianism. With the language being similar to Arabic and the cultures similar the transition was very easy.\n\nIn north Africa there were mainly Christian kingdoms in Egypt to Morocco. So in this area we did not see the same level of mass conversion as we did in the east. Here Islam was more reserved for the elite military class. This was due to the non pagan nature of the population. The concept of Dhimmi, or people of the book, led to a surprising level of tolerance in the dar al Islam. The people of the book meaning Jews and Christians were not to be hindered directly simply taxed to practice their faith, way better than dying IMO. The Coptic Christian and ancient Jewish population of Medina and Jerusalem were never forcefully converted due to their almost sacred authority over the Bible. Mohammad actually learned everything he knew about God when he went to Medina and engaged in six years debate with the local rabbi's. Mohammad's life is commonly divided into the pre Medina years when he was living in Mecca, which are markedly more pagan, and after in Medina. \n\nThis practice and treatment of conquered peoples facilitated trade and culture between the tree faiths in a surprising degree. Warriors picked up cultures and the cultures and flavors of those cultures in their form of Islam as it spread east and west. This is drastically different than Christendom which had the inquisition tantamount to a cultural genocide. Not to mention all of North and South America decimated in the name of god, gold, and glory, Deus Aurum Gloria . That is tree continents cultures homogenized by Christ. Shit forgot Australia, thats a fourth. Islam needs to catch up.... The forceful conversion in Christendom arguably caused a historical nightmare that destroyed Shamanic, Druid and pagan cultures around the world forever. (Thank Valhalla for the Icelandic Sagas saving my Norse heritage! Not all are are so lucky.) Christendom is unsurprisingly the least tolerant of the Abrahamic faiths having more people die in the name of Jesus than any other religion. Sadly as we constantly see in history religions of peace perverted to justify war and conquest. \n\nTLDR: But, it really goes down to early Islam being made up of a professional army of very efficient warriors. Horse archers where the Abrams tank of their day. This allowed for the vast expansion early on. As they expanded we see different levels of conversions. Today we have Bulgaria which had Islamic control for 700 years and is now mostly Christian. At the same time we have Indonesian which is the largest Islamic nation on the planet. With approximately the same amount of time under Islam. It comes down to the initial faith of the conquered peoples. Pagans were more readily converted. Where as Christians and Jews were just taxed as people of the book. I would love some feedback. \n\nI thank the beautiful book Osmon's Dream, /r/C_S_T, Dr. Nicoli Antov, and Dr. Patricia Crone for my inspiration.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21434448",
"title": "History of Benghazi",
"section": "Section::::The Arabs and the advent of Islam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "Islam came to North Africa at a moment when there was nothing of a calibre sufficient to oppose it, while there were many native elements favourable to its advance. The Romans were largely obliterated except in Berenice and the rest of the small area under Byzantine rule. Civilisation in Berenice was almost extinct, due to depopulation under the Emperor Trajan in the 2nd century fearful of a Jewish rising, and its equally fearful suppression. The towns were deserted and prey to marauding bands of Berbers. Berber peasantry was exploited by crushing taxation and were keen for new rule. The official Church had alienated the mass of the population by its intransigent attitude to what it considered as heresies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1142503",
"title": "African-American culture",
"section": "Section::::Religion.:Islam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "Generations before the advent of the Atlantic slave trade, Islam was a thriving religion in West Africa due to its peaceful introduction via the lucrative Trans-Saharan trade between prominent tribes in the southern Sahara and the Arabs and Berbers in North Africa. In his attesting to this fact the West African scholar Cheikh Anta Diop explained: \"The primary reason for the success of Islam in Black Africa [...] consequently stems from the fact that it was propagated peacefully at first by solitary Arabo-Berber travelers to certain Black kings and notables, who then spread it about them to those under their jurisdiction\". Many first-generation slaves were often able to retain their Muslim identity, their descendants were not. Slaves were either forcibly converted to Christianity as was the case in the Catholic lands or were besieged with gross inconveniences to their religious practice such as in the case of the Protestant American mainland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "41530635",
"title": "Persecution of traditional African religion",
"section": "Section::::By Muslims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Traditional African religions are tolerant of other gods, which allows general co-existence for multiple religions. This has been regarded by some authors to be another reason behind the rise of other religions in Africa. Most followers of traditional religions accommodated Islam during the start of its spread in Africa, but in West Africa, it was not until the coming of colonialism that Islam gained mass appeal, transforming even groups with historical animosity towards Islamic domination into Muslim communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4694017",
"title": "Islam in Africa",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "Similarly, in the Swahili coast, Islam made its way inland – spreading at the expense of traditional African religions. This expansion of Islam in Africa not only led to the formation of new communities in Africa, but it also reconfigured existing African communities and empires to be based on Islamic models. Indeed, in the middle of the 11th century, the Kanem Empire, whose influence extended into Sudan, converted to Islam. At the same time but more toward West Africa, the reigning ruler of the Bornu Empire embraced Islam. As these kingdoms adopted Islam, their subjects thereafter followed suit. In praising the Africans' zealousness to Islam, the 14th-century explorer Ibn Battuta stated that mosques were so crowded on Fridays, that unless one went very early, it was impossible to find a place to sit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41530635",
"title": "Persecution of traditional African religion",
"section": "Section::::By Muslims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "After the establishment of Islam, its rapid expansion and conquests displaced traditional African religions either by conversion or conquest. Traditional African religions have influenced Islam in Africa, and Islam is considered as having more commonality with traditional African religions, but conflict has occurred, especially due to Islam's monotheistic stance and the rise of Muslim reformers such as Askia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13139823",
"title": "Post-classical history",
"section": "Section::::History by region in the Old World.:Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1166,
"text": "During the Postclassical Era, Africa was both culturally and politically affected by the introduction of Islam and the Arabic empires. This was especially true in the north, the Sudan region, and the east coast. However, this conversion was not complete nor uniform among different areas, and the low-level classes hardly changed their beliefs at all. Prior to the migration and conquest of Muslims into Africa, much of the continent was dominated by diverse societies of varying sizes and complexities. These were ruled by kings or councils of elders who would control their constituents in a variety of ways. Most of these peoples practiced spiritual, animistic religions. Africa was culturally separated between Saharan Africa (which consisted of North Africa and the Sahara Desert) and Sub-Saharan Africa (everything south of the Sahara). Sub-Saharan Africa was further divided into the Sudan, which covered everything north of Central Africa, including West Africa. The area south of the Sudan was primarily occupied by the Bantu peoples who spoke the Bantu language. From 1100 onward Christian Europe and the Islamic World became dependent on Africa for gold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53831",
"title": "Missionary",
"section": "Section::::Missionaries by religion.:Islamic missions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "The spread of Islam towards Central and West Africa had until the early 19th century has been consistent but slow. Previously, the only connection was through Trans-Saharan trade routes. The Mali Empire, consisting predominantly of African and Berber tribes, stands as a strong example of the early Islamic conversion of the Sub-Saharan region. The gateways prominently expanded to include the aforementioned trade routes through the Eastern shores of the African continent. With the European colonization of Africa, missionaries were almost in competition with the European Christian missionaries operating in the colonies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2l7t57
|
what happens to the human body when it experiences spontaneous decompression? does it just pop?
|
[
{
"answer": "\"Coward, Lucas and Bergersen were exposed to the effects of explosive decompression and died in the positions indicated by the diagram. Subsequent investigation by forensic pathologists determined Hellevik, being exposed to the highest pressure gradient, violently exploded due to the rapid and massive expansion of internal gases. **All of his thoracic and abdominal organs, and even his thoracic spine, were ejected, as were all of his limbs.** Simultaneously, his remains were expelled through the narrow trunk opening left by the jammed chamber door, less than 60 centimetres (24 in) in diameter. Fragments of his body were found scattered about the rig. One part was even found lying on the rig's derrick, 10 metres (30 ft) directly above the chambers. The deaths of all four divers were most likely instantaneous.\"\n\n[Byford Dolphin Accident](_URL_0_) \n\nThere is a picture of what was left of one of the divers, but I couldn't find it. Essentially, if you read the above, what was left on the stretcher didn't amount to much, \n\n\nEdit: This was an extreme situation obviously. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38814223",
"title": "Decompression theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "The term \"decompression\" derives from the reduction in ambient pressure experienced by the organism and refers to both the reduction in pressure and the process of allowing dissolved inert gases to be eliminated from the tissues during and after this reduction in pressure. The uptake of gas by the tissues is in the dissolved state, and elimination also requires the gas to be dissolved, however a sufficient reduction in ambient pressure may cause bubble formation in the tissues, which can lead to tissue damage and the symptoms known as decompression sickness, and also delays the elimination of the gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51984254",
"title": "Physiology of decompression",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "The physiology of decompression involves a complex interaction of gas solubility, partial pressures and concentration gradients, diffusion, bulk transport and bubble mechanics in living tissues. Gas is breathed at ambient pressure, and some of this gas dissolves into the blood and other fluids. Inert gas continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the tissues is in a state of equilibrium with the gas in the lungs, (see: \"Saturation diving\"), or the ambient pressure is reduced until the inert gases dissolved in the tissues are at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state, and start diffusing out again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54637386",
"title": "Physiology of underwater diving",
"section": "Section::::Breathing under pressure.:Metabolically inert components of the breathing gas.:Absorption and release of inert gases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "The physiology of decompression involves a complex interaction of gas solubility, partial pressures and concentration gradients, diffusion, bulk transport and bubble mechanics in living tissues. Gas is breathed at ambient pressure, and some of this gas dissolves into the blood and other fluids. Inert gas continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the tissues is in a state of equilibrium with the gas in the lungs, (see: \"Saturation diving\"), or the ambient pressure is reduced until the inert gases dissolved in the tissues are at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state, and start diffusing out again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51984254",
"title": "Physiology of decompression",
"section": "Section::::Saturation decompression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Saturation decompression is a physiological process of transition from a steady state of full saturation with inert gas at raised pressure to standard conditions at normal surface atmospheric pressure. It is a long process during which inert gases are eliminated at a very low rate limited by the slowest affected tissues, and a deviation can cause the formation of gas bubbles which can produce decompression sickness. Most operational procedures rely on experimentally derived parameters describing a continuous slow decompression rate, which may depend on depth and gas mixture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38814223",
"title": "Decompression theory",
"section": "Section::::Decompression models in practice.:Saturation decompression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Saturation decompression is a physiological process of transition from a steady state of full saturation with inert gas at raised pressure to standard conditions at normal surface atmospheric pressure. It is a long process during which inert gases are eliminated at a very low rate limited by the slowest affected tissues, and a deviation can cause the formation of gas bubbles which can produce decompression sickness. Most operational procedures rely on experimentally derived parameters describing a continuous slow decompression rate, which may depend on depth and gas mixture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177602",
"title": "Outer space",
"section": "Section::::Environment.:Effect on human bodies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1277,
"text": "As a consequence of rapid decompression, oxygen dissolved in the blood empties into the lungs to try to equalize the partial pressure gradient. Once the deoxygenated blood arrives at the brain, humans lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes. Blood and other body fluids boil when the pressure drops below 6.3 kPa, and this condition is called ebullism. The steam may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid. Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a pressure suit. The Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS), a fitted elastic garment designed in the 1960s for astronauts, prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kPa. Supplemental oxygen is needed at to provide enough oxygen for breathing and to prevent water loss, while above pressure suits are essential to prevent ebullism. Most space suits use around 30–39 kPa of pure oxygen, about the same as on the Earth's surface. This pressure is high enough to prevent ebullism, but evaporation of nitrogen dissolved in the blood could still cause decompression sickness and gas embolisms if not managed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32502",
"title": "Vacuum",
"section": "Section::::Effects on humans and animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Rapid decompression can be much more dangerous than vacuum exposure itself. Even if the victim does not hold his or her breath, venting through the windpipe may be too slow to prevent the fatal rupture of the delicate alveoli of the lungs. Eardrums and sinuses may be ruptured by rapid decompression, soft tissues may bruise and seep blood, and the stress of shock will accelerate oxygen consumption leading to hypoxia. Injuries caused by rapid decompression are called barotrauma. A pressure drop of 13 kPa (100 Torr), which produces no symptoms if it is gradual, may be fatal if it occurs suddenly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
lhw81
|
Why can't I cleanly wipe the condensation off my bathroom mirror after a shower?
|
[
{
"answer": "Condensation is caused by the relatively cool surface of the mirror pulling moisture out of the air. The water vapor in the air essentially loses energy, that is, cools off and phase changes into water, when it encounters this surface. \n\nWhen you wipe it, you get rid of the droplets that have formed on the surface of the mirror. What you haven't addressed is whats causing it in the first place - the cool mirror. So a new layer of droplets quickly forms. If you take a hairdryer on hot and blast the mirror THEN wipe it, it will no longer form condensation. This is known as the female solution. You can also spit on the mirror and wipe it around. The body temperature phlegm should slow/stop the condensation. This is known as the male solution. \n\nSome fancy hotels actually have mirror heaters to avoid this problem altogether. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Condensation is caused by the relatively cool surface of the mirror pulling moisture out of the air. The water vapor in the air essentially loses energy, that is, cools off and phase changes into water, when it encounters this surface. \n\nWhen you wipe it, you get rid of the droplets that have formed on the surface of the mirror. What you haven't addressed is whats causing it in the first place - the cool mirror. So a new layer of droplets quickly forms. If you take a hairdryer on hot and blast the mirror THEN wipe it, it will no longer form condensation. This is known as the female solution. You can also spit on the mirror and wipe it around. The body temperature phlegm should slow/stop the condensation. This is known as the male solution. \n\nSome fancy hotels actually have mirror heaters to avoid this problem altogether. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1897230",
"title": "Mirrored sunglasses",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The simplest version of a mirror coating is a single layer of a deposited thin film of a suitable metal, usually prepared by ion beam deposition, sputter deposition or vapor deposition. However, this kind of coating is very prone to scratching, and degrades, especially in a corrosive environment like salt water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8892966",
"title": "Hydrocarbon dew point",
"section": "Section::::Methods of HCDP determination.:Experimental methods of HCDP determination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1154,
"text": "Automated chilled mirror devices provide significantly more repeatable results, but these measurements can be affected by contaminants that may compromise the mirror's surface. In many instances it is important to incorporate an effective filtration system that prepares the gas for analysis. On the other hand, filtration may alter the gas composition slightly and filter elements are subject to clogging and saturation. Advances in technology have led to analyzers that are less affected by contaminants and certain devices can also measure the dew point of water that may be present in the gas. One recent innovation is the use of spectroscopy to determine the nature of the condensate at dewpoint. Another device user laser interferometry to register extremely tenuous amounts of condensation. It is asserted that these technologies are less affected by interference from contaminants. Another source of error is the speed of the cooling of the mirror and the measurement of the temperature of the mirror when the condensation is detected. This error can be minimized by controlling the cooling speed, or having a fast condensation detection system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63557",
"title": "Amateur telescope making",
"section": "Section::::Common amateur designs.:Mirror making.:Aluminizing or \"silvering\" the mirror.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "The mirror is aluminized by placing it in a vacuum chamber with electrically heated tungsten or nichrome coils that can evaporate aluminum. In a vacuum, the hot aluminum atoms travel in straight lines. When they hit the surface of the mirror, they cool and stick. Some mirror coating shops then evaporate a layer of quartz onto the mirror, whereas others expose it to pure oxygen or air in an oven so that the mirror will form a tough, clear layer of aluminum oxide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8892966",
"title": "Hydrocarbon dew point",
"section": "Section::::Methods of HCDP determination.:Experimental methods of HCDP determination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1362,
"text": "Similar to GC analysis, the experimental method is subject to potential sources of error. The first error is in the detection of condensation. A key component in chilled mirror dew point measurements is the subtlety with which condensate can be detected — in other words, the thinner the film is when detected, the better. A manual chilled mirror device relies on the operator to determine when a mist has formed on the mirror, and, depending on the device, can be highly subjective. It is also not always clear what is condensing: water or hydrocarbons. Because of the low resolution that has traditionally been available, the operator has been prone to under report the dew point, in other words, to report the dew point temperature as being below what it actually is. This is due to the fact that by the time condensation had accumulated enough to be visible, the dew point had already been reached and passed. The most modern manual devices make possible greatly improved reporting accuracy. There are two manufacturers of manual devices, and each of their devices meet the requirements for dew point measurement apparatus as defined in the ASTM Manual for Hydrocarbon Analysis. However, there are significant differences between the devices – including the optical resolution of the mirror and the method of mirror cooling – depending on the manufacturer. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81036",
"title": "Dishwasher",
"section": "Section::::Differences between dishwashers and hand washing.:Other materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Items contaminated by chemicals such as wax, cigarette ash, poisons, mineral oils, wet paints, oiled tools, furnace filters, etc. can contaminate a dishwasher, since the surfaces inside small water passages cannot be wiped clean as surfaces are in hand-washing, so contaminants remain to affect future loads. Objects contaminated by solvents may explode in a dishwasher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7309043",
"title": "Moisture analysis",
"section": "Section::::Techniques used for natural gas.:Chilled mirrors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Chilled mirror analyzers are subject to the confounding effects of some contaminants, however, usually no more so than other types of analyzers. With proper filtration and gas analysis preparation systems, other condensables such as heavy hydrocarbons, alcohol, and glycol need not impair the reliable function of these devices. It is also worth noting that in the case of natural gas, in which the afore mentioned contaminants are an issue, on-line analyzers routinely measure the water dew point at line pressure, which reduces the likelihood that any heavy hydrocarbons, for example, will condense before water. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "302776",
"title": "Float glass",
"section": "Section::::Manufacture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Once off the bath, the glass sheet passes through a lehr kiln for approximately 100 m, where it is cooled gradually so that it anneals without strain and does not crack from the temperature change. On exiting the \"cold end\" of the kiln, the glass is cut by machines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bi1cxp
|
During timeperiods with more oxygen in the atmosphere, did fires burn faster/hotter?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. And during periods with lower oxygen levels, fires burned more slowly or not at all. Some natural fuels will burn at high oxygen concentrations but not low. [This article](_URL_0_) examines these relationships. Wildfires may actually act to stabilize atmospheric oxygen levels. If the concentration increases, fires will burn faster and consume the excess. If the concentration decreases, fires slow down and consume less oxygen, allowing the concentration to rise again. Check out [this excellent paper(PDF)](_URL_1_) to learn more about this and other relationships between fire and climate, ecology, evolution, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. NASA experimented with 100% oxygen in space capsules, as to have to ship up less nitrogen, since sending things in orbit is extremely pricy. [They changed out of this amongst other reasons because a fire started in Apollo 1 which burnt out the entire cabin and overpressurised it within half a minute.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Absolutely - we actually have a ton of fossil evidence for fires during the Carboniferous era, when both biomass and atmospheric oxygen content were high. If you look at the coal deposits from that time, there's a high percentage of charcoal in it. Some of the evidence actually suggests that wildfires may have been a regular feature of Carboniferous forests.\n\nMeanwhile at the end of the Permian, we had a decrease in atmospheric oxygen which contributed to the \"coal gap\" along with the decreased biomass from the end-Permian extinction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Insects would also be much bigger with higher oxygen levels. I can't remember where I read this, but it's something to do with them not having lungs and 'breathing' through spiracles.\n\nI'll have a look and see what I can dig up.\n\n/edit the original article years ago mentioned spiders being bigger, but I can't find that exact article.\n\nHowever, [I have found](_URL_0_) that some species of spider do use book lungs and spiracles to breathe, so a higher oxygen content should lead to bigger spiders.\n\nI wouldn't like to see a predecessor of a huntsman.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As has been said, the answer is yes. An interesting corollary I haven’t seen mentioned yet, though, is that Earth is the only planetary body we know of on which fires are actually possible. Fire is a redox reaction, in which a reduced substrate (wood in the case of a forest fire) is oxidized by the oxygen in the atmosphere. The wild part is that only on Earth do reduced substrates and an oxidized atmosphere occur together, and it’s only because of life that they do here. Photosynthesis is responsible for nearly 100% of the oxygen that exists on Earth, and thus cyanobacteria, plants, and algae are the reason fire can occur on our planet.\n\nOther bodies can be either highly reduced or highly oxidized, but not both. Saturn’s moon Titan, for instance, is covered in oceans of liquid methane. This would be a dangerous occurrence on Earth, but there’s no oxidant available on Titan for the methane to react with, so it will never burn. Mars on the other hand has an oxidized surface, but no reduced substrates that could burn even exposed to oxygen.\n\nThe fact that fire can only occur on Earth because life has produced enough oxygen to change the composition of our entire atmosphere means that wildfires are a very good candidate biosignature if we can detect them on other worlds. We just don’t know of any way for them to occur on lifeless planets.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33503411",
"title": "Three-phase firing",
"section": "Section::::Firing.:Phase 1: Kindling (oxidising).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "It is not necessary but highly likely that this kindling phase took place in an oxidising atmosphere: an oxygen-rich fire is likely in any case, since it is much more effective in producing heat. Further, the fact that reducing fires are extremely smoky would probably have been considered as undesirable, and was thus limited to the relatively short 2nd phase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44503418",
"title": "Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event",
"section": "Section::::Chicxulub impact.:Effects of impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "If widespread fires occurred, they would have increased the content of the atmosphere and caused a temporary greenhouse effect once the dust clouds and aerosol settled, and, this would have exterminated the most vulnerable organisms that survived the period immediately after the impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "508455",
"title": "Oxygen therapy",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.:Fire risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "Highly concentrated sources of oxygen promote rapid combustion. Oxygen itself is not flammable, but the addition of concentrated oxygen to a fire greatly increases its intensity, and can aid the combustion of materials (such as metals) which are relatively inert under normal conditions. Fire and explosion hazards exist when concentrated oxidants and fuels are brought into close proximity; however, an ignition event, such as heat or a spark, is needed to trigger combustion. A well-known example of an accidental fire accelerated by pure oxygen occurred in the Apollo 1 spacecraft in January 1967 during a ground test; it killed all three astronauts. A similar accident killed Soviet cosmonaut Valentin Bondarenko in 1961.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2536187",
"title": "Alvarez hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Global firestorms may have resulted as incendiary fragments from the blast fell back to Earth. Analyses of fluid inclusions in ancient amber suggest that the oxygen content of the atmosphere was very high (30–35%) during the late Cretaceous. This high O level would have supported intense combustion. The level of atmospheric O plummeted in the early Paleogene Period. If widespread fires occurred, they would have increased the CO content of the atmosphere and caused a temporary greenhouse effect once the dust cloud settled, and this would have exterminated the most vulnerable survivors of the \"long winter\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12699214",
"title": "Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary",
"section": "Section::::Possible causes.:Alvarez impact hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "Global firestorms may have resulted as incendiary fragments from the blast fell back to Earth. Analyses of fluid inclusions in ancient amber suggest that the oxygen content of the atmosphere was very high (30–35%) during the late Cretaceous. This high level would have supported intense combustion. The level of atmospheric plummeted in the early Paleogene Period. If widespread fires occurred, they would have increased the content of the atmosphere and caused a temporary greenhouse effect once the dust cloud settled, and this would have exterminated the most vulnerable survivors of the \"long winter\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55453598",
"title": "Oxygen firebreak",
"section": "Section::::Home oxygen fires.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Oxygen is not flammable, but when it is present in increased concentrations it will enable fires to start much more easily. Once a fire has started, if supplemental oxygen is present it will burn more fiercely, based on the principle of the fire triangle. Materials that do not burn in ambient air may burn when there is a greater concentration of oxygen present than there is in air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5082226",
"title": "Hindenburg disaster",
"section": "Section::::Fire's initial fuel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Most current analyses of the fire assume ignition due to some form of electricity as the cause. However, there is still much controversy over whether the fabric skin of the airship, or the hydrogen used for buoyancy, was the initial fuel for the resulting fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9cyq38
|
How accurate is the information that Leif Erickson actually discovered North America?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi, not discouraging others from answering here, but you may be interested in a few earlier posts\n\n* /u/400-Rabbits in [Did Vikings ever make contact with North America before Christopher Columbus?](_URL_2_)\n\n* /u/textandtrowel in [What do we know about Vinland?](_URL_3_)\n\n* /u/A_Crazy_Canadian in [What information about Leif Ericsson can be verified as historically accurate?](_URL_4_)\n\nFor reference, L'Anse aux Meadows is a [Canadian National Historic Site](_URL_0_) and [Unesco World Heritage Site](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32760328",
"title": "North Ludlow Beamish",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "After quitting Hanover Beamish devoted much attention to Norse antiquities, and in 1841 published a summary of the researches of Professor Carl Christian Rafn, relative to the discovery of America by the Northmen in the tenth century. Although the fact had been notified as early as 1828 (in a letter in Niles' Register, Boston, U.S.), it was very little known. Beamish's modest volume not only popularised the discovery by epitomising the principal details in Rafn's great work \"Antiquitates Americanæ\" (Copenhagen, 1837), but it contains, in the shape of translations from the Sagas, one of the best summaries of Icelandic historical literature anywhere to be found within an equal space. Beamish, like his younger brother, Richard, who was at one time in the Grenadier guards, was a Fellow of the Royal Society and an associate of various learned bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10710167",
"title": "Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum",
"section": "Section::::Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Beyond this, it gives a description of the coast of Scandinavia and of the \"northern isles\" including Iceland, Greenland and notably (in chapter 39) Vinland (North America), being the oldest extant written record of the Norse discovery of North America. Adam of Bremen had been at the court of Danish king Sven Estridson and was informed about the Viking discoveries in the North Atlantic there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4522556",
"title": "Waldseemüller map",
"section": "Section::::Further reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "BULLET::::- Donald L. McGuirk, Jr. \"The Presumed North America on the Waldseemüller World Map (1507): A Theory of Its Discovery by Christopher Columbus\", \"Terrae Incognitae,\" Volume 46, Issue 2 (September 2014), pp. 86–102.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2069066",
"title": "Aaron Arrowsmith",
"section": "Section::::Maps published.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"A Map Exhibiting All the New Discoveries in the Interior Parts of North America\", 1 January 1795, with numerous other editions, most notably 1802, 1811, 1814, and 1818. The 1802 version of this map was studied closely by Meriwether Lewis prior to the Lewis and Clark Expedition and the 1811 edition was updated with the published information from that expedition in the 1814 edition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32545",
"title": "Vinland",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "In 1960, archaeological evidence of the only known Norse site in North America (outside Greenland) was found at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of the island of Newfoundland. Before the discovery of archaeological evidence, Vinland was known only from Old Norse sagas and medieval historiography. The 1960 discovery proved the pre-Columbian Norse exploration of mainland North America. L'Anse aux Meadows may correspond to the camp \"Straumfjörð\" mentioned in the \"Saga of Erik the Red\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146803",
"title": "Leif Erikson",
"section": "Section::::Discovering Vinland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "According to a literal interpretation of Einar Haugen's translation of the two sagas in the book \"Voyages to Vinland\", Leif was not the first European to discover America: he had heard the story of merchant Bjarni Herjólfsson who claimed to have sighted land to the west of Greenland after having been blown off course. Bjarni reportedly never made landfall there, however. Later, when travelling from Norway to Greenland, Leif was also blown off course, to a land that he did not expect to see, where he found \"self-sown wheat fields and grapevines\". He next rescued two men who were shipwrecked in this country and went back to Greenland (and Christianised the people there). Consequently, if this is to be trusted, Bjarni Herjólfsson was the first European to see America beyond Greenland, and the two unnamed shipwrecked men were the first people known to Europeans to have made landfall there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2584350",
"title": "Vinland sagas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "\"The Saga of Erik the Red\" and \"The Saga of the Greenlanders\" both contain different accounts of Norse voyages to Vinland. The name Vinland meaning \"Wineland,\" is attributed to the discovery of grapevines upon the arrival of Leif Eiriksson in North America. \"The Vinland Sagas\" represent the most complete information we have about the Norse exploration of the Americas although due to Iceland's oral tradition, they cannot be deemed completely historically accurate and include contradictory details. However, historians commonly believe these sources contain substantial evidence of Viking exploration of North America through the descriptions of topography, natural resources and native culture. In comparing the events of both books, a realistic timeline can be created.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
uih0q
|
why fat forms where it does
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm sorry if the answer is incorrect but my lecturer told me that it has to do with gender. \n\nMale: The stomach.\n\nFemale: Buttocks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3757348",
"title": "GLUT4",
"section": "Section::::Tissue distribution.:Adipose tissue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Adipose tissue, commonly known as fat, is a depository for energy in order to conserve metabolic homeostasis. As the body takes in energy in the form of glucose, some is expended, and the rest is stored as glycogen primarily in the liver, muscle cells, or fat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59881479",
"title": "Fat body",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "Fat body (\"Corpus adiposum\") is a loosely organized tissue or organ in some arthropods, composed primarily of storage cells and distributed throughout the animal's body. Its main functions are nutrient storage and conversion (intermediary metabolism), for which it is commonly compared to a combination of adipose tissue and liver in humans. However, it may also serve a variety of other roles, such as regulation of metabolism through hormone synthesis, systemic immunity, vitellogenesis, and housing of microbial symbionts. The fat body is of mesodermal origin and is normally composed of a network of thin sheets, ribbons or small nodules suspended in hemocoel by connective tissue and tracheae, so that most of its cells are in direct contact with hemolymph. It is closely associated with epidermis, digestive organs and ovaries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11042",
"title": "Fat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Fats are one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrates and proteins. Fat molecules consist of primarily carbon and hydrogen atoms and are therefore hydrophobic and are soluble in organic solvents and insoluble in water. Examples include cholesterol, phospholipids, and triglycerides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3888802",
"title": "Fat embolism syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Once fat particles enter the blood circulation, it can lodge at various sites of the body, most commonly in the lungs (up to 75% of the cases). However, it can also enter the brain, skin, eyes, kidneys, liver, and heart circulation, causing capillary damage, and subsequently organ damage in these areas. There are two theories that describes the formation of a fat embolus:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66575",
"title": "Nutrient",
"section": "Section::::Types of nutrients.:Macronutrients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "BULLET::::- Fats consist of a glycerin molecule with three fatty acids attached. Fatty acid molecules contain a -COOH group attached to unbranched hydrocarbon chains connected by single bonds alone (saturated fatty acids) or by both double and single bonds (unsaturated fatty acids). Fats are needed for construction and maintenance of cell membranes, to maintain a stable body temperature, and to sustain the health of skin and hair. Because the body does not manufacture certain fatty acids (termed essential fatty acids), they must be obtained through one's diet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "419094",
"title": "Adipose tissue",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1054,
"text": "In biology, adipose tissue, body fat, or simply fat is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. In addition to adipocytes, adipose tissue contains the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells including preadipocytes, fibroblasts, vascular endothelial cells and a variety of immune cells such as adipose tissue macrophages. Adipose tissue is derived from preadipocytes. Its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body. Far from being hormonally inert, adipose tissue has, in recent years, been recognized as a major endocrine organ, as it produces hormones such as leptin, estrogen, resistin, and cytokine (especially TNFα). The two types of adipose tissue are white adipose tissue (WAT), which stores energy, and brown adipose tissue (BAT), which generates body heat. The formation of adipose tissue appears to be controlled in part by the adipose gene. Adipose tissue – more specifically brown adipose tissue – was first identified by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner in 1551.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11042",
"title": "Fat",
"section": "Section::::Chemical structure.:Importance for living organisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "Fats are also sources of essential fatty acids, an important dietary requirement. They provide energy as noted above. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats. Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function. Fat also serves as a useful buffer against a host of diseases. When a particular substance, whether chemical or biotic, reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively dilute—or at least maintain equilibrium of—the offending substances by storing it in new fat tissue. This helps to protect vital organs, until such time as the offending substances can be metabolized or removed from the body by such means as excretion, urination, accidental or intentional bloodletting, sebum excretion, and hair growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3rwuzk
|
When (and why) did capital punishment start being carried out by lethal injection?
|
[
{
"answer": "The history of lethal injection is an interesting and *horrible* one. Lethal injection was first suggested as a procedure in 1888, by an American doctor, incidentally a year after the abolition of capital punishment in Maine. In some ways, lethal injection has always been a very American thing. At the time, victims were executed through hanging- and hanging is not nice. Whether it involves horrible damage to the neck and asphyxiation, whether it's public or private, hanging is frankly gruesome as hell. And although some society didn't mind- or even supported- that aspect of it, a subset certainly did, and tried to find less gruesome, more 'humane' methods, or at least more humane in their eyes, such as electrocution or, indeed, lethal injection.\n\nHowever, for a variety of reasons, this never went far. Lethal injection is and was expensive- especially compared to hanging. It was not necessarily less gruesome. It leant a more medical air to execution than some people would have liked. It was more personal, as someone would have been actively injecting the victim, which didn't allow the distance and removal from the death that hanging did, even for the hangman. It was an unattractive option for accountants and executioners alike.\n\nBut the medical air of lethal injection certainly appealed to some people. Nazi Germany dabbled with lethal injection as well. It was used in the murder of the severely disabled, including young children and babies, where the victims would be injected with a number of toxic substances, such as phenol. Originally this eugenics program killed infants, before expanding to include older children, teenagers and eventually adults. Parents at first did not understand what was going on- sending severely disabled children to institutions and asylums was the norm for Germany at the time, as parents often didn't have the ability or facilities to safely care for their children, and some also sent their children to asylums out of shame or embarrassment. They were told their children had died of natural diseases- influenza, pneumonia, heart conditions- and that was that. Eventually, some parents and communities realised what was happening, so many children dying, and began to refuse to send their children to institutions. But there was enormous pressure to do so, put on by the Nazi government, with parents threatened with their children being removed from their care, or the father being sent to the Eastern front, which was almost a death sentence at some points in the war. \n\nFrom 1939, Aktion T4, which was the planned, systematic murder of the mentally, intellectually and developmentally disabled, was expanded to adults, first those found in the Polish institutions being overrun by the SS, and then across Germany. The majority were shot or gassed, not killed through lethal injection as the children were.\n\nWhy was lethal injection the chosen method of murder, for children in particular? Lethal injection carried a reputation of being painless (it wasn't) and it made the procedure medical. A doctor, a paediatrician, who had spent his life working with and saving children, might have found it difficult to allow a child to be shot in the head. But it might have rested easier on their consciences if a child died from a Luminol overdose. It would have seemed less like killing, more like euthanasia, being medicalised, sanitary and 'civilised'. Indeed, for these reasons, lethal injection appealed to a number of people, not just in Germany or America, but also in the UK.\n\nIn the late 1940s, the British Royal Commission on Capital Punishment was considering the use of the lethal injection- it not having yet been used. The British Medical Association rejected the suggestion, on the grounds that it was cruel and certainly painful, but also because associating anything medical with death was going to be a big PR mistake. The BME did not want that medical air to be added to capital punishment, and the doctors who would administer the dosage would not have been keen- actively ending lives goes against most people's morals, and even if they support capital punishment, lethal injection confronts the executioner with the reality of the act in a way that hanging, gassing or firing squad doesn't allow, although more modern methods, through lethal injection machines, have removed this problem.\n\nLethal injection was only actually used in a democratic country, openly and legally (eg not Nazi Germany) in 1982, but was first suggested in 1977, a year after capital punishment was once more resumed in the US, and the same year an execution was actually carried out for the first time since the resumption, that of Gary Gilmore, executed by firing squad, in Utah, and ten years after the previous execution in America, in 1967, that of Luis Monge by gassing. In 1972, the use of capital punishment was ruled to be unconstitutional, due to it being considered a cruel and unusual punishment, and although it was reinstated in 1976, there was certainly a need for a method of execution which would *not* be seen as cruel or unusual, and lethal injection- passing away peacefully and painlessly whilst unconscious- was ideal. \n\nThe state medical examiner of Oklahoma, one Jay Chapman, who was also a doctor, suggested lethal injection as a form of execution, believing it would be less painful. His plans were approved by a leading anaesthesiologist, also of Oklahoma, named Stanley Deutsch, and the form of lethal injection was to involve a fast acting barbiturate and induced chemical paralysis. It was soon adopted into the Oklahoma state criminal system, and the supposed relative painlessness and the medicalised, scientific form of execution apparently appealed both to the general public- who could see themselves as supporting a clean, humane procedure, compared to a brutal, violent one such as hanging, electrocution or the gas chamber, which was used in American history, which could be associated with the Holocaust as well as having a reputation for causing suffering- as well as other state governments, being quickly adopted across the US.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "426702",
"title": "San Quentin State Prison",
"section": "Section::::Facilities.:Executions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "The methods for execution at San Quentin have changed over time. Prior to 1893, the counties executed convicts. Between 1893 and 1937, 215 people were executed at San Quentin by hanging, after which 196 prisoners died in the gas chamber. In 1995, the use of gas for execution was ruled \"cruel and unusual punishment\", which led to executions inside the gas chamber by lethal injection. Between 1996 and 2006, 11 people were executed at San Quentin by lethal injection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3235210",
"title": "Capital punishment in Texas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "In 1982, the state became the first jurisdiction in the world to carry out an execution by lethal injection, when it put to death Charles Brooks Jr.. It was the first execution in the state since 1964.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4125734",
"title": "Capital punishment in Sri Lanka",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "After independence, then Prime Minister S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike abolished capital punishment in 1956. However, it was quickly reintroduced after his assassination in 1959. Opposition to the death penalty started to become increasingly widespread and the United National Party government modified the use of it in its 1978 rewrite of the constitution. Under the new arrangement, death sentences could only be carried out if authorized by the trial judge, the Attorney General and the Minister of Justice. If there was no agreement, the sentence was to be commuted to life imprisonment. The sentence was also to be ratified by the President. This clause effectively ended executions. The last execution in Sri Lanka took place in 1976.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13778526",
"title": "Capital punishment in Bulgaria",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Capital punishment in Bulgaria was abolished on December 12, 1998 with the last execution having been carried out by firing squad on November 4, 1989. The Parliament of Bulgaria had introduced a moratorium on July 7, 1990 and protocol number six of the European Convention on Human Rights came into force on October 1, 1999.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3991330",
"title": "HM Prison Barlinnie",
"section": "Section::::History.:Capital punishment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "A total of 10 judicial executions by hanging took place at HMP Barlinnie between 1947 and 1960, replacing the gallows at Duke Street Prison before the final abolition of capital punishment in the United Kingdom for murder in 1969:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12656499",
"title": "Julius Mount Bleyer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Julius Mount Bleyer (16 March 1859 – 3 April 1915) was a New York doctor who specialized in laryngology who took a keen interest in medical jurisprudence. He studied the methods used for capital punishment and as a member of a commission, was among the first to propose lethal injections in 1888. He pointed out in \"The Medico-Legal Journal\", the problems with other methods of executing death sentences including decapitation and electrocution. Lethal injections were however not used until the late 1970s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "413906",
"title": "Capital punishment in Maryland",
"section": "Section::::Recent history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "In 1994, the method was changed to lethal injection for persons convicted after March 25, 1994. For persons sentenced before 25 March 1994, the condemned is given the choice between lethal injection and gas inhalation. John Thanos was put to death using lethal injection on 16 May 1994. This was the first execution in Maryland in over 30 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
smm23
|
What are the differences in the metabolisms of someone who can't get fat and someone who gains weight easily?
|
[
{
"answer": "While this doesn't quite answer your question, perhaps it will give you some information that is part of the answer. \n\nHuman microbiota (all the microbes in and on you) work has exploded in the last 10 years. One huge piece of research to come out of this is that [lean people and obese](_URL_0_) people harbor different profiles of bacteria (and different bacterial genes) in their gut. They took identical and non-identical twins, and their mothers, compared who was lean or obese, what microbes they had in their gut, and what the gene content of those microbes was. The idea of looking at twins is then you can control for the gene content of the host. What they found in short is that obese people had less diversity of bacteria (and their genes) in their gut along with a different assortment of bacteria. Some thoughts for why this might be is that the obese profile helps the host get more energy from their food.\n\nHowever, at this point, it's kind of a chicken/egg discussion. We know what an obese microbiota looks like. Do people get inoculated with an obese microbiota and then become obese because of it? This could explain why we see obesity in families. Or is there something that individuals do that shift their microbiota towards that of an obese one, and it \"helps\" them become obese? \n\nI'm going to speculate now based on what I've read, and the people I've talked to about this (I've actually met and had a conversation with the lead author on that paper I linked to). I think this all might actually be a combination of things. Perhaps mom eats in a way that not only encourages weight gain, but also encourages an obese microbiota. She gets stuck in a cycle where her microbiota requires more food, so she eats more, maintaining her obesity. She then inoculates her kids with that profile, while maintaining the necessary external things that support their obese profile and that keeps them obese. And you can look at it from the flip side, lean people doing the things that maintain a lean profile AND inoculating their kids with it AND teaching them the habits that maintain that leanness. I have to wonder if part of the difficulty for some in losing weight isn't totally that it's \"hard\" to lose weight, but that it's hard to shift your microbiota back to that of a lean person.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Slightly off-topic to the OP's question, but i have a tangential question;\nDoes anyone know if the amount you defecate has anything to do with weight gain? I realize that's a... strange question, but is a lean person lean because they \"lose\" more food than an obese person or is it unrelated?\nThanks!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "we do not currently understand what's going on in those fecal transplant cases (microbiota). One thing we do know a bit (of molecular detail) about is leptin.\n\nFor the extra-lay person: leptin is produced by fat cells and is kind of like insulin - just as obese people can develop diabetes they can develop leptin resistance so their brain/body doesn't 'know' that they have enough fat.\n\nFor the interested and less-lay person:\nThis guy discovered leptin was the peptide hormone that was responsible for a genetic line of mice that were always much much larger than 'normal.\nLeptin is released by fat cells (more fat cells = more leptin) and influences how much food animals eat per day. \n_URL_1_\n\nalso: picture of a leptin deficient mouse with a 'normal' littermate\n_URL_0_\n\nleptin has also been shown (Domingos et al 2010 also from Friedman lab) to change the perceived value of sucrose (sugar) using Optogenetics. Basically, optogenetics is where you can activate specific types of neurons with light because you make (in this case) mice that express a receptor (Channel Rhodopsin 2) that responds to a band of wavelengths of light. You then surgically implant a fiber optic cable that you control externally so you can turn the light on and off, which basically turns the cells on and off. Domingos et al used optogenetics to activate DA neurons (dopaminergic neurons) in the midbrain/hypothalamus which most would agree triggers a \"reward\" feeling (similar to endorphins or happiness, etc.) A mouse that has been starved will choose sugar water over water plus this \"reward\" (aka when the mouse licks the water dispenser, they turn on the light, so the neurons that control a good feeling/reward fire, and the mouse likes it) AND the mouse will choose sugar water over the reward + 'artificial' sugar (sucralose- low/no nutritional value). LEPTIN reverses this decision - so hungry animals (starved 24hrs) will significantly choose the reward + fake sugar over high concentrations of real sugar because their body thinks they have enough fat (remember, fat cells release leptin, so adding leptin means the animal's body thinks it has enough calories). \n\nHOWEVER: (I couldn't find a source for this, so don't 100% trust) 10% of the population have leptin problems- there are other parts of this pathway (like ghrelin, or the neurons themselves, reward pathways, depression, etc.) that play into such a complex phenomena as obesity\nfinally: leptin deficient mice:",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People vary in their response to overfeeding: _URL_0_\n\nIn this twin study, the subjects were overfed by 1000 calories/day, but their weight gain varied from 4.3kg to 13.3kg. The discrepancy appeared to be caused by genetic factors. A person who gained the least weight probably had a large increase in their metabolic rate, fidgeted more, and stored more of the excess energy as lean tissue rather than fat. A person who gained the most weight probably had only small increases in metabolic rate and stored most of the excess energy as fat.\n\nIn the real world, where it's easy to overshoot your daily calorie needs by a few hundred, having certain genetic factors would probably be of value in protecting you against weight gain.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Based upon the latest clinical research, differences in metabolism seem largely environmental as opposed to genetic. Genetics are estimated to only account for about 5% of obesity. Once you are overweight however, it really throws your GI hormones out of wack, making it more difficult to keep off the pounds.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I haven't seen this mentioned, but [Gary Taubes](_URL_0_) has written about the idea that it's the types of foods consumed that makes a difference. He pulls up a lot of research to indicate that (simply put) processed carbohydrates spike your hormones (mainly insulin) into storing more fat, as opposed to burning it for energy. I *think* he may also have written that some people may be more genetically disposed to doing so according to what they happen to be eating. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8581665",
"title": "Spot reduction",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "All body shapes are different, meaning, people carry fat in different places. Some locations on the body are more metabolically active than others, and those areas will lose weight quicker than those that are not as metabolically active. For many people, abdominal fat is more metabolically active, and can be reduced easier than fat in the lower regions of the body. The reduction of these metabolically active sites are not due to an increase in abdominal muscle contractions. While exercising, fatty acids are being mobilized due to the presence of hormones and enzymes. These create a negative energy balance in the body. Fat is reduced over the whole body. Exercise of certain muscles cannot signal a specific release of fatty acids for the specific fat deposits above those muscles being activated. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "459560",
"title": "Low-carbohydrate diet",
"section": "Section::::Health aspects.:Body weight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Studies have shown that people losing weight with a low-carbohydrate diet, compared to a low-fat diet, have very slightly more weight loss initially, equivalent to approximately 100kcal/day, but that the advantage diminishes over time and is ultimately insignificant. The Endocrine Society state that \"when calorie intake is held constant [...] body-fat accumulation does not appear to be affected by even very pronounced changes in the amount of fat vs carbohydrate in the diet.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6319249",
"title": "Health at Every Size",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Evidence to support the view that some obese people eat little yet gain weight due to a slow metabolism is limited; on average, obese people have a greater energy expenditure than their healthy-weight counterparts due to the energy required to maintain an increased body mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "321956",
"title": "List of common misconceptions",
"section": "Section::::Science and technology.:Human body and health.:Nutrition, food, and drink.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 194,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 194,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "BULLET::::- There is no evidence that obesity is related to slower resting metabolism. Resting metabolic rate does not vary much between people. Weight gain and loss are directly attributable to diet and activity. Overweight people tend to underestimate the amount of food they eat, and underweight people tend to overestimate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26398232",
"title": "Android fat distribution",
"section": "Section::::Health Consequences.:Psychological consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Body fat can impact on an individual mentally, for example high levels of android fat have been linked to poor mental wellbeing, including anxiety, depression and body confidence issues. On the reverse, psychological aspects can impact on body fat distribution too, for example women classed as being more extraverted tend to have less android body fat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1256165",
"title": "Calorie restriction",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Risks of malnutrition.:Lower-than-normal body mass index, high mortality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 894,
"text": "Caloric restriction diets typically lead to reduced body weight, yet reduced weight can come from other causes and is not in itself necessarily healthy. In some studies, low body weight has been associated with increased mortality, particularly in late middle-aged or elderly subjects. Low body weight in the elderly can be caused by pathological conditions associated with aging and predisposing to higher mortality (such as cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder, or depression) or of the cachexia (wasting syndrome) and sarcopenia (loss of muscle mass, structure, and function). One study linked a body mass index lower than 18 in women with increased mortality from noncancer, non−cardiovascular disease causes. The authors attempted to adjust for confounding factors (cigarette smoking, failure to exclude pre-existing disease); others argued that the adjustments were inadequate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1149933",
"title": "Weight gain",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "In regard to adipose tissue increases, a person generally gains weight by increasing food consumption, becoming physically inactive, or both. When energy intake exceeds energy expenditure (when the body is in positive energy balance), the body can store the excess energy as fat. However, the physiology of weight gain and loss is complex involving numerous hormones, body systems and environmental factors. Other factors beside energy balance that may contribute to gaining weight include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7pvdew
|
how does a build up of lactic acid in an athlete's muscles cause them to sometimes thow up
|
[
{
"answer": "Throwing up is one of a few things the body just defaults to when it senses something is geberally wrong. Better safe than sorry, maybe it's something you ate, let's throw up just to be sure. Makes sense from an evolutionary stand point.\n\nAlso, when so much lactic acid is built up, it'll sometimes end up in your actual stomach. This will irritate the stomach and throwing up gets rid of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19723734",
"title": "Muscle",
"section": "Section::::Exercise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 958,
"text": "The presence of lactic acid has an inhibitory effect on ATP generation within the muscle; though not producing fatigue, it can inhibit or even stop performance if the intracellular concentration becomes too high. However, long-term training causes neovascularization within the muscle, increasing the ability to move waste products out of the muscles and maintain contraction. Once moved out of muscles with high concentrations within the sarcomere, lactic acid can be used by other muscles or body tissues as a source of energy, or transported to the liver where it is converted back to pyruvate. In addition to increasing the level of lactic acid, strenuous exercise causes the loss of potassium ions in muscle and causing an increase in potassium ion concentrations close to the muscle fibres, in the interstitium. Acidification by lactic acid may allow recovery of force so that acidosis may protect against fatigue rather than being a cause of fatigue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12219719",
"title": "Cellular waste product",
"section": "Section::::Secretion and effects of waste products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Lactic acid tends to accumulate in the muscles, which causes pain of the muscle and joint as well as fatigue. It also creates a gradient which induces water to flow out of cells and increases blood pressure. Research suggests that lactic acid may also play a role in lowering levels of potassium in the blood. It can also be converted back to pyruvate or converted back to glucose in the liver and fully metabolized by aerobic respiration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3266190",
"title": "Muscle weakness",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Lactic acid hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "It was once believed that lactic acid build-up was the cause of muscle fatigue. The assumption was lactic acid had a \"pickling\" effect on muscles, inhibiting their ability to contract. The impact of lactic acid on performance is now uncertain, it may assist or hinder muscle fatigue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "841074",
"title": "Muscle fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Metabolic fatigue.:Metabolites.:Lactic acid.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "It was once believed that lactic acid build-up was the cause of muscle fatigue. The assumption was lactic acid had a \"pickling\" effect on muscles, inhibiting their ability to contract. Though the impact of lactic acid on performance is now uncertain, it may assist or hinder muscle fatigue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14626122",
"title": "Lactate dehydrogenase",
"section": "Section::::Role in muscular fatigue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "The onset of acidosis during periods of intense exercise is commonly attributed to accumulation of lactic acid. From this reasoning, the idea of lactate production being a primary cause of muscle fatigue during exercise has been widely adopted. A closer, mechanistic analysis of lactate production under anaerobic conditions shows that there is no biochemical evidence for the production of lactate through LDH contributing to acidosis. While LDH activity is correlated to muscle fatigue, the production of lactate by means of the LDH complex works as a system to delay the onset of muscle fatigue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "249961",
"title": "Lactic acidosis",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Lactic acidosis is also a consequence of the processes causing \"rigor mortis\". In the absence of oxygen, tissue in the muscles of the deceased carry out anaerobic metabolism using muscle glycogen as the energy source, causing acidification. With depletion of muscle glycogen, the loss of ATP causes the muscles to grow stiff, as the actin-myosin bonds cannot be released. (Rigor is later resolved by enzymatic breakdown of the myofibers.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "249961",
"title": "Lactic acidosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Lactic acidosis is a medical condition characterized by the buildup of lactate (especially L-lactate) in the body, with formation of an excessively low pH in the bloodstream. It is a form of metabolic acidosis, in which excessive acid accumulates due to a problem with the body's oxidative metabolism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9rroux
|
is paying off a mortgage like paying rent?
|
[
{
"answer": "...Sort of? It is a regular bill which needs to be paid so it seems similar. However a major difference is that the money paid into the mortgage isn't really gone in the same way as rent. You are gaining equity or ownership of the property so when it is sold you get that money back. You can even sell before the mortgage is done and pocket the difference between the mortgage and sale price.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is like rent in that it's a monthly payment for housing, but you also pay toward owning the house outright, and have rights to all gains in home value.\n\nYour monthly mortgage payment includes principal (reduces loan, increases ownership), interest, and escrow funds (setting aside money monthly for annual property tax payments and home owners insurance). \n\nEventually, if you keep paying for 15-30 years, you'll pay off the mortgage entirely and own 100% of the house. You'd then just have to pay the taxes and insurance directly, but no mortgage.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "292133",
"title": "Fee",
"section": "Section::::Early termination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Some mortgage companies also charge early payment penalties if the homeowner pays more than is due in order to reduce the interest owed and to shorten the remaining term of the loan. The fees typically negate this advantage at least in part.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31232058",
"title": "Mortgage industry of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Mortgage types.:Together/Plus mortgages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "The mortgage part was typically on an interest only basis, while the unsecured loan was on a repayment basis. This meant that when making monthly payments, only the balance for the unsecured part would reduce. This arrangement often resulted in the borrowers becoming \"mortgage prisoners\" after the lenders stopped operating (for example Northern Rock), property prices were not rising and the customers were (or still are) unable to remortgage (due to the high loan to value) or sell their property. If they sold the property, the sale price would not cover the mortgage and the unsecured loan, so they would be left without a home and still carry some debt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23977635",
"title": "Strategic default",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "The borrower after deciding to not make payments any more can live free of the costs of payment or rent until the lender forecloses, which may take from several months to years. A borrower may use this time to extinguish or negotiate other debt. Mortgage lenders may negotiate with defaulting borrowers to assure maintenance and occupancy of the property until the lender can take title and market the house, and may provide the defaulting borrower with greater than the minimum legal notice to quit (which can be as little as three days) and may even agree to pay a fee to leave the home in pristine condition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3531662",
"title": "Affordable housing",
"section": "Section::::Housing expenditures.:Other housing expenditures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Costs are generally considered on a cash (not accrual) basis. Thus a person making the last payment on a large home mortgage might live in officially unaffordable housing one month, and very affordable housing the following month, when the mortgage is paid off. This distortion can be significant in areas where real estate costs are high, even if incomes are similarly high, because a high income allows a higher proportion of the income to be dedicated towards buying an expensive home without endangering the household's ability to buy food or other basic necessities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4202234",
"title": "Accounting for leases in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Accounting for leases under FAS 13/ASC 840.:Lessee Accounting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Under a capital lease, the lessee does not record rent as an expense. Instead, the rent is reclassified as interest and obligation payments, similarly to a mortgage (with the interest calculated each rental period on the outstanding obligation balance). At the same time, the asset is depreciated. If the lease has an ownership transfer or bargain purchase option, the depreciable life is the asset's economic life; otherwise, the depreciable life is the lease term. Over the life of the lease, the interest and depreciation combined will be equal to the rent payments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24680643",
"title": "Landlord–tenant law",
"section": "Section::::Tenant duties.:Duty to pay rent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "A tenant's duty to pay rent was traditionally thought of as an independent covenant, meaning that the tenant was required to pay rent regardless of whether the landlord fulfilled their duties of performance. Now the duty of a tenant to pay rent is considered to be a dependent covenant, and the tenant can be freed from the duty to pay rent if the landlord breaches the covenant of repair or warranty of habitability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "550190",
"title": "Apportionment",
"section": "Section::::Apportionment in respect of time.:Apportionment of rent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1104,
"text": "With regard to the former of these classes, it may be noticed that although apportioned rent becomes payable only when the whole rent is due, the landlord, in the case of the bankruptcy of an ordinary tenant, may prove for a proportionate part of the rent up to the date of the receiving order; and that a similar rule holds good in the winding up of a company; and further that the act of 1870 applies to the liability to pay, as well as to the right to receive, rent. Accordingly, where an assignment of a lease is made between two half-yearly rent-days, the assignee is not liable to pay the full amount of the half-year's rent falling due on the rent-day next after the date of the assignment, but only an apportioned part of that half-year's rent, computed from the last mentioned date. If you pay a ground rent on a leasehold property or a rentcharge on a freehold property that is also payable on other neighbouring properties, you can apply to the Department for Communities and Local Government for an ‘order of apportionment’ that legally separates your share of the ground rent or rentcharge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3bwkhy
|
why are veterans held in such high regard in america and why do some veterans walk around in uniform when not on duty?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because they fought for our country. They risked their lives for us. I think they deserve a little damn respect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2943008",
"title": "Social alienation",
"section": "Section::::Among returning war veterans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 1387,
"text": "Because of intense group solidarity and unique daily hardships brought by combat, many veterans feel alienated from citizens, family, and friends when they return. They often feel they have little in common with civilian peers; issues that concern friends and family seem trivial after combat. There is a clarity of focus and purpose that comes with war that few in civilian life will ever know. Afghanistan veteran Brendon O'Byrne says, \"We were really close. Physically and emotionally close. It's kind of terrifying being in such an emotionally safe environment and then suddenly be expelled into an alienated, fractured society.\" The challenges of re-entering a civilian life where few people have experienced combat may contribute to the sense of loneliness. As filmmaker and war correspondent Sebastian Junger says, \"They didn't want to go back because it was traumatic, but because it was a place where they understood what they were supposed to do. They understood who they were. They had a sense of purpose. They were necessary. All these things that young people strive for are answered in combat.\" Veterans often see their wartime experience as the most selfless and meaningful period of their lives. Some veterans have expressed the sentiment that \"even in the quiet moments, war is brighter, louder, brasher, more fun, more tragic, more wasteful. More. More of everything.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8665012",
"title": "Chicago race riot of 1919",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "In the postwar period, veterans of all groups were looking to re-enter the work force despite the post-war economic slump. Some whites resented African-American veterans. At the same time, African-American veterans exhibited greater militancy and pride as a result of having served to protect their country. They expected to be treated as full citizens after fighting for the nation. Meanwhile, younger black men rejected the deference or passivity traditional of the South and promoted armed self-defense and control of their neighborhoods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7433327",
"title": "Ukrainian Ground Forces",
"section": "Section::::Veterans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 180,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 180,
"end_character": 954,
"text": "Veteran groups are not as developed as in the United States which has numerous well known national organizations such as the Veterans of Foreign Wars. World War II veterans, and even persons who have lived through the war are generally treated with the highest respect. Other veterans are not as well known. Ukrainian veterans from the Soviet War of Afghanistan are strikingly similar to the Vietnam veterans of the United States, although the Soviet Union generally kept the public in the dark through the war, unlike in Vietnam, where coverage was very high. Afghanistan is often labeled as a mistake by the Soviet Union and its successor states, but the lack of media coverage, and the censorship through the war have ensured that many still remain unaware of their nation's involvement in the conflict. Despite Ukraine having the 3rd largest contingent of troops in Iraq in 2004, few also realize that their nation has many veterans of the Iraq war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "327806",
"title": "Veteran",
"section": "Section::::Veterans' experiences around the world.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "The most common usage is for former armed services personnel. A veteran is one who has served in the armed forces, especially one who has served in combat. The National Guard and Reserve is included. It is especially applied to those who served for an entire career, usually of 20 years or more, but may be applied for someone who has only served one tour of duty. A common misconception is that only those who have served in combat or those who have retired from active duty can be called military veterans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42799055",
"title": "Armed Forces of Ukraine",
"section": "Section::::Veterans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 157,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 157,
"end_character": 934,
"text": "Veteran groups are not as developed as in the United States which has numerous well known national organizations such as the Veterans of Foreign Wars. World War II veterans, and even persons who have lived through the war are generally treated with the highest respect. Other veterans are not as well known. Ukrainian veterans from the Soviet War of Afghanistan are strikingly similar to the Vietnam veterans of the United States. The Soviet Union generally kept the public in the dark through the war, unlike in Vietnam where coverage was very high, Afghanistan is often labeled as a mistake by the Soviet Union and its successor states, the lack of media coverage and censorship through the war also ensured that many still remain unaware of their nations involvement in the conflict. Despite Ukraine having the 3rd largest contingent of troops in Iraq in 2004, few also realize that their nation has many veterans of the Iraq war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1985956",
"title": "Veterans for America",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Veterans for America is \"an advocacy and humanitarian organization that works with its affiliate group, the Justice Project to engage the American public in support of policies addressing the needs of veterans, those currently in the armed services, and victims of war overseas, and to develop initiatives to make the world more secure.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "722328",
"title": "Police action",
"section": "Section::::Appropriate use of the term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Veterans often display a high degree of disdain for the term \"police action\", as it somehow implies that their sacrifices were not legitimate and perhaps also that they are not even veterans of a true \"war\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fn87e
|
How did kingdoms with two simultaneous kings come about and how did it work?
|
[
{
"answer": "On your tangent: \"state\" is just a generic (and somewhat ill-defined) word for a sovereign political entity, it doesn't imply anything about the form of government. Kingdoms are states.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Diarchy](_URL_1_), the rule of a single kingdom by 2 kings (or king equivalents) happens a number of times. \n\nAs you mentioned Sparta, which claims its kings were descended from two twins Eurysthenes and Procles descendants of Hercules. They could veto the others actions. \n\nSweden had a dual monarchy several times, the most recent being Phillip and Inge II around 1110. They were brothers one older and one younger who inherited the throne from their uncle. Inge II outlived his brother and it returned to a single monarchy. \n\nHaving brothers rule, or a father and son rule is not uncommon. The father/son model in particular is used to ensure succession. By promoting the son to king (or emperor) before the father dies it ensure that the transition goes smoothly. Rome did this with the Emperors quite often promoting sons or successors to Caesar (junior emperor) and even Augustus (full emperor) well before the elder ruler died.\n\nThe model of two rulers is also seen in situations where the ruler is not not quite a king. When the Romans expelled the kings they established the office of consul (some time later) to be the temporal power for the state. Fearing one man would be to powerful they elected two men with the power to veto each others actions. \n\nAnother interesting place that's not quite king is the rulers of Andorra. Currently it is jointly ruled by President of France and the Bishop of Urgell. The President inherits his power from the previous Kings of France, who came from the Kings of Navarre, who were the Counts of Foix. Back in 1278 the Counts of Foix and the Bishops of Urgell [agreed](_URL_0_) to jointly rule Andorra.\n\n",
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{
"answer": "William and Mary were crowned as coregents of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1689. Mary had the stronger claim to the crown, being a daughter of James II, but did not wish for her husband (and cousin) William to rank lower than her. \n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Peter the Great and Ivan V were co-tsars of Russia from 1682-1696. Ivan had the better claim, but had some severe disabilities.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44783747",
"title": "Sultanate of Gowa",
"section": "Section::::History.:Pre-Islamic Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "For years both kingdoms were involved in wars until the kingdom of Tallo was defeated. During the reign of King of Gowa X, \"I Manriwagau Daeng Bonto Karaeng Lakiung Tunipalangga Ulaweng\" (1512-1546), the two kingdoms were reunified to become twin kingdoms under a deal called \"Rua Kareng se're ata\" (\"dual kings, single people\" in Makassarese) and enforced with a binding treaty. Since then, when someone becomes a king of Tallo, he also becomes the king of Gowa. Many historians then simply call these \"Gowa-Tallo\" twin kingdoms as \"Makassar\" or just \"Gowa.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6786589",
"title": "National and regional identity in Spain",
"section": "Section::::Aspects of unity and diversity within Spain.:Historical.:\"Reconquista\": Rise of the Christian states.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "All these different kingdoms were ruled together, or separately in personal union, but maintained their particular ethnic differences, regardless of similarities through common origins or borrowed customs. These kingdoms sometimes collaborated when they fought against Al-Andalus and sometimes allied themselves with the Muslims against rival Christian neighbors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "726006",
"title": "Dual monarchy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Dual monarchy occurs when two separate kingdoms are ruled by the same monarch, follow the same foreign policy, exist in a customs union with each other and have a combined military but are otherwise self-governing. The term is typically used to refer to Austria-Hungary, a dual monarchy that existed from 1867 to 1918 that spanned across parts of Central and Eastern Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "316424",
"title": "Three Kingdoms of Korea",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The Three Kingdoms was founded after the fall of Wiman Joseon, and gradually conquered and absorbed various other small states and confederacies. After the fall of Gojoseon, the Han dynasty established four commanderies in present Liaoning. Three fell quickly to the Samhan, and the last was destroyed by Goguryeo in 313.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4079923",
"title": "Bharata Khanda",
"section": "Section::::The Kingdoms.:New kingdoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "New kingdoms were formed when a major clan produced more than one King in a generation. The Kuru (kingdom) clan of Kings was very successful in governing throughout North India with their numerous kingdoms, which were formed after each successive generation. Similarly, the Yadava clan of kings formed numerous kingdoms in Central India.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37018410",
"title": "Janapada",
"section": "Section::::Interactions between kingdoms.:New kingdoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "New kingdoms were formed when a major clan produced more than one King in a generation. The Kuru clan of Kings was very successful in governing throughout North India with their numerous kingdoms, which were formed after each successive generation. Similarly, the Yadava clan of kings formed numerous kingdoms in Central India.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2987",
"title": "Acts of Union 1707",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "The two countries had shared a monarch since the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when King James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne from his double first cousin twice removed, Queen Elizabeth I. Although described as a Union of Crowns, until 1707 there were in fact two separate Crowns resting on the same head (as opposed to the implied creation of a single Crown and a single Kingdom, exemplified by the later Kingdom of Great Britain). Prior to the Acts of Union there had been three previous attempts (in 1606, 1667, and 1689) to unite the two countries by Acts of Parliament, but it was not until the early 18th century that both political establishments came to support the idea, albeit for different reasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ysmzi
|
Could a planet theoretically exist which is much larger than earth but made of less dense materials and therefore still have earth gravity?
|
[
{
"answer": "Here is an easy way to estimate this sort of stuff without having to use calculator or even pen and paper:\n\nThe surface gravity is proportional to mass and inversely proportional to radius squared. Mass is proportional to r^3 * p where p is density.\n\nThis gives: surface gravity is proportional to radius multiplied by density. So, if you decrease the density two times, the radius has to increase two times to maintain same surface gravity. \n\nMore specifically, for your question: Earth's mean density is 5.52 gram per cubic centimetre. From the radial density profile:\n\n_URL_2_\n\nit appears that the core is too small and it's replacement would not make the dramatic difference you envision (half the radius means 1/8 the volume).\n\nIt is difficult to say anything about the density of a rocky planet made of a very light rock; one has to think of particular material with particular compressibility. The pressure in Earth core is on order of 300 gigapascal:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nCarbon (diamond) seems to have density of about 4.5 grams per cubic centimetre at this kind of pressure: \n\n_URL_1_\n\ngiving us the radius that is 5.52/4.5 = approximately 1.2 times the radius of Earth, with the surface area up to perhaps 1.5 times that of Earth. I am not sure about lighter minerals. I'm trying to look up lithium data. Albeit a planet made of lithium would seem somewhat implausible.\n\nedit: correction. Much of carbon in that planet would be under less pressure. So you might be able to get some 2x Earth surface area with a diamond planet.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Check out Uranus and Neptune, they have 14 and 17 times the mass of the earth respectively, yet only a gravity of 0.88 and 1.1 of earths surface gravity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The important thing to remember is that the force of gravity from an object is dependent mainly on two things; the mass of that object, and your distance from its center of gravity.\n\nSo, laying aside your requirement for solid ground for now, the simple answer is yes. We just have to have our hypothetical planet fulfill the following equation:\n\n-9.8m/s^2 (which is the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Earth) = -(M (the mass of the hypothetical planet) * G (the Gravitational Constant, or 6.674 x 10^-11 (m/kg)^2 ) / r^2\n\nThis simplifies to...\n\n9.8 = 0.00000000006674M / r^2\n\nor \n\nM / r^2 = 146838477674.6\n\nWhat this equation basically says is that, for a planet to have Earth gravity on the surface, its mass in kilograms must be around 150 billion times the square of its radius in meters.\n\nSo, say you wanted a private planet that had Earth gravity. Let's say you wanted the radius to be about 1km- or 1,000m. Let's plug that into the equation:\n\nM / ( 1000^2 ) = 146,838,477,674.6kg\n\nM / 1,000,000 = 146,838,477,674.6kg\n\nM = 146,838,477,674,600kg\n\nSo, for our private planet to sustain 1G at the surface, it'd need to have a mass of 146 trillion kg. Let's see how easy that is to attain.\n\nWe know that the planet has a radius of 1000m, so we can use that to figure out the planet's rough volume, using the equation for the volume of a sphere, which is:\n\nv = 4/3 * pi * r^3\n\nThe end result of that equation is a volume of about 4.189 billion cubic meters.\n\nWe can then take that volume, and plug in the mass we already figured out to find out how dense our microplanet needs to be.\n\nDensity = mass / volume\n\nDensity in this case = 1.468 x 10^14 kg / 4.189 x 10^9 m^3.\n\nDensity = 35,044 kg / m^3\n\nThat's *really dense*. To make it easier to calculate, we'll reduce it down into the simpler form of grams per cubic centimeter.\n\nAt 1,000,000 cubic centimeters per cubic meter, and 1,000 grams per kilogram, the density of our microplanet reduces down to a bit more than 35 grams per cubic centimeter. That's nearly twice as dense as solid gold. We don't even know of an element that can be that dense. The highest our charts go is around 22g/cm^3 .\n\nLet's be a bit more reasonable. Let's say we want a planet the size of the Moon that has Earth gravity on the surface.\n\nThe Moon has a radius of about 1737km, or 1737000m, so let's plug that into our equation:\n\nM / ( 1737000^2 ) = 146,838,477,674.6kg\n\nM / 3,017,169,000,000 = 146,838,477,674.6kg\n\nM = 443,036,502,846,995,207,400,000kg\n\nThat's over 443 thousand billion billion kilograms, but we'll just write it out as 4.43 x 10^23 kg.\n\nWe also need to figure out the volume of the Moon. It ends up being about 2.195 x 10^19 m^3 .\n\nPlug those together, and you get an overall density of 20.18g/cm^3 . still ridiculously high, but we know there are elements that exist that can give us that level of density.\n\nNow, earlier, you asked what the largest solid planet could be. For this, we'll need to rewrite our original equation, and put it in terms of one variable (the radius), and use a defined density. We'll go with diamond, because it's a very light, very durable solid, weighing in at just 3.515g/cm^3 .\n\nHere's our original equation:\n\nM / r^2 = 146838477674.6\n\nNow, we need to bring it all in terms of the radius, r. To do this, we can express the mass as a function of the planet's volume and density.\n\nM = 4/3 * pi * r^3 * density\n\nRefactoring diamond's density, it ends up being 3515 kg/m^3, so we can go ahead and plug that, along with the 4/3 and pi, into the equation.\n\nM = 14723.6 * r^3\n\nSo, we now have M in terms of r, so we can slot that value back into the equation:\n\n14723.6r^3 / r^2 = 146838477674.6\n\nWe can factor out the r^2 from the denominator right off, because we have the r^3 in the numerator. That leaves us with this:\n\n14723.6r = 146838477674.6\n\nThen, we divide:\n\nr = 9,973,001m\n\nSo, our hypothetical diamond planet has a radius of 9,973km- a bit more than half again as great as Earth's.\n\nNow, suppose that we're willing to give up a solid surface, and just have an ocean planet, made entirely of water. Do the math, and we have a planet that's got a radius of 35,000km.\n\nYou can also figure it out for more exotic materials, like aerogels, but I'm not going to go into that here.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wouldn't a less dense material typically be crushed inwards anyway?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Keep in mind that density isn't a constant. If it were you could maybe make up for a heavy planet by just being large enough to counteract the force of gravity somewhat. However, that doesn't work. With planet sized masses solid matter in the interior is compressed and density increases. The inner core of Earth is made of Nickel and Iron, but it is compressed by the weight of the Earth so that it's density is higher than that of uncompressed Lead.\n\nPotentially you could have a very Iron poor planet that was made up almost exclusively of silicates, and thus could be physically larger than Earth with lower surface gravity. But there are limits to that game, eventually you're going to end up compressing the inner core enough to raise the overall density.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1072751",
"title": "Circumstellar habitable zone",
"section": "Section::::Extrasolar discoveries.:Near Earth-sized planets and Solar analogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "Recent discoveries have uncovered planets that are thought to be similar in size or mass to Earth. \"Earth-sized\" ranges are typically defined by mass. The lower range used in many definitions of the super-Earth class is 1.9 Earth masses; likewise, sub-Earths range up to the size of Venus (~0.815 Earth masses). An upper limit of 1.5 Earth radii is also considered, given that above the average planet density rapidly decreases with increasing radius, indicating these planets have a large fraction of volatiles by volume overlying a rocky core. A truly Earth-like planet, an Earth analog or \"Earth twin\", would need to meet many conditions beyond size and mass; such properties are not observable using current technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6767264",
"title": "Mu Arae c",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Assuming its true mass is comparable to those of Neptune and Gliese 436 b, 14 Earth masses is theoretically the maximum size for a terrestrial planet. A rocky planet this size could certainly have formed, since Mu Arae has a higher metallicity than our Sun. Also, it is thought to have formed well inside the system's \"snow line\" at 3.2 AU. However, various models of the system's formation have since converged that the planet attracted large amounts of volatiles before its star had cleared out the ice, and that it now has a core of only 6 Earth masses. Its core is likely enveloped in so much hot-ice and gas that the planet would behave more like Neptune.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39150591",
"title": "Kepler-62f",
"section": "Section::::Habitability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "Given the planet's age (7 ± 4 billion years), irradiance (0.41 ± 0.05 times Earth's) and radius (1.41 ± 0.07 times Earth's), a rocky (silicate-iron) composition with the addition of a possibly substantial amount of water is considered plausible. A modeling study indicates it is likely that a great majority of planets in its size range are completely covered by ocean. If its density is the same as Earth's, its mass would be 1.41 or 2.80 times Earth's. The planet has the potential for hosting a moon according to a study of tidal effects on potentially habitable planets. The planet may be the only habitable-zone candidate which would avoid desiccation by irradiation from the host star at its current location.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47695176",
"title": "Superhabitable planet",
"section": "Section::::Abundance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Another point favoring the predominance of superhabitable planets in regard to Earth analogs is that, unlike the latter, most of the requirements of a superhabitable world can occur spontaneously and jointly simply by having a higher mass. A planetary body close to 2 or 3M should have longer-lasting plate tectonics and also will have a larger surface area in comparison to Earth. Similarly, it is likely that its oceans are shallower by the effect of gravity on the planet's crust, its gravitational field more intense and, a denser atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47695176",
"title": "Superhabitable planet",
"section": "Section::::General characteristics.:Surface, size and composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1116,
"text": "Some studies indicate that there is a natural limit, set at 1.6R, below which nearly all planets are terrestrial, composed primarily of rock-iron-water mixtures. Generally, objects with a mass below 6 M are very likely to be of similar composition as Earth. Above this limit, the density of the planets decreases with increasing size, the planet will become a \"water world\" and finally a gas giant. In addition, most super-Earths' high mass may cause them to lack plate tectonics. Thus, it is expected that any exoplanet similar to Earth's density and with a radius under 1.6 R may be suitable for life. However, other studies indicate that water worlds represent a transitional stage between mini-Neptunes and the terrestrial planets, especially if they belong to red dwarfs or K dwarfs. Although water planets may be habitable, the average depth of the water and the absence of land area would not make them superhabitable as defined by Heller and Armstrong. From a geological perspective, the optimal mass of a planet is about 2 M, so it must have a radius that keeps the density of the Earth among 1.2 and 1.3R.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24479046",
"title": "Planetary mass",
"section": "Section::::Planetary mass and planet formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "The smaller planets retain only silicates, and are terrestrial planets like Earth or Mars, though multiple-\"M\" super-Earths have been discovered. The interior structure of rocky planets is mass-dependent: for example, plate tectonics may require a minimum mass to generate sufficient temperatures and pressures for it to occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24479046",
"title": "Planetary mass",
"section": "Section::::Planetary mass and planet formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "A dwarf planet, by definition, is not massive enough to have gravitationally cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals: it is not known quite how large a planet must be before it can effectively clear its neighbourhood, but one tenth of the Earth's mass is certainly sufficient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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