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2fvdp5
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What did the public think of Castrati? How was life for them past their singing age? Did the public accept/approve the castration for music practice?
|
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"answer": "This forum has a resident castrati expert, hopefully he sees it and answers the question. They are a fascinating subject. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nThis is your man with the answers.",
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"answer": "Oooh one in my subject area!! Best mark this in my diary, this only happens twice a year or so. :) Can I ask what made you think of the castrati? \n\nIt’s a little hard to say what “people” thought of them, because the castrati kinda got around! Castrati went to work in England, France, Spain, most German courts, and even Russia! So in many places where they travelled they were not just castrati, but also representatives of Italy, Catholics, and the entire noble beast that is Italian music. So sometimes attitudes about the castrati overlapped pretty heavily with attitudes about these other things. I’ll talk about their home country Italy, although I can answer for the other European cultures if you’re curious. \n\nFor the basic concept of what gender they were, most of Europe was still on a humoral (the four humors, think of medical bleeding!) understanding of medicine, and part of that was the one-sex model, which had men and women on sort of a sliding scale between masculine and feminine. Children were one sort of blank gender, and during puberty a boy got a burst of “vital heat” that made him into a man, women did not. On this model castrati are best understood as sort of permanent boys. They wouldn’t have been thought of in any way close to our various understandings of trans* people, intersex people, etc. today. This permanent boyishness also made them something like an idealized sexual object, both for men and women. You can see this echoed in opera to some extent - castrati always played the lovers, until the takeover of the tenor. \n\nThey were a socially marginalized people, because they were denied the basic human right of marriage. However, inside of Italy there was a fair amount of celibate (meaning unmarried, not necessarily sexually inactive) people in society, such as nuns, monks, priests, etc, so while they were denied marriage by the Catholic church, they weren’t too unusual there, lots of people in society had roles that denied marriage. Outside of Italy, especially in places where there wasn’t as much social celibacy, you’ll sometimes see castrati who got married, usually in Germany, as the Lutherans didn’t have any big problem with them getting married. There was a guy named Filippo Finazzi who pretty much “went native” in Germany, converted to Lutheranism, and married the widow of a blacksmith in 1765. \n\nIn general terms though, the castrati were generally considered a normal subset of professional musician and accepted as such, but also they were objects of pity or scorn, often they were subjected to rather crude “farmyard” jokes (ask me how I know all the words for castrated animals! capon, barrow, ox, etc.), sometimes treated as a threat to the masculinity of those around them, sometimes considered as a threat to the virtue of women as they were offering risk-free sex, often they were considered overpaid whiny children, and sometimes they were well-respected wealthy professionals. Some castrati were nice, some were douchy, and most just wanted to make a living. \n\nLife after their singing age was actually pretty good for them. Castrati had pretty long-lasting voices in general, and they usually didn’t retire until at earliest their 50s, usually they could sing into their 60s. If you know modern opera voices this isn’t too unusual, most opera singers don’t hit their vocal peak until their late 30s or early 40s, and they can usually go on working into their 50s-60s if they wish. After this point your successful castrato might have enough money just to retire entirely, but some also would teach singing or stay active in music this way. One other interesting example of their post musical life would be the small corps of castrati who worked at the French royal chapel in the 1700s. The French didn’t have a place for castrati really, they weren’t acceptable in opera, and no one else had them on staff, there was only this small bunch of them in all of France. These men sort of lived in a commune, they had a shared house and left all their money to each other when they died.\n\nThere’s a good argument that Italian society’s acceptance of castration was high in the 1600s and dropped off after maybe 1700. In the 1600s you can find pretty hum-drum matter-of-fact records of castration, for example a contract between parent and teacher specifying the teacher has permission to castrate the boy if he thinks it appropriate and will pay for the procedure, petitions from boys (or someone writing for the boy) requesting a local lord sponsor him and pay for his castration, records in court accounting books of paying for castrations, etc. After 1700 you don’t find so many of these records, and most men after this period also have a little tale or excuse for their castration, a “childhood accident” of some vague sort. (There are exceptions, Caffarelli told no tales about his castration, and in his grandmother’s will there’s the very plain language that she bequeaths to him “a wallet with greatly fitting music, for which Cajetanus is said to have a great inclination, and a desire to be castrated and become a eunuch” and also the income from a vineyard to pursue music. He was castrated some time after this document, maybe 1722. Caffarelli was an odd duck though.) By the 1800s castration had completely soured in public opinion, and very few castrati were made after the turn of the century, the last known musical castration around 1865.\n\nLet me know if you have any other questions! :) ",
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"wikipedia_id": "34307928",
"title": "Voice change",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
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"text": "Historically, a strategy for avoiding the shift altogether was castration. \"Castrati\" are first documented in Italian church records from the 1550s. Mozart's \"Exultate Jubilate\", Allegri's \"Miserere\" and parts of Handel's \"Messiah\" were written for this voice, whose distinctive timbre was widely exploited in Baroque opera. In 1861 the practice of castration became illegal in Italy, and in 1878 Pope Leo XIII prohibited the hiring of new castrati by the church. The last \"castrato\" was Alessandro Moreschi (1858–1922) who served in the Sistine Chapel Choir.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "5742",
"title": "Castrato",
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"text": "Castrati were rarely referred to as such: in the 18th century, the euphemism \"musico\" (pl \"musici\") was much more generally used, although it usually carried derogatory implications; another synonym was \"evirato,\" literally meaning \"emasculated\". Eunuch is a more general term since, historically, many eunuchs were castrated after puberty and thus the castration had no impact on their voices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "28675909",
"title": "Giusto Fernando Tenducci",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
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"text": "Born in Siena in about 1736, Tenducci became a castrato, and he was trained at the Naples Conservatory. Castration was illegal in both Church and civil law, but the Roman Church employed castrati in many churches and in the Vatican until about 1902; and throughout the 17th and 18th centuries the public paid large sums of money to listen to the spectacular voices of castrati in the opera houses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "5742",
"title": "Castrato",
"section": "Section::::Opera.\n",
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"text": "In the 1720s and 1730s, at the height of the craze for these voices, it has been estimated that upwards of 4,000 boys were castrated annually in the service of art. Many came from poor homes and were castrated by their parents in the hope that their child might be successful and lift them from poverty (this was the case with Senesino). There are, though, records of some young boys asking to be operated on to preserve their voices (e.g. Caffarelli, who was from a wealthy family: his grandmother gave him the income from two vineyards to pay for his studies). Caffarelli was also typical of many castrati in being famous for tantrums on and off-stage, and for amorous adventures with noble ladies. Some, as described by Casanova, preferred gentlemen (noble or otherwise). Only a small percentage of boys castrated to preserve their voices had successful careers on the operatic stage; the better \"also-rans\" sang in cathedral or church choirs, but because of their marked appearance and the ban on their marrying, there was little room for them in society outside a musical context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "68555",
"title": "Eunuch",
"section": "Section::::Castrato singers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
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"text": "As women were sometimes forbidden to sing in Church, their place was taken by castrati. The practice, known as \"castratism\", remained popular until the 18th century and was known into the 19th century. The last famous Italian castrato, Giovanni Velluti, died in 1861. The sole existing sound recording of a castrato singer documents the voice of Alessandro Moreschi, the last eunuch in the Sistine Chapel choir, who died in 1922.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "5742",
"title": "Castrato",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
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"text": "Castration as a means of subjugation, enslavement or other punishment has a very long history, dating back to ancient Sumer. In a Western context, eunuch singers are known to have existed from the early Byzantine Empire. In Constantinople around 400 AD, the empress Aelia Eudoxia had a eunuch choir-master, Brison, who may have established the use of castrati in Byzantine choirs, though whether Brison himself was a singer and whether he had colleagues who were eunuch singers is not certain. By the 9th century, eunuch singers were well-known (not least in the choir of Hagia Sophia) and remained so until the sack of Constantinople by the Western forces of the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Their fate from then until their reappearance in Italy more than three hundred years later is not clear. It seems likely that the Spanish tradition of soprano falsettists may have hidden castrati. Much of Spain was under Muslim rulers during the Middle Ages, and castration had a history going back to the ancient Near East. Stereotypically, eunuchs served as harem guards, but they were also valued as high-level political appointees since they could not start a dynasty which would threaten the ruler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58108745",
"title": "Royal Patriarchal Music Seminary of Lisbon",
"section": "Section::::Teaching environment.:Training of castrati.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
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"text": "Some castrati went on to successful careers as singers, teachers and composers. But disaster also awaited others: as Fernandes says, \"In the margin of the \"Book of Admissions\" it was noted that [one applicant] \"went to the sacristy, knew music and accompaniment,\" but should not participate in \"singing for being out of tune.\"\n",
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"meta": null
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g3vpg8
|
why does our teeth not erode away when we are brushing our teeth (and using them in other ways) every single day?
|
[
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"answer": "If the tooth enamel is only gently weakened it can regenerate. Toothpaste is specifically made to help your teeth do this regeneration. If you significantly damage your tooth enamel it is gone forever and your tooth underneath will likely begin to rot.",
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"wikipedia_id": "9812712",
"title": "Tooth brushing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "Brushing teeth properly helps prevent cavities, and periodontal, or gum disease, which causes at least one-third of adult tooth loss. If teeth are not brushed correctly and frequently, it could lead to the calcification of saliva minerals, forming tartar. Tartar hardens (then referred to as 'calculus') if not removed every 24 hours. Poor dental health has been associated with heart disease and shortened life expectancy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14449632",
"title": "Dental public health",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Daily brushing must include brushing of both the teeth and gums. Effective brushing itself, will prevent progression of both dental decay and gum diseases. Neutralising acids after eating and at least twice a day brushing with fluoridated toothpaste will assist preventing dental decay. Stimulating saliva flow assists in the remineralisation process of teeth, this can be done by chewing sugar free gum. Using an interdental device once daily will assist prevention of gum diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14878724",
"title": "Oral hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Preventative care.:Tooth brushing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "Routine tooth brushing is the principal method of preventing many oral diseases, and perhaps the most important activity an individual can practice to reduce plaque buildup. Controlling plaque reduces the risk of the individual suffering from plaque-associated diseases such as gingivitis, periodontitis, and caries – the three most common oral diseases. The average brushing time for individuals is between 30 seconds and just over 60 seconds. Many oral health care professionals agree that tooth brushing should be done for a minimum of two minutes, and be practiced at least twice a day. Brushing for at least two minutes per session is optimal for preventing the most common oral diseases, and removes considerably more plaque than brushing for only 45 seconds\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147728",
"title": "Toothbrush",
"section": "Section::::Adversity of toothbrushes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "It is beneficial, when using a straight bristled brush, not to scrub horizontally over the necks of teeth, not to press the brush too hard against the teeth, to choose a toothpaste that is not too abrasive, and to wait at least 30 minutes after consumption of acidic food or drinks before brushing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "1915056",
"title": "Abrasion (dental)",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Tooth brushing is the most common cause of dental abrasion, which is found to develop along the gingival margin, due to vigorous brushing in this area. The type of toothbrush, the technique used and the force applied when brushing can influence the occurrence and severity of resulting abrasion. Further, brushing for extended periods of time (exceeding 2-3 min) in some cases, when combined with medium/hard bristled toothbrushes can cause abrasive lesions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "9812712",
"title": "Tooth brushing",
"section": "Section::::Toothbrushing guidelines.:Proper technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
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"text": "The front and backs of teeth should be brushed with the toothbrush at a 45 degree angle towards the gum line, moving the brush in a back and forth rolling motion that makes contact with the gum line and tooth. To brush the backs of the front teeth the brush should be held vertically to the tooth and moved in an up and down motion. The chewing surfaces of the teeth are brushed with a forward and back motion, with the toothbrush pointing straight at the tooth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147020",
"title": "Hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Personal hygiene.:Oral hygiene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "There are a number of common oral hygiene misconceptions. It is not correct to rinse the mouth with water after brushing. It is also not recommended to brush immediately after drinking acidic substances, including sparkling water. It is also recommended to floss once a day, with a different piece of floss at each flossing session. The Effectiveness of Tooth Mousse is in debate. Visits to a dentist for a checkup every year at least are recommended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
amhg3w
|
what's the significance of the queen's guard's hats? bonus explanation: what purpose do they serve in a modern attack with glowing uniforms and massive heads?
|
[
{
"answer": "The queen's guard aren't commandos that get sent on covert Missions.\n\nThey're meant to stand out, and be a very visible show. They aren't just ceremonial, though. They're full trained soldiers in their own right on full guard duty.\n\nBut to do their job there is no need to hide or blend in. They want to be a very visible deterrent. ",
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"answer": "If i recall some info I learned correctly the style was adopted from napoleans soldiers to appear bigger and more intimidating as well. I'd assume that's what youd want from a royalty gaurd.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "52710787",
"title": "My Knight and Me",
"section": "Section::::Cast and Characters.:Recurring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
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"end_paragraph_id": 29,
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"text": "BULLET::::- Various as the Knights, several near-identical knights who serve as background characters and comedy relief. Their features are obscured by their helmets, while the Queen's personal guard wear sunglasses and headsets in parody of the Secret Service. It is not uncommon for them to appear in their undergarments-wife beaters and boxer shorts-as a gag.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "325008",
"title": "Civil Guard (Spain)",
"section": "Section::::Uniforms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 505,
"text": "The traditional headdress of the \"Guardia\" is the \"tricornio\" hat, originally a tricorne. Its use now is reserved for parades or ceremonies. For other occasions a cap, a beret or the characteristic \"gorra teresiana\" is worn. A wide range of clothing is worn according to the nature of the duties being performed. The historic blue, white and red uniform of the \"Guardia\" is now retained only for the Civil Guard Company of the Royal Guard and the \"gastadores\" (parade markers) of the Civil Guard Academy.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "148392",
"title": "Yeomen of the Guard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The Queen's Body Guard of the Yeomen of the Guard are a bodyguard of the British Monarch. The oldest British military corps still in existence, it was created by King Henry VII in 1485 at the Battle of Bosworth. As a token of this venerability, the Yeomen still wear red and gold uniforms of Tudor style. There are 60 Yeomen of the Guard (plus six officers), drawn from retired members of the British Army, Royal Marines and Royal Air Force, but traditionally not the Royal Navy. This ban on Royal Navy Personnel was lifted in 2011 and two sailors joined the ranks of the Yeomen of the Guard. However, the role of the Captain of the Queen's Body Guard of the Yeomen of the Guard is a political appointment — the captain is always the government Deputy Chief Whip in the House of Lords.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148392",
"title": "Yeomen of the Guard",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Today, the Yeomen of the Guard have a purely ceremonial role. Armed with a Wilkinson sword and an ornamental partizan, they accompany the sovereign and are in attendance at various occasions such as at the annual royal maundy service, investitures, garden parties at Buckingham Palace, and so on. One of their most famous duties is to 'ceremonially' search the cellars of the Palace of Westminster prior to the opening of parliament, a tradition that dates back to the Gunpowder Plot of 1605, when Guy Fawkes attempted to blow up Parliament. In modern times officers from the Metropolitan Police carry out a more sophisticated additional search.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38518576",
"title": "List of Power Rangers Megaforce characters",
"section": "Section::::Warstar Empire.:Armada.:Royal Guards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "The Royal Guards are red versions of the Bruisers that are always seen in pairs and are stronger than Bruisers. They are part of the elite squadron of warriors, serving as bodyguards to the royal family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8334145",
"title": "Saudi Royal Guard Regiment",
"section": "Section::::Uniforms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "The royal uniform of the Royal Guard consists of four models: the official form of the shirt, the dark green trousers, the green headgear, the green shirt, the green shirt, the dark green trousers, the green headgear, the combat model: the camouflage cap, Black hat and black hat for the unit and battalion of protection and promotion and the protection units close to the King and senior guests of kings and heads of state. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4953598",
"title": "Guard of honour",
"section": "Section::::Military.:Europe.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 272,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 272,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "The Queen's Guard is primarily made up of units from the Household Division for royal palaces and public monuments—namely Buckingham Palace, St James's Palace, Windsor Castle, and the Tower of London—and other units from all three services of the British Armed Forces filling in when not deployed; in Scotland, Holyrood Palace and Edinburgh Castle are usually the responsibility of Scottish regiments or units based in Edinburgh. Occasionally units from Commonwealth militaries are given the honour.\n",
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3jbmcg
|
Origins of Japanese and Korean, and why they sound similar?
|
[
{
"answer": "Korean and Japanese are both *language isolates*, that is, languages not provably related to any other language. Okay, recently a dialect of Japanese has been moved to related language, but so far there are no ties between Korean and Japanese. A proposed Altaic superfamily would still leave them less connected than Gaelic and Sanskrit.\n\nSo your mind is messing with you.\n\nWhat you may be hearing is a little sprachbund effect, where disparate languages approach each other because a lot of people use both. This usually shows up in vocabulary borrowing, so it shows how slight the sprachbund is in that you heard nothing reasonable.\n\nYou see, Korea was part of the Japanese Empire from the later 1890s, ending the Joseon Dynasty's rule, until the end of WWII. So they had half a century of Japanese influence, but of a hostile memory, so they may have purged any borrowings.",
"provenance": null
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"wikipedia_id": "824",
"title": "Altaic languages",
"section": "Section::::History of the Altaic family concept.:Korean and Japanese languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "In 2017 Martine Robbeets proposed that Japanese (and possibly Korean) originated as a hybrid language. She proposed that the ancestral home of the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages was somewhere in northwestern Manchuria. A group of those proto-Altaic (\"Transeurasian\") speakers would have migrated south into the modern Liaoning province, where they would have been mostly assimilated by an agricultural community with an Austronesian-like language. The fusion of the two languages would have resulted in proto-Japanese and proto-Korean.\n",
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"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "4629005",
"title": "Classification of the Japonic languages",
"section": "Section::::Possible external relations.:Altaic theory.:Robbeets (2017).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "According to Martine Robbeets (Robbeets et al. 2017) Japanese (and Korean) originated as a hybrid language, in the today Liaoning province, between an Austronesian-like language and Altaic (Transeurasian) elements. She suggests that proto-Japanese had an additional influence from Austronesian on the Japanese archipelago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "454015",
"title": "Urheimat",
"section": "Section::::Japonic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 515,
"text": "There are similarities between the Japanese language and the Korean language in lexicon and grammatical features, but there is dispute over whether these denote a common origin, or mere linguistic borrowing due to a sprachbund of neighboring languages that are adjacent to each other. Samuel E. Martin, Roy Andrew Miller, and Sergei Starostin are linguists who have argued that they have common origins. In contrast, Alexander Vovin has argued for a regional borrowing model to explain the linguistic similarities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "50782183",
"title": "Comparison of Japanese and Korean",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 775,
"text": "The geographically close Japanese and Korean languages share considerable similarity in typological features of their syntax and morphology while having a small number of lexical resemblances and different native scripts (although they both use the Chinese characters, called hanja in Korea and kanji in Japan; see \"Writing\" section). Observing the said similarities and probable history of Korean influence on Japanese culture, linguists have formulated different theories proposing a genetic relationship between them, though these studies either lack conclusive evidence or were subsets of theories that have suffered large discredit (like versions of the well-known Altaic hypothesis that mainly attempted to group the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic languages together).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50782183",
"title": "Comparison of Japanese and Korean",
"section": "Section::::Vocabulary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 487,
"text": "The two languages have previously been thought to not share any cognates (other than loanwords), for their vocabularies do not phonetically resemble each other. However, a recent 2016 paper proposing a common lineage between Korean and Japanese traces around 500 core words thought to share a common origin. Most resembling lexicon in the study has been observed between Middle Korean (15th century) and earlier Old Japanese (8th century), some of which is shown in the following table:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "824",
"title": "Altaic languages",
"section": "Section::::Hypothesis about the original homeland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "According to Juha Janhunen, the ancestral languages of Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese were spoken in a relatively small area comprising present-day North Korea, Southern Manchuria, and Southeastern Mongolia. However Janhunen is sceptical about an affiliation of Japanese to Altaic, while András Róna-Tas remarked that a relationship between Altaic and Japanese, if it ever existed, must be more remote than the relationship of any two of the Indo-European languages. Ramsey stated that \"the genetic relationship between Korean and Japanese, if it in fact exists, is probably more complex and distant than we can imagine on the basis of our present state of knowledge\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "60388230",
"title": "Outline of Korean language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "The Korean language is an East Asian language spoken by about 80 million people. It is a member of the Koreanic language family and is the official and national language of both Koreas: North Korea and South Korea, with different standardized official forms used in each country. It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture and Changbai Korean Autonomous County of Jilin province, China. Historical and modern linguists classify Korean as a language isolate; however, it does have a few extinct relatives, which together with Korean itself and the Jeju language (spoken in the Jeju Province and considered somewhat distinct) form the Koreanic language family. This implies that Korean is not an isolate, but a member of a micro-family. The idea that Korean belongs to the controversial Altaic language family is discredited in academic research. Korean is agglutinative in its morphology and SOV in its syntax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
hp1gn
|
Can you actually hear bullets whizzing past your head?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes you can. I've heard it.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was told by a Vietnam veteran that the whizzing sound is a misconception. He said it is more of a clapping sound when a bullet goes by you when your being shot at, due to the bullet breaking the sound barrier. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "737883",
"title": "Bullet bow shockwave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "A bullet bow shockwave will be heard by any witness as long as the bullet speed is faster than the speed of sound, whether the bullet was fired from a weapon giving off an openly audible muzzle blast, or a mechanically-suppress-fired muzzle (Suppressed weapon) blast. If a bullet is fired from a suppressed weapon, a witness can mistake the bullet bow audible shockwave whip-crack for the weapon muzzle blast audible wave, which is a separate audible event. It might be noted here that if one is involved in such an event, that the sound you hear from a suppressed weapon will not be from the point of origin. Most humans will perceive the sound as being omnidirectional or as emanating from the bullet as it passes by.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297595",
"title": "Absolute threshold of hearing",
"section": "Section::::Minimal audible field (MAF) vs minimal audible pressure (MAP).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "BULLET::::- physiological noises heard when ear is occluded by an earphone during minimal audible pressure measurements. When the ear is covered the subject hears body noises, such as heart beat, and these may have a masking effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3524059",
"title": "ABC (medicine)",
"section": "Section::::Breathing.:Conscious or breathing patients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "BULLET::::- Listening to external breath sounds a short distance from the patient can reveal dysfunction such as a rattling noise (indicative of secretions in the airway) or stridor (which indicates airway obstruction)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "538206",
"title": "Cartoon physics",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "BULLET::::- Psychic forces are sufficient in most bodies for a shock to propel them directly away from the surface. A spooky noise or an adversary's signature sound will introduce motion upward, usually to the cradle of a chandelier, a treetop or the crest of a flagpole. The feet of a running character or the wheels of a speeding auto need never touch the ground, ergo fleeing turns to flight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8894043",
"title": "The Age of Persuasion",
"section": "Section::::Running gags.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "BULLET::::- When Terry mentions an object with potentially injurious consequences, such as a Taser or a pneumatic nail gun, a sound effect of the device in action is played, followed by a man with a low-pitched voice quietly saying, \"Ow.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "737883",
"title": "Bullet bow shockwave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "The bullet bow shockwave is the result of air being greatly compressed at the front-most tip of the bullet as it slices through the air. As the bullet moves forward a broadening wave of compressed air trails out diagonally from the bullet tip. The sides of the bullet create a conical waveform. This conical waveform may be audible to a witness as a whip-crack sound. If the bullet passes close enough to a person (typically 2 feet), it can be felt against the skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2330675",
"title": "Dummy head recording",
"section": "Section::::Technical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "BULLET::::2. With percussive sounds, the impact can be noticed on the skin (usually torso). The strongest and earliest sensory stimulus comes from the skin regions which are aligned perpendicular to the sound source direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a6i477
|
How did Native American tribes’ tactics to resist European encroachment evolve? With expulsion being a common fate for those lucky enough to survive, did streams of survivors travel to Western tribes, warning them of U.S. strength and brutality? If so, how did this change Native responses?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think this question assumes a homogeneity among native tribes. Often tribes were fighting amongst themselves. Europeans often played a role as another tribe to be reckoned with, either as an ally or as an enemy, as a trading partner and/or arms supplier. The long term narrative is of the constant invasion and rape of the tribes and land doesn’t accurately reflect the day-to-day interactions.\n\nYou only need to read about something like [King Philip’s War](_URL_0_) and all its background and aftermath to see the complexity. Tribes would engage with and ally with settlers for their own advantage, and vice versa, trying to get a leg up on historical enemies.\n\nThe biggest advantage Europeans had was they had an endless supply of reinforcements. Sometimes the natives were horrified and upset by the extreme lengths the Europeans would go to, like completely destroying whole villages including non-belligerents, women, children, animals, crops, and houses would all be destroyed. But they often got terrible retribution for that, to the point of failure and near extinction of early colonies.\n\nEuropeans also had many technological advantages. They also brought a sense of superiority in the white race and inferiority of natives, and a mandate to convert and uplift the heathen. Don’t underestimate the power of even a misguided and erroneous philosophy in the hands of zealots.\n\nDisease also played a role, especially smallpox. There are stories of intentional infection, but that doesn’t reflect the day to day reality. Europeans had centuries of innate immunity in their genetic code, and natives were never going to be able to obtain that. The losses and decimation were brutal in some cases.\n\nAll this took more than two centuries to happen, the image of a big war with massive migration that many people picture when viewing the whole of “New World” history just doesn’t apply. Remember, for decades, places like the middle of what is now the middle of Massachusetts was completely native territory which if any white person ventured would not live. It’s why banishment from a colony was such a huge deal as a punishment. It was basically a death sentence, either by exposure, dehydration, starvation, or disease. If you were lucky, you got a quick death at the hands of an animal or native tribe, though frequently people would be tortured to death or enslaved for entering native territory.\n\n\nCaveat: I am not a professional historian, but this particular topic has always been of great interest to me (ie, How did what started out as a small group of people come to dominate an entire continent that was already occupied, sometimes by advanced peoples)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8352987",
"title": "Forts of Texas",
"section": "Section::::Defense from Indians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Interference or resistance from local inhabitants was a concern going back to the first explorations by France and Spain. This was especially of concern to Anglo-American settlers in the 19th century as they pushed the frontier ever westward. While Native Americans of coastal regions and East Texas were relatively easily assimilated, displaced, or eliminated, some Native American tribes were more actively resistant. This was most famously true for the Comanche and Apache tribes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53870916",
"title": "Native American slave ownership",
"section": "Section::::African chattel slavery by Native Americans in the American Southeast.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Proposals for Indian Removal heightened the tensions of cultural changes, due to the increase in the number of mixed-race Native Americans in the South. Full bloods, who tended to live in areas less affected by colonial encroachment, generally worked to maintain traditional ways, including control of communal lands. While the traditional members often resented the sale of tribal lands to Anglo-Americans, by the 1830s they agreed it was not possible to go to war with the colonists on this issue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17334094",
"title": "Reservation poverty",
"section": "Section::::Historical factors.:Early development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "During this violent period, tribes were often forced to move to geographic areas unfamiliar to them, most commonly from Eastern states to Western states. Reservations were created on lands that were deemed worthless to white settlers. Reservations were placed on lands considered resource deficient, unfit for agriculture or cultivation, and which were isolated from urban centers and transportation networks. Mainstream political discourse of this era favored removing tribes from areas populated by or desirable to the white population. During the nineteenth century, many Native American nations resisted forced migration by mounting upheavals which often turned bloody. Known as the American Indian Wars, these battles between American settlers or the United States government and Native Americans culminated in the Massacre at Wounded Knee of 1890, during which US military forces killed more than 150 Lakota men, women, and children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55714",
"title": "Dawes Act",
"section": "Section::::The \"Indian Problem\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "The new policy intended to concentrate Native Americans in areas away from encroaching settlers, but it caused considerable suffering and many deaths. During the nineteenth century, Native American tribes resisted the imposition of the reservation system and engaged with the United States Army in what were called the Indian Wars in the West for decades. Finally defeated by the US military force and continuing waves of encroaching settlers, the tribes negotiated agreements to resettle on reservations. Native Americans ended up with a total of over of land, ranging from arid deserts to prime agricultural land.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3597268",
"title": "Indian reductions in the Andes",
"section": "Section::::Impact on indigenous people.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "The movement into the reductions had highly disruptive effects on indigenous societies. Traditional family and kinship ties that existed for centuries were severely disturbed as small villages were forced to consolidate into poorly organized and often oversized settlements. This fundamentally different living environment forced natives to acclimate to a new socioeconomic order in which their power was severely curbed by the violent coercion of Spanish forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1586266",
"title": "Blood quantum laws",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "The Indian Removal Act and the Trail of Tears led to a major enumeration of Native Americans, and many controversies and misunderstandings about blood quantum that persist to this day. As they were being forcibly driven out of their ancestral homelands and subjected to genocide, many Natives understandably feared and distrusted the government and tried to avoid being enumerated. But the only way to do this was to completely flee the Indian community, during a time of persecution and war. Indians who tried to refuse, if they were not already in a prison camp, had warrants issued for their arrests; they were forcibly rounded up and documented against their will. It is a modern-day misconception that this enumeration was the equivalent of contemporary tribal \"enrollment\" and in any way optional.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58296",
"title": "California Gold Rush",
"section": "Section::::History.:Indigenous driven out.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "In addition, the huge numbers of newcomers were driving Native Americans out of their traditional hunting, fishing and food-gathering areas. To protect their homes and livelihood, some Native Americans responded by attacking the miners. This provoked counter-attacks on native villages. The Native Americans, out-gunned, were often slaughtered. Those who escaped massacres were many times unable to survive without access to their food-gathering areas, and they starved to death. Novelist and poet Joaquin Miller vividly captured one such attack in his semi-autobiographical work, \"Life Amongst the Modocs.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4lqv2o
|
how do snakes grow?
|
[
{
"answer": "The same way other animals do?\n\nDo you think you were born with a full-sized adult ribcage?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The number of vertebrae is genetically determined, as with us, and does not increase during the snake's lifetime. Their bones grow, just as with ours, and judging from the skeleton on-hand at work, although the relative space seems to remain more or less constant, indeed, in absolute terms the spacing increases.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "581543",
"title": "Pit viper",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "These snakes range in size from the diminutive hump-nosed viper, \"Hypnale hypnale\", that grows to an average total length (including tail) of only , to the bushmaster, \"Lachesis muta\", a species known to reach a maximum total length of in length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14652109",
"title": "Louisiana pinesnake",
"section": "Section::::Growth and reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "Growth is rapid; snakes may reach in total length at 1 year and at 2 years. The largest reported specimen was in total length. Sexual maturity may be attained at a minimal total length of and an age of at least 3 years. The species is oviparous, with a gestation period around 21 days, followed by 60 days of incubation. This species exhibits a remarkably low reproductive rate, which magnifies other threats to the Louisiana pine snake. It has the smallest clutch size (three to five) of any North American colubrid and the largest eggs, generally long by wide, of any snake in the United States. It also produces the largest hatchlings reported for any North American snake, ranging in total length, and up to in weight. The large size of the pine snake hatchlings may be an adaptation to enable young to feed relatively early.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "775447",
"title": "Acrochordidae",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "These snakes are ambush predators, lurking at the bottom of rivers, streams and estuaries, and waiting for fish to approach, which they grip with their coils. The rough scales allow them to hold the fish despite the mucus coating. Adults grow to between 60 cm and 2.43 m in length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6451338",
"title": "Snake scale",
"section": "Section::::Morphology of scales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Snake scales are formed by the differentiation of the snake's underlying skin or epidermis. Each scale has an outer surface and an inner surface. The skin from the inner surface hinges back and forms a free area which overlaps the base of the next scale which emerges below this scale. A snake hatches with a fixed number of scales. The scales do not increase in number as the snake matures nor do they reduce in number over time. The scales however grow larger in size and may change shape with each moult.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1076169",
"title": "Leptotyphlopidae",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "These relatively small snakes rarely exceed 30 cm in length; only \"Trilepida macrolepis\" and \"Leptotyphlops occidentalis\" grow larger. The cranium and upper jaws are immobile and no teeth are in the upper jaw. The lower jaw consists of a much elongated quadrate bone, a tiny compound bone, and a relatively larger dentary bone. The body is cylindrical with a blunt head and a short tail. The scales are highly polished. The pheromones they produce protect them from attack by termites. Among these snakes is what is believed to be the world's smallest: \"L. carlae\" .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5442800",
"title": "Walterinnesia aegyptia",
"section": "Section::::Physical description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "These snakes are medium in length, with a medium, cylindrical body and a short tail. Their average length is , but they can grow to lengths of . Their head is moderately small, broad, flattened and slightly distinct from the neck. The snout is broad, sharply edged with a distinct canthus rostralis. The eyes are small in size with round pupils. Dorsal scales are smooth anteriorly and weakly keeled on the posterior part of the body and tail. They are very glossy throughout. Dorsal scale count 27 (24 to 29) - 23 (21 - 25) - 17. Unlike other snakes commonly referred to as \"cobras\", the black desert cobra rarely rear up or produces a hood before striking in defense.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6451338",
"title": "Snake scale",
"section": "Section::::Morphology of scales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Snakes have smaller scales around the mouth and sides of the body which allow expansion so that a snake can consume prey of much larger width than itself. Snake scales are made of keratin, the same material that hair and fingernails are made of. They are cool and dry to touch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8a0mqz
|
how do tv game shows tax people who get cash on the spot?
|
[
{
"answer": "Any cash prize (including lotteries) is generally considered income in the eyes of the IRS (or similar entity for other countries). \n\nThe person/entity giving the money will report the transfer of money to the IRS (and in some cases, offer to withhold the expected taxes) , and it becomes the responsibility of the recipient to submit a payment of the expected owed taxes in a timely manner and to report the earnings when the time comes to file taxes for the year.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Often they don't actually give money away on the spot, that is just for the cameras. At the very least, the show has to gather sufficient information to report the award to the IRS.\n\nI was reading something about *Cash Cab*, about how it was one of the realest shows on The Discovery Channel, the only thing fake about it was handing out cash. There is paperwork off camera and the winners wind up with checks.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There have been documentaries on this, specifically related to the Price is Right.\n\nSurprisingly the fact that you have to pay taxes on lottery winnings and tv show prizes isn't as common knowledge as you'd think. If you win you have to fill in paper work and deal with the original vendor that donated the prize. Contestants are told about this after the show is over and quite often will abandon the prizes (cars, trips etc) because they can't fork over the cash for the taxes needed to pay for them.\n\nPrice is Right is apparently a stickler for not allowing you to take cash value for your prize. As a result the Price is Right supposedly has a depot that stores cars, and all manner of prizes that have appeared on the show but were unclaimed. The show is required to hold onto them for X period and then afterwards dispose (auction? re-use?) them.\n\nThat's one of the reasons that show like Jeopardy, Who wants to be a Millionaire, Family Feud, etc give out cash prizes. It's just easier to manage.\n\nInterestingly though Canada has no such law, and Canadians can claim lottery and prize winnings tax-free. If a Canadian wins on a show like Price is Right we have to pay the taxes upfront and then have to go through a laborious process to get the taxes back from the IRS because they can't tax us for that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Surely depends how much money. If it's under 10 grand I'm quite sure it works exactly how they do bingo parlors.\n\nWhen you win anything over $1199, they rig it so you win multiple 1199's so it's not one lump taxable sum.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So you're telling me prize money is not tax-free in the US like it is e.g. in Germany? o.O",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Canada does not tax windfall gains, so lottery/casino/game show winnings are pocketed in the amount shown. This is also why Canadians play American big-prize lotteries, as it is possible to keep much more of the winnings than American citizens do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16180439",
"title": "N-Gage (service)",
"section": "Section::::The N-Gage application.:My Games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Games that are not paid for will show a pop-up every time you play it—asking whether you’d like to try the free trial or either purchase, enter an unlock code (purchased or given through promotions), or rent the game. More on this below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49763315",
"title": "List of television formats and genres",
"section": "Section::::Genres.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "BULLET::::- Game Show: A television show depicting a real contest, typically a trivia competition or physical challenge, with rewards in prizes or money. Examples: \"Let's Make a Deal\", \"The Price Is Right\", \"Family Feud\", \"Wheel of Fortune\" and \"Jeopardy!\". On other game shows, such as \"Match Game\" and \"Hollywood Squares\", the players may include celebrities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1635441",
"title": "Breaking Vegas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Many episodes have to do with cheats who illegally take money from the casino using sleight-of-hand tricks or some sort of gizmo. Namely, these scams include pastposting and card marking. Other episodes include famous examples of legal money-making techniques such as card counting. Some episodes are about legal strategies like winning at the craps table by throwing at certain angles using a certain grip with certain numbers at the top, or taking advantage of a worn-out ball bearing and a thus tilted roulette wheel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28841709",
"title": "Asar Talo Lahat Panalo!",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "A game show, it promises the contestants the chance to bring home big cash prizes if the contestant called the Bida survives the barrage of heckling from the Kontrabidas known as the Sulsuleros. A celebrity guest will act as the head heckler who will be called Kapitan Kontra.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19920744",
"title": "Cash Cab (American game show)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Near the end of the game at the player's destination Ben Bailey or Beth Melewski appears to present the cash won. In reality, this cash is a prop and used for on-air purposes only. The winnings, which must be taxed, are sent via check.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "365162",
"title": "Online skill-based game",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "In April 2013, Betonline.ag launched a real money skill game room. Their game room includes Yahtzee, Tonk, gin rummy, spades and dominoes. Betonline claimed to be the only gambling site to offer real money skill games to Americans; however, the games being offered are considered illegal in most U.S. states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40694945",
"title": "Pocket Trains",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "There are also special jobs that earn the player a secondary in-game currency called \"Bux\". This currency can be used to buy coins, allow more jobs to be held in yards at stations, speed up trains, and open crates. Bux can also be purchased with money.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4sg7vd
|
why did civil war soldiers not use revolvers exclusively?
|
[
{
"answer": "Range, revolvers have a very limited range. If you exclusively rely on revolvers the enemy will sit out of range and pick you to pieces. In addition the reloading speed of revolvers is slow compared to that of the rifles and carbines of the period so the number of shots per minute were relatively few. Pistols were only really useful for cavalry who could use a small weapon on horseback fire a rapid number of shots and then charge home or get rapidly out of range.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Revolver rifles, or repeating rifles of that ERA were somewhat unreliable. They could discharge all of the six ammo at once and after 6 shots they were pretty slow to reload. Ammo was harder to make on field and most of the militants were without a proper training for using those guns. Also the ammo was way more expensive.\n\nAlso having six shots would give wrong idea to the soldiers. Using a gun with one shot would make them aim, while having six they could just shoot them down the range. Ammo were scarce so they didn't want to waste it. \n\nAnd last but not least, they were seen as wasted resources. \n\nEDIT: And the accuracy was really a thing and mattered. Remember that they had very limited ammo, and they melted their own personal posessions to make ammo.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The revolver design was used in rifles at that time. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nThere seems to have been reliability issues with the possibility of chain fire, where all one shot ignited all the chambers and could be potentially quite destructive. Chainfire was a problem with a handgun revolver too, but less risky to the user because handguns didn't need to be fired with one hand in front of the chambers. \n\nBut they were used in some quantity, along with a great many other weapons. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First of all, I'm not sure why you think accuracy doesn't matter. Direct, close range, charges were not common and when they did occur the two lines would be separated by hundreds of yards to start. The Napoleonic line tactics fell out of favor pretty early in the war and the small unit tactics that developed were not that different from modern warfare (in fact, the number of shots per causality was much lower than it is now). Late in the war, many battles turned into long sieges in which snipers accounted for a large percentage of the casualties. \n\nSecondly, a revolver is a relatively low power weapon. A revolver fires a small ball with about 250 ft-lbs of energy. By comparison a rifle firing a minie ball might have over 1000 ft-lbs of energy and offer superior ballistics (so it kept it's energy for a longer distance). Beyond 50 yards a revolver was fairly ineffective. \n\nLastly, they developed much better solutions than percussion cap revolvers in either handgun or rifle form. Most notably the Spencer rifle and similar lever actions guns were developed which were cartridge fed and so much faster to reload than a cap and ball revolver. These might have completely replaced the muzzle loading rifle in the North if not for limited manufacturing capacity. \n\n\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54356380",
"title": "Smith & Wesson Model No. 2 Army",
"section": "Section::::History.:The American Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "For a Civil War soldier, owning a revolver as a Backup-Gun was important, so Smith & Wesson's cartridge revolvers, the \"Army Model 2\" and the Model 1 1/2 in caliber .32 rimfire came into popular demand with the outbreak of the American Civil War. Soldiers and officers on both sides of the conflict made private purchases of the revolvers for self-defense. Specimens under serial number 35,731 (produced by May 1. 1865) were eventually used in the Civil War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11273993",
"title": "Colt 1851 Navy Revolver",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "After the Civil War, revolvers using fixed metallic cartridges came into widespread use. The Colt Navy remained in production until 1873, being replaced in the Colt line with what would become one of the manufacturer's most famous handguns, the Colt Single Action Army (also known as the \"Peacemaker\" and \"Colt 45\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1782291",
"title": "LeMat Revolver",
"section": "Section::::Civil War use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "The original revolver, constructed of blued steel with grips of checkered walnut, was not considered to be a very accurate weapon although it was deadly at close range. Civil War cavalrymen, particularly in the South, preferred to carry several pistols, as it was faster to draw another loaded weapon than it was to try to reload a cap and ball revolver in combat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18783199",
"title": "North-South Skirmish Association",
"section": "Section::::Competition Arms.:Revolver.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Revolvers were issued to cavalrymen, artillery troops, and officers during the Civil War, which was one of the first conflicts to see such arms used in quantity. N-SSA revolver competition is limited to revolvers using percussion cap ignition. The major types of revolver used were the Colt Model 1851 and 1860, and the Remington Models of 1858 and 1863.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54801438",
"title": "Lefaucheux M1854",
"section": "Section::::The American Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Both the Confederate and Federal forces used Lefaucheux revolvers in the American Civil War. The Union Army typically issued them to cavalry soldiers, especially in the states of Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Missouri, and Wisconsin. Some of the models sold to the American powers kept the original designation, M1854, and were produced either at Lefaucheux Paris, Liege, or local producers under license (Chollet, Merton, Merton via Bond, Gunther at Liege). However, these pinfire revolvers were replaced in service later in the war as more Colt and Remington revolvers became available. Among American troops, the weapon was often referred to as the \"French Tranter\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4508716",
"title": "Model 1816 Musket",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "It was also used during the early years of the American Civil War until around 1862. The large majority of Model 1816 muskets had been converted to percussion firing by 1860. Muskets made prior to 1821 were considered too outdated to be serviceable weapons and were not converted. Most of them were in Southern arsenals and a large number of Confederate soldiers for the first year of the Civil War had the misfortune of carrying flintlock muskets, some of which dated back to the War of 1812.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "498910",
"title": "Colt Single Action Army",
"section": "Section::::First generation (1873–1941).:Military use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "The Artillery Single Actions were issued to the Infantry, the Light Artillery, the Volunteer Cavalry and other troops because the standard issue .38 caliber Colt M 1892 double-action revolver was lacking in stopping power. For that reason, the .45 Artillery SAA Revolvers were used successfully by front troops in the Spanish–American War and the Philippine–American War. Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders charged up San Juan Hill wielding the .45 caliber Artillery Model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2y2421
|
Since kittens are born in litters from one pregnancy, does that make them twins/triplets/quadruplets?
|
[
{
"answer": "It would make them fraternal twins/triplets/etc, for the most part. They're the product of multiple eggs being fertilized by different sperm, just like human fraternal twins are. However, in cats, multiple eggs being released from the ovaries is normal. It's still possible to have identical twin kittens, but it's not significantly different in its occurrence than it is in humans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They would be fraternal, not identical quadruplets/septuplets/whathaveyou. Unlike humans, female cats don't release eggs until after they have mated, sometimes after multiple times. With the sperm of several tom cats floating around in there, it is easy to have litters with very different looking kittens- definitely not identical cat twins. I think the closest human phenomenon is fraternal twins/triplets but in that case there is only 1 father.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2734882",
"title": "Litter (animal)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "A litter is the live birth of multiple offspring at one time in animals from the same mother and usually from one set of parents, particularly from three to eight offspring. The word is most often used for the offspring of mammals, but can be used for any animal that gives birth to multiple young. In comparison, a group of eggs and the offspring that hatch from them are frequently called a clutch, while young birds are often called a brood. Animals from the same litter are referred to as litter-mates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36128779",
"title": "High-risk pregnancy",
"section": "Section::::Conditions of Pregnancy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Multiple gestation. Pregnancy with twins, triplets, or more, referred to as a multiple gestation, increases the risk of infants being born prematurely (before 37 weeks of pregnancy). Having infants after age 30 and taking fertility drugs both have been associated with multiple births. Having three or more infants increases the chance that a woman will need to have the infants delivered by cesarean section. Twins and triplets are more likely to be smaller for their size than infants of singleton births. If infants of multiple gestation are born prematurely, they are more likely to have difficulty breathing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9125620",
"title": "Puma (genus)",
"section": "Section::::Distribution and habitat.:Reproduction and life cycles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "Breeding season normally occurs between December and March, with a three-month gestation period resulting in a litter size up to six kittens. After mating, male and female part ways; the male continues on to mate with other females for the duration of the mating season, while the female cares for the kittens on her own. Like most other felines, kittens are born blind and remain completely helpless for about 2 weeks until their eyes open. Kittens are born with spots and eventually lose all of them as they reach adulthood. The spots allow the kittens to hide better from predators. Kittens are able to eat solid food when they reach 2–3 months of age, and remain with their mother for about a year. The life expectancy of individuals in the wild averages 12 years, but can reach up to 25 years in captivity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83443",
"title": "Birth",
"section": "Section::::Mammals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "Large mammals, such as primates, cattle, horses, some antelopes, giraffes, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, elephants, seals, whales, dolphins, and porpoises, generally are pregnant with one offspring at a time, although they may have twin or multiple births on occasion. In these large animals, the birth process is similar to that of a human, though in most the offspring is precocial. This means that it is born in a more advanced state than a human baby and is able to stand, walk and run (or swim in the case of an aquatic mammal) shortly after birth. In the case of whales, dolphins and porpoises, the single calf is normally born tail first which minimises the risk of drowning. The mother encourages the newborn calf to rise to the surface of the water to breathe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "79238",
"title": "Twin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Twins are two offspring produced by the same pregnancy. Twins can be either \"monozygotic\" ('identical'), meaning that they develop from one zygote, which splits and forms two embryos, or \"dizygotic\" ('fraternal'), meaning that each twin develops from a separate egg and each egg is fertilized by its own sperm cell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11799386",
"title": "Siberian ibex",
"section": "Section::::Reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Gestation lasts 170 to 180 days, and usually results in the birth of a single kid, although twins occur in up to 14% of births, and triplets are born on rare occasions. Newborn kids weigh about , and grow rapidly during their first year. The horns are visible after about three to four weeks. They begin to eat grass as little as eight days after birth, but do not do so regularly until they are about one month old, and are not fully weaned until six months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12713",
"title": "Giant panda",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Giant pandas give birth to twins in about half of pregnancies. If twins are born, usually only one survives in the wild. The mother will select the stronger of the cubs, and the weaker cub will die due to starvation. The mother is thought to be unable to produce enough milk for two cubs since she does not store fat. The father has no part in helping raise the cub.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12nwt4
|
how commonly known would the story of the Iliad, have been in the second century BC classical world?
|
[
{
"answer": "A cup with a depiction of a scene of the Illiad was found in a grave of the first century AD in Denmark. I guess they knew what the scene meant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Few people would have read it because few people could read. But most people would have known it, at least in a vague way, because it was so much part of the culture. (As Aerandir points out, scenes from the Iliad might be on your drinking cup.) Think of all the stories you know, more or less, without having actually read (possibilities include Bible stories, Norse myths, various classic books like Moby Dick, even the Greek myths themselves).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The works of Aristophanes, a 5th/4th century BC Athenian comic playwright, frequently allude to or directly quote the Iliad, and there are quite a number of other plays and pieces of literature which refer to it and the Odyssey. Probably any educated person would know it, and it's likely that anyone living in a Hellenistic culture in the 2nd century would be familiar with the gist of the Iliad.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5975427",
"title": "Heroic Age (literary theory)",
"section": "Section::::Historicity of the Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Oral tales have been formed into classic literature centuries later so that the historicity of the events is left to uncertainty. The Greek Heroic Age as described in the Iliad is dated to historic events in 1460 to 1103 BC according to the chronology of Saint Jerome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59955",
"title": "Trojan Horse",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "The main ancient source for the story is the \"Aeneid\" of Virgil, a Latin epic poem from the time of Augustus. The event is also referred to in Homer's \"Odyssey\". In the Greek tradition, the horse is called the \"wooden horse\" (δουράτεος ἵππος \"dourateos hippos\" in Homeric/Ionic Greek (\"Odyssey\" 8.512); δούρειος ἵππος, \"doureios hippos\" in Attic Greek).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "926219",
"title": "Ancient Greek literature",
"section": "Section::::Pre-classical and classical antiquity.:Epic poetry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer, the \"Iliad\" and the \"Odyssey\". The figure of Homer is shrouded in mystery. Although the works as they now stand are credited to him, it is certain that their roots reach far back before his time (see Homeric Question). \"The Iliad\" is a narrative of a single episode spanning over the course of a ten-day-period from near the end of the ten years of the Trojan War. It centers on the person of Achilles, who embodied the Greek heroic ideal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19381951",
"title": "Iliad",
"section": "Section::::Influence on the arts and literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 197,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 197,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "The \"Iliad\" was a standard work of great importance already in Classical Greece and remained so throughout the Hellenistic and Byzantine periods. Subjects from the Trojan War were a favourite among ancient Greek dramatists. Aeschylus' trilogy, the \"Oresteia\", comprising \"Agamemnon\", \"The Libation Bearers\" and \"The Eumenides\", follows the story of Agamemnon after his return from the war. Homer also came to be of great influence in European culture with the resurgence of interest in Greek antiquity during the Renaissance, and it remains the first and most influential work of the Western canon. In its full form the text made its return to Italy and Western Europe beginning in the 15th century, primarily through translations into Latin and the vernacular languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2083990",
"title": "Little Iliad",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "The Little Iliad (Greek: , \"Ilias mikra\"; ) is a lost epic of ancient Greek literature. It was one of the Epic Cycle, that is, the \"Trojan\" cycle, which told the entire history of the Trojan War in epic verse. The story of the \"Little Iliad\" comes chronologically after that of the \"Aethiopis\", and is followed by that of the \"Iliou persis\" (\"Sack of Troy\"). The \"Little Iliad\" was variously attributed by ancient writers to Lesches of Pyrrha (7th century BCE), Cinaethon of Sparta (8th century BCE), Diodorus of Erythrae, Thestorides of Phocaea, or Homer himself (8th century BCE) (see Cyclic poets). The poem comprised four books of verse in dactylic hexameter, the heroic meter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1247736",
"title": "Troilus",
"section": "Section::::The story in the ancient world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1216,
"text": "For the ancient Greeks, the tale of the Trojan War and the surrounding events appeared in its most definitive form in the \"Epic Cycle\" of eight narrative poems from the archaic period in Greece (750 BC – 480 BC). The story of Troilus is one of a number of incidents that helped provide structure to a narrative that extended over several decades and 77 books from the beginning of the \"Cypria\" to the end of the \"Telegony\". The character's death early in the war and the prophecies surrounding him demonstrated that all Trojan efforts to defend their home would be in vain. His symbolic significance is evidenced by linguistic analysis of his Greek name \"Troilos\". It can be interpreted as an elision of the names of Tros and Ilos, the legendary founders of Troy, as a diminutive or pet name \"little Tros\" or as an elision of \"Troië\" (Troy) and \"lyo\" (to destroy). These multiple possibilities emphasise the link between the fates of Troilus and of the city where he lived. On another level, Troilus' fate can also be seen as foreshadowing the subsequent deaths of his murderer Achilles, and of his nephew Astyanax and sister Polyxena, who, like Troilus, die at the altar in at least some versions of their stories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2170717",
"title": "Theban Cycle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "The stories in the Theban Cycle were traditional ones: the two Homeric epics, the \"Iliad\" and \"Odyssey\", display knowledge of many of them. The most famous stories in the Cycle were those of Oedipus and of the \"Seven against Thebes\", both of which were heavily drawn on by later writers of Greek tragedy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dbem0h
|
Was it common to actually eat the bizarre dishes seen in the cookbooks of the 1970s and earlier?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, they were certainly a thing. Taste is capricious. /u/searocksandtrees has collected [answers about jello oddities before](_URL_1_), feat. /u/gothwalk, et al.\n\n/u/PeculiarLeah interprets it as [part of the recovery from rationing in World War II](_URL_0_), specifically mentioning bananas and ham with hollandaise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1212299",
"title": "Berni Inn",
"section": "Section::::Fare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "The most frequently ordered meal, even as late as the 1980s, was prawn cocktail, steak and Black Forest gateau. This is sometimes called the \"Great British Meal\". As Simon Hopkinson and Lindsey Bareham note in their 1997 book \"The Prawn Cocktail Years\", \"cooked as it should be, this much derided and often ridiculed dinner is still something very special indeed\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13725747",
"title": "A Gift to Young Housewives",
"section": "Section::::Classic Russian cooking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "The original series went through more than 20 editions and sold more than 295,000 copies. The book gave instructions for elaborate dishes like suckling pig, Madeira cake, and hazel grouse. Other recipes included soups, fritters, tortes, mushrooms, aspics, mousses, and dumplings. There were also instructions on making jam, mustard, and vodka. Although the number of recipes varied by edition, there were as many as 3,218 in the 1897 edition. The 1904 (24th) edition contained 4163 recipes. In addition to recipes, the book covered cooking techniques, utensils and cooking equipment, stoves and ovens, household management, relations with servants, menus for feast days, and nutrition; it also gave time- and money-saving hints.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49128205",
"title": "The Modern Cook",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "The book offered elaborate dishes, described with French terminology such as bisque, entrées, entremets, vol-au-vent, timbale and soufflé. It included bills of fare for meals for up to 300 people, and for a series of eight- or nine-course dinners served to Queen Victoria; one exceptional royal dinner in 1841 had sixteen entrées and sixteen entremets, including truffles in Champagne.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18724642",
"title": "Foods of the World",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "Foods of the World was a series of 27 cookbooks published by Time-Life, beginning in 1968 and extending through the late 1970s, that provided a broad survey of many of the world's major cuisines. The individual volumes were written by well-known experts on the various cuisines and included significant contemporary food writers, including Craig Claiborne, Pierre Franey, James Beard, Julia Child, and M.F.K. Fisher, and was overseen by food writer Michael Field who died before the series was complete. The series combined recipes with food-themed travelogues in an attempt to show the cultural context from which each recipe sprang. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7130823",
"title": "Boston Cooking-School Cook Book",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "In 2007, that period of American culinary history was recreated in an elaborate dinner using the Victorian cooking methods outlined in this book. The extensive preparations and the ultimate results were described in a book entitled \"Fannie's Last Supper\" by Christopher Kimball; and an American public television program of the same name was broadcast in 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5477313",
"title": "Cheese roll",
"section": "Section::::History of the cheese roll.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "Early recipes for the dish date from the 1930s, with the earliest being in New Zealand newspaper \"New Zealand Truth\" from 1935. Though known from this period, the popularity of the delicacy seems to have taken off with the widespread availability of sliced bread from the 1950s. Early recipes referred to the dish under the seemingly disparaging name of \"Rat traps\", a play on the longstanding nickname of \"Mouse traps\" used for cheese on toast, but also likely a reference to the cylindrical shape, which was similar to commercial rodent traps of the era. The earliest known cookbook recipe for cheese rolls dates from Dunedin's Roslyn Church \"Jubilee Cookery Book\" in 1951, with numerous other South Island community cookbooks listing the recipe in the decade that followed. Cheese rolls were not found in any North Island cookbooks, however, until the late 1970s, and the food is still little known north of Waitaki River.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11484920",
"title": "American Cookery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "American Cookery, by Amelia Simmons, is the first known cookbook written by an American, published in Hartford, Connecticut in 1796. Until then, the cookbooks printed and used in the Thirteen Colonies were British. Its full title is: \"American Cookery, or the art of dressing viands, fish, poultry, and vegetables, and the best modes of making pastes, puffs, pies, tarts, puddings, custards, and preserves, and all kinds of cakes, from the imperial plum to plain cake: Adapted to this country, and all grades of life.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jqfv8
|
how is it that i'm left handed but do some activities like a right handed person would?
|
[
{
"answer": "As I understand it, left/right-handedness isn't a 100% binary thing. You can be left-handed for *most* activities, but still be right-handed on a few/some others depending on how you were taught, how you grew up, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm a leftie too, but I use cutlery, knit, play guitar etc \"right handed\". Just the way I was brought up I guess!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am right handed. I only use my left hand for one thing. That is because I use my right hand to control the mouse. So maybe some of it is training. So much training. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm a lefty from a family of all right-handed people. I favor my left hand in most things (writing, throwing, batting, kicking,) but do some things right-handed (guitars, drums, mouse, fork & knife, scissors.) I think this is mostly due to the set-ups and equipment available (typically favoring right-handedness) when I was learning.\n\nIt's ultimately led to a higher level of ambidexterity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "685746",
"title": "Laterality",
"section": "Section::::Human.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Also, it is not uncommon that people preferring to use the right hand prefer to use the left leg, e.g. when using a shovel, kicking a ball, or operating control pedals. In many cases, this may be because they are disposed for left-handedness but have been trained for right-handedness. In the sport of cricket, some players may find that they are more comfortable bowling with their left or right hand, but batting with the other hand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26569682",
"title": "Clockwise",
"section": "Section::::In humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Most left-handed people prefer to draw circles and circulate in buildings clockwise, while most right-handed people prefer to draw circles and circulate in buildings counterclockwise. This is believed to result from dominant brain hemispheres, though some attribute it to muscle mechanics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30533724",
"title": "Bias against left-handed people",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Sports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1070,
"text": "A left-handed individual may be known as a southpaw, particularly in a sports context. It is widely accepted that the term originated in the United States, in the game of baseball. Ballparks are often designed so that batters are facing east, so that the afternoon or evening sun does not shine in their eyes. This means that left-handed pitchers are throwing with their south-side arm. The \"Oxford English Dictionary\" lists a non-baseball citation for \"south paw\", meaning a punch with the left hand, as early as 1848, just three years after the first organized baseball game, with the note \"(orig. U.S., in Baseball).\" A left-handed advantage in sports can be significant and even decisive, but this advantage usually results from a left-handed competitor's unshared familiarity with opposite-handed opponents. Baseball is an exception since batters, pitchers, and fielders in certain scenarios are physically advantaged or disadvantaged by their handedness. Some baseball players like Christian Yelich of the Milwaukee Brewers bat left-handed and throw right-handed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172644",
"title": "Handedness",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Right-handedness\" is by far the most common type. Right-handed people are more skillful with their right hands when performing tasks. Studies suggest that approximately 90% of the world's population is right-handed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172644",
"title": "Handedness",
"section": "Section::::In culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Many tools and procedures are designed to facilitate use by right-handed people, often without realizing the difficulties incurred by the left-handed. John W. Santrock has written, \"For centuries, left-handers have suffered unfair discrimination in a world designed for right-handers.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58663416",
"title": "Neuroanatomy of handedness",
"section": "Section::::Complications.:Handedness inventory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "Handedness in and of itself tends to be a grey area. The requirements for someone to be right- as opposed to left-handed have been debated, and because individuals who identify as left-handed may also use their right hand for a large number of tasks, identifying two clearcut groups of subjects is a challenging task. The Edinburgh Handedness Inventory is a common parametric test used to determine handedness, by comparing individuals to the population at large. However use of this inventory varies between researchers, and it has been criticized for its use in modern research. This means that an individual which one research group may classify as a left-hander, may be classified as ambidextrous in another; leading to difficulties in comparison between the two.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "568124",
"title": "Shot (ice hockey)",
"section": "Section::::Handedness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 929,
"text": "A player's handedness is determined by which side of their body they hold their stick. A player who shoots left (alternatively called a \"left-handed shot\") holds the stick such that the blade is (normally) to the left of their body, with the left hand on the bottom and the right hand on top; a player who shoots right (a \"right-handed shot\") holds the stick such that the blade is to their right, with the right hand at the bottom and left hand on top. The bottom hand delivers most of the power while the top hand is responsible for control and stickhandling, as well as the \"whip\" of your shots. Of the 852 players who skated in the 2007–08 NHL regular season, 554 of 852 (65%) shoot left. Many natural right handed players shoot left and vice versa. This is due to the fact that if someone is naturally right handed, they may shoot left because the top hand (right hand on a lefty stick) controls most of the stick's action.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6s3glr
|
if some humans have neanderthal dna while others don't, does that mean some humans are at least somewhat of a different species than others.
|
[
{
"answer": "No. The definition of a species is whether or not members can interbreed. All humans can interbreed as a species. We're all one breed much less not the same species. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Homo sapiens neandethalensis (neandertals) is a sub-species of homo sapien sapien (modern human). Both are homo sapien (human) because they are very close cousins, close enough that they could breed and make successful offspring together. The definition of a separate species is that it must be another group of organisms that cannot mate with the main group to produce viable(fertile) offspring. So by definition neandetals were not a different species. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The definition of species is indeed somewhat loose but most agree on the basic that successfully interbreeding and having fertile offspring means that you are part of the the same species.\n\nThis is why many people now think that Neanderthals should be considered a different subspecies of humans not a different species altogether.\n\nIt is similar to wolves and dogs which can interbreed and are the same species but still obviously different enough to tell them apart.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28066528",
"title": "Neanderthal anatomy",
"section": "Section::::Distinguishing physical traits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The following is a list of physical traits that distinguish Neanderthals from modern humans. However, not all of them distinguish specific Neanderthal populations from various geographic areas, evolutionary periods, or other extinct humans. Also, many of these traits are present in modern humans to varying extent due to both archaic admixture and the retention of ancestral hominid traits shared with Neanderthals and other archaic humans. Nothing is certain (from unearthed bones) about the shape of soft parts such as eyes, ears, and lips of Neanderthals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27298083",
"title": "Neanderthal",
"section": "Section::::Name and classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Ever since the discovery of the Neanderthal fossils, expert opinion has been divided as to whether Neanderthals should be considered a separate species (\"Homo neanderthalensis\") or a subspecies (\"Homo sapiens neanderthalensis\") relative to modern humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10326",
"title": "Human evolution",
"section": "Section::::Evolution of genus \"Homo\".:Neanderthal and Denisovan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Nearly all modern non-African humans have 1% to 4% of their DNA derived from Neanderthal DNA, and this finding is consistent with recent studies indicating that the divergence of some human alleles dates to one Ma, although the interpretation of these studies has been questioned. Neanderthals and \"Homo sapiens\" could have co-existed in Europe for as long as 10,000 years, during which human populations exploded vastly outnumbering Neanderthals, possibly outcompeting them by sheer numerical strength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28066742",
"title": "Neanderthal behavior",
"section": "Section::::Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "Neanderthals had the same DNA-coding region of the FOXP2 gene as living humans, but are different in one position of the gene's regulatory regions, and the extent of FOXP2 expression might hence have been different in Neanderthals. Although the gene appears necessary for language—living humans who don't have the normal human version of the gene have serious language difficulties—it is not necessarily sufficient. It is not known whether FOXP2 evolved for or in conjunction with language, nor whether there are other language-related genes that Neanderthals may or may not have had. Similarly, the size and functionality of the Neanderthal Broca's and Wernicke's areas, used for speech generation in modern humans, is debated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41244",
"title": "Hybrid (biology)",
"section": "Section::::In different taxa.:In humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "There is evidence of hybridisation between modern humans and other species of the genus \"Homo\". In 2010, the Neanderthal genome project showed that 1–4% of DNA from all people living today, apart from most Sub-Saharan Africans, is of Neanderthal heritage. Analyzing the genomes of 600 Europeans and East Asians found that combining them covered 20% of the Neanderthal genome that is in the modern human population. Ancient human populations lived and interbred with Neanderthals, Denisovans, and at least one other extinct \"Homo\" species. Thus, Neanderthal and Denisovan DNA has been incorporated into human DNA by introgression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26569605",
"title": "Multiregional origin of modern humans",
"section": "Section::::Genetic evidence.:Neanderthal mtDNA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences from Feldhofer and Vindija Cave are substantially different from modern human mtDNA. Multiregionalists however have discussed the fact that the average difference between the Feldhofer sequence and living humans is less than that found between chimpanzee subspecies, and therefore that while Neanderthals were different subspecies, they were still human and part of the same lineage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10326",
"title": "Human evolution",
"section": "Section::::Evolution of genus \"Homo\".:Neanderthal and Denisovan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "The Neanderthal populations seem to have been physically superior to AMH populations. These differences may have been sufficient to give Neanderthal populations an environmental superiority to AMH populations from 75,000 to 45,000 years BP. With these differences, Neanderthal brains show a smaller area was available for social functioning. Plotting group size possible from endocrainial volume, suggests that AMH populations (minus occipital lobe size), had a Dunbars number of 144 possible relationships. Neanderthal populations seem to have been limited to about 120 individuals. This would show up in a larger number of possible mates for AMH humans, with increased risks of inbreeding amongst Neanderthal populations. It also suggests that humans had larger trade catchment areas than Neanderthals (confirmed in the distribution of stone tools). With larger populations, social and technological innovations were easier to fix in human populations, which may have all contributed to the fact that modern Homo sapiens replaced the Neanderthal populations by 28,000 BP.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6c3uzf
|
How do dogs make ATP?
|
[
{
"answer": "Gluconeogenesis is the production of glucose from protein-rich sources. This is quite commonly used for production of energy across all living beings (plant and animal alike). In humans this is frequently seen in ketogenic diets or diets treating diabetes (and, to an extent, also the Atkins diet that was popular in the early 2000s). \n\nGlycogen can be produced in this manner from fatty acids and amino acids with pyruvate (as well as lactate). It is also associated with the Cori cycle as a part of the larger Krebs cycle. \n\nWhile carbohydrates are more easily converted to glucose/glycogen, gluconeogenesis fills the pathway to ATP production in the absence of sugar stores. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most of the energy for respiration in carnivores comes from fats, not protein. Protein amino acids are generally reused in the consumer rather than broken down for energy.\n\nFirst of all, you have to realize that cell respiration doesn't really take glucose as an input. The molecule that is fed to the citric acid cycle is acetyl-CoA. In the glucose pathway, several steps have to happen first to turn the glucose into pyruvate (glycoloysis) and then pyruvate into acetyl-CoA.\n\nFats also need to be prepared for respiration, but the process is actually simpler. The long fatty acids are cleaved off the glycerol backbone, then they can be tranferred to the mitochondria there they're chopped up into many acetyl-CoA molecules. The glycerol can also be respired via a pathway that converts it to pyruvate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24716317",
"title": "ATP test",
"section": "Section::::How ATP is measured.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "ATP is a molecule found only in and around living cells, and as such it gives a direct measure of biological concentration and health. ATP is quantified by measuring the light produced through its reaction with the naturally-occurring firefly enzyme Luciferase using a Luminometer. The amount of light produced is directly proportional to the amount of biological energy present in the sample.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24716317",
"title": "ATP test",
"section": "Section::::Method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "ATP is a molecule found in and around living cells, and as such it gives a direct measure of biological concentration and health. ATP is quantified by measuring the light produced through its reaction with the naturally occurring firefly enzyme luciferase using a luminometer. The amount of light produced is directly proportional to the amount of ATP present in the sample. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "576557",
"title": "Bacteriological water analysis",
"section": "Section::::Methodologies.:ATP Testing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "An ATP test is the process of rapidly measuring active microorganisms in water through detection adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is a molecule found only in and around living cells, and as such it gives a direct measure of biological concentration and health. ATP is quantified by measuring the light produced through its reaction with the naturally occurring enzyme firefly luciferase using a luminometer. The amount of light produced is directly proportional to the amount of biological energy present in the sample.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1800",
"title": "Adenosine triphosphate",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "In terms of its structure, ATP consists of an adenine attached by the 9-nitrogen atom to the 1′ carbon atom of a sugar (ribose), which in turn is attached at the (100) vbdå carbon atom of the sugar to a triphosphate group. In its many reactions related to metabolism, the adenine and sugar groups remain unchanged, but the triphosphate is converted to di- and monophosphate, giving respectively the derivatives ADP and AMP. The three phosphoryl groups are referred to as the alpha (α), beta (β), and, for the terminal phosphate, gamma (γ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48309405",
"title": "TNP-ATP",
"section": "Section::::Constituent parts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "ATP is an essential mediator of life. It is used to overcome unfavorable energy barriers to initiate and fuel chemical reactions. It is also used to drive biological machinery and regulate a number of processes via protein-phosphorylation. However, the proteins that bind ATP for both regulation and enzymatic reactions are very diverse—many yet undiscovered—and for many proteins their relationship to ATP in terms of number of binding sites, binding constants, and dissociation constants remain unclear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1800",
"title": "Adenosine triphosphate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "From the perspective of biochemistry, ATP is classified as a nucleoside triphosphate, which indicates that it consists of three components: a nitrogenous base (adenine), the sugar ribose, and the triphosphate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8396468",
"title": "ATP citrate lyase",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "ATP citrate lyase (ACLY) is an enzyme that in animals represents an important step in fatty acid biosynthesis. ATP citrate lyase is important in that, by converting citrate to acetyl-CoA, it links the metabolism of carbohydrates, which yields citrate as an intermediate, and the production of fatty acids, which requires acetyl-CoA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
157tf9
|
on gawker websites i need to spam the back button to actually go back, why?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'd also like to know why this happens, not just for Gawker sites but twitter and a few others",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What happens when you click on one of their links is you get taken to a proxy page. This proxy page basically acts like a handler for requests. It then passes you on to the relevant page. When you press back on any webpage the browser you use automatically re-enters any data it did the first time around. An example of this is like when you enter data on an internet form. Lets say I'm entering a username and password. I then get somewhere. I then decide to go somewhere else. When I press back to go to the page where I went *after* I entered the data my browser automatically re-enters that same username and password I entered. The same thing is happening on sites like gawker. Personally I feel that it is often a very poor way of handling things and results in forcing people, as you have noticed, to either open a new tab or window, or to mash the back button.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I find that right clicking the back arrow and selecting where I need to go is the best way to get out of that loop. It's tedious, having to use the mouse to navigate back, but you gotta do what you gotta do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "protip : right click the back button, at least in firefox. opera/chrome probably instead requires that you hold is pressed for a second or so.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "some web developers think they understand usability better than anyone and so they incorporate clever features like this into their websites, because no one ever uses the back button.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Open in new tab. Middle click the link to do that. Middle click the tab to close. On chrome of course.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I stopped giving them my page views. So terrible. Let's put an ad on everything, make some of our posts ads, then make them view ads before seeing our ads. Oh, and create sensationalist nonsensical posts to pull views. \n\nIf you're really interested in tech news I've found _URL_0_ to be pretty great. No nonsense. Well a little bit, but it is the internet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16836775",
"title": "Backscatter (email)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "Backscatter occurs because worms and spam messages often forge their sender addresses. Instead of simply rejecting a spam message, a misconfigured mail server sends a bounce message to such a forged address. This normally happens when a mail server is configured to relay a message to an after-queue processing step, for example, an antivirus scan or spam check, which then fails, and at the time the antivirus scan or spam check is done, the client already has disconnected. In those cases, it is normally not possible to reject the SMTP transaction, since a client would time out while waiting for the antivirus scan or spam check to finish. The best thing to do in this case, is to silently drop the message, rather than risk creating backscatter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20240385",
"title": "Feedback loop (email)",
"section": "Section::::Reporting process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "For years, end users have been told not to trust email unsubscribe links, so many users hit the spam button as an alternative to unsubscribing. Consequently, \"report spam\" may act as unsubscribe in some cases. One of the reasons not to hit unsubscribe links is to avoid confirming that the message had been received and opened.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "459847",
"title": "Email spam",
"section": "Section::::Spam techniques.:Backscatter spam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Backscatter is a side-effect of email spam, viruses, and worms. It happens when email servers are mis-configured to send a bogus bounce message to the envelope sender when rejecting or quarantining email (rather than simply rejecting the attempt to send the message).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "461973",
"title": "Trackback",
"section": "Section::::Spam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Some individuals or companies have abused the TrackBack feature to insert spam links on some blogs. This is similar to comment spam but avoids some of the safeguards designed to stop the latter practice. As a result, TrackBack spam filters similar to those implemented against comment spam now exist in many weblog publishing systems. Many blogs have stopped using trackbacks because dealing with spam became too much of a burden.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34844326",
"title": "Anti-spam techniques (users)",
"section": "Section::::Avoid responding to spam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Spammers often regard responses to their messages—even responses like \"Don't spam me\"—as confirmation that an email address is valid. Likewise, many spam messages contain Web links or addresses which the user is directed to follow to be removed from the spammer's mailing list. In several cases, spam-fighters have tested these links, confirming they do not lead to the recipient address's removal—if anything, they lead to more spam. This removal request of filing a complaint may get the address list washed. To lower complaints so the spammer can stay active before having to acquire new accounts and/or internet provider.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43651",
"title": "Spamdexing",
"section": "Section::::Link spam.:Using world-writable pages.:Spam in blogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Spam in blogs is the placing or solicitation of links randomly on other sites, placing a desired keyword into the hyperlinked text of the inbound link. Guest books, forums, blogs, and any site that accepts visitors' comments are particular targets and are often victims of drive-by spamming where automated software creates nonsense posts with links that are usually irrelevant and unwanted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "313737",
"title": "Anti-spam techniques",
"section": "Section::::Automated techniques for email senders.:Confirmed opt-in for mailing lists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "A malicious person can easily attempt to subscribe another user to a mailing list — to harass them, or to make the company or organisation appear to be spamming. To prevent this, all modern mailing list management programs (such as GNU Mailman, LISTSERV, Majordomo, and qmail's ezmlm) support \"confirmed opt-in\" by default. Whenever an email address is presented for subscription to the list, the software will send a confirmation message to that address. The confirmation message contains no advertising content, so it is not construed to be spam itself, and the address is not added to the live mail list unless the recipient responds to the confirmation message.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xzfw0
|
often people say when you get a splinter your body will learn to push it out at some point. how does it happen?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your body doesn't learn to push it out, it's just that tissue regrows in such a way that the splinter is eventually moved towards the outside of the body, which eventually results in the splinter emerging from the skin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33067333",
"title": "Splinter",
"section": "Section::::Contracting a splinter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Generally, a splinter causes an initial feeling of pain as the sharp object makes its initial penetration through the body. Through this penetration, the object cuts through the cutaneous layer of the skin, and settles in the subcutaneous layer of the skin, and can even penetrate further down, breaking the sub-cutaneous layer, settling in muscle tissue, or even the bone. Some splinters will remain in place, but most will continue to migrate through the body, further damaging their surroundings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5877603",
"title": "Glenoid labrum",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Injury.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Tearing of the labrum can occur from either acute trauma or repetitive shoulder motion such as in the sports of swimming, baseball and football. Acute trauma may be from dislocation of the shoulder, direct blows to the shoulder, and other accidents of the sort. Tears are classified as either superior or inferior in regards to where the tear is in the glenoid cavity. A SLAP lesion (superior labrum, anterior to posterior) is a tear where the glenoid labrum meets the tendon of the long head of the biceps muscle. Symptoms include increased pain with overhead activity, popping or grinding, loss of strength, and trouble localizing a specific point of pain. Because a SLAP lesion involves the biceps, pain and weakness may also be felt when performing elbow flexion with resistance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33067333",
"title": "Splinter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "A splinter (also known as a sliver) is a fragment of a larger object (especially wood), or a foreign body that penetrates or is purposely injected into a body. The foreign body must be lodged inside tissue to be considered a splinter. Splinters may cause initial pain through ripping of flesh and muscle, infection through bacteria on the foreign object, and severe internal damage through migration to vital organs or bone over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33067333",
"title": "Splinter",
"section": "Section::::Specific details of some splinters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "BULLET::::- Wood: this type of splinter is contracted from lumber or other vegetative materials. Wood splinters must be removed from wounds because they are associated with inflammation and risk of infection. Larger or deeper splinters can result in difficult removal, or localization of the foreign body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4926115",
"title": "Glenoid cavity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "The cavity surface is covered with cartilage in the fresh state, and its margins, slightly raised, give attachment to a fibrocartilaginous structure, the glenoid labrum, which deepens the cavity. This cartilage is very susceptible to tearing. When torn, it is most commonly known as a SLAP lesion which is generally caused by repetitive shoulder movements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12471747",
"title": "Crossbows and Catapults",
"section": "Section::::Rules and play.:Battlegrounds (2007) version.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Qualification for piece removal after each turn: If a piece is lying on its side, the piece is removed. If a piece is bumped, it is left alone. If a Hero is killed before all the warriors are eliminated, the hero is put back into place; the player who owned the hit hero will lose an action on their next turn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20295296",
"title": "Pulpotomy",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Partial Pulpotomy for Traumatic Exposures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "A partial pulpotomy for traumatic exposures is also called a Cvek Pulpotomy. When a baby tooth or young permanent tooth is traumatised - say, hitting your teeth on the handlebars of a bike - it can be broken in such a way that the pulp is exposed. Again, a partial pulpotomy may help it to finish developing and be saved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5b2ofw
|
how do prince rupert's drops work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because the glass is rapidly cooled it sets up a state of high residual stress, compressive stress on the surface and tensile stress in the center. This effectively toughens the glass of the head similar to how Gorilla glass is toughened on cell phone screens. The residual compressive stress in the glass resists crack propagation and shattering.\n \nSince the tail is very thin it isn't subject to the differential cooling effect and doesn't set up residual stresses. So it's just ordinary glass. A hammer blow here will shatter it and the crack propagation through the inner tensile stressed material of the head will release the enormous potential energy in the head making it disintegrate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If I were to explain it to a 5 year old, I would say the following: \n\nBecause when the glass cools in water it cools very very quickly, there's a lot of tension and stress still stored up in the \"drop,\" much like a rubber band that's been pulled to as far as it can go and then stuck there. When a little tiny part of the drop is broken, much like cutting off a tiny bit of a rubber band, all that tension goes away, and the whole thing shatters",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1574904",
"title": "Prince Rupert's drop",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Prince Rupert's drops are produced by dropping molten glass drops into cold water. The water rapidly cools and solidifies the glass from the outside inward. This thermal quenching may be described using a simplified model of a rapidly cooled sphere. Prince Rupert's drops have remained a scientific curiosity for nearly 400 years due to two unusual mechanical properties: when the tail is snipped, the drop disintegrates explosively into powder, whereas the bulbous head can withstand compressive forces of up to .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1574904",
"title": "Prince Rupert's drop",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Prince Rupert's drops (also known as Dutch or Batavian tears) are toughened glass beads created by dripping molten glass into cold water, which causes it to solidify into a tadpole-shaped droplet with a long, thin tail. These droplets are characterized internally by very high residual stresses, which give rise to counter-intuitive properties, such as the ability to withstand a blow from a hammer or a bullet on the bulbous end without breaking, while exhibiting explosive disintegration if the tail end is even slightly damaged. In nature, similar structures are produced under certain conditions in volcanic lava and are known as Pele's tears.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1574904",
"title": "Prince Rupert's drop",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "A scholarly account of the early history of Prince Rupert's drops is given in the \"Notes and Records\" of the Royal Society of London. Most of the early scientific study of the drops was performed at the Royal Society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1888838",
"title": "Drop swindle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "The drop swindle was a confidence trick commonly used during the 19th and 20th centuries. Employing a variety of techniques the con usually consists of the \"dropper\", who purposely drops a wallet containing counterfeit money near a potential victim. As the victim goes to pick it up the \"dropper\" turns to pick it up at the same moment pretending to have found the wallet as well. Acting as if he is in a hurry the \"dropper\" offers to give the wallet to the victim in exchange for money while the victim can claim the reward from the owner. One of the leading practitioners of this confidence trick was \"Kid Dropper\" Nathan Kaplan, an early twentieth century gangster. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1574904",
"title": "Prince Rupert's drop",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 868,
"text": "Although Prince Rupert did not discover the drops, he played a role in their history by bringing them to Britain in 1660. He gave them to King Charles II, who in turn delivered them in 1661 to the Royal Society (which had been created the previous year) for scientific study. Several early publications from the Royal Society give accounts of the drops and describe experiments performed. Among these publications was \"Micrographia\" of 1665 by Robert Hooke, who later would discover Hooke's Law. His publication laid out correctly most of what can be said about Prince Rupert's drops without a fuller understanding than existed at the time, of elasticity (to which Hooke himself later contributed) and of the failure of brittle materials from the propagation of cracks. A fuller understanding of crack propagation had to wait until the work of A. A. Griffith in 1920.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1574904",
"title": "Prince Rupert's drop",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "In 1994, Srinivasan Chandrasekar, an engineering professor at Purdue University, and Munawar Chaudhri, head of the materials group at the University of Cambridge, used high-speed framing photography to observe the drop-shattering process and concluded that while the surface of the drops experiences highly compressive stresses, the inside experiences high tension forces, creating a state of unequal equilibrium which can easily be disturbed by breaking the tail. However, this left the question of how the stresses are distributed throughout a Prince Rupert's drop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8001792",
"title": "A Midsummer Tempest",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Prince Rupert is taken by the Roundheads; held captive at a country house, he falls in love with his captor's niece, Jennifer. One of his troopers, Will Fairweather, followed him to the house where he was held captive; with the help of Jennifer, Will brings him to Oberon and Titania, who offer magical aid. Rupert and Jennifer exchange magic rings that will aid them as long as they are true to each other. Rupert sets out with Will to find the books that Prospero sank, in order to aid King Charles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
36ghz3
|
why/how did smoking become less painful on my throat and lungs over time?
|
[
{
"answer": "You destroyed the nerves that were on the surface, and the cilia that are in your lungs that cause coughing when a foreign substance is introduced. Cilia are fine hairs in your lungs that move out mucous. Smoking burns them away. \n\nIf you stop smoking/weed for a length of time, you will regain your lung response to the smoke you are breathing into them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17615699",
"title": "Stomach disease",
"section": "Section::::Causes and treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Smoking has been linked to a variety of disorders of the stomach. Tobacco is known to stimulate acid production and impairs production of the protective mucus. This leads to development of ulcers in the majority of smokers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3585815",
"title": "Health effects of tobacco",
"section": "Section::::Health effects of smoking.:Cardiovascular disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Smoking also increases the chance of heart disease, stroke, atherosclerosis, and peripheral vascular disease. Several ingredients of tobacco lead to the narrowing of blood vessels, increasing the likelihood of a blockage, and thus a heart attack or stroke. According to a study by an international team of researchers, people under 40 are five times more likely to have a heart attack if they smoke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3322201",
"title": "Comprehensive Smoking Education Act",
"section": "Section::::Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Smoking also causes major damages to the heart, causing coronary heart disease, which is the number-1 killer in the United States. Cigarette smoke causes shrinkage in the arteries, which heightens their chance of developing peripheral vascular disease. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, also known as the CDC, smoking can increase a person's risk of developing heart disease and getting a stroke as much as 2 to 4 times more than an average non-smoker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3585815",
"title": "Health effects of tobacco",
"section": "Section::::Health effects of smoking.:Cardiovascular disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Inhalation of tobacco smoke causes several immediate responses within the heart and blood vessels. Within one minute the heart rate begins to rise, increasing by as much as 30 percent during the first 10 minutes of smoking. Carbon monoxide in tobacco smoke exerts negative effects by reducing the blood's ability to carry oxygen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3585815",
"title": "Health effects of tobacco",
"section": "Section::::History.:Pre-cigarette.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Pipe smoking gradually became generally accepted as a cause of mouth cancers following work done in the 1700s. An association between a variety of cancers and tobacco use was repeatedly observed from the late 1800s into the early 1920s. An association between tobacco use and vascular disease was reported from the late 1800s onwards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38327",
"title": "Cigarette",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "consumers \"Do You Inhale?\" from the 1930s. As cigarette tobacco became milder and more acidic, inhaling may have become perceived as more agreeable. However, Moltke noticed in the 1830s (cf. \"Unter dem Halbmond\") that Ottomans (and he himself) inhaled the Turkish tobacco and Latakia from their pipes (which are both initially sun-cured, acidic leaf varieties).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "261613",
"title": "Stomach cancer",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Smoking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Smoking increases the risk of developing gastric cancer significantly, from 40% increased risk for current smokers to 82% increase for heavy smokers. Gastric cancers due to smoking mostly occur in the upper part of the stomach near the esophagus. Some studies show increased risk with alcohol consumption as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bsm778
|
how is a glass of wine everyday good for you? :)
|
[
{
"answer": "It is NOT healthy at all.\n\nThe thing you heard is only a myth. Take a half aspirine instead.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is not. There is proof to suggest that the antioxidants in wine are good for you. \n\nBut with that said, current consensus is that *any* alcohol is bad for you, and for virtually all drinks, the downsides outweigh any upsides. Drinking is always bad and should be avoided for optimal health.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32961",
"title": "Wine",
"section": "Section::::Culinary uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Wine is a popular and important drink that accompanies and enhances a wide range of cuisines, from the simple and traditional stews to the most sophisticated and complex haute cuisines. Wine is often served with dinner. Sweet dessert wines may be served with the dessert course. In fine restaurants in Western countries, wine typically accompanies dinner. At a restaurant, patrons are helped to make good food-wine pairings by the restaurant's sommelier or wine waiter. Individuals dining at home may use wine guides to help make food–wine pairings. Wine is also drunk without the accompaniment of a meal in wine bars or with a selection of cheeses (at a wine and cheese party).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32961",
"title": "Wine",
"section": "Section::::Culinary uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a drink, but as a flavor agent, primarily in stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savory or sweet dishes. Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient. Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16% ABV, with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range. Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61026863",
"title": "House wine",
"section": "Section::::Historical trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "Historically, house wine was usually poor quality, possibly \"jug wine\" derived from a second pressing of the grapes, and sold by the glass, promoted by a restaurant primarily on the basis of the wine's low cost. A 1979 article asserted that \"so called 'fine' restaurants, those serving the \"haute cuisine\" or those considered posh or plush, will not carry a house wine\". Recently, due to a general rise in the availability of high quality wine, house wines have improved in quality in restaurants in the United States, and frequently may be produced by or for a specific restaurant, although house wines will still usually be on the cheaper end of the wine list for any given restaurant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18948043",
"title": "Alcoholic drink",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for use.:Flavoring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as an accompanying beverage, but as a flavor agent, primarily in stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savory or sweet dishes. Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient. Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16% ABV, with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range. Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2061874",
"title": "Wine accessory",
"section": "Section::::Wine glasses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Wine glasses are a type of glass stemware that are used to drink and taste wine from. Selection of a particular wine glass for a wine style is important, as the glass shape can influence its perception.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1946",
"title": "Unit of alcohol",
"section": "Section::::Quantities.:Wines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "BULLET::::- Wine sold by the glass is often served in nearly full glasses. Wine served at home, or when bought by the bottle in, say, a restaurant, is usually served in glasses less than half filled; the capacity of a wine glass is not the only criterion for judging quantity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16656433",
"title": "James Suckling",
"section": "Section::::Tasting style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "In reply to the Italian magazine \"Gentleman\" on \"what really makes a fine wine\", he replied, \"wine is like music\" and therefore in the same way that most musical enjoyment comes not from knowledge of music but music's appeal to the emotions, wine too should be thought of emotionally by wine drinkers, not scientifically. He added that each and every good wine should be able \"to move you\" in some kind of way \"like with music, literature and love\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vijwg
|
What are some recent major depopulation events?
|
[
{
"answer": "European discovery of the Americas. Close to 90% of Native Americans died to diseases. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Australia, both world wars caused reasonable depopulation of rural/remote areas as young men enlisted (and, in many cases, didn't return). Just under 10% of the population ^([416,809]) of Australia enlisted during WWI (then a country of under 5 million people) and of that, [~216,000 were killed, wounded, gassed or taken prisoner](_URL_2_): that is, 51.8% of all enlisted men. The total casualty rate was 65% - [the highest of any country in the war.](_URL_0_)\n\nI can't seem to find a source for it, but when I was studying history at the University of Adelaide we were taught that roughly 10% of the population of South Australia (which was mostly concentrated in Adelaide) had died, leading to severe labour shortages in the rural districts.\n\nDuring the Second World War, a similar trend emerged, the effects of which you can briefly read about in [this extract from my Honours thesis.](_URL_1_) (Start from the last para on p. 17 through to the first para on p. 19).\n\nDuring the Great Depression in Australia, the Victorian government introduced rules for receiving sustenance (welfare) that meant workers had to seek work constantly, preferably in the country, and were not allowed to claim sustenance in the same place twice in a row (sustenance was provided every 3 weeks). There's a citation here somewhere in the books on my desk but it'll take me a while to find it; if you want it I can track it down for you.\n\nDuring the 1960s-90s there was quite a lot of migration from South-East Asia as the various wars destroyed peoples homes and lives. Though the scale of migration by boat to Australia has been a lot of movement out of Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia and Burma to various countries around the world.\n\nNow that I've noticed your inclusion of the Black Death and Mongol invasions (these are.. recent?) I suppose I should also include the Gold Rush in the early 1850s, which sucked huge numbers of people out of the various cities and colonies on the Australian mainland as people went to find their fortune. Didn't last, though. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wikipedia has a large (though not exhaustive) [list of famines](_URL_0_). This includes ones from the 20th century - natural or otherwise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Europeans killed every single Tasmanian aborigine by the mid nineteenth century, if that is what you're after.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you are worried about global overpopulation, don't. Industrialized nations all around the the world eventually reach a climax where thereafter populations stay stagnant for a while, then decline. If you don't believe me check population records of nations like the US, France, the UK, Japan, and South Korea. South Korea's population is declining so quickly that the government operates a pretty substantial pro-pregnancy campaign. \n\nIn short, there is plenty of Earth to go around as long as the rich nations help the poor ones industrialize.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39334394",
"title": "Depopulation of the Great Plains",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Depopulation began in the early 1900s, accelerated in the Dust Bowl years of the 1930s, and has generally continued through the most recent national census in 2010. The population decline has been broadly attributed to numerous factors, especially changes in agricultural practices, rapid improvements in urban transit and regional connectivity, and a steadily faltering rural job market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1260217",
"title": "Metapopulation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "A metapopulation is generally considered to consist of several distinct populations together with areas of suitable habitat which are currently unoccupied. In classical metapopulation theory, each population cycles in relative independence of the other populations and eventually goes extinct as a consequence of demographic stochasticity (fluctuations in population size due to random demographic events); the smaller the population, the more chances of inbreeding depression and prone to extinction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "720599",
"title": "Population decline",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 974,
"text": "A population decline (or depopulation) in humans is a reduction in a human population caused by events such as long-term demographic trends, as in sub-replacement fertility, urban decay, white flight, or rural flight, or due to violence, disease, or other catastrophes. Depopulation can be largely beneficial for a region, allocating more resources and less competition for the new population, in addition to exempting the disadvantages of overpopulation, such as increased traffic, pollution, real estate prices, and environmental destruction. Per-capita wealth may increase in depopulation scenarios, in addition to improvement of environmental quality-of-life indicators such as improved air and water quality, reforestation, return of native species, etc. The accompanying benefits of depopulation have been termed shrink and prosper, with benefits being similar to the post-Civil War Gilded Age, post-World War I economic boom, and the post-World War II economic boom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4599275",
"title": "Human overpopulation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "A more controversial definition of overpopulation, as advocated by Paul Ehrlich, is a situation where a population is in the process of depleting non-renewable resources. Under this definition, changes in lifestyle could cause an overpopulated area to no longer be overpopulated without any reduction in population, or vice versa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2218701",
"title": "Marsh fritillary",
"section": "Section::::Conservation.:Habitat loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "In recent years, rapid decline of the population has been observed in the United Kingdom, as the population size has decreased by 55% over the past 30 years. Human activities such as modern farming altered their main habitat – England's damp meadows – and have changed the climate as well. This loss of major habitats has led to fragmentation and isolation of \"E. aurinia\" populations, thus leading to metapopulation formation. \"E. aurinia\" is more vulnerable to extinction in the small subpopulations that comprise the metapopulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20041526",
"title": "Overpopulation",
"section": "Section::::Human overpopulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "\"Human overpopulation\" occurs when the ecological footprint of a human population in a specific geographical location exceeds the carrying capacity of the place occupied by that group. Overpopulation can further be viewed, in a long term perspective, as existing when a population cannot be maintained given the rapid depletion of non-renewable resources or given the degradation of the capacity of the environment to give support to the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9630",
"title": "Ecology",
"section": "Section::::Levels, scope, and scale of organization.:Metapopulations and migration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1264,
"text": "The concept of metapopulations was defined in 1969 as \"a population of populations which go extinct locally and recolonize\". Metapopulation ecology is another statistical approach that is often used in conservation research. Metapopulation models simplify the landscape into patches of varying levels of quality, and metapopulations are linked by the migratory behaviours of organisms. Animal migration is set apart from other kinds of movement; because, it involves the seasonal departure and return of individuals from a habitat. Migration is also a population-level phenomenon, as with the migration routes followed by plants as they occupied northern post-glacial environments. Plant ecologists use pollen records that accumulate and stratify in wetlands to reconstruct the timing of plant migration and dispersal relative to historic and contemporary climates. These migration routes involved an expansion of the range as plant populations expanded from one area to another. There is a larger taxonomy of movement, such as commuting, foraging, territorial behaviour, stasis, and ranging. Dispersal is usually distinguished from migration; because, it involves the one way permanent movement of individuals from their birth population into another population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
37mnem
|
how does motorcycle rpm and gearing work.
|
[
{
"answer": "The RPM of a motorcycle engine as well as how the gearing works, functions on the same principles as any other engine. The whole system is setup slightly different as space is an issue. But the basics are all the same. To answer if your engine is doing the same work at 5k RPM on 2nd gear vs 5th simply, is no, it's not doing the same work. If you ever owned a Bicycle with gears it's the same principle.\n\nAt the low gears, it's super easy to pedal because the rotation is very small. However, you don't output very much energy on the lower gears. At high gears it's the opposite, it's difficult to pedal, but you output much more energy than you're putting in. \n\nBreaking the inertia of a bicycle/motorcycle/car can be a very difficult task, that's why we start at low gears and work up to high gears.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32914296",
"title": "Motorcycle transmission",
"section": "Section::::Clutch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "The clutch in a manual-shift motorcycle transmission is typically an arrangement of plates stacked in alternating fashion, one geared on the inside to the engine and the next geared on the outside to the transmission input shaft. Whether wet (rotating in engine oil) or dry, the plates are squeezed together by a spring, causing friction build up between the plates until they rotate as a single unit, driving the transmission directly. A lever on the handlebar exploits mechanical advantage through a cable or hydraulic arrangement to release the clutch spring(s), allowing the engine to freewheel with respect to the transmission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9791629",
"title": "Motorcycle trailer",
"section": "Section::::Hitching a trailer to a motorcycle.:Coupler binding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Making a turn on a single-track vehicle such as a two-wheeled motorcycle requires the driver to lean the bike. The amount of the lean is dependent upon the speed. Faster speeds require more leaning than slower speeds do. When making a turn with a trailer attached, the mechanism that joins the trailer to the motorcycle must allow for an appreciable lean in order for a trailer to stay upright. Without the ability to freely rotate on a vertical axis, the coupler will bind and the trailer will jack-knife or flip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "622145",
"title": "Manual transmission",
"section": "Section::::Gear shift types.:In motorcycles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 1057,
"text": "The shift pattern for most underbone or miniature motorcycles with an automatic centrifugal clutch is also modified for two key reasons—to enable the less-experienced riders to shift the gears without problems of \"finding\" neutral, and also due to the greater force needed to \"lift\" the gearshift lever (because the gearshift pedal of an underbone motorcycle also operates the clutch). The gearshift lever of an underbone has two ends. The rider clicks down the front end with the left toe all the way to the top gear and clicks down the rear end with the heel all the way down to neutral, while miniatures still retain a single-end lever, with the rider clicks down to upshift and lift the lever up to downshift (or vice versa). Some underbone models such as the Honda Wave have a \"rotary\" shift pattern, which means that the rider can shift directly to neutral from the top gear, but for safety reasons this is only possible when the motorcycle is stationary. Some models also have gear position indicators for all gear positions at the instrument panel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "869961",
"title": "Semi-automatic transmission",
"section": "Section::::Other applications.:Motorcycles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "Many modern motorcycles feature a device called quickshifter for up-shifts without pressing the clutch lever or closing the throttle. The special sensor recognizes pressure on the gear shift rod and quickshifter sends a signal to the ECU to either stop fuelling for a short time (milliseconds) or suppress the spark at the plug, which unloads the gearbox and allows a gear change. The idea came from racing where it helps to minimize the time when the motorcycle is not at full power. An alternative device for down-shifts is called auto-blipper and is less widespread. It artificially \"blips\" the throttle to match engine speed to speed of the rear wheel to avoid sudden spikes in torque transfer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32914296",
"title": "Motorcycle transmission",
"section": "Section::::Manual.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "Most manual transmission two-wheelers use a sequential gearbox. Most modern motorcycles (except scooters) change gears (of which they increasingly have five or six) by foot lever. On a typical motorcycle either first or second gear can be directly selected from neutral, but higher gears may only be accessed in order – it is not possible to shift from second gear to fourth gear without shifting through third gear. A five-speed of this configuration would be known as \"one down, four up\" because of the placement of the gears with relation to neutral, though some motorcycle gearboxes and/or shift mechanisms can be reversed so that a \"one up, four down\" shifting pattern can be used. Neutral is to be found \"half a click\" away from first and second gears, so shifting directly between the two gears can be made in a single movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "622145",
"title": "Manual transmission",
"section": "Section::::Gear shift types.:In motorcycles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Motorcycles typically employ sequential transmissions, although the shift pattern is modified slightly for safety reasons. In a motorcycle the gears are usually shifted with the left foot pedal, the layout being this:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13248111",
"title": "Broadsiding",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Broadsiding is the method used in motorcycle speedway for travelling round the bends on the speedway track. The rider skids his rear wheel by spinning it at such a speed that it sets up a gyroscopic action and this opposes the natural tendencies of centrifugal force. Then he controls the slide by throttle control to maintain, increase or decrease the rate of which the rear wheel spins. Motorcycle speedway bikes have no brakes or suspension. The rider can scrub-off speed while still providing the drive to power the bike forward and around the bend.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fgs6s
|
what would happen if coke stopped advertising for a year?
|
[
{
"answer": "Pepsi would advertise so much it would drive us all insane!...plus coke advertisements are kind of an American tradition now so Christmas would be sad with no polar bear commercial.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm assuming you mean advertising as in media (TV, radio, billboards, etc). You should note that Coke advertises EVERYWHERE and you may not even realize it. The soda machine with a giant coke bottle on the front? Glasses with a coke logo at TGIF? That's all advertising too. Even if they stopped all \"ads\", stopped endorsing NASCAR and sporting events, etc, there would still be Coke logo's in your face all over the place.\n\nLets look at 2 scenarios:\n\n1. Coke stops advertising but Pepsi does not: Pepsi's market share increases, as people get bombarded with Pepsi marketing and try it out. However, there's only so far they can go because restaurants with existing Coke equipment aren't going to switch because of TV ads. Coke's revenue decreases more than Pepsi's increases because without advertising, some people will just drink less soda.\n\n2. Both companies agree to stop advertising: People drink less soda in general. Would it offset the amount that they each spend? Who knows, my guess is not because if it did, then the companies would already have stopped advertising.\n\nAdvertising at that level is not about \"making people know about Coke\" it's about having Coke be the first thing you think of when you think \"I want a drink\"\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the coke logo is one of the most recognizable logos in the world, i doubt it would do much to their bottom line in that year. although, i wonder what they would do with the almost 3 billion dollars they spend annually in advertising. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I used to wonder why some companies, like McDonald's and Coke, don't just skip advertising for a while. Maybe only do it every other year. They'll save millions, and it's not like there's any people out there who aren't already familiar with their products.\n\nBut you know, I think they have a very good reason to advertise so much, despite such good brand recognition. There's a reason they'll show you commercials with big burgers up close, and billboards of cold Coke bottles covered in droplets of condensation.\n\nAnd that reason is for impulse buys. They want you to suddenly think \"Hey you know what, I could go for a burger right now\" while you're driving home from work, or \"Yeah some Coke sounds great\" as you're driving to the grocery store. \n\nSo yeah, I believe that if they stopped advertising, they would see a large drop in sales. No, nobody will suddenly not be aware that there is Coke out there, but a lot less people will suddenly buy Cokes on impulse. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In all honesty coke would most likely gain money from not advertising because they are already so advertised without spending any money on it like threw reatraunts and coke machines. Everyone already knows what coke is and society already does most of its advertising anyway. And think about it...who really watches t.v ads or listens to radio commercials anyway. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "probably not much. at this point they're so engrained they really need to. it's like hershey. when's the last time you saw an add for the actual chocolate bar?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1754505",
"title": "John Banzhaf",
"section": "Section::::Contributions to law and public policy.:Tobacco.:Television advertising.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "The tobacco industry appealed against this decision, but it was upheld by the United States Court of Appeals and the United States Supreme Court declined to hear the case. \"Various governmental and voluntary health organizations made extremely creative spots and provided them to stations.\" In response, tobacco companies offered to stop all advertising on television, if this coordinated action was granted immunity from antitrust laws; they further agreed to have warning labels on cigarette packages and advertising. Tobacco ads ceased to appear on television in the United States at the end of 1970 (on 1 January 1971). Cigarette advertising shifted to print media. Consequently, anti-smoking announcements were no longer required to satisfy the FCC's fairness doctrine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7588218",
"title": "Hamlet (cigar)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Since the ban on tobacco advertising in the UK (which banned tobacco adverts on television in 1991) and much of Europe was implemented during the 1990s, the adverts are no longer aired; they are also no longer shown in cinemas, with the final cinema advert shown in 1999, with the special slogan \"Happiness will always be a cigar called Hamlet.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4153354",
"title": "SodaStream",
"section": "Section::::Environmental marketing.:Advertising campaigns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "A 30-second television commercial promoting sustainability, showing soda bottles exploding each time a person makes a drink using a SodaStream machine, was banned in the United Kingdom in 2012. Clearcast, the organization that approves TV advertising in the UK, explained that they \"thought it was a denigration of the bottled drinks market\". The same ad, crafted by Alex Bogusky, ran in the United States, Sweden, Australia, and other countries. An appeal by SodaStream to reverse Clearcast's decision to censor the commercial was rejected. A similar advertisement, which featured a pair of Coca-Cola and Pepsi deliverymen reacting to the exploding bottles, was expected to air during Super Bowl XLVII in February 2013, but was rejected by CBS for its direct references to Coke and Pepsi. The previous SodaStream ad was shown in its place. SodaStream CEO said \"The banned ad was a win because of the quality as well as the quantity of the exposure we received\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57452857",
"title": "Regulation of nicotine marketing",
"section": "Section::::Advertising restrictions.:Conventional advertising.:North America.:Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 153,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 153,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Nearly 20 years before the passing of the act, in 1969, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Canada's national broadcasting service eliminated all tobacco advertising on both its radio and TV networks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14322444",
"title": "Comparative advertising",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "A 30-second commercial promoting sustainability, showing soda bottles exploding each time a person makes a drink using his Sodastream machine, was banned in the United Kingdom in 2012. Clearcast, the organization that preapproves TV advertising in the U.K., explained that they \"thought it was a denigration of the bottled drinks market.\" The same ad, crafted by Alex Bogusky, ran in the United States, Sweden, Australia, and other countries. An appeal by Sodastream to reverse Clearcast's decision to censor the commercial was rejected. A similar ad was expected to air during Super Bowl XLVII in February 2013 but was banned by CBS for jabbing at Coke and Pepsi (two of CBS's largest sponsors).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57452857",
"title": "Regulation of nicotine marketing",
"section": "Section::::Advertising restrictions.:Conventional advertising.:Oceania.:New Zealand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 169,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 169,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "In 1995 all remaining tobacco advertising and sponsorship was banned except for point-of-sale advertising and some tobacco sponsorship exemptions. Point-of-sale advertising ceased on 11 December 1998.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2268478",
"title": "MagiCan",
"section": "Section::::Technical issues and early termination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1405,
"text": "When Coca-Cola began receiving complaints about the faulty cans, it temporarily halted distribution of the MagiCans to local bottlers. The plan was to test MagiCans before distribution by shaking them to detect faulty mechanisms. Coca-Cola's own initial estimate was that 120,000 MagiCans were on store shelves or in bottler inventories at the initial release, of which less than 1 percent, or fewer than 1,200 cans, were faulty. Ultimately, Coke ended the campaign after only three weeks due to the negative publicity regarding faulty cans. Negative publicity about the promotion included an editorial cartoon showing a man in sunglasses outdoors opening a soda can standing near a billboard hyping MagiCans, then he removes his sunglasses in surprise when a small sign from his can emerges saying \"Buy Pepsi\". The ads also drew fire from a 1990 issue of \"Zillions\", the juvenile version of \"Consumer Reports\" magazine, in their annual \"ZAP Awards\" segments detailing the worst ads of 1990. The main complaint of the ads actually was not the association with New Kids on the Block, but rather the deceptive nature of showing people opening cans and every time it turning out to be a MagiCan, in that \"MagiCans & MagiCups\" made it look so easy to win when it was not in actuality (the magazine shared that view with an ad of Burger King's \"Whopper & Wheels\" promotion, which received far less publicity).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3yhc8f
|
why does online shopping shipping cost so much more than personally sending packages?
|
[
{
"answer": "a few examples.\n-amazon (not books)- free under certain conditions, reasonable when not-free. probably has a deal with ups/usps for volume discount.\n-amazon - books - media mail at usps costs $2.65. there is not really a cheaper way to send a book. if you pay less than $4 for a book + shipping the seller is taking a loss.\n-ebay - ebay charges fees based on final bid price not shipping, so some people mark up the shipping to hide costs\n-random other website - for low volume stuff, that $8 includes troubling larry to get up, prepare your package, and drive it to the post office. or the cost of the box +tape + etc.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1118379",
"title": "Online shopping",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.:Price and selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 977,
"text": "One advantage of shopping online is being able to quickly seek out deals for items or services provided by many different vendors (though some local search engines do exist to help consumers locate products for sale in nearby stores). Search engines, online price comparison services and discovery shopping engines can be used to look up sellers of a particular product or service. Shipping costs (if applicable) reduce the price advantage of online merchandise, though depending on the jurisdiction, a lack of sales tax may compensate for this. Shipping a small number of items, especially from another country, is much more expensive than making the larger shipments bricks-and-mortar retailers order. Some retailers (especially those selling small, high-value items like electronics) offer free shipping on sufficiently large orders. Another major advantage for retailers is the ability to rapidly switch suppliers and vendors without disrupting users' shopping experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43355689",
"title": "Package forwarding",
"section": "Section::::Reasons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "There are several obstacles towards a successful cross-border online shopping, and these include shipping and paying for orders. For instance, US online stores are popular worldwide, but some of them only ship to US addresses or they ask for high shipping international rate. So the package forwarding service helps international shoppers in shipping their purchases from the US to their home addressed or helps them place a direct order with the US retailers if they do not have a US billing address.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14814890",
"title": "Christmas Price Index",
"section": "Section::::Results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "The survey also tracks the cost of ordering the items online; doing so is significantly more expensive, in part due to shipping costs. In 2008, PNC estimated the total cost at $31,956.62, up 2.3% from 2007, while purchasing all 364 items online would cost $131,150.76, an increase of 1.8%. However, if the buyer were to purchase each item from the least-expensive vendor, the total index would be $19,844.95, a discount of 5.86%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206099",
"title": "United Parcel Service",
"section": "Section::::Competitors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 900,
"text": "More recently, the continued growth of online shopping, combined with increasing awareness of the role of transportation (including package delivery) on the environment, has contributed to the rise of emerging competition from niche carriers or rebranded incumbents. For instance, the US Postal Service claims \"greener delivery\" of parcels on the assumption that USPS letter carriers deliver to each US address, six days a week anyway, and therefore offer the industry's lowest fuel consumption per delivery. Other carriers, like ParcelPool.com, which specializes in residential package delivery to APO/FPO addresses, Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico, and other US Territories, arose in response to increased demand from catalog retailers and online e-tailers for low-cost residential delivery services closely matching service standards normally associated with more expensive expedited parcel delivery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18345138",
"title": "Free shipping",
"section": "Section::::Shipping and fees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Many shoppers also perceive shopping costs as a barrier to place the order and leave the shopping cart before purchasing. 31.6% of respondents mentioned the latter as a main barrier during the online shopping experience based on Internet Retailer / Bizrate Insight consumer survey conducted in May 2018. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18345138",
"title": "Free shipping",
"section": "Section::::Shipping and fees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Free shipping is an important factor for consumer shopping online. Based on ComScore data 65% of ecommerce transactions in Q4 2017 in the United States were with free shipping. This figure has been consistent for the last few years (ranging between 58% and 69%). Moreover US respondents asked in the survey listed free shipping (54% mentions) as a most important factor for online shipping. Next in line were exclusive online deals (23%), no sales tax (10%), fast shipping (9%) and in store pickup (5%). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41470325",
"title": "Buyers club",
"section": "Section::::Community bulk purchases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "In many parts of the United States, Canada, and Europe, families and individuals combine their purchasing power to buy items, typically bulk-type food, in a volume that generates a discounted price from the seller. The seller saves by having only one purchase order to manage and, possibly, less packaging and delivery to deal with. The buyers benefit from a lower per-unit cost and, incidentally, from an increased sense of community and sharing. Bulk-food sellers often provide tools so their customers can set up community buyers' clubs, for example: .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1w16xt
|
how can our brains, while sleeping, create images of people/things we've never met or seen before and how can dreams create deja vu/seemingly predict future occurrences?
|
[
{
"answer": "i once watched a report that stated you only dream of people you have already seen at least once. maybe you are not aware of meeting that one person but your subconscious remembers everything.\nthe deja vu thing is easily explained: you experience something and your brain accidentally stores it in the long-term memory instead of the short-term memory. so you think: oops I already experienced that before. Which isn't actually true.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dreams don't actually create déjà vu. That phenomenon is actually created by a slight delay between sensory reception and neural recognition. Basically you witness something via sight, sound, etc, but for whatever reason your brain takes a few extra nanoseconds to process the information, so you feel as though you've experienced it before, and often feel like you can \"predict\" what will happen next, but only as it is actually happening.\n\nAs far as creating entirely new content in dreams - that isn't possible even while awake. All of human creativity is limited to our experiences. Our minds are just able to reassemble these experiences into new combinations. (There are a few exceptions to this, such dealing with things such as scale or color, but those are debatable). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15358229",
"title": "List of dreams",
"section": "Section::::Explanations.:Subconscious.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "This theory suggests that dreaming is an \"unlearning process\" in which our brains bring up material to be thrown out like a computer attempting to clean itself of things we do not need to remember. That is, the subconscious organizes things, solves these problems, and then communicates them to the individual via a dream. (see Dream interpretation) The hypnagogic state is sometimes proposed as a specific explanation of experiences such as alien abduction, apparitions, or visions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30455493",
"title": "Thought recording and reproduction device",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "In December 2008, Advanced Telecommunications Research Institute International's Department of Cognitive Neuroscience announced its own research into the translation of neural signals into images. In addition, Dr. Moran Cerf of UCLA published a 2010 paper for \"Nature\" which claimed that he and other fellow researchers were on the cusp of being able to allow psychologists to interpret thoughts by corroborating people's recollections of their dream with an electronic visualization of their brain activity. The research outcome has often been popularized as a device that could record dreams. However, Moran Cerf says he never made that claim and only said that such a device is a theoretical possibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30823714",
"title": "Lucidity (web series)",
"section": "Section::::Involvement in Lucid Dreaming Community.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Creator Sean Oliver is quoted, \"The dream is still a mystery. People live their lives thinking that we understand it, but the truth is we don’t, we ignore it. If we can’t accurately comprehend the dream state then perhaps some of our assumptions about normal consciousness are misguided as well. I think we should all explore that.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1219129",
"title": "An Experiment with Time",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Dreams and the experiment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Based on the results, he claimed that they demonstrated that such precognitive fragments were common in dreams, even that they were mixed up in equal occurrence with past memories, and therefore they were difficult to identify until after the event they foresaw. He believed that the dreaming mind was not drawn wholly to the present, as it was during wakefulness, but was able to perceive events in its past and future with equal facility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25196457",
"title": "Cognitive neuroscience of dreams",
"section": "Section::::Neuroanatomy of dreaming.:Perceptual processing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1358,
"text": "Another area thought to be involved in the generation of dreams is the Parieto-Occipito-Temporal junction (PTO). This is an area of grey cortex towards the back of the brain involved in the highest levels of perceptual processing. It is here that perceptions are converted into abstract thoughts and memories. The PTO is also vital for mental imagery. Damage specifically to this area results in complete loss of dreaming, however damage to lower levels of perceptual processing merely results in reduced aspects of dream imagery. This is the basis for the suggestion that dreaming involves a reversed sequence of perceptual events. Instead of bottom-up it is top-down (higher levels activating lower levels instead lower to higher). Activation of the motivational mechanisms in the brain would normally be directed toward goal-oriented actions. However, during sleep access to the motor system is blocked (by inactivation of the dorsolateral frontal convexity). As a result, activation moves backwards toward the perceptual areas. This is why the dreamer doesn't engage in motivated behaviours but imagines them. Furthermore, there is inactivation of the reflective system in the limbic brain which leads the dreamer to mistake the dream for reality. Damage to this area also results in the inability to distinguish dreams from reality during waking state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44785",
"title": "Dream",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Visuals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "The visual nature of dreams is generally highly phantasmagoric; that is, different locations and objects continuously blend into each other. The visuals (including locations, characters/people, objects/artifacts) are generally reflective of a person's memories and experiences, but conversation can take on highly exaggerated and bizarre forms. Some dreams may even tell elaborate stories wherein the dreamer enters entirely new, complex worlds and awakes with ideas, thoughts and feelings never experienced prior to the dream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30875305",
"title": "Activation-synthesis hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Dream.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "A dream has all features of primary consciousness but is produced in the brain without external stimulation. Unlike the waking state, the brain cannot recognize its own condition; that it is in the midst of the dream and is not the same as the real world. The brain has a single-minded state of primary consciousness during dreaming, which allows the brain to reach greater perception and awareness of a single scenario out of images and dreams. This is called the dream consciousness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
94xtej
|
what are turkeys being pardoned from if they have not done anything?
|
[
{
"answer": "They are \"being pardoned from the sentence of death for being a turkey at thanksgiving\". It is just a silly tradition. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3225648",
"title": "National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation",
"section": "Section::::State ceremonies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "A number of U.S. states have similar turkey-pardoning events, including Minnesota. The pardoning ceremonies have also been extended to other holidays; for instance, Erie County, New York's county executive facetiously pardons a butter lamb during Holy Week.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3225648",
"title": "National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation",
"section": "Section::::Popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "In \"The West Wing\" episode \"Shibboleth,\" when C.J. learns the alternate turkey is to be slaughtered, she appeals to President Bartlet to save it. He points out that he cannot pardon a turkey, as it had committed no crime and he has no \"judicial jurisdiction over birds\". So, he drafts the turkey into military service to spare its life. In real life, both the turkey and the alternate are spared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54636577",
"title": "Federal pardons in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Symbolic use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "A symbolic use of the presidential pardon is the National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation each Thanksgiving, in which a domestic turkey is pardoned from being slaughtered for Thanksgiving dinner and allowed to live out its life on a farm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8304348",
"title": "Thanksgiving (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Traditional celebrations.:Turkey pardoning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "George H. W. Bush, who served as vice president under Reagan, made the turkey pardon a permanent annual tradition upon assuming the presidency in 1989, a tradition that has been carried on by every president each year since. The pardoned turkeys have typically ended up in the Northern Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C. From 1989 to 2004 they were sent to a children's farm called Frying Pan Farm Park in Herndon, Virginia. From 2009 to 2013 they were sent to George Washington's Mount Vernon estate near Alexandria, Virginia, and in 2014 they were sent to an estate in Leesburg, Virginia once owned by former state governor and turkey farmer Westmoreland Davis. However, from 2005 to 2009 they were sent to either Walt Disney World or Disneyland. The turkeys rarely live to see the next Thanksgiving due to being bred for large size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33553211",
"title": "Bates Turkey Farm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "It is the supplier of Clyde, a series of turkeys that have been ritually pardoned by the governor of Alabama on Thanksgiving since 1949 (Clyde was first pardoned by \"Big Jim\" Folsom) as well as a frozen turkey, which is eaten as the governor's Thanksgiving meal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "288593",
"title": "Pardon",
"section": "Section::::By country.:Turkey.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 159,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 159,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "The president of Turkey is granted the right of pardon under certain circumstances defined in the constitution, article 104. According to the article, the president can \"remit, on grounds of chronic illness, disability, or old age, all or part of the sentences imposed on certain individuals\". After the convict's or his or her proxy's application, if the Council of Forensic Medicine determines that the convict suffers from chronic illness, disability, or old age, the Ministry of Justice presents the situation to the president, and the president can choose to grant a pardon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3225648",
"title": "National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1170,
"text": "The first President on record issuing a \"pardon\" to his turkey was Ronald Reagan. Reagan had been sending the turkeys presented to him to farms and zoos since at least 1982, and 1987's turkey, Charlie, was likewise headed to a petting zoo. At the time, Reagan was facing questions over the Iran-Contra affair, on whether or not he would consider pardoning Oliver North (who had yet to be tried for his involvement in the affair); Reagan conjured the notion of the turkey pardon as a joke to deflect those questions. Reagan did not make any pardon references in the 1988 presentation, but his successor, George H. W. Bush, instituted the turkey pardon as a permanent part of the presentation beginning his first year in office, 1989. The phrase \"presidential pardon\" in that ceremony was apparently inserted by a speechwriter; Bush initially was indifferent to the terminology, saying Reprieve', 'keep him going', or 'pardon': it's all the same for the turkey, as long as he doesn't end up on the president's holiday table.\" Since then, at least one of the turkeys presented to the President has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1gg3du
|
How did the Norway GDP increase by ~$22k in a 4 year span?
|
[
{
"answer": "edit-- not an economist so maybe someone else will prove/disprove the following\n\nGDP per capita increased by USD 22k in 4 years. The important thing to note here is that it is in USD, so let's just run a quick conversion from USD to NOK for 2009 and 2013:\n\n77k USD - > 77/0.14 - > 550 NOK in 2009 at the rate of approx 1 NOK to 0.14 USD\n\n99k USD - > 99/0.17 - > 582 NOK in 2013 at the rate of approx 1 NOK to 0.17 USD\n\nI've used imprecise numbers but from this, it is absolutely clear that the increase is due to exchange rates.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think you mean GDP/capita.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your source is giving the GDP in current (nominal) prices, which is largely irrelevant when measuring the growth of the economy because it doesn't account for the rise in prices relative to the past (inflation). If an industry sold 100 units of product X@ $10 in 2009, the **nominal** GDP of that industry is $1000. If prices rose the next year to say $11 and they sold the same quantity (100), the **nominal** GDP rises to $1100 even though no actual growth was present. \n\nA better measure of growth is **real** GDP, which fixes the prices to a base year. This makes it possible to only account for actual growth by measuring the quantity sold and disregarding the prices.\n\n[**Real** GDP in Norway actually fell](_URL_0_) from 2009 to 2011(the most recent FRED data). Your source's use of nominal GDP along with /u/kyv's explanation are the reasons why the numbers are what make it seem like there has been massive growth present in Norway when in fact there hasn't been.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21312676",
"title": "Timeline of the Great Recession",
"section": "Section::::2009.:May.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Norway's mainland GDP, which excludes the oil and gas sectors and the shipping industry, shrank 1.0% in the three months to March after a 0.8% decline in the final quarter of 2008, with recession counted as two consecutive quarterly figures showing a contraction. Mainland GDP is considered a better indicator of the Scandinavian country's economic health, since the oil and gas sector represents 25% of its economic growth but employs only about one% of its working-age population. Still, Norway's total GDP, which includes the oil, gas and shipping sectors, shrank 0.4% in the first quarter of 2009 after 0.8% growth in the fourth quarter of 2008.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27581983",
"title": "Pensions in Norway",
"section": "Section::::The New Pension Reform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "As forecasted by the United Nations (UN), the Norwegian population over 65 years of age will reach a share of 25% of the country’s population by 2060, contrasting a 16% figure in 2015. In adherence to this assumption and if there had not been an effective reform to the National Insurance Scheme in Norway, government expenditure for old age pensions would have amounted to 13% of GDP by 2060, which is more than double what was spent in 2013 (6% of GDP).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37292837",
"title": "Global warming in Norway",
"section": "Section::::Short-term and long-term effects: Current and changes through 2100.:Sea-level.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Studies suggest that Norway will experience an approximately 10 cm greater rise in sea level than the global average within the year 2100. Despite great uncertainty from all data, the IPCC calculated a global increase of 10–90 cm during this century. Other studies conducted by the NOU Climate Adaptation in 2009 suggest a 40–95 cm rise in sea level in northern Norway up until 2100, corrected for land uplift. This makes infrastructure long the coast more vulnerable to damage, especially during storm surges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38798073",
"title": "Second presidency of Alan García",
"section": "Section::::Economic policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "The growth of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2006 was almost 8% and for the next two years, the figure ranged close to 9%, due to the effects of the global crisis in 2009 grew by 1.12% and 2010 the change was positive in 8.78%. In addition, a five-year period that saw GDP grow by 7.2%, despite its initial projections of 5.3%. Certainly, mining and international prices of metals are responsible for such important figures. With Net international reserves are U.S. $47,059 million at the end of June, according to the Central Reserve Bank (BCR). With proper management of the economy, Peru could overcome without major global recession that hit the main buyers, the U.S., China, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22309",
"title": "Oslo",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "The GDP of Oslo totalled €64 billion(€96,000 per capita) in 2016, which amounted to 20% of the national GDP. This compares with NOK166 billion (US$17 billion) in 1995. The metropolitan area, bar Moss and Drammen, contributed 25% of the national GDP in 2003 and was also responsible for more than one quarter of tax revenues. In comparison, total tax revenues from the oil and gas industry on the Norwegian Continental Shelf amounted to about 16%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69415",
"title": "Economic growth",
"section": "Section::::Importance of long-run growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Over long periods of time, even small rates of growth, such as a 2% annual increase, have large effects. For example, the United Kingdom experienced a 1.97% average annual increase in its inflation-adjusted GDP between 1830 and 2008. In 1830, the GDP was 41,373 million pounds. It grew to 1,330,088 million pounds by 2008. A growth rate that averaged 1.97% over 178 years resulted in a 32-fold increase in GDP by 2008.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69415",
"title": "Economic growth",
"section": "Section::::Differences between Long-Term Growth between Countries and the Power of Small Changes in Growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Seemingly small differences in yearly GDP growth lead to large changes in GDP when compounded over time. For instance, in the above table, GDP per Person in the United Kingdom in the year 1870 was $4,808. At the same time in the United States, GDP per Person was $4,007, lower than the United Kingdom by about 20%. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1noq8l
|
Why were so many large college football stadiums built in the US in the 1920's?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Colleseum in Los Angeles was built for the 1932 Olympics. Cleveland built their Munincipal Stadium in an attempt to augment their bid for the 1932 Olympics. Not only did they not get the Olyimpics, they could not convince the Cleveland Indians to play there until the 1950s. They did have an NFL team, the Rams, that played there from 1937 to 1945. The Rams won the 1945 championship on a fluke play. Sammy Baugh threw a pass from his own end-zone that richocheted off the goal post and scoring a safety for the Rams. The Rams moved to Los Angeles for the 1946 seaon and played in the LA Colessium until the early 1980s, when they moved to Anaheim. Al Davis moved the Raiders to Los Angles and played at the collessium for less than ten years before they moved back to Oakland, the same year the Rams moved to Saint Louis. Al Davis left because an earthquake damaged the collessium and would have been to expensive to repair. \n During the 1920s, the National Football leaugue was still in an embryonic stage of development. Without television, it was not yet a popular sport. College football was popular though. Especially in the Ivy League and Big Ten states. Schools like Michigan could build a stadium with 100,000 seats and sell enough tickets to fill them all. The revenue generated by a successful football program gave the presidents of other schools an edifice complex. They want to build a stadium tha was comparable in size and get their own piece of the pie. During the 1920s college football replaced boxing and horse racing in popularity, and only baseball remained more popular. There were sound business reasons that colleges built such large stadiums. \n ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8203606",
"title": "Multi-purpose stadium",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "In North America, multipurpose stadiums were built primarily during the 1960s and 1970s as shared home stadiums for Major League Baseball and National Football League or Canadian Football League teams. Some stadiums were renovated to allow multipurpose configurations during the 1980s. This type of stadium is associated with an era of suburbanization, in which many sports teams followed their fans out of large cities into areas with cheaper, plentiful land. They were usually built near highways and had large parking lots, but were rarely connected to public transit. As multipurpose stadiums were rarely ideal for both sports usually housed in them, they had fallen out of favor by the 1990s. With the completion of the Truman Sports Complex in Kansas City in 1973, a model for purpose-built stadiums was laid down. Since Oriole Park at Camden Yards opened in 1992, most major league sports stadiums have been built specifically for one sport.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185604",
"title": "Stadium",
"section": "Section::::The modern stadium.:Design issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "Before more modern football stadiums were built in the United States, many baseball parks, including Fenway Park, the Polo Grounds, Wrigley Field, Comiskey Park, Tiger Stadium, Griffith Stadium, Milwaukee County Stadium, Shibe Park, Forbes Field, Yankee Stadium, and Sportsman's Park were used by the National Football League or the American Football League. (To a certain extent, this continues in lower football leagues as well, with TD Ameritrade Park being used as the home stadium of the United Football League's Omaha Nighthawks.) Along with today's single use stadiums is the trend for retro style ballparks closer to downtown areas. Oriole Park at Camden Yards was the first such ballpark for Major League Baseball to be built, using early-20th-century styling with 21st-century amenities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1987995",
"title": "Baseball park",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 948,
"text": "The term \"stadium\" had been used since ancient times, typically for a running track and its seating area. As college football gained in popularity, the smaller college playing fields and/or running tracks (which also frequently had the suffix \"Field\") gave way to large stadiums, many of them built during the sport's \"boom\" of the 1920s. Major league baseball enjoyed a similar boom. One of the first major league ballparks to be called a \"stadium\" was actually the Polo Grounds, which was temporarily renamed Brush Stadium from its reconstruction in 1911 until the death of owner John T. Brush in the 1920s. By then, the most famous baseball \"stadium\" of them all had been constructed: Yankee Stadium. From that point until the retro building boom of the 1990s, the suffix \"Stadium\" was used for almost every new major league ballpark, and was sometimes applied to the old ones, such as Shibe Park, which was renamed Connie Mack Stadium in 1954.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185604",
"title": "Stadium",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern stadiums.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1153,
"text": "During these decades, parallel stadium developments were taking place in the U.S. The Baker Bowl, a baseball park in Philadelphia that opened in its original form in 1887 but was completely rebuilt in 1895, broke new ground in stadium construction in two major ways. The stadium's second incarnation featured the world's first cantilevered second deck (tier) in a sports venue, and was also the first baseball park to use steel and brick for the majority of its construction. Another influential venue was Boston's Harvard Stadium, built in 1903 by Harvard University for its American football team and track and field program. It was the world's first stadium to use concrete-and-steel construction. In 1909, concrete-and-steel construction came to baseball with the opening of Shibe Park in Philadelphia and, a few months later, Forbes Field in Pittsburgh. The latter was the world's first three-tiered sporting venue. The opening of these parks marked the start of the \"jewel box\" era of park construction. The largest stadium crowd ever was 199,854 people watching the final match of the 1950 World Cup at Rio de Janeiro's Maracanã on 16 July 1950.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26978760",
"title": "List of Major League Baseball records considered unbreakable",
"section": "Section::::Other records.:Attendance records.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "The largest multi-purpose stadium in North America suitable for baseball is SDCCU Stadium, the former home of the San Diego Padres, with a listed capacity for baseball of 67,544. While fourteen U.S. stadiums have capacities of over 90,000 of which nine can hold over 100,000 spectators, nearly all were built specifically for American football. A baseball field placed in any of these stadiums would have severe restrictions on its dimensions, and thousands of seats would likely need to be covered to form a suitable batter's eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8203606",
"title": "Multi-purpose stadium",
"section": "Section::::History in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "In the 1960s, multipurpose stadiums began replacing their baseball-only and football-only predecessors, now known as \"classics\" or \"jewel box\" parks. The advantage to a multipurpose stadium is that a singular infrastructure and piece of real estate can support both teams in terms of transportation and playing area, and money (often public money) that would have been spent to support infrastructure for two stadiums could be spent elsewhere. Also playing into the advent of the multipurpose stadium was Americans' growing use of automobiles, which required professional sports stadiums surrounded by parking. Most cities lacked affordable space for such stadiums near their city centers, so multipurpose stadiums were typically built in suburbs with freeways access.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "453767",
"title": "AFL–NFL merger",
"section": "Section::::The merger agreement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1647,
"text": "BULLET::::- Stadiums seating less than 50,000 were declared to be inadequate for professional football's needs, thus compelling teams in stadiums with capacities under that number to expand their current stadiums (most notably the expansion of the Denver Broncos' Mile High Stadium in 1968) or move to newer, larger homes—most notably the Chicago Bears' move from Wrigley Field to Soldier Field in 1971, and the opening of new stadiums for the New England Patriots (Schaefer Stadium in 1971), Kansas City Chiefs (Arrowhead Stadium in 1972), and Buffalo Bills (Rich Stadium in 1973). (The Minnesota Vikings stayed at Metropolitan Stadium, the only sub-50,000 capacity stadium after the merger, until the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome opened in 1982.) It was this stadium issue that prevented Seattle and Tampa Bay from receiving their expansion teams until 1976; both cities were recruiting the Bills and Patriots to relocate to their cities (in defiance of Rozelle's promise) should they not be able to build a compliant stadium in their home market, and only after those stadiums were built and relocation of existing teams ruled out that the league could issue expansion teams to Seattle and Tampa Bay. Since the 1970's, the league has only played occasionally in sub-50,000 seat stadiums. Exceptions include the 1998 NFL season when the Tennessee Oilers played one season at 40,550 seat Vanderbilt Stadium and also from 2017 to present when the Chargers returned to Los Angeles and temporarily moved into the 27,000 seat Dignity Health Sports Park (known as StubHub Center before 2019) until Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park opens in 2020.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3hyt85
|
why is computer image recognition so hard?
|
[
{
"answer": "I know we aren't supposed to post just links, but I don't think there's a better explanation than [this WaitButWhy article](_URL_0_). Scroll down to \"The Road From ANI to AGI\" paragraph.\n\nEdit: For those about to tl;dr - over millions of years of evolution our brains became really good at recognizing objects, because that's what is useful (even necessary) for survival. Computers are very primitive in comparison to our brains, and they can't (yet) teach themselves without any human assistance, so we have to manually \"wire\" them for image recognition.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your biggest problem is recognizing which pixels belong together to one object, and then classifying this object. Life has had over a billion years to develop a semi-decent algorithm for that, which is mostly hardwired into our brain (and because even simple brains are insanely complex and don't work at all like computers, pretty much impossible to reverse engineer)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6596",
"title": "Computer vision",
"section": "Section::::Typical tasks.:Recognition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The classical problem in computer vision, image processing, and machine vision is that of determining whether or not the image data contains some specific object, feature, or activity. Different varieties of the recognition problem are described in the literature:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56024845",
"title": "CIFAR-10",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Computer algorithms for recognizing objects in photos often learn by example. CIFAR-10 is a set of images that can be used to teach a computer how to recognize objects. Since the images in CIFAR-10 are low-resolution (32x32), this dataset can allow researchers to quickly try different algorithms to see what works. Various kinds of convolutional neural networks tend to be the best at recognizing the images in CIFAR-10.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37427542",
"title": "Forensic search",
"section": "Section::::Changes in Computer Forensics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "To compound the issue, there has been a massive increase in the size of the data that the computer forensic expert needs to collect. It is now often the case that the computer hard drive is not able to be imaged, for example if the computer that contains the evidence is too big, or the system cannot be shut down to take an image as it is a mission critical server such as an email server or company file server. The rise of Cloud computing has also added challenges to the collection of evidence. The data that requires collection and review may reside in the Cloud. In this case there is no computer available to image. The forensic expert then needs to collect the information using forensic software designed to work with certain Cloud providers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48249441",
"title": "Phase stretch transform",
"section": "Section::::Open source code release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "On February 9, 2016, a UCLA Engineering research group has made public the computer code for PST algorithm that helps computers process images at high speeds and \"see\" them in ways that human eyes cannot. The researchers say the code could eventually be used in face, fingerprint, and iris recognition systems for high-tech security, as well as in self-driving cars' navigation systems or for inspecting industrial products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "346382",
"title": "Image analysis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Computers are indispensable for the analysis of large amounts of data, for tasks that require complex computation, or for the extraction of quantitative information. On the other hand, the human visual cortex is an excellent image analysis apparatus, especially for extracting higher-level information, and for many applications — including medicine, security, and remote sensing — human analysts still cannot be replaced by computers. For this reason, many important image analysis tools such as edge detectors and neural networks are inspired by human visual perception models.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45350085",
"title": "Visual computing",
"section": "Section::::Visual computing disciplines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Techniques that can extract content information from images are called image analysis techniques. Computer vision is the ability of computers (or of robots) to recognize their environment and to interpret it correctly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14661466",
"title": "Outline of object recognition",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Object recognition – technology in the field of computer vision for finding and identifying objects in an image or video sequence. Humans recognize a multitude of objects in images with little effort, despite the fact that the image of the objects may vary somewhat in different view points, in many different sizes and scales or even when they are translated or rotated. Objects can even be recognized when they are partially obstructed from view. This task is still a challenge for computer vision systems. Many approaches to the task have been implemented over multiple decades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4hynmm
|
If protons & neutrons are each composed of 3 quarks, is the atomic nucleus just a jumble of quarks, or is each set of 3 quarks a distinct particle?
|
[
{
"answer": "These pictures of 3 quarks making up a nucleon is a crude simplification. A proton is a very complex bound state that consists of the 3 valence quarks as well as a fluctuating part of gluons and quark anti-quark pairs. \n\nEven though the nucleons are a seemingly a mess, they can be more or less be seen as distinct particles that bound together make up atomic nuclei. The predicitions from this assumption lead to pretty good results (shell model of the atomic nucleus).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The quarks are bound together through the strong interaction, that is they exchange gluons, which may only couple to coloured particles. Once you get three quarks together (one of each colour), the resulting heap is colourless, and will not see the strong force anymore.\n\nAn analogy in electromagnetism would be asking if a pile of table salt is just a bunch of Na and Cl ions together. That's not really the case, since once these ions pair up, there is no force to bind them together, and you can distinguish salt molecules.\n\nThere is an additional phenomenon going on with the proton, however: the residual strong force (or nuclear force). Two nucleons may trade quarks, but these quarks have to travel together in the form of a pion such hat they remain colourless. This is what allows nuclei to remain together. The scale at which this occurs is much greater than the scale at which the quarks interact together, since the former does not have to deal with colour confinement but the latter does.\n\nFinally, as was mentioned before, nucleons also contain all manner of gluons and virtual quarks, which are the results of higher orders of interactions between the valence quarks (the three long-lived quarks that define the particle).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "391267",
"title": "Positron emission",
"section": "Section::::Emission mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "Inside protons and neutrons, there are fundamental particles called quarks. The two most common types of quarks are \"up quarks\", which have a charge of +/, and \"down quarks\", with a −/ charge. Quarks arrange themselves in sets of three such that they make protons and neutrons. In a proton, whose charge is +1, there are two \"up\" quarks and one \"down\" quark (/ + / − / = 1). Neutrons, with no charge, have one \"up\" quark and two \"down\" quarks (/ − / − / = 0). Via the weak interaction, quarks can change flavor from \"down\" to \"up\", resulting in electron emission. Positron emission happens when an \"up\" quark changes into a \"down\" quark. (/ − 1 = −/).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21961",
"title": "Nucleon",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Neither the proton nor neutron is an elementary particle, meaning each is composed of smaller parts, namely three quarks each. A proton is composed of two up quarks and one down quark, while the neutron has one up quark and two down quarks. Quarks are held together by the strong force, or equivalently, by gluons, which mediate the strong force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902",
"title": "Atom",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Subatomic particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "In the Standard Model of physics, electrons are truly elementary particles with no internal structure. However, both protons and neutrons are composite particles composed of elementary particles called quarks. There are two types of quarks in atoms, each having a fractional electric charge. Protons are composed of two up quarks (each with charge +) and one down quark (with a charge of −). Neutrons consist of one up quark and two down quarks. This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21272",
"title": "Neutron",
"section": "Section::::Intrinsic properties.:Magnetic moment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "The above treatment compares neutrons with protons, allowing the complex behavior of quarks to be subtracted out between models, and merely exploring what the effects would be of differing quark charges (or quark type). Such calculations are enough to show that the interior of neutrons is very much like that of protons, save for the difference in quark composition with a down quark in the neutron replacing an up quark in the proton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "696912",
"title": "Bound state",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "BULLET::::- The proton itself is a bound state of three quarks (two up and one down; one red, one green and one blue). However, unlike the case of the hydrogen atom, the individual quarks can never be isolated. See confinement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23317",
"title": "Proton",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "Although protons were originally considered fundamental or elementary particles, in the modern Standard Model of particle physics, protons are classified as hadrons, like neutrons, the other nucleon (particles present in atomic nuclei), composite particles composed of three valence quarks: two up quarks of charge +\"e\" and one down quark of charge –\"e\". The rest masses of quarks contribute only about 1% of a proton's mass, however. The remainder of a proton's mass is due to quantum chromodynamics binding energy, which includes the kinetic energy of the quarks and the energy of the gluon fields that bind the quarks together. Because protons are not fundamental particles, they possess a measurable size; the root mean square charge radius of a proton is about 0.84–0.87 fm or to .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11274",
"title": "Elementary particle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Via quantum theory, protons and neutrons were found to contain quarks—up quarks and down quarks—now considered elementary particles. And within a molecule, the electron's three degrees of freedom (charge, spin, orbital) can separate via the wavefunction into three quasiparticles (holon, spinon, orbiton). Yet a free electron—which is not orbiting an atomic nucleus and lacks orbital motion—appears unsplittable and remains regarded as an elementary particle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1gzmkd
|
Do eggs change weight as they develop?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, the [egg loses weight during incubation](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55425105",
"title": "Hemileuca lucina",
"section": "Section::::Life cycle.:Eggs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "An average of 146 eggs are laid per batch. Each egg weighs around 1.63 mg and ranges from 1.13-1.89 mg. The specific time in which the eggs are laid does not seem to determine larval fitness. Similarly, the range of egg weight seems insignificant as there is no known information on whether or not quality/health of larvae depends on egg weight. However, female age seems to control egg weight, as the weights declined as females aged. The eggs hatch in May.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12153647",
"title": "Chorthippus brunneus",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Eggs and hatchlings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Egg size is influenced by a number of factors. As maternal age increases so does egg size. At the beginning of the breeding season females lay smaller eggs compared to the end of the breeding season. Eggs laid in the last part of the breeding season are smaller in size due to deteriorating maternal health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19196010",
"title": "Egg as food",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and characteristics.:Air cell.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "The larger end of the egg contains an air cell that forms when the contents of the egg cool down and contract after it is laid. Chicken eggs are graded according to the size of this air cell, measured during candling. A very fresh egg has a small air cell and receives a grade of AA. As the size of the air cell increases and the quality of the egg decreases, the grade moves from AA to A to B. This provides a way of testing the age of an egg: as the air cell increases in size due to air being drawn through pores in the shell as water is lost, the egg becomes less dense and the larger end of the egg will rise to increasingly shallower depths when the egg is placed in a bowl of water. A very old egg will float in the water and should not be eaten.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12777655",
"title": "Bird egg",
"section": "Section::::Size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Egg size tends to be proportional to the size of the adult bird, from the half gram egg of the bee hummingbird to the 1.5 kg egg of the ostrich. Kiwis have disproportionately large eggs, up to 20% of the female's body weight. This evolutionary trait results in kiwi chicks that can emerge from the nest days after hatching, ready to start foraging for food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12153647",
"title": "Chorthippus brunneus",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Eggs and hatchlings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "A larger egg size generally results in a larger hatchling and adult size. Eggs laid by \"C. brunneus\" from late August to early September are the heaviest, hatch the latest, and have heavier hatchlings. While earlier hatchlings are initially smaller, earlier hatchlings achieve a larger body size than later hatchlings. Maximum temperatures rather than minimum temperatures influence the weight of hatchlings unless the minimum temperature exceeds the tolerance limit. In later hatchlings warmer weather and decreased food availability promotes more rapid development resulting in a smaller body size compared to earlier hatchlings. The heaviest hatchlings come from colder habitats. Increased population density also results in decreased adult size as well as slower development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239842",
"title": "Common tern",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour.:Breeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1698,
"text": "The peak time for egg production is early May, with some birds, particularly first-time breeders, laying later in the month or in June. The clutch size is normally three eggs; larger clutches probably result from two females laying in the same nest. Egg size averages , although each successive egg in a clutch is slightly smaller than the first laid. The average egg weight is , of which 5% is shell. The egg weight depends on how well-fed the female is, as well as on its position in the clutch. The eggs are cream, buff, or pale brown, marked with streaks, spots or blotches of black, brown or grey which help to camouflage them. Incubation is by both sexes, although more often by the female, and lasts 21–22 days, extending to 25 days if there are frequent disturbances at the colony which cause the adults to leave the eggs unattended; nocturnal predation may lead to incubation taking up to 34 days. On hot days the incubating parent may fly to water to wet its belly feathers before returning to the eggs, thus affording the eggs some cooling. Except when the colony suffers disaster, 90% of the eggs hatch. The precocial downy chick is yellowish with black or brown markings, and like the eggs, is similar to the equivalent stage of the Arctic tern. The chicks fledge in 22–28 days, usually 25–26. Fledged juveniles are fed at the nest for about five days, and then accompany the adults on fishing expeditions. The young birds may receive supplementary feeds from the parents until the end of the breeding season, and beyond. Common terns have been recorded feeding their offspring on migration and in the wintering grounds, at least until the adults move further south in about December.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29243665",
"title": "Prenatal nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Recommendations for low and high birth weight.:High birth weight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Research shows that when birth weights of infants are greater than the 90th percentile of the growth chart for babies of the same gestational age, they are considered large for gestational age or LGA. This indicates that these babies are weighing more than 90% of babies of the same gestational age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
136w1d
|
intelligence quotient / iq, what exactly is it and what are its criticisms? why is it potentially wrong?
|
[
{
"answer": "My understanding is IQ is broadly an analytical way of assessing a person's capabilities. It uses a combination of problems, pictures and other tests to assess a person. It is a good measure, but it is not the best indicator for a person's abilities. You may be bad at identifying sequences, but still be good at arriving at conclusions. It also does not take into account a person's emotional intelligence and hence it is argued that this is not a definitive indicator of person's abilities and cannot be used to predict whether or not someone will be successful in life.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are many different kinds of ways humans can demonstrate intelligence, so it's absurd to think that a single number could measure that.\n\nFor example, someone may be a musical genius, but bad at spatial reasoning. Or someone may be excellent at math and spatial reasoning, but horrible that leading others.\n\nThere are also people who think that the IQ tests are culturally biased. If you think that's a load of bunk, take this [fake IQ test](_URL_0_) based on Australian aboriginal society. Now compare it to [this one](_URL_1_) based on westernized norms. Do you see why the former test may do a better job of measuring intelligence in Australian aboriginals than the latter one?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "IQ is a measure of how 'intelligent' you are compared to the average person your age where you live.\n\nHaving an IQ of 100 by definition means that you are exactly average for your age and area.\n\nA 20 year old and 12 year old writing the same test and marking the exact same answers would get different results. The 12 year old having answered everything the same as the 20 year old would get a higher IQ because older people are expected to get more answers right than children.\n\nSimilarly the test is reclibrated based on region, but this is not a big difference in practice. The result however is that the average IQ in the US is exactly the same as the average IQ in for example Pakistan: 100 because that is how the whole thing is defined.\n\nSome criticisms are based on the age thing. Some children develop faster than other which might lead to having fantastically high IQs as children which later when they reach adulthood go down to only normal 'very smart'.\n\nOther somewhat controversial criticisms are for example about the fact that IQ test are supposedly culturally biased in some way or another.\n\nEven more controversial theories attack the concept of intelligence itself and demand that it be more inclusive. Some people believe that certain other skills and abilities such be seen as forms of intelligence, that for example someone who is not good with numbers or words or spatial reasoning or abstract ideas but is a really good dancer should be considered to be 'intelligent' in that area. While there might be some kernel of a rational and worthwhile argument at the core of this theory it has been pretty much co-opted by people who use it unintelligently like parents who refuse to admit that their child has below average intelligence and insists that he is merely differently intelligent as evident by the fact that he is good at sports.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can't tell you why it's considered inaccurate, but I can give you a few famous cases of incredibly smart individuals with a comparatively low IQ.\n\n[Dr. Richard Feynman](_URL_1_), Nobel Prize winner in physics, had a reported IQ of 125, yet he is widely regarded as one of the smartest minds of his generation, and is known as the creator of modern theories of quantum and sub-atomic computing.\n\n[Dr. James Watson](_URL_2_), Nobel Prize winner in biology, reportedly had an IQ of under 130. Watson is best known as being a co-discoverer of DNA's structure. \n\n[Dr. Francis Crick](_URL_3_), Nobel Prize winner in biology, also reportedly had an IQ under 130, and worked with Dr. Watson on the discovery of DNA's structure.\n\n[Dr. William Shockley](_URL_0_), Nobel Prize winner in physics, was one of three men who first invented the transistor, the circuit that allows the computer on your desk to exist. Also had an IQ under 130.\n\nTo put this in perspective, I have an IQ of roughly 137, yet I'm struggling through my CS program at Purdue University. Even assuming I was able to do my work effectively, I am certainly not as smart as any of the four men listed above. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"wrong\" is a terrible word to use, it is not \"exact\" in a strict mathematical sense, but it is reliable, in that if you take a test today and another one a week later the scores will be very close. Basically the thing it measures is your ability to take the test. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It means you did well on the IQ test, it doesn't do much more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2209291",
"title": "Intelligence and public policy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "A large body of research indicates that intelligence measures such as intelligence quotient (IQ) varies between individuals and between certain groups, and that they correlate with socially important outcomes such as educational achievement, employment, crime, poverty and socioeconomic status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14892",
"title": "Intelligence quotient",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "An intelligence quotient (IQ) is a total score derived from several standardized tests designed to assess human intelligence. The abbreviation \"IQ\" was coined by the psychologist William Stern for the German term \"Intelligenzquotient\", his term for a scoring method for intelligence tests at University of Breslau he advocated in a 1912 book. Historically, IQ is a score obtained by dividing a person's mental age score, obtained by administering an intelligence test, by the person's chronological age, both expressed in terms of years and months. The resulting fraction is multiplied by 100 to obtain the IQ score. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14892",
"title": "Intelligence quotient",
"section": "Section::::Group differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Among the most controversial issues related to the study of intelligence is the observation that intelligence measures such as IQ scores vary between ethnic and racial groups and sexes. While there is little scholarly debate about the \"existence\" of some of these differences, their \"causes\" remain highly controversial both within academia and in the public sphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168191",
"title": "Human intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Theories.:Relevance of IQ tests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "In psychology, human intelligence is commonly assessed by IQ scores, determined by IQ tests. However, there are critics of IQ who do not dispute the stability of IQ test scores, or the fact that they predict certain forms of achievement rather effectively. They do argue, however, that to base a concept of intelligence on IQ test scores alone is to ignore many important aspects of mental ability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31283",
"title": "The Mismeasure of Man",
"section": "Section::::Summary.:IQ, \"g\", statistical correlation, and heritability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 951,
"text": "Furthermore, he dismissed the proposition that an IQ score measures the general intelligence (\"g\" factor) of a person, because cognitive ability tests (IQ tests) present different types of questions, and the responses tend to form clusters of intellectual acumen. That is, different questions, and the answers to them, yield different scores—which indicate that an IQ test is a combination method of different examinations of different things. As such, Gould proposed that IQ-test proponents assume the existence of \"general intelligence\" as a discrete quality within the human mind, and thus they analyze the IQ-test data to produce an IQ number that establishes the definitive general intelligence of each man and of each woman. Hence, Gould dismissed the IQ number as an erroneous artifact of the statistical mathematics applied to the raw IQ-test data, especially because psychometric data can be variously analyzed to produce multiple IQ scores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14892",
"title": "Intelligence quotient",
"section": "Section::::Criticism and views.:Relationship to intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Critics such as Keith Stanovich do not dispute the reliability of IQ test scores or their capacity to predict some kinds of achievement, but argue that basing a concept of intelligence on IQ test scores alone neglects other important aspects of mental ability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9378842",
"title": "The IQ Controversy, the Media and Public Policy",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Snyderman and Rothman claimed that the media had misrepresented the views of experts, so that the public now believed that it was impossible to define intelligence, that IQ or aptitude tests were outmoded and that environmentalism and hereditarianism were incompatible points of view. As they wrote: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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}
] | null |
5ojn69
|
when someone talks about rendering a video, or an animation, what does that mean? and how would not rendering it affect it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Rendering means having a machine draw each frame (picture) used in the video. Not rendering it means it would be blank.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think of \"rendering\" as a painter painting a still image. In an animation/video, the computer renders/paints each frame of the video.\n\nIf you do not render it, it would not exist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's compare video editing to building a car.\n\nSo you're editing your video, but really it's a collection of parts. Multiple footage clips, effects like color correction, etc. The computer is able to tell you that \"yes, these parts put together make a car\" but rendering is where the parts actually get put together and consolidated into one piece. It's a little more complicated than that I think, but ELI5. \n\nIf you try to play your video/move your car without rendering, the smoothness really depends on if your computer is strong enough to pick up x amount of parts at the same time. Rendering is like putting some of the car together so it can drive a little smoother.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Animation, effects, etc. are a collection of 1000's of frames. It would take forever to make those 1000's of frames manually with the tiny changes in each one think about how simplistic old cartoons are that were done that way. The background scrolls and the character has limited motion. Now, compare to something like a Pixar movie where you see individual hairs move as a character moves, etc. The only way to get that is to create a few key frames and have computers render, or figure out the missing frames in between, to complete the entire action.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The other aspect of it is that generally when we think of rendering we are also talking about packaging the video elements into a file that is able to sent and played by others (like a .mov or .mp4). Unlike when you are editing it, these are self contained files with all the parts (footage, effects, sound, titles) baked into each frame so that youtube or whatever can play it. While editing the video, the parts are all being pulled from their locations on the hard drive and the computer processors are temporarily configuring them in a way that you can preview it. Or in the case of an animation the computer is \"drawing\" a model based on what you created. This allows you to make changes and see them instantly since the computer will have to redraw the image again either way (think of how a video game would function). But this takes a lot of computing power and so may play slowly or at a reduced resolution until rendering. Also the file will probably only be usable by that particular animation or editing software. Once you are finished, rendering allows the computer to take all the parts and calculations and \"bake\" it in. Basically, instead of drawing the image it instead is just taking what you as a viewer sees and putting that into a digital video file format. \n\nAnother metaphor might be a simple modeling clay figure. You mold it with your hands into a shape, and you can even still move parts of it around or change its features. Once you are done, you take a picture and now you can go show it to your friend without having to bring a block of clay and tools to do it all over again in a different place. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Rendering takes all of the different assets that may be in a video (clips, audio, etc.) and orders them and is more or less a set of instructions...I.E. \"draw a pixel at this location with this color and play a sound\" instead of \"find the sound and video assets in storage, put it in RAM, run calculations on it THEN draw on screen/play sound.\"\n\nVideogames, conversely (for further illustration), are rendered at runtime. Since the character could be anywhere on the screen, particle effects could or could not need to be drawn on the screen, sounds could be true or false, obviously it's not going to be pre-rendered because we don't know what's going to happen yet! \n\nThats why you need a good graphics processor for gaming and video rendering, and why you don't need much processing at all for playing even 4k movies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When speaking in terms of complex 3D animation. There's no way that a computer would be able to process an animation in real time by drawing and manipulating every object in the scene. Rendering is basically just going through each frame of a scene, waiting for it to load, then taking a screenshot. Then you just have a collection of 2D frames, which are far less flexible to manipulate but are much easier for a computer to play back in real time than true 3D, since you're trashing all of the 3rd dimension information as well as lighting, shadows & reflection information, which are some of the most CPU intensive parts of producing a good looking scene.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Rendering a video and rendering an animation are two completely different things. To produce a 3-D animated movie, you actually have to do both.\n\nRendering an animation is taking the 3-D scene the artist works with, and computing what the end result would look like. The artist isn't working with the whole thing, they are often using a simplistic lighting model and the final render actually traces out paths of light and how they reflect and refract and absorb across complex objects. Oftentimes there are also physical simulations being rendered. Animators don't model what water looks like, they just have a water simulation that needs to be processed by the computer to figure out what the water should be doing and what it should look like. \n\n_URL_0_\nThis video is an example of what artists actually work with when making the movie (with glitches, obviously). See how the models are simple with no textures and simple lighting? That all gets added in for the final render.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6604",
"title": "Rendering (computer graphics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "Rendering or image synthesis is the automatic process of generating a photorealistic or non-photorealistic image from a 2D or 3D model (or models in what collectively could be called a \"scene\" file) by means of computer programs. Also, the results of displaying such a model can be called a render. A scene file contains objects in a strictly defined language or data structure; it would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information as a description of the virtual scene. The data contained in the scene file is then passed to a rendering program to be processed and output to a digital image or raster graphics image file. The term \"rendering\" may be by analogy with an \"artist's rendering\" of a scene.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1564205",
"title": "Real-time computer graphics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Different techniques for rendering now exist, such as ray-tracing and rasterization. Using these techniques and advanced hardware, computers can now render images quickly enough to create the illusion of motion while simultaneously accepting user input. This means that the user can respond to rendered images in real time, producing an interactive experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "575963",
"title": "Scientific visualization",
"section": "Section::::Topics.:Surface rendering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Rendering is the process of generating an image from a model, by means of computer programs. The model is a description of three-dimensional objects in a strictly defined language or data structure. It would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information. The image is a digital image or raster graphics image. The term may be by analogy with an \"artist's rendering\" of a scene. 'Rendering' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce final video output. Important rendering techniques are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1843472",
"title": "Software rendering",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "Rendering is used in architecture, simulators, video games, movies and television visual effects and design visualization. Rendering is the last step in an animation process, and gives the final appearance to the models and animation with visual effects such as shading, texture-mapping, shadows, reflections and motion blurs. Rendering can be split into two main categories: real-time rendering (also known as online rendering), and pre-rendering (also called offline rendering). Real-time rendering is used to interactively render a scene, like in 3D computer games, and generally each frame must be rendered in a few milliseconds. Offline rendering is used to create realistic images and movies, where each frame can take hours or days to complete, or for debugging of complex graphics code by programmers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18567210",
"title": "Computer graphics",
"section": "Section::::Concepts and principles.:Rendering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 1372,
"text": "Rendering is the generation of a 2D image from a 3D model by means of computer programs. A scene file contains objects in a strictly defined language or data structure; it would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information as a description of the virtual scene. The data contained in the scene file is then passed to a rendering program to be processed and output to a digital image or raster graphics image file. The rendering program is usually built into the computer graphics software, though others are available as plug-ins or entirely separate programs. The term \"rendering\" may be by analogy with an \"artist's rendering\" of a scene. Although the technical details of rendering methods vary, the general challenges to overcome in producing a 2D image from a 3D representation stored in a scene file are outlined as the graphics pipeline along a rendering device, such as a GPU. A GPU is a device able to assist the CPU in calculations. If a scene is to look relatively realistic and predictable under virtual lighting, the rendering software should solve the rendering equation. The rendering equation does not account for all lighting phenomena, but is a general lighting model for computer-generated imagery. 'Rendering' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce final video output.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10175073",
"title": "3D computer graphics",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Layout and animation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Before rendering into an image, objects must be laid out in a scene. This defines spatial relationships between objects, including location and size. Animation refers to the temporal description of an object (i.e., how it moves and deforms over time. Popular methods include keyframing, inverse kinematics, and motion capture). These techniques are often used in combination. As with animation, physical simulation also specifies motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14463952",
"title": "Outline of animation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Animation – rapid display of a sequence of images of 2-D artwork or model positions in order to create an illusion of movement. It is an optical illusion of motion due to the phenomenon of persistence of vision. The most common method of presenting animation is as a motion picture or video program, although several other forms of presenting animation also exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2pu2xh
|
why do so many americans blame obama for practically everything?
|
[
{
"answer": "Uhhhhmm, every president gets blamed for everything. This is not a slight, or a joke, its nearly the main reason they exist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Isn't this true everywhere? I know David Cameron gets blamed for most stuff that goes wrong in the UK.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because most American citizens have very little idea of how their government actually works, and how limited the president's power is, domestically and economically. The president is the most well-known governmental figure, and it's a lot simpler to blame him than to go watch C-SPAN or check voting records and see that it's actually your representatives and senators who are screwing you, in many cases, *specifically* because they know you'll blame Obama for it and they want his approval rating to go down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most people haven't played Sim City before. I am being serious, playing that game has shown me that you just can't win when you are mayor of a town, everyone wants everything but complain when taxes need to be raised to make money and people start opposing changes. \n\nPlus, the president is basically the scapegoat, they get blamed for almost everything that happens.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you're at the top, it's your fault. If you can't handle it, you shouldn't be at the top.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Uhhhhmm, every president gets blamed for everything. This is not a slight, or a joke, its nearly the main reason they exist.\n\nThis is sadly true. The President of the US is a scapegoat for nearly everything that goes wrong. It's near impossible to please everyone in our country, let alone the world. However, if we take into consideration all the good things he HAS done instead of what he HASN'T done, we can begin to see he ain't half bad. DADT was repealed - Civil Rights progression; The Obama family endorsed Same Sex Marriage - More progression in Civil Rights; The debt crisis has been nearly resolved; Have you seen the gas prices lately?; Oh, the wars have ended and the troops are coming home. There's plenty to be said. Please correct me if I'm wrong, and please, add more. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Over here in Australia, Abbott is blamed meticulously. \n\nIts not just Obama, its every president. Human beings have this tendency to be unique and different, so in every population you will have haters regardless of their class, race religion etc etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "American \"politics\" has become more about making opponents look bad than yourself good. The major political parties in the U.S. are the Democrats and the Republicans, the Republicans try and make the Democrats look bad and the Democrats try and make the republicans look bad. Obama is a very popular Democrat and his character and actions are seen by many as representational of the entire Democratic party.\n\nBy blaming Obama for problems, they are hoping to gain political advantage over the Democrats; I.E. \"Look how BAD the democrats are, our side is clearly the GOOD one, vote for us.\" This only really works because there are only two viable political parties in national politics in the U.S.\n\nThe sad part is, really complex issues that have major impacts on the lives of millions are are boiled down to and decided by this \"THEY BAD, WE CLEARLY NOT AS BAD\" fight.\n\nedit: words",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why do so many Americans blame ~~Obama~~ Bush for practically everything?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At least on reddit the \"Thanks Obama\" that you see everywhere is usually just a joke.\n\nOther than that there's just a lot of people who disagree with his ideas. I'm not a huge supporter because he hasn't really done much but just my $.02.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People like/need a scapegoat. \n\nEverything has random fluctuations and when things go 'down' people like to think it was somebody's fault.\n\nAt least that's how I percieve it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Obama may not be directly responsible for a lot of things, but he is very influential when it comes to laws, etc. Also, being better than Bush could still mean being terrible. Only less terrible than Bush was. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the Democratic world the leader of the country is essentially the elected fall guy. He/She is the person who takes all of the blame for all situations regardless of who actually caused them. Every single leader in the world is like this. Harper gets the blame on Reddit for every single Canadian problem. People are uneducated in terms of provincial-federal jurisdictions, how courts work, and or how bills are designed. The leader of the country is responsible for all of the bad things and the only good things about that person are international agreements.\n\nWhen you look at George W he instituted a major and important way to which US education works, and the process actually [helped](_URL_0_). Many people criticized it and his legacy should be that he gave Americans a fighting chance in schools.\n\nWhen Bush left office there was the financial crisis. Some felt he caused it because he was the president. But anyone who knows anything about finances knows it takes a decade of financial planning to cause something like this. To that extent the blame went to Bill Clinton, George HW Bush, and Ronald Reagan.\n\nSo as intelligent people the only things we can really blame Bush for are the PATRIOT Act. But we're going to blame it on Obama... because he's President now and he's kept it in place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because that's the way responsibility works. He's in charge. He gets blamed for the bad things. If he's lucky, he gets credited for the good things.\n\n > Most of the world also seem to agree that hes much better than Bush was.\n\nProving, yet again, Orwell's adage that sanity is not statistical.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well besides the normal everything is the presidents fault aspect. He did heavily support the reform in health insurance which many are upset about and people are upset about executive orders they don't agree with",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Presidents are like quarterbacks in football. They get way too much credit when something goes right, and way too much blame for when something goes wrong. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "President Truman famously said, 'the buck stops here.' Even though Obama isn't responsible for everything bad ever, he is the face of the operation. It's kind of like in sports how the qb or pitcher is credited with his team's success and failure. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37573871",
"title": "Second inauguration of Barack Obama",
"section": "Section::::Inaugural events.:Public Inauguration: \"Faith in America's Future\".:Inaugural address.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1797,
"text": "Obama commented on the role of government that \"Progress does not compel us to settle centuries-long debates about the role of government for all time — but it does require us to act in our time.\" And he added while the American people never gave up their skepticism of a strong federal government, they also never believed that the government can fix all ills. In order to prepare America for a rapidly changing world he stressed the need for the political leaders of America to act in common cause. The president argued that \"now decisions are upon us and we cannot afford delay.\" Obama also made what appeared to be an oblique reference to the partisan battles between himself, the Republican-controlled House and the Senate — where Democrats had control but not a filibuster-proof majority. In reference to the unalienable rights of Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness Obama declared in the context of the partisan battles that \"[b]eing true to our founding documents does not require us to agree on every contour of life; it does not mean we will all define liberty in exactly the same way, or follow the same precise path to happiness.\" Obama said that the politically gridlocked capital — and, implicitly, the Republicans who have fought his ideas during the 2012 U.S. presidential election — was moving too slowly at a critical moment. \"We cannot mistake absolutism for principle, or substitute spectacle for politics, or treat name-calling as reasoned debate,\" Obama said. \"We must act, knowing that our work will be imperfect.\" Obama added that \"the oath I have sworn before you today, like the one recited by others who serve in this Capitol, was an oath to God and country, not party or faction — and we must faithfully execute that pledge during the duration of our service.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "154183",
"title": "Harry Belafonte",
"section": "Section::::Political and humanitarian activism.:Obama administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "On December 9, 2012, in an interview with Al Sharpton on MSNBC, Belafonte expressed dismay that many political leaders in the United States continue to oppose the policies of President Obama even after his re-election: \"The only thing left for Barack Obama to do is to work like a third-world dictator and just put all of these guys in jail. You're violating the American desire.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "534366",
"title": "Barack Obama",
"section": "Section::::Presidency (2009–2017).:Domestic policy.:2010 midterm elections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Obama called the November 2, 2010 election, where the Democratic Party lost 63 seats in, and control of, the House of Representatives, \"humbling\" and a \"shellacking\". He said that the results came because not enough Americans had felt the effects of the economic recovery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41227580",
"title": "Reactions to global surveillance disclosures",
"section": "Section::::Fallout.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Shortly after the disclosures were published, President Obama asserted that the American public had no cause for concern because \"nobody is listening to your telephone calls\", and \"there is no spying on Americans\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36716921",
"title": "You didn't build that",
"section": "Section::::Response.:Conservative commentators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "In \"The Washington Post\", Jennifer Rubin wrote that the statement showed that Obama \"revealed a level of resentment toward the private sector that was startling, even to his critics\", and that the speech reflects that \"the anti-business assaults \"become\" the campaign. Meanwhile, his affection for government becomes a chip on his shoulder, prompting him to dare those private-sector wise guys to deny the centrality of government in their success.\" Glenn Kessler later said that the Obama statement was taken out of context and that he was speaking about higher taxes for the wealthy, comparing individual initiative to the system of many people working to create supporting infrastructure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54190883",
"title": "Donald Trump on social media",
"section": "Section::::Twitter.:Timeline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "In 2012, following the victory of President Barack Obama in the US presidential election, Trump tweeted a chain of disparaging comments about Obama's win. Trump began that Election Day with a flurry of familiar complaints. He mocked Obama for playing basketball and blamed the Chinese for creating \"the concept of global warming\". Trump tweeted the next day, \"but we'll have to live with it!\" and: \"We have to make America great again!\" In response, Obama quipped on \"The Tonight Show With Jay Leno\" that Trump's beef with him \"dated back to their days growing up in Kenya\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18493804",
"title": "Public image of Barack Obama",
"section": "Section::::Political image.:Elitism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Opponents Clinton and McCain sharply criticized and accused Obama of elitism after he said of small-town Pennsylvanians, \"And it's not surprising, then, they get bitter, they cling to guns or religion or antipathy to people who aren't like them or anti-immigrant sentiment or anti-trade sentiment as a way to explain their frustrations.\" Writer Victor Davis Hansen in the National Review also commented on these remarks, and inventoried Obama's elite credentials, vacation choices, fashion sense, and speech topics, including the cost of college tuition to conclude that Obama and his \"agenda\" were \"yuppie to the core.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fhln5a
|
Why is Neptune warmer than Uranus?
|
[
{
"answer": "There isn't a great deal between the two, but because of the huge distance that both are from the Sun neither gets much warmth from the Sun. Instead some heat is generated by internal motion within the planet, partially assisted by the Sun striking the pole as Neptune is \"tipped over\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19003265",
"title": "Neptune",
"section": "Section::::Climate.:Internal heating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1171,
"text": "Neptune's more varied weather when compared to Uranus is due in part to its higher internal heating. Although Neptune lies over 50% farther from the Sun than Uranus, and receives only 40% its amount of sunlight, the two planets' surface temperatures are roughly equal. The upper regions of Neptune's troposphere reach a low temperature of . At a depth where the atmospheric pressure equals , the temperature is . Deeper inside the layers of gas, the temperature rises steadily. As with Uranus, the source of this heating is unknown, but the discrepancy is larger: Uranus only radiates 1.1 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun; whereas Neptune radiates about 2.61 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun. Neptune is the farthest planet from the Sun, yet its internal energy is sufficient to drive the fastest planetary winds seen in the Solar System. Depending on the thermal properties of its interior, the heat left over from Neptune's formation may be sufficient to explain its current heat flow, though it is more difficult to simultaneously explain Uranus's lack of internal heat while preserving the apparent similarity between the two planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12733",
"title": "Giant planet",
"section": "Section::::Subtypes.:Ice giants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Unlike the other giant planets, Uranus has an extreme tilt that causes its seasons to be severely pronounced. The two planets also have other subtle but important differences. Uranus has more hydrogen and helium than Neptune despite being less massive overall. Neptune is therefore denser and has much more internal heat and a more active atmosphere. The Nice model, in fact, suggests that Neptune formed closer to the Sun than Uranus did, and should therefore have more heavy elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44475",
"title": "Uranus",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Internal structure.:Internal heat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Uranus' internal heat appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets; in astronomical terms, it has a low thermal flux. Why Uranus' internal temperature is so low is still not understood. Neptune, which is Uranus' near twin in size and composition, radiates 2.61 times as much energy into space as it receives from the Sun, but Uranus radiates hardly any excess heat at all. The total power radiated by Uranus in the far infrared (i.e. heat) part of the spectrum is times the solar energy absorbed in its atmosphere. Uranus' heat flux is only , which is lower than the internal heat flux of Earth of about . The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus' tropopause is , making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44475",
"title": "Uranus",
"section": "Section::::Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "At ultraviolet and visible wavelengths, Uranus' atmosphere is bland in comparison to the other giant planets, even to Neptune, which it otherwise closely resembles. When \"Voyager 2\" flew by Uranus in 1986, it observed a total of ten cloud features across the entire planet. One proposed explanation for this dearth of features is that Uranus' internal heat appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets. The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus' tropopause is , making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16270701",
"title": "Climate of Uranus",
"section": "Section::::Circulation models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "Several solutions have been proposed to explain the calm weather on Uranus. One proposed explanation for this dearth of cloud features is that Uranus's internal heat appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets; in astronomical terms, it has a low internal thermal flux. Why Uranus's heat flux is so low is still not understood. Neptune, which is Uranus's near twin in size and composition, radiates 2.61 times as much energy into space as it receives from the Sun. Uranus, by contrast, radiates hardly any excess heat at all. The total power radiated by Uranus in the far infrared (i.e. heat) part of the spectrum is times the solar energy absorbed in its atmosphere. In fact, Uranus's heat flux is only W/m², which is lower than the internal heat flux of Earth of about 0.075 W/m². The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus's tropopause is 49 K (−224 °C), making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System, colder than Neptune.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11346753",
"title": "Extraterrestrial atmosphere",
"section": "Section::::Planets.:Gas giants.:Neptune.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The atmosphere of Neptune is similar to that of Uranus. It is about 80% hydrogen, 19% helium, and 1.5% methane. However the weather activity on Neptune is much more active, and its atmosphere is much bluer than that of Uranus. The upper levels of the atmosphere reach temperatures of about 55 K, giving rise to methane clouds in its troposphere, which gives the planet its ultramarine color. Temperatures rise steadily deeper inside the atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51353697",
"title": "Outline of Uranus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "Uranus – seventh planet from the Sun. It has the third-largest planetary radius and fourth-largest planetary mass in the Solar System. Uranus is similar in composition to Neptune, and both have different bulk chemical composition from that of the larger gas giants Jupiter and Saturn. For this reason, scientists often classify Uranus and Neptune as \"ice giants\" to distinguish them from the gas giants. Uranus's atmosphere is similar to Jupiter's and Saturn's in its primary composition of hydrogen and helium, but it contains more \"ices\" such as water, ammonia, and methane, along with traces of other hydrocarbons. It is the coldest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System, with a minimum temperature of , and has a complex, layered cloud structure with water thought to make up the lowest clouds and methane the uppermost layer of clouds. The interior of Uranus is mainly composed of ice and rock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8015il
|
why can't another wifi device interfere with another one
|
[
{
"answer": " > Hey, I'm the router, send me your information\" as Man in the Middle Attack\n\nThey can do exactly this. It is known as an [ARP poisoning attack](_URL_0_) and it is a type of man-in-the-middle. An attacker sends spoofed ARP packets to other machines on the network, causing them to route all packets through the attacker's computer. The attacker will then forward the packets onto the actual gateway, so the connection functions normally but the attacker can intercept and modify the traffic (unless it's seperately encrypted, of course).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because it's encrypted information usually which is essentially useless for your without the necessary certificate ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "**First of all some terminology just to help you translate my reply:**\n\nSwitch - A device that allows multiple end-point devices like a PC, a printer, phone etc to be connected together. Think of them like a street, with the devices being houses. \"Switches build networks\"\n\nRouter - A device that allows multiple different networks to communicate with each other. Think of them as street intersections. \"Routers join networks together\"\n\nWireless Access Point or WAP - A wireless switch. Think of it as a road for flying cars (sorry weird analogy I know)\n\nA commercial grade \"router\" like you would buy at BestBuy for your house is a combination switch/router/WAP all in one device. Where-as for a business these are typically separate devices.\n\n**Ok so onto the answer:**\n\nShort answer is yes, they actually can interfere with one another. It's only a question of how they do it, and what can they see.\n\nWireless signals are omni-directional, not uni-directional. Think of a Wireless Access Point as a person standing in the middle of a room acting as a kind of traffic cop for peoples conversations. Each person in the room (computer) has to speak to the access point, and the access point passes their message onto another person (computer).\n\nWhen a person goes to talk they are basically shouting so that everyone around can hear. Any device in the area and within range can hear that person shouting. In order to differentiate between peoples shouts, each shout has a different and distinctive pitch of voice (frequency) and since frequencies can overlap each conversation also includes as an associated serial number (MAC address) to identify the person shouting.\n\nThe Wireless Access Point and your computer use this information to sort through which signals it cares about, and which ones it doesn't. When a device receives information that it doesn't care about it is discarded.\n\nThis does however mean that if another Access Point was in the room it would overhear all the conversations going on in the room. Spying on wifi signals is theoretically just that simple. If the hackers WAP was smart enough it could also duplicate or spoof the serial number of the other access point or computer and send false signals back to those devices.\n\nThe way you get around this is through encryption. That passcode that you have on your wifi encrypts the packets being sent between the PC and the WAP so that another access point can't read them. It would be like standing in a room and listening into a conversion in a language you don't understand. Sure you can listen in but it would just be a bunch of gobbledygook to you.\n\nA common attack related to this would be to setup a fake access point that broadcasts a spoofed SSID (wireless name) and make people connect to it. You would be otherwise unaware that you are connected to the wrong network. That WAP then passes on your information to the internet as the normal WAP would, but without you knowing that they are looking at all your internet traffic in the process.\n\nNow keep in mind in industry we have technologies that help protect our users against this sort of thing. But as a home user the most important one is the encryption on your own WAP and the fact that banking websites and such have additional encryption on top of this to help protect you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13232598",
"title": "Wireless intercom",
"section": "Section::::Wired vs. Wireless.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "One of the challenges of a wireless system is the possibility of interference. Radio frequency wireless systems may get interference from other wireless devices. Some wireless intercom designs reduce this interference by using \"digital spread spectrum\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33172",
"title": "Wireless network",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Difficulties.:Interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Compared to wired systems, wireless networks are frequently subject to electromagnetic interference. This can be caused by other networks or other types of equipment that generate radio waves that are within, or close, to the radio bands used for communication. Interference can degrade the signal or cause the system to fail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "566387",
"title": "Piconet",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Because the Bluetooth system hops over 79 channels, the probability of interfering with another Bluetooth system is less than 1.5%. This allows several Bluetooth piconets to operate in the same area at the same time with minimal interference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63973",
"title": "Wi-Fi",
"section": "Section::::Performance.:Interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "To minimise collisions with Wi-Fi and non Wi-Fi devices, Wi-Fi employs Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA), where transmitters listen before transmitting, and delay transmission of packets if they detect that other users are active on the channel. Nevertheless, Wi-Fi networks are still susceptible to the hidden node and exposed node problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3084295",
"title": "Linear network coding",
"section": "Section::::Wireless Network Coding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "The broadcast nature of wireless (coupled with network topology) determines the nature of interference. Simultaneous transmissions in a wireless network typically result in all of the packets being lost (i.e., collision, see Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance for Wireless). A wireless network therefore requires a scheduler (as part of the MAC functionality) to minimize such interference. Hence any gains from network coding are strongly impacted by the underlying scheduler and will deviate from the gains seen in wired networks. Further, wireless links are typically half-duplex due to hardware constraints; i.e., a node can not simultaneously transmit and receive due to the lack of sufficient isolation between the two paths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63973",
"title": "Wi-Fi",
"section": "Section::::Performance.:Interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 933,
"text": "Wi-Fi connections can be disrupted or the Internet speed lowered by having other devices in the same area. Wi-Fi protocols are designed to share channels reasonably fairly, and will often work with little to no disruption. However, many 2.4 GHz 802.11b and 802.11g access-points default to the same channel on initial startup, contributing to congestion on certain channels. Wi-Fi pollution, or an excessive number of access points in the area, can prevent access and interfere with other devices' use of other access points as well as with decreased signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) between access points. In addition interference can be caused by overlapping channels in the 802.11g/b spectrum. These issues can become a problem in high-density areas, such as large apartment complexes or office buildings with many Wi-Fi access points. Wi-Fi 6 has greatly improved power control, and suffers less from interference in congested areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55546507",
"title": "KRACK",
"section": "Section::::Workarounds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Alternatively, users with unpatched devices can disable their wireless network connection and use a wired alternative – though this may not be practical for many scenarios, such as mobile devices or tablets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
48j5cd
|
if we could take a snapshot of every atom in the universe, could we effectively predict the future?
|
[
{
"answer": "Quantum Mechanics at least suggest, if not prove, that there may be an element of inherent randomness that cannot be eliminated. If that is the case, then it is certainly at least plausible that there is some degree of unpredictability that also cannot be eliminated in macroscopic events.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A computer simulating the universe would also have to simulate itself, simulating itself, simulating itself... You see where this is going. It's a logical no-go",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Maybe. This ideal is often referred to as the \"laplacian theory of deterministic predictability\", or \"Laplace's Demon\". In 1814 Laplace was the first to propose this idea that now seems intuitive to us that with sufficient information we can understand the outcome of any system, and that the universe is just another system. \n\nYou can read about the objections to this \"theory\" on the wikipedia page:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In your premise, yes we probably could.\n\nHowever, your premise is inherently impossible. We cannot ever know the position **and** velocity of an atom.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30154014",
"title": "Timeline of the far future",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "While the future can never be predicted with absolute certainty, present understanding in various scientific fields allows for the prediction of some far-future events, if only in the broadest outline. These fields include astrophysics, which has revealed how planets and stars form, interact, and die; particle physics, which has revealed how matter behaves at the smallest scales; evolutionary biology, which predicts how life will evolve over time; and plate tectonics, which shows how continents shift over millennia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10323935",
"title": "Parametric determinism",
"section": "Section::::Ten implications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "BULLET::::- To some extent at least, it is possible to predict with useful accuracy what will happen in the future, if one has sufficient experience, knowledge, and insight into the relevant causal factors at work as well as how they are related. This may be a work of science or sustained practical experience. In turn, future perspectives can importantly influence human action in the present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4110552",
"title": "Lippmann–Schwinger equation",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation as in and out states.:The S-matrix paradigm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "This paradigm allows one to calculate the probabilities of all of the processes that we have observed in 70 years of particle collider experiments with remarkable accuracy. But many interesting physical phenomena do not obviously fit into this paradigm. For example, if one wishes to consider the dynamics inside of a neutron star sometimes one wants to know more than what it will finally decay into. In other words, one may be interested in measurements that are not in the asymptotic future. Sometimes an asymptotic past or future is not even available. For example, it is very possible that there is no past before the Big Bang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2538775",
"title": "Predictive modelling",
"section": "Section::::Possible fundamental limitations of predictive models based on data fitting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "1) \"History cannot always accurately predict the future.\" Using relations derived from historical data to predict the future implicitly assumes there are certain lasting conditions or constants in a complex system. This almost always leads to some imprecision when the system involves people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47922",
"title": "Determinism",
"section": "Section::::Modern scientific perspective.:Quantum and Classical Mechanics.:Quantum realm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Some (including Albert Einstein) argue that our inability to predict any more than probabilities is simply due to ignorance. The idea is that, beyond the conditions and laws we can observe or deduce, there are also hidden factors or \"hidden variables\" that determine \"absolutely\" in which order photons reach the detector screen. They argue that the course of the universe is absolutely determined, but that humans are screened from knowledge of the determinative factors. So, they say, it only appears that things proceed in a merely probabilistically determinative way. In actuality, they proceed in an absolutely deterministic way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4839173",
"title": "Info-gap decision theory",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Thirdly, if the universe under consideration is larger than a significant horizon of uncertainty, and outcomes for these distant points are significantly different from points near the estimate, then conclusions of robustness or opportuneness analyses will generally be: \"one must be very confident of one's assumptions, else outcomes may be expected to vary significantly from projections\" – a cautionary conclusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "246066",
"title": "Prediction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Although future events are necessarily uncertain, so guaranteed accurate information about the future is in many cases impossible, prediction can be useful to assist in making plans about possible developments; Howard H. Stevenson writes that prediction in business \"... is at least two things: Important and hard.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3jbep7
|
why are males naturally attractive without make-up?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because we are conditioned to believe that girls need make up to be attractive, not to mention that women have used make up for a long time creating a \"norm\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They aren't. Most men would look better with a bit of makeup. It's just not our cultural norm.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I love a woman who is naturally beautiful, without makeup. Somebody who doesn't need makeup and knows it. That's a keeper.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In. Lot of ways men and women are attractive for different reasons, on a basic animal level so to speak. Men's attractivness often relies on their strength, or their available resources (think of fit, or or with lots of money). On the other hand, women are attractive based on ability to bear and raise young. If a woman appears healthy they seem more suitable for child raising. Things like healthy skin (which shows overall body health), and youth makes, at least from an anamalistic level, more attractive. Thus makeup becomes more important for women. To attempt to portray both of these.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The same could be asked about their nails. You'll rarely see a guy getting a mani/pedi, but they always have the best feet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49621623",
"title": "Female intrasexual competition",
"section": "Section::::Self-promotion tactics.:Cosmetic surgery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Regardless, by using cosmetic surgery, females can change various aspects of their body to make themselves more attractive by displaying a more desirable waist-hip ratio. This can lead to competition with other females who may be considered less attractive in comparison. When women change their appearances, such as by applying cosmetic products and wearing sexy or stylish clothes, do make a difference and has been proven to be effective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2232181",
"title": "Psychological adaptation",
"section": "Section::::Psychological adaptation in males.:Waist-to-hip ratio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Human males have developed an adaptation in which they find women more attractive if they show cues of fertility, such as a good waist–hip ratio. Women with a waist-to-hip ratio of 0.7 are considered more attractive to males than those with a ratio of 0.8, who are considered to have a more masculine figure. This is because they are perceived to be able to have children more and to be more fertile and healthy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44960229",
"title": "Strategic pluralism",
"section": "Section::::Experiments and studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Females have also chosen males who have more feminine appearances because of an (hypothesized) inverse relationship between a male's facial attractiveness and effort willing to spend in raising offspring. That is, more attractive males often put in less work as a caretaker while less attractive males will put in more work. On average, there is a wide amount of variability in male preferences than in females. This suggests there are enough of both males more suited for short term relationships and those more suited for longer relationships. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49238159",
"title": "Disciplining gendered bodies",
"section": "Section::::Gendered attractiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1449,
"text": "Gendered attractiveness is the physical appearance of a male or female that is considered ideal, beautiful, attractive and having sex appeal of oneself or others. Males, for example, should be large in stature, muscular, full head of hair, straight white teeth, healthy and alluring to look at. They spend many hours trying to perfect their bodies with physical exercise. They also make changes to their appearance with hair removal, hair plugs, teeth veneers and body tanning. Males want to be seen as strong, dominant and masculine. Females, on the other hand, should be slender, tall, have long blonde hair, perfect skin and Barbie doll-like features. Females want to be characterized as petite, skinny and fit. The problem is that \"tall\" and \"petite\" are opposites. Females are concerned about how they look, what they wear and they desire to be attractive, and thus go to great lengths to make sure that they feel and look attractive and polished. Females make permanent changes to their bodies as they have cosmetic surgery on all areas of their bodies such as, nose, face, lips, chin, teeth, breast, buttock, feet and many other parts of the body. Females also make temporary changes such as cut and color hair, tanning for darker skin color, hair removal from body, paint finger and toe nails. In addition, females use clothes, shoes and accessories such as scarfs, jewelry, purses and eyeglasses to help make them feel and look attractive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1017477",
"title": "Blonde stereotype",
"section": "Section::::Typology.:\"Dumb blonde\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "A possible explanation is that attractive women have less pressing incentives to cultivate and demonstrate their intellect in order to ensure their future, since attractiveness is an asset, or correlatively that intelligent women have less pressing incentives to dye their hair to a presumed attractive color. The validity of this explanation is corroborated by its applicability to a similar pervasiveness of the \"dumb athlete\" stereotype. The dumb blonde stereotype (and the associated cognitive bias) may have some negative consequences and it can also damage a blonde person's career prospects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1053447",
"title": "Physical attractiveness",
"section": "Section::::Female.:Fertility-driven attractiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Similarly, a study investigated the capacity of women to select high quality males based on their facial attractiveness. They found that facial attractiveness correlated with semen quality (good, normal, or bad depending on sperm morphology and motility). The more attractive a man's face is, linked to his sperm being of better quality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1240348",
"title": "Strength training",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Increased physical attractiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 839,
"text": "Many people take up strength training to improve their physical attractiveness. There is evidence that a body type consisting of broad shoulders and a narrow waist, attainable through strength training, is the most physically attractive male attribute according to women participating in the research. Most men can develop substantial muscles; most women lack the testosterone to do it, but they can develop a firm, \"toned\" (see below) physique, and they can increase their strength by the same proportion as that achieved by men (but usually from a significantly lower starting point). An individual's genetic make-up dictates the response to weight training stimuli to a significant extent. Training can not exceed a muscle's intrinsic genetically determined qualities, though polymorphic expression does occur e.g., Myosin heavy chains\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fwfj39
|
Were Asian Americans Segregated and considered "Coloured" in the 1950's to 60's?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes they were. Asians were subject to segregational practices in many cities. I wrote a bit about this topic previously [here](_URL_0_), but am always happy to add on to it or have more of a discussion on the topic. Filipinos, for example, were prominent targets of attacks by white people. This was often rooted in white men feeling threatened by Filipino masculinity; it manifested in arresting or even attacking or shooting Filipinos who were seen with white women during periods where anti-miscegenation laws were in place, as well as the invention of stereotypes about Asian men that are still widely believed today. In general, Filipinos were seen as less civilized than whites.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38793327",
"title": "The Rainbow Inn",
"section": "Section::::Jim Crow in the Northland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1025,
"text": "The 1950s and 1960s was an era when racial discrimination against Afro-Americans was widely practiced in the state of Michigan and most of the Midwestern states. Public accommodations that could be used by black tourists and travelers were so scarce in the northern United States that New York City resident Victor Green, a postal carrier and travel agent, had published \"The Negro Motorist Green Book\" beginning in 1936. It was an annual guidebook for African Americans to use to help keep themselves from running into difficulties and embarrassments when white owned businesses would not serve them. It was well known to blacks that whites in southern states practiced Jim Crow discrimination at their hotels, restaurants, gas stations and department stores. They also quickly learned that outside of the major cities of the north, the same Jim Crow discriminatory policies were practiced by white business owners. Many small towns were even referred to as \"sunset or sundown\" towns, that is, no blacks allowed after dark.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17173848",
"title": "Interminority racism in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Tensions Between African Americans and Asian Americans.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 997,
"text": "The 19th century divided and then tied the fates of African Americans and Asian Americans together. Before the 1870 Census, Asian Americans marked themselves as “white” in the official census and began to first be called “model minorities” given a societal reputation for \"hard work\". Yet legally and politically, the judicial system found Asian Americans to be considered the same as African Americans. In the California court case, \"People v. Hall, \"the court found that people of Asian descent could not testify under existing legal acts that prohibited testimony from people of African descent. According to the California Supreme Court, the court ruled“[T]he words ‘Black person’...must be taken as contradistinguished from White, and necessarily excludes all races other than the Caucasian”. As the 19th century progressed, Acts of Congress such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Geary Act of 1892 effectively barred further immigration of Asian Americans till the 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18717037",
"title": "Society of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Race and ancestry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Asian Americans were also marginalized during much of US history. Between 1882 and 1943 the United States government instituted the Chinese Exclusion Act which prohibited Chinese immigrants from entering the nation. During the second world war roughly 120,000 Japanese Americans, 62% of whom were U.S. citizens, were imprisoned in Japanese internment camps. Hispanic Americans also faced segregation and other types of discrimination; they were regularly subject to second class citizen status, in practice if not by law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2649781",
"title": "Asian immigration to the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:Exclusion era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "During this period, Asian immigrants continued to face racial discrimination. In addition to first-generation immigrants whose permanent ineligibility for citizenship curtailed their civil and political rights, second-generation Asian Americans (who formally had birthright citizenship) continued to face segregation in schools, employment discrimination, and prohibitions on property and business ownership. The most severe discrimination against Asian Americans occurred during the height of the World War II, when 110,000 to 120,000 Japanese Americans (primarily on the West Coast) were incarcerated in internment camps between 1942–1946. While roughly a third of those interned were \"issei\" (first-generation immigrants) who were ineligible for citizenship, the vast majority were \"nisei\" or \"sansei\" (second- and third-generation) who were citizens by birth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "771611",
"title": "Chinatowns in Africa",
"section": "Section::::South Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "immigrated to the country. South African Chinese are dispersed throughout South African cities. During the Apartheid regime (1948–93) Chinese South Africans were classified as \"Coloureds\" or \"Asian South Africans\", while certain East Asian nationals (such as Japan and Taiwan) in South Africa were declared \"honorary whites\" and thus avoided most forms of official discriminatory laws (they could live in reserved \"white\" neighborhoods unlike native/black, and \"Asian\"-Indian South Africans), since Apartheid created a strict racial segregation system for non-white/European persons (esp. the black majority) in South Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5347230",
"title": "Racial classification of Indian Americans",
"section": "Section::::U.S. Census.:Official classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Indian American groups, through their own petitioning, successfully changed their racial classification to Asian in the 1970s to have themselves included in state and federal Asian racial categories to benefit from affirmative action. Otherwise, they would have continued to be designated as white by the government. Indian American leaders wanted to change their racial classification, so Indian Americans would have \"minority\" group status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2649781",
"title": "Asian immigration to the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:Exclusion era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "Two important Supreme Court cases in the exclusion era determined the citizenship status of Asian Americans. In 1922, the Court ruled in \"Takao Ozawa v. United States\" that ethnic Japanese were not Caucasian, and therefore did not meet the \"free white persons\" requirement to naturalize according to the Naturalization Act of 1790. A few months later in 1923, the Court ruled in \"United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind\" that while Indians were considered Caucasian by contemporary racial anthropology, they were not seen as \"white\" in the common understanding, and were therefore ineligible for naturalization. Whereas \"United States vs. Wong Kim Ark\" had determined that all persons born in the United States, including Asian Americans, were citizens, these cases confirmed that foreign-born Asian immigrants were legally excluded from naturalized citizenship on the basis of race.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
25fvb5
|
in traffic, why do cyclists by default have to use the road instead of the sidewalk? aren't motor vehicles and cyclists a bigger danger to each other than cyclists and pedestrians would be?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Bicyclists on a sidewalk or bicycle path incur greater risk than those on the roadway (on average 1.8 times as great), most likely because of blind conflicts at intersections. \n\n\n\n\n[here is a good post about it](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When I ride, I ride on the roads. This is because: \n\n- That's [The Law where I live in the US](_URL_0_), and [where I live in the UK](_URL_3_)\n- I Follow the traffic signs and lanes. I also use hand signals. \n- Pedestrians do not move for you, ever. So why ride where pedestrians are? Also, sidewalks are overall crappy. They [End abruptly](_URL_1_) aren't [always clear or well maintained](_URL_2_) and are sometimes [quite curvy](_URL_4_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bicycles and cars are supposed to follow the same rules, and both drivers and riders are responsible for maintaining situational awareness. This is intended to create a predictable flow.\n\nAs others have mentioned, while there are notions about how best to walk on a sidewalk, there aren't really any rules or regulations. A bike coming up behind a car can make a fairly accurate assumption about what the car is going to do next based on signals used by the car and/or the lane the car is in. Sidewalks are pure chaos. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Visit us in the Netherlands. You would shit bricks. \nBike lanes everywhere :D",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ELI5 explanation: Cars and bicycles are vehicles. Roads and rules of the roads are designed for vehicles. Sidewalks are designed for people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Apparently you've never seen a pedestrian get hit by a bicyclist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Been told by police that it's perfectly fine riding on the sidewalk.\n\nI'm in LA, and riding the bike on the street is the quickest way to get killed!\n\nI ride about 70 miles a week and every single time there's someone running a red, a speeding semi, or someone in a rush that doesn't bother to look for pedestrians. I don't see the point in being turned into ground beef just because I had the \"Right of Way.\" That's just being blind to the realities of the road.\n\nHell i've seen people going highway speeds into blind corners where there are bike lanes!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've considered riding a bike to work, but people die too often on them for me to be comfortable with it. These bike accidents seem to occur mainly due to drivers having trouble detecting the bikes in time. They are so small compared to other cards or even motor bikes.\n\n\n\nOne idea would be to add a new law saying that you need to slow to 25 mph while bike riders are visible in front of you. Think of them as mobile speed limit signs. This would allow people behind you, who might not see the bike yet, to slow down which would give them more time to react when they do see the bike.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\nHere is my opinion:\n\nI think it depends on the city. In a densely populated area with a ton of pedestrians and slow auto traffic bikes belong in the street. \n\nIn more suburban areas with few or no pedestrians (have you been to phoenix?) bikes belong on the side walk. Bikes in the street here are a real hazard because traffic flows at 50mph while bikes travek at 10-15. It is much safer for all if the cyclist is on the sidewalk and use cross walks at intersections. Its awkward as a car when you try to turn right but then have to wait because a bicycle is coming up from behind about to pass you on your right. Its quite dangerous.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24769072",
"title": "Cycling in Los Angeles",
"section": "Section::::Cycling rules and regulations.:Road rules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Cyclists may travel either in the street or on the sidewalk. On the sidewalk they must behave so as not to cause danger to pedestrians (which is an arbitrary judgment that seems to translate into traveling at walking pace). Moreover, in some of the cities within the greater Los Angeles region, it is illegal to cycle on the sidewalk. Cyclists in general should follow the same traffic rules and behavior as motorized vehicles. It is legal for a cyclist to \"take a lane\" within the State of California, and in the case of narrow-width lanes it is advisable to do so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175476",
"title": "Pedestrian",
"section": "Section::::Safety issues.:Road design impact on safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "The design of road and streets has a key role in pedestrian safety. Roads are too often designed for motorized vehicle without taking into account pedestrians and bicycle needs. The non-existence of sidewalk and signals is a source of risks for pedestrians, this defect might more easily be observed on arterial roadways, intersections and fast-speed lanes without adequate attention to pedestrian facilities. For instance, an assessment of roads in countries from many continents shows that 84% of roads might miss pedestrian footpaths while maximum limited speed is greater than 40km/h.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56313",
"title": "Zoning",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Single-use zoning.:Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Critics argue that putting everyday uses out of walking distance of each other leads to an increase in traffic since people have to get in their cars and drive to meet their needs throughout the day. Single-zoning and urban sprawl have also been criticized as making work–family balance more difficult to achieve, as greater distances need to be covered in order to integrate the different life domains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51852",
"title": "Sidewalk",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.:Road traffic safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Riding bicycles on sidewalks is discouraged since some research shows it to be more dangerous than riding in the street. Some jurisdictions prohibit sidewalk riding except for children. In addition to the risk of cyclist/pedestrian collisions, cyclists face increase risks from collisions with motor vehicles at street crossings and driveways. Riding in the direction opposite to traffic in the adjacent lane is especially risky.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4525425",
"title": "Cycling in the Netherlands",
"section": "Section::::Infrastructure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Pedestrians use the pavement where one is available, otherwise they use the same position on the road as the cyclists: on the cycleway or lane if available, otherwise on the road (but in the latter case pedestrians preferably walk on the left, while cyclists go on the right). Roads and tunnels accessible for cyclists are also accessible for pedestrians. Most pedestrian paths are available to cyclists who dismount and walk the bike.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1798592",
"title": "Vehicular cycling",
"section": "Section::::Praise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Some have claimed that transportation engineers in the US have become too focused on separating cyclists from pedestrians and motorists. According to an Institute of Transportation Engineers Journal piece by Martin Pion, the implementation of bike lanes can limit competent cyclists perceptions of where it is ok to cycle. He also notes some sport cyclists prefer to ride in lane, compared with a parallel path, because it reduces the risk of collision with side turning motorists assuming there is not a strong separation of road users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2588079",
"title": "Guard rail",
"section": "Section::::Traffic dangers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "In cities occasionally pedestrian railings (and barriers) are installed at the immediate side of a roads however cyclists have died when crushed against them by motor vehicles. Close \"safety barriers\" to roads have been found to increase the chances of injury to pedestrians for a number of reasons including increasing inattention of drivers and pedestrians. For these reasons some councils in the United Kingdom have removed their pedestrian railings. This was after London's Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea did so and found that the rate of injury to pedestrians decreased three times faster than elsewhere in the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4twh57
|
why is the taste/smell of licorice so polarizing?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is the same with most bitter foods like coffee and beer. People have an inherent disgust for things bitter and you have to learn that something bitter is good. After you have related the bitter taste of licorice with the sweet taste, or the bitter taste of beer with alcohol you start ignoring the bitter taste in these foods.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1776871",
"title": "Miraculin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Miraculin itself does not taste sweet. When taste buds are exposed to miraculin, the protein binds to the sweetness receptors. This causes normally-sour-tasting acidic foods, such as citrus, to be perceived as sweet. The effect lasts up to about an hour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "618991",
"title": "Phenylthiocarbamide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "It has the unusual property that it either tastes very bitter or is virtually tasteless, depending on the genetic makeup of the taster. The ability to taste PTC is often treated as a dominant genetic trait, although inheritance and expression of this trait are somewhat more complex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "311596",
"title": "Allicin",
"section": "Section::::Biosynthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Allicin is an oily, slightly yellow liquid that gives garlic its unique odor. It is a thioester of sulfenic acid and is also known as allyl thiosulfinate. Its biological activity can be attributed to both its antioxidant activity and its reaction with thiol-containing proteins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4867178",
"title": "Teroldego",
"section": "Section::::Cultivation & winemaking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Some California authorities compare Teroldego to Zinfandel, with its spicy red fruits, and hints of tar, pine, and almond, but few tasters would confuse the two varieties in a blind tasting. Its snappy acidity makes it a versatile food wine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1170166",
"title": "Chirality (chemistry)",
"section": "Section::::In biochemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "-forms of amino acids tend to be tasteless, whereas -forms tend to taste sweet. Spearmint leaves contain the -enantiomer of the chemical carvone or \"R\"-(−)-carvone and caraway seeds contain the -enantiomer or \"S\"-(+)-carvone. These smell are different to most people because our olfactory receptors are chiral.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17917891",
"title": "Durian",
"section": "Section::::Flavour and odour.:Phytochemicals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "People in South East Asia with frequent exposures to durian are able to easily distinguish the sweet-like scent of its ketones and esters from rotten or putrescine odours which are from volatile amines and fatty acids. Some individuals are unable to differentiate these smells and find this fruit noxious, whereas others find it pleasant and appealing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14571189",
"title": "Hexanal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Hexanal, also called hexanaldehyde or caproaldehyde is an alkyl aldehyde used in the flavor industry to produce fruity flavors. Its scent resembles freshly cut grass, like \"cis\"-3-hexenal. It is potentially useful as a natural extract that prevents fruit spoilage. It occurs naturally, and contributes to a hay-like \"off-note\" flavor in green peas. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
62dk1r
|
how does all dna of a fully grown human fit in a baby?
|
[
{
"answer": "DNA isn't very big.\n\nAll of your DNA fits in a single cell.\n\nMost all of your cells have all of your DNA.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's better than that -- all the DNA fits in almost every one of the trillion cells in a human body! How? Because DNA Is written extremely small, using just a tiny molecule (an amino acid) to represent each \"letter\" of the information. And DNA takes the shape of a long string of such \"letters\" which is all folded up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "DNA fits in cells, and so it fits just as easily inside the cells of a baby as an adult.\n\nIn terms of relative size, there's no real connection. It's sort of like asking how the blue prints for a skyscraper can fit in the architect's office.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15511908",
"title": "Trisomy 16",
"section": "Section::::Mosaic trisomy 16.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Mosaic trisomy 16, a rare chromosomal disorder, is compatible with life, therefore a baby can be born alive. This happens when only some of the cells in the body contain the extra copy of chromosome 16. Some of the consequences include slow growth before birth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44290",
"title": "DNA profiling",
"section": "Section::::Profiling processes.:DNA family relationship analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "During conception, the father's sperm cell and the mother's egg cell, each containing half the amount of DNA found in other body cells, meet and fuse to form a fertilized egg, called a zygote. The zygote contains a complete set of DNA molecules, a unique combination of DNA from both parents. This zygote divides and multiplies into an embryo and later, a full human being.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22833956",
"title": "Molecular models of DNA",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental concepts.:DNA structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "The DNA found in many cells can be macroscopic in length: a few centimetres long for each human chromosome. Consequently, cells must compact or \"package\" DNA to carry it within them. In eukaryotes this is carried by spool-like proteins named histones, around which DNA winds. It is the further compaction of this DNA-protein complex which produces the well known mitotic eukaryotic chromosomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4099",
"title": "Bone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "In the human body at birth, there are over 300 bones, but many of these fuse together during development, leaving a total of 206 separate bones in the adult, not counting numerous small sesamoid bones. The largest bone in the body is the femur or thigh-bone, and the smallest is the stapes in the middle ear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15511908",
"title": "Trisomy 16",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "It is not possible for a child to be born alive with an extra copy of this chromosome present in all cells (full trisomy 16). It is possible, however, for a child to be born alive with the mosaic form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52237542",
"title": "DNA methylation in cancer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "All mammalian cells descended from a fertilized egg (a zygote) share a common DNA sequence (except for new mutations in some lineages). However, during development and formation of different tissues epigenetic factors change. The changes include histone modifications, CpG island methylations and chromatin reorganizations which can cause the stable silencing or activation of particular genes. Once differentiated tissues are formed, CpG island methylation is generally stably inherited from one cell division to the next through the DNA methylation maintenance machinery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49205189",
"title": "Ariosa v. Sequenom",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "The inventors realized that the fetus had DNA derived from the father as well as the mother, and that paternal DNA was not native to the mother's blood. So they wanted to focus on genetic fragments containing paternally inherited sequences the mother did not share, but had traveled from the fetal blood into the maternal blood through the placenta. The paternal DNA in the mother's plasma had to have come from the fetus. Then, they could reliably identify fetal DNA, which would in turn allow them to diagnose certain fetal genetic conditions such as Down Syndrome, which can be detected by observing presence of extra chromosomes. The inventors now had a test that did not require amniocentesis, which is invasive and may cause miscarriages. Sequenom became the exclusive licensee of the patent. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ldwtt
|
If you were to ingest or inject yourself with ATP, would it provide you with energy? Would consuming more act like a sugar rush or an energy drink?
|
[
{
"answer": "ATP is fairly large, and it's purine functionality would make it difficult to enter the cell without transport. Outside of the cell it acts as a signalling molecule, which plays a role in regulating heart rate, blood coagulation, and inflammatory/immune response. The metabolic byproducts of ATP degradation are also signalling molecules, and would have their own psysiological effects.\n\nSo, in short, not much would make it into your cells as usable energy, and it would likely feel more like getting poisoned than a sugar rush, depending on how much you injected. \n\n\nSee: [This review](_URL_0_) and [this paper](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Creatine](_URL_0_) increases ATP. Some people report increased mental energy but its effect is primarily on muscles. From what I understand, increased ATP only has an effect if you are already deficient.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Injected adenosine is a treatment used in an emergency to interrupt dangerously fast heart rhythms. Without getting into the science it essentially blocks electrical stimulation of the heart and the patient \"flat lines\" for a moment. The effect is very short lived (only a few seconds), but it is something to see. It is usually not an enjoyable experience for the patient. The idea is that when the heart starts beating again the rhythm will be more organized and at the correct rate. It works pretty well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just going to pop into here and say that although ATP might not yield the same effects, [NADH](_URL_0_) (another energy intermediate) is being looked at for fighting fatigue. Its also found in relatively high amounts in the herb [Trichopus Zeylanicus](_URL_1_) that is a folk medicine for vitality in areas of India. (Note to the mods, I work for that site; so if by linking it it somehow is deemed inappropriate please notify me and I will edit this comment. I linked since its the only summary I know of)\n\nNot sure the validity behind NADH as a supplement though; haven't looked into it too much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ATP is fairly large, and it's purine functionality would make it difficult to enter the cell without transport. Outside of the cell it acts as a signalling molecule, which plays a role in regulating heart rate, blood coagulation, and inflammatory/immune response. The metabolic byproducts of ATP degradation are also signalling molecules, and would have their own psysiological effects.\n\nSo, in short, not much would make it into your cells as usable energy, and it would likely feel more like getting poisoned than a sugar rush, depending on how much you injected. \n\n\nSee: [This review](_URL_0_) and [this paper](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Creatine](_URL_0_) increases ATP. Some people report increased mental energy but its effect is primarily on muscles. From what I understand, increased ATP only has an effect if you are already deficient.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Injected adenosine is a treatment used in an emergency to interrupt dangerously fast heart rhythms. Without getting into the science it essentially blocks electrical stimulation of the heart and the patient \"flat lines\" for a moment. The effect is very short lived (only a few seconds), but it is something to see. It is usually not an enjoyable experience for the patient. The idea is that when the heart starts beating again the rhythm will be more organized and at the correct rate. It works pretty well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just going to pop into here and say that although ATP might not yield the same effects, [NADH](_URL_0_) (another energy intermediate) is being looked at for fighting fatigue. Its also found in relatively high amounts in the herb [Trichopus Zeylanicus](_URL_1_) that is a folk medicine for vitality in areas of India. (Note to the mods, I work for that site; so if by linking it it somehow is deemed inappropriate please notify me and I will edit this comment. I linked since its the only summary I know of)\n\nNot sure the validity behind NADH as a supplement though; haven't looked into it too much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "89226",
"title": "Adenosine diphosphate",
"section": "Section::::Bioenergetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Breaking one of ATP's phosphorus bonds generates approximately 30.5 kilojoules per Mole of ATP (7.3 kcal). ADP can be converted, or powered back to ATP through the process of releasing the chemical energy available in food; in humans, this is constantly performed via aerobic respiration in the mitochondria. Plants use photosynthetic pathways to convert and store energy from sunlight, also conversion of ADP to ATP. Animals use the energy released in the breakdown of glucose and other molecules to convert ADP to ATP, which can then be used to fuel necessary growth and cell maintenance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1704568",
"title": "Dephosphorylation",
"section": "Section::::Function.:ATP.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, acts as a free energy \"currency\" in all living organisms. In a spontaneous dephosphorylation reaction 30.5 kJ/mol is released, which is harnessed to drive cellular reactions. Overall, nonspontaneous reactions coupled to the dephosphorylation of ATP are spontaneous, due to the negative free energy change of the coupled reaction. This is important in driving oxidative phosphorylation. ATP is dephosphorylated to ADP and inorganic phosphate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1417038",
"title": "Energy charge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Life depends on an adequate energy charge. If ATP synthesis is momentarily insufficient to maintain an adequate energy charge, AMP can be converted by two different pathways to hypoxanthine and ribose-5P, followed by irreversible oxidation of hypoxanthine to uric acid. This helps to buffer the adenylate energy charge by decreasing the total {ATP+ADP+AMP} concentration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1369210",
"title": "Bioenergetics",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "Living organisms produce ATP from energy sources via oxidative phosphorylation. The terminal phosphate bonds of ATP are relatively weak compared with the stronger bonds formed when ATP is hydrolyzed (broken down by water) to adenosine diphosphate and inorganic phosphate. Here it is the thermodynamically favorable free energy of hydrolysis that results in energy release; the phosphoanhydride bond between the terminal phosphate group and the rest of the ATP molecule does not itself contain this energy. An organism's stockpile of ATP is used as a battery to store energy in cells. Utilization of chemical energy from such molecular bond rearrangement powers biological processes in every biological organism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1369210",
"title": "Bioenergetics",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the main \"energy currency\" for organisms; the goal of metabolic and catabolic processes are to synthesize ATP from available starting materials (from the environment), and to break- down ATP (into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate) by utilizing it in biological processes. In a cell, the ratio of ATP to ADP concentrations is known as the \"energy charge\" of the cell. A cell can use this energy charge to relay information about cellular needs; if there is more ATP than ADP available, the cell can use ATP to do work, but if there is more ADP than ATP available, the cell must synthesize ATP via oxidative phosphorylation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2027148",
"title": "Substrate-level phosphorylation",
"section": "Section::::Other mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "In working skeletal muscles and the brain, Phosphocreatine is stored as a readily available high-energy phosphate supply, and the enzyme creatine phosphokinase transfers a phosphate from phosphocreatine to ADP to produce ATP. Then the ATP releases giving chemical energy. This is sometimes erroneously considered to be substrate-level phosphorylation, although it is a transphosphorylation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57276769",
"title": "Physiology of marathons",
"section": "Section::::Energy pathways during exercise.:Aerobic (Oxidative).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "The Aerobic Energy Pathway is the third and slowest ATP producing pathway that is oxygen dependent. This energy pathway typically supplies the bulk of the body's energy during exercise after 3 minutes from the onset of exercise until the end of the exercise or when the individual experiences fatigue. This energy pathway is used for lower intensity exercise that lasts longer than 3 minutes, which corresponds to the rate at which ATP is produced using oxygen. This energy system is essential to endurance athletes such as marathon runners, triathletes, cross-country skiers, etc. The Aerobic Energy Pathway is able to produce the largest amount of ATP out of these three systems. This is largely in part to this energy system's ability to use fats, carbohydrates, and protein in conjunction with its capacity for converting these macro-nutrients into a state capable of entering the mitochondria, the site of aerobic ATP production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
u25rf
|
Can we reproduce every wavelength of the electromagnetic spectrum?
|
[
{
"answer": "Even if I only have an LED, which emits light at one singular frequency, we can still get any wavelength we want by moving that LED and let the Doppler effect take care of the rest.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "85754",
"title": "Phonon",
"section": "Section::::Lattice dynamics.:Lattice waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "There is a minimum possible wavelength, given by twice the equilibrium separation \"a\" between atoms. Any wavelength shorter than this can be mapped onto a wavelength longer than 2\"a\", due to the periodicity of the lattice. This can be thought as one consequence of Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, the lattice points are viewed as the \"sampling points\" of a continuous wave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24476128",
"title": "Acoustic metamaterial",
"section": "Section::::Basic principles.:Electromagnetic field vs acoustic field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below frequencies used for modern radio to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength end, covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atom. That would be wavelengths from 10 to 10 kilometers. The long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177320",
"title": "Spectral line",
"section": "Section::::Types of line spectra.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Mechanisms other than atom-photon interaction can produce spectral lines. Depending on the exact physical interaction (with molecules, single particles, etc.), the frequency of the involved photons will vary widely, and lines can be observed across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to gamma rays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19594213",
"title": "Planck constant",
"section": "Section::::Origin of the definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Every physical body spontaneously and continuously emits electromagnetic radiation. At low frequencies (i.e. long wavelengths), Planck's law tends to the Rayleigh–Jeans law, while in the limit of high frequencies (i.e. small wavelengths) it tends to the Wien approximation, but there was no overall expression or explanation for the shape of the observed emission spectrum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40645815",
"title": "Ozonia",
"section": "Section::::Activities.:Ultraviolet (UV) Disinfection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "In the UV-C light spectrum (200-280 nm), the wavelength 254 nm has been proven to be the most efficient wavelength to inactivate micro-organisms by damaging the nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), which disrupts the organism's ability to replicate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2924436",
"title": "Electromagnetic wave equation",
"section": "Section::::Solutions to the homogeneous electromagnetic wave equation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Although the function can be and often is a monochromatic sine wave, it does not have to be sinusoidal, or even periodic. In practice, cannot have infinite periodicity because any real electromagnetic wave must always have a finite extent in time and space. As a result, and based on the theory of Fourier decomposition, a real wave must consist of the superposition of an infinite set of sinusoidal frequencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31986161",
"title": "Single-photon source",
"section": "Section::::Heralded single photons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Pairs of single photons can be generated in highly correlated states from using a single high-energy photon to create two lower-energy ones. One photon from the resulting pair may be detected to 'herald' the other (so its state is pretty well known prior to detection). The two photons need not generally be the same wavelength, but the total energy and resulting polarisation are defined by the generation process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2rhld1
|
Is topical Vitaminc C effective for boosting collagen or is the beauty/skincare industry somewhat falsely claiming this?
|
[
{
"answer": "Vitamin C can diffuse through the cellular membranes but it's very slow and it has to be from high concentration to low.\n\nHere's some literature about topical Vitamin C :)\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is the problem with most supplements. Vitamin C is absolutely essential for collagen synthesis (see: [Scurvy](_URL_0_)) So it isn't *unreasonable* to theorize that by supplementing with vitamin C you could perhaps increase collagen synthesis. This is a reasonable hypothesis, but unfortunately the biochemistry involved isn't nearly as straightforward as we like it to be. Is the vitamin C biologically available when applied topically? Is there no previous biochemical transformation that must happen elsewhere first? Even if it does increase collagen synthesis, does this translate to an improved clinical condition? These are all important questions that good science must answer before one can say for sure that a supplement or drug does what it claims. \n\n The only way to really tell that it works is to do a controlled trial and verify that topically applied vitamin C improves skin conditions compared to placebo. I read some of the articles that /u/babbelover1337 posted and it looks possible that topical vitamin C might be effective just based off of these, but a total review of the literature would be necessary before I could confidently say one way or another - and depending on the literature available, I might not be able to have confidence even then. \n\nTL;DR: Yes, vitamin C is necessary for collagen synthesis, but without a rigorous series of randomized trials to prove its efficacy compared to placebo, it's impossible to say whether supplementing vitamin C helps rejuvenate skin. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32509",
"title": "Vitamin C",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Vitamin C – specifically, in the form of \"ascorbate\" – performs numerous physiological functions in the human body by serving as an enzyme substrate and/or cofactor and an electron donor. These functions include the synthesis of collagen, carnitine, and neurotransmitters; the synthesis and catabolism of tyrosine; and the metabolism of microsome. During biosynthesis, ascorbate acts as a reducing agent, donating electrons and preventing oxidation to keep iron and copper atoms in their reduced states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60474191",
"title": "Intravenous ascorbic acid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Intravenous Ascorbic Acid (also known as vitamin C or L-ascorbic acid), is a type of therapy that delivers soluble ascorbic acid directly into the bloodstream, either administered via injection or infusion. Intravenous ascorbic acid is used as a dietary supplement for nutritional deficiencies and also, as complementary therapy to cancer treatments. The efficacy of intravenous ascorbic acid as a cancer treatment has been a controversial topic since the emergence of misleading data in the 1970s; however, new research in the 21st century has shown promising potential in oncological therapeutic treatments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2941266",
"title": "Hypervitaminosis D",
"section": "Section::::Long-term effects of supplementary oral intake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Vitamin D oral supplementation and skin synthesis have a different effect on the transport form of vitamin D, plasma calcifediol concentrations. Endogenously synthesized vitamin D travels mainly with vitamin D-binding protein (DBP), which slows hepatic delivery of vitamin D and the availability in the plasma. In contrast, orally administered vitamin D produces rapid hepatic delivery of vitamin D and increases plasma calcifediol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32509",
"title": "Vitamin C",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1308,
"text": "Under the rubric of orthomolecular medicine, \"Intravenous vitamin C is a contentious adjunctive cancer therapy, widely used in naturopathic and integrative oncology settings.\" With oral administration absorption efficiency decreases as amounts increase. Intravenous administration bypasses this. Doing so makes it possible to achieve plasma concentrations of 5 to 10 millimoles/liter (mmol/L), which far exceed the approximately 0.2 mmol/L limit from oral consumption. The theories of mechanism are contradictory. At high tissue concentrations ascorbic acid is described as acting as a pro-oxidant, generating hydrogen peroxide (HO) to kill tumor cells. The same literature claims that ascorbic acid acts as an antioxidant, thereby reducing the adverse effects of chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Research continues in this field, but a 2014 review concluded: \"Currently, the use of high-dose intravenous vitamin C [as an anticancer agent] cannot be recommended outside of a clinical trial.\" A 2015 review added: \"There is no high-quality evidence to suggest that ascorbate supplementation in cancer patients either enhances the antitumor effects of chemotherapy or reduces its toxicity. Evidence for ascorbate's anti-tumor effects was limited to case reports and observational and uncontrolled studies.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9651482",
"title": "Vitamin C megadosage",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "The use of vitamin C in high doses as a treatment for cancer was promoted by Linus Pauling, based on a 1976 study published with Ewan Cameron which reported intravenous vitamin C significantly increased lifespans of patients with advanced cancer. This trial was criticized by the National Cancer Institute for being designed poorly, and three subsequent trials conducted at the Mayo Clinic could not replicate these results. However, the trials at the Mayo Clinic were conducted with oral doses of ascorbate, not IV ascorbate as was done in the original trial. This massive difference in dosage is the most likely reason for the failure of the Mayo Clinic trials to replicate the original trial results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29829829",
"title": "Nutritional challenges of HIV/AIDS",
"section": "Section::::Micronutrient requirements.:Multivitamins and supplementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Evidence for supplementation with selenium is mixed with some tentative evidence of benefit. There is some evidence that vitamin A supplementation in children reduces mortality and improves growth. For nutritionally compromised pregnant and lactating women, a multivitamin supplementation has improved outcomes for both mothers and children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "470087",
"title": "Ergocalciferol",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "Ergocalciferol may be used as a vitamin D supplement, whereas cholecalciferol (vitamin D) is produced naturally by the skin when exposed to ultraviolet light. Ergocalciferol (D) and cholecalciferol (D) are considered to be equivalent for vitamin D production, as both forms appear to have similar efficacy in ameliorating rickets and reducing the incidence of falls in elderly patients. Conflicting reports exist, however, concerning the relative effectiveness, with some studies suggesting that ergocalciferol has less efficacy based on limitations in absorption, binding, and inactivation. A meta-analysis concluded that evidence usually favors cholecalciferol in raising vitamin D levels in blood, although it stated more research is needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f60z3a
|
Why on earth did Krushchev try to put offensive nuclear missiles in Cuba in the first place?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's a lot to it, but the gambit was that a) the US had put missiles in the USSR's back yard (the Jupiter missiles in Turkey, to say nothing of the [over a dozen](_URL_0_) nuclear deployments that the US ringed the USSR and China with in the late 1950s), and this was both payback and a stimulus to remove them; b) this was also tied up with Khrushchev's feelings on the Berlin crisis, and he thought it would give him leverage there; c) Castro wanted the missiles so that the US would (once again) not try to invade his island, as they had tried to with the Bay of Pigs. \n\nThe idea that the US would freak out about this was not obvious. The US leaders themselves acknowledged, privately, that the missiles in Cuba did not in any meaningful way change the balance of military power. The US itself had been engaging in \"absurdly reckless\" behavior of the same order for several years. The US chose to escalate it to a full crisis; it was not obviously one, and the Kennedy administration could have had many different responses to it than the one they had (which brought them to the brink of war and was only really released because Khrushchev allowed them a way out of it). The Soviets were extremely surprised by the intensity of the US response.\n\nWhich is to say: when you look at it from an exclusively American perspective, yes, it looks crazy. But if you look at it from the Soviet perspective, the US reacted in a very dangerous and irrational way to what was, at worst, a tit-for-tat operation.",
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"answer": "I would like to add something to the above answer. With the mentioned points I mostly agree with, but I'd like to add directly from Khrushchev's own memoirs as I think these would be quite relevant to this question. \n\nKhrushchev wrote about this in his memoirs. It must be noted he wrote these memoirs in the late 1960's, while in forced retirement - and the Cuban Missile Crisis was cited as the reason for ousting him from power by the Politburo in 1964.\n\nKhrushchev's later remarks are not necessarily what he truly thought at that moment, and he tried to save his legacy, but it does tell us something about his line of reasoning.\n\nHis version of events begins with the Cuban Revolution and the fact that for a while, the Soviets did not expect Cuba to turn communist anytime soon. They did have a KGB officer who had coincidentally befriended Castro's brother a few years before and told Moscow that Raul Castro was a Communist. Eventually, Cuba began to receive aid, and started nationalizing US assets, followed by the Pig's Bay invasion in 1961. Unexpectedly, Castro declared his regime Socialist, and according to Khrushchev the Cubans began to form a symbol. If Cuba became a success, more socialist revolutions in Latin America would follow.\n\nAt the same time, the USSR and NATO butted heads in Europe over West-Berlin, as the Soviets demanded West-Berlin to become a neutral ground and that NATO would withdraw its troops. However, Khrushchev writes he was fairly confident the West wouldn't start a war from West-Berlin. About Cuba however, he was not so sure. He was convinced that after the failed invasion of 1961, the US would continue to try to overthrow Castro.\n\nWhat could the USSR do to prevent this? Khrushchev argued that making firm statements and issueing stern warnings would not deter the US if it was not backed up by \"real force\". In his view this is how \"imperialists\" are to be treated: they only understand force.\n\nCuba had to be protected at all costs: if America could crush Cuba, it would undermine the \"revolutionary will among many other peoples and nations\". Cuba needed to survive as an example for other countries to follow suit. If I may say so, it almost sounds like an inverted Soviet version of the domino theory: if one revolution fails, all will fail.\n\nThen also comes the problem that Soviet missiles at that time could not yet reach US territory from the Soviet Union, and its strategic bombers would have to go on suicide mission to deliver one atomic bomb to the US. \n\nKhrushchev worried deeply about \"losing Cuba\". He worried about the blow to Marxist-Leninism in the world that would be, he worried about Soviet prestige (Khrushchev's personal ego was deeply connected with Soviet prestige) and he wanted to show the world the USSR could do more against US agression than expressing mere protest at the UN.\n\nThe \"obvious\" solution to Khrushchev for defending Cuba was to do what the US had been doing to the USSR already: placing nuclear weapons. Khrushchev also sounds a bit vengeful, as he wanted to threaten New York and make America \"feel threatened\" like they had done to the Russians.\n\nAccording to his memoir, he developed his plans in private while visiting Bulgaria, and continued not to discuss it with anyone, because he knew that if he and Castro would do this, it had to be kept absolutely secret. Eventually when he had decided to do this, he presented the plan to the leaders of the Central Committee and gave them a week to think about it. \n\n\"Cuba must become a torch blazing in the night\", Khrushchev wrote. \"A magnet of attraction for all the oppressed peoples of Latin America fighting against exploitation by the American monopolies\".\n\nKhrushchev's Politburo colleagues cautiously supported his decision, but basically told him it was his decision and they would support whatever he decided. He felt the burden of responsibility not to let things escalate into war, but, he tries to argue his strategy was one of agression to preserve peace. If the USSR continued to be \"weak\", back away, and do concessions to the imperialists, he wrote, then this would inevitably embolden them and lead to war. Khrushchev believed he had to draw a line to protect Cuba, show his teeth to the US, appear threatening, and thereby maintain balance in the Cold War and with it, peace.\n\nHe concludes in his memoir that the Cuban Crisis \"brilliantly set off our foreign policy\" and considered it a \"brilliant success without firing a single shot\".\n\nI hope this further illuminates some of Khrushchev's thinking during the Crisis. I must warn that this man changed his thoughts and ideas as often as the weather, depending on his mood and temper, and that his memoirs above all reflect his own reconstruction of what he was doing.\n\nNikita Khrushchev & Sergei Khrushchev (ed.), \"Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev Volume 3: Statesman (1953-1964)\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6827",
"title": "Cuban Missile Crisis",
"section": "Section::::Soviet deployment of missiles in Cuba.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Additionally, placing nuclear missiles on Cuba was a way for the USSR to show their support for Cuba and support the Cuban people who viewed the United States as a threatening force, as the latter had become their ally after the Cuban Revolution of 1959. According to Khrushchev, the Soviet Union's motives were \"aimed at allowing Cuba to live peacefully and develop as its people desire\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2601678",
"title": "Military deception",
"section": "Section::::History.:Cuban Missile Crisis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "The months preceding the Cuban Missile Crisis involved a complex deception and denial campaign. The Soviet attempt to position nuclear weapons on the island nation of Cuba in Operation Anadyr in 1962 occurred under a shroud of great secrecy, both to deny the United States information on the deployment of these missiles to the island and to deceive the United States' political leadership, military, and intelligence services about Moscow's intentions in Cuba. The parameters of Anadyr demanded that both medium- and intermediate-range ballistic missiles be deployed to Cuba and operable before their existence was discovered by the United States, and the Soviet General Staff and Soviet Communist Party leaders turned to radical measures to achieve surprise in this manner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211767",
"title": "Operation Anadyr",
"section": "Section::::Soviet denial and deception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "Operation Anadyr was not only a missile and troop deployment, but also a complex denial and deception campaign. The Soviet attempt to position nuclear weapons in Cuba occurred under a shroud of great secrecy, both to deny the United States information on the deployment of the missiles and to deceive the United States' political leadership, military, and intelligence services on the Soviets' intentions in Cuba. The parameters of Anadyr demanded that both medium- and intermediate-range ballistic missiles be deployed to Cuba and operable before their existence was discovered by the United States, and the Soviet General Staff and political leadership turned to radical measures to achieve this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6827",
"title": "Cuban Missile Crisis",
"section": "Section::::Soviet deployment of missiles in Cuba.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "An indirect reason why Khrushchev placed missiles on Cuba would be to try to establish the extent to which the Soviet Union could threaten the United States. Prior to this, there was no clear demarcation of how the United States was willing to react, and with new president John F. Kennedy, it was unknown to the Soviet Union how far they could manipulate the United States. By placing missiles in Cuba, on the U.S.'s doorstep, the extent to which the United States would react would be clear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6827",
"title": "Cuban Missile Crisis",
"section": "Section::::Soviet deployment of missiles in Cuba.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "By May, Khrushchev and Castro agreed to place strategic nuclear missiles secretly in Cuba. Like Castro, Khrushchev felt that a US invasion of Cuba was imminent and that to lose Cuba would do great harm to the communists, especially in Latin America. He said he wanted to confront the Americans \"with more than words... the logical answer was missiles\". The Soviets maintained their tight secrecy, writing their plans longhand, which were approved by Marshal of the Soviet Union Rodion Malinovsky on July 4 and Khrushchev on July 7.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6827",
"title": "Cuban Missile Crisis",
"section": "Section::::Crisis ends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "At the time when the Kennedy administration thought that the Cuban Missile Crisis was resolved, nuclear tactical rockets stayed in Cuba since they were not part of the Kennedy-Khrushchev understandings and the Americans did not know about them. The Soviets changed their minds, fearing possible future Cuban militant steps, and on November 22, 1962, Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union Anastas Mikoyan told Castro that the rockets with the nuclear warheads were being removed as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66225",
"title": "Curtis LeMay",
"section": "Section::::Cold War.:The \"Airpower Battle\".:Cuban Missile Crisis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 1586,
"text": "During the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, LeMay clashed again with U.S. President John F. Kennedy and Defense Secretary McNamara, arguing that he should be allowed to bomb nuclear missile sites in Cuba. He opposed the naval blockade and, after the end of the crisis, suggested that Cuba be invaded anyway, even after the Soviets agreed to withdraw their missiles. Kennedy secretly agreed to remove US missiles from Turkey and Italy. Unknown to the US, the Soviet field commanders in Cuba had been given authority to launch nuclear weapons under their control. They had at least 20 nuclear warheads for medium-range R-12 Dvina (NATO Code SS-4 Sandal) ballistic missiles capable of reaching US cities (including Washington DC), each carrying a one megaton warhead (equivalent to 50 Hiroshima bombs), and nine tactical nuclear missiles. A Soviet submarine flotilla in the area commanded by Kapitan (later Vice Admiral) Vasili Arkhipov had nuclear torpedoes. Because a US Navy surface flotilla was harassing the Soviet submarines with small depth charges, both the flagship's captain and its Zampolit, believing that war had started, voted to fire a nuclear torpedo at the flotilla. But Captain Arkhipov, a veteran of the K-19 disaster, voted to wait and see, thus averting World War III. If the Soviet officers on land and at sea had chosen to launch, many millions of US citizens could have been killed. The ensuing SAC retaliatory thermonuclear strike would have killed roughly one hundred million Soviet citizens. Kennedy refused LeMay's requests, and the naval blockade was successful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4df32u
|
What is the smallest possible Goldilocks zone for any star?
|
[
{
"answer": "Probably a red/brown dwarf where the goldilocks zone will be close to the star itself, adjusting the mass and temperature of the star so that it's right outside of the Roche limit for a rocky planet.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13912929",
"title": "Goldilocks principle",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "BULLET::::- In astrobiology, the Goldilocks zone refers to the habitable zone around a star: As Stephen Hawking put it, “like Goldilocks, the development of intelligent life requires that planetary temperatures be ‘just right’”. The Rare Earth Hypothesis uses the Goldilocks principle in the argument that a planet must be neither too far away from nor too close to a star and galactic center to support life, while either extreme would result in a planet incapable of supporting life. Such a planet is colloquially called a \"Goldilocks Planet\". Paul Davies has argued for the extension of the principle to cover the selection of our universe from a (postulated) multiverse: “observers arise only in those universes where, like Goldilocks’ porridge, things are by accident ‘just right’”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47695176",
"title": "Superhabitable planet",
"section": "Section::::General characteristics.:Star.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Dismissing both ends, systems with a K-type stars offer the best habitable zones for life. K-type stars allow the formation of planets around them, have a long life expectancy, and provide a stable habitable zone free of the effects of excessive proximity to its star. Furthermore, the radiation produced by a K-type star is high enough to allow complex life without the need for an atmospheric ozone layer. They are also the most stable and their habitable zone does not move very much during its lifetime, so a terrestrial analog located near a K-type star may be habitable for almost all of the main sequence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1072751",
"title": "Circumstellar habitable zone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The habitable zone is also called the Goldilocks zone, a metaphor of the children's fairy tale of \"Goldilocks and the Three Bears\", in which a little girl chooses from sets of three items, ignoring the ones that are too extreme (large or small, hot or cold, etc.), and settling on the one in the middle, which is \"just right\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30232170",
"title": "Gillellus semicinctus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Gillellus semicinctus, the half-banded stargazer, is a species of sand stargazer native to the Pacific coast of the Americas from the Gulf of California to Colombia, as well as occurring in the Galapagos Islands. It can be found on sandy substrates at depths of from . It can reach a maximum length of TL.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35509483",
"title": "Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1171,
"text": "K-type main-sequence stars may be candidates for supporting extraterrestrial life. These stars are known as \"Goldilocks stars\" as they emit enough radiation in the non-UV ray spectrum to provide a temperature that allows liquid water to exist on the surface of a planet; they also remain stable in the main phase longer than the Sun, allowing more time for life to form on a planet around a K-type main-sequence star. The planet's habitable zone, ranging from 0.1–0.4 to 0.3–1.3 astronomical units (AU), depending on the size of the star, is often far enough from the star so as not to be tidally locked to the star, and to have a sufficiently low solar flare activity not to be lethal to life. In comparison, red dwarf stars have too much solar activity and quickly tidally lock the planets in their habitable zones, making them less suitable for life. The odds of intelligent life arising may be better on planets around K-type main-sequence stars than around Sun-like stars, given the extra time available for it to evolve. Few planets thus far have been found around K-type main-sequence stars, but those that have are potential candidates for extraterrestrial life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4970436",
"title": "Westerlund 2",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Westerlund 2 is an obscured compact young star cluster (perhaps even a super star cluster) in the Milky Way, with an estimated age of about one or two million years. It contains some of the hottest, brightest, and most massive stars known. The cluster resides inside a stellar breeding ground known as Gum 29, located 20,000 light-years away in the constellation Carina. It is half a degree from the naked eye Cepheid variable V399 Carinae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31307",
"title": "Tau Ceti",
"section": "Section::::Planetary system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "The habitable zone for this star, defined as the locations where liquid water could be present on an Earth-sized planet, is at a radius of 0.55–1.16 AU, where 1 AU is the average distance from the Earth to the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cuwqii
|
why can't dental crowns be whitened/have something placed over them to make them whiter?
|
[
{
"answer": "Crowns are made of non-porous material that is very, very hard. They don't discolor or stain, so it's uncommon for them to need to be whitened. Crowns are matched to your natural teeth colour, so if you plan on bleaching your teeth, you should bleach them prior to the crowns being colour-matched, or let the dentist know about your plans so they can take that into account (none of which helps you now). \n\nYou cannot mold something over crowns because that will alter the shape and function of your teeth, which could create a lot of problems, from misaligned bite to sores to crowns breaking or coming off. But mostly things just don't stick to crown material very well. You also probably don't want thick, fake-looking teeth. \n\nYou should ask your dentist what colour he selected for the crowns and ask him to double-check that the lab made the crown with the correct colour. If the lab messed up, they should be willing to remake the crowns and your dentist should be willing to put in the correct ones for you.\n\nIf everything was ordered correctly, you could look into \"clip on\" veneers if they're very bothersome. Which is basically temporary veneer, kind of like invisilign but opaque. \n\nAlso, be aware that natural teeth aren't super white -- I believe the average natural tooth colour is A3, which is substantially yellowed. Blindingly white teeth are all achieved artificially.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ug nothing to add except the state of dentistry seems appalling to me. Like, why don’t we have paint on enamel replacement/supplements? Why don’t we have near-invisible “patching”? Like why is it when the tiniest thing goes wrong the first instinct seems to be “let’s bring your tooth to a stump, and put a crown on it - which will need to be replaced in a few years and fuck up your bite, and when your bite is fucked up we’ll just put more crowns on the surrounding teeth!”",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Crowns and Veneers are made out of specific materials. Your most common options are; Porcelain fused to metal, Lithium Disilicate, Porcelain fused to Lithium Disilicate, Zirconia, and Porcelain fused to zirconia. There are more materials available but these are the most common. And they all have a common attribute, they are made from glass or metal oxides. They are impermeable. \n\n\n\nThink of your glassware at home. How can you color it? By putting glass based colored powders on it and firing it in an oven. It's a lot easier to bake the color into the ceramic while building it, rather than masking the color out.\n\n\n\nOften a Dental Laboratory will error toward making crowns lighter, because it is much much easier to make them darker with an additional firing of color. But making crowns that are finished, lighter, is almost never an option. It involves cutting away the porcelain and rebuilding in a different color. Which the lab would call a REMAKE, but often redoing from start can be easier depending on how much modification is needed.\n\n\n\nIf your dentist delivered your crowns or veneers and you thought they were too dark, you should have let them know, and then stood your ground. They would of course tried to talk you out of a remake, but you can totally refuse to have them bonded. \n\n\n\nCould you send me a picture in a message of your teeth? I can give my honest opinion.\n\nTooth colors in the dental field from light to dark go BL1, BL2, BL3, BL4, B1, A1, B2, A2, etc....\n\nThe most common color used and the most natural is an A1, and maybe a bit brighter.\n\nWhat we see in the USA a lot is people want toilet bowl white teeth. Teeth brighter than BL1. \n\nSo often the patient is talked out of such an unnatural selection and talked into a BL4, and the patient feels it is yellow and dark, even though it is far from it.\n\nWould love to see your smile and let you know what I think.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30864459",
"title": "Amelogenesis imperfecta",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Preventive and restorative dental care is very important as well as considerations for esthetic issues since the crown are yellow from exposure of dentin due to enamel loss. The main objectives of treatment is pain relief, preserving patient's remaining dentition, and to treat and preserve the patient's occlusal vertical height.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48315083",
"title": "Tooth discoloration",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Discoloration of the front teeth is one of the most common reasons people seek dental care. However, many people with teeth of normal shade ask for them to be whitened. Management of tooth discoloration depends on the cause. Most discoloration is harmless and may or may not be of cosmetic concern to the individual. In other cases it may indicate underlying pathology such as pulp necrosis or rarely a systemic disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3674414",
"title": "Dentinogenesis imperfecta",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Dental whitening (bleaching) is contraindicated although it has been reported to lighten the color of DI teeth with some success; however, because the discoloration is caused primarily by the underlying yellow-brown dentin, this alone is unlikely to produce normal appearance in cases of significant discoloration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1340551",
"title": "Crown (dentistry)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "A crown, sometimes known as dental cap, is a type of dental restoration which completely caps or encircles a tooth or dental implant. Crowns are often needed when a large cavity threatens the ongoing health of a tooth. They are typically bonded to the tooth using a dental cement. Crowns can be made from many materials, which are usually fabricated using \"indirect methods\". Crowns are often used to improve the strength or appearance of teeth. While inarguably beneficial to dental health, the procedure and materials can be relatively expensive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1145905",
"title": "Tooth whitening",
"section": "Section::::Contra-indications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 855,
"text": "BULLET::::- Persons with visible white fillings or crowns. Tooth whitening does not change the color of fillings and other restorative materials. It does not affect porcelain, other ceramics, or dental gold. However, it can slightly affect restorations made with composite materials, cements and dental amalgams. Tooth whitening will not restore color of fillings, porcelain, and other ceramics when they become stained by foods, drinks, and smoking, as these products are only effective on natural tooth structure. As such, a shade mismatch may be created as the natural tooth surfaces increase in whiteness and the restorations stay the same shade. Whitening agents do not work where bonding has been used and neither is it effective on tooth-colored filling materials. Other options to deal with such cases are the porcelain veneers or dental bonding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314628",
"title": "Tooth enamel",
"section": "Section::::Dental procedures.:Dental restorations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Aesthetics is another reason for the removal of enamel. Removing enamel is necessary when placing crowns and veneers to enhance the appearance of teeth. In both of these instances, when unsupported by underlying dentin, that portion of the enamel is more vulnerable to fracture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3674414",
"title": "Dentinogenesis imperfecta",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "In most cases, full-coverage crowns or veneers (composite/porcelain) are needed for aesthetic appearance, as well as to prevent further attrition. Another treatment option is bonding, putting lighter enamel on the weakened enamel of the teeth and with lots of treatments of this bonding, the teeth appear whiter to the eye, but the teeth on the inside and under that cover are still the same. Due to the weakened condition of the teeth, many common cosmetic procedures such as braces and bridges are inappropriate for patients with Dentinogenesis imperfecta and are likely to cause even more damage than the situation they were intended to correct.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7i4pmt
|
What's myth and what's truth about the legend of Rasputin?
|
[
{
"answer": "* /u/kieslowskifan has a fantastic post on the [creation of the Rasputin mythology](_URL_0_) out of contemporary Russian court gossip and post-Revolution anti-Romanov polemic. It addresses the \"power\" aspects of the legend\n* /u/carlton_the_doorman addresses the rumors specifically connected to [Rasputin's assassination](_URL_2_) using Edvard Razinsky's *The Rasputin File*, a fascinating book based on the massive reports from early Soviet/Revolution interrogations of czarist political figures. One thing to note here is that he acquired some of his sources privately through an auction house, leaving a fragment of a question about reliability--[here's a review](_URL_1_) from a Russian history professor addressing that issue which is nevertheless overall positive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3863815",
"title": "Grigori Rasputin in popular culture",
"section": "Section::::Books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the 2003 novel \"The Romanov Prophecy\" by Steve Berry, Rasputin is depicted as a mysterious and prophetic figure who predicts his own demise, as well as that of the Russian Empire, but then a return of the Romanovs to power. The first two of those prophecies are based on an actual letter that the historical Rasputin wrote.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2092651",
"title": "Rasputin the Mad Monk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Rasputin, the Mad Monk is a 1966 Hammer film directed by Don Sharp and starring Christopher Lee as Grigori Rasputin, the Russian peasant-mystic who gained great influence with the Tsars prior to the Russian Revolution. It also features Barbara Shelley, Francis Matthews, Suzan Farmer, Richard Pasco, Dinsdale Landen and Renée Asherson. The story is largely fictionalized, although some of the events leading up to Rasputin's assassination are very loosely based on Prince Yusupov's account of the story. For legal reasons, the character of Yusupov was replaced by Ivan (Matthews). Yusupov was still alive when the film was released, dying on 27 September 1967.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2051965",
"title": "Prithviraj Chauhan",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Characterization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "\"Prithviraj Raso\", a legendary text patronized largely by the Rajput courts, portrays Prithviraj as a great hero. Prithviraj's dynasty was classified as one of the Rajput clans in the later period, including in \"Prithviraj Raso\", although the \"Rajput\" identity did not exist during his time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2632086",
"title": "Agnivansha",
"section": "Section::::Chauhan accounts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "\"Prithviraj Raso\" is the earliest source that includes four different Rajput dynasties (not just the Paramaras) in this legend. Scholars such as Dasharatha Sharma and C. V. Vaidya, who analyzed the earliest available copies of \"Prithviraj Raso\", concluded that its original recension did not contain this legend at all. The earliest extant copy of \"Prithviraj Raso\", dated to 15th century, contains only one sentence regarding the origin of Chauhan dynasty: it states that Manikya Rai was the first valiant Chauhan, and he was born from Brahma's sacrifice. R. B. Singh believes that the 16th century poets came up with the legend to foster Rajput unity against the Mughal emperor Akbar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3182051",
"title": "Prithviraj Raso",
"section": "Section::::Historical reliability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "Since the 16th century, the Rajput rulers patronized \"Prithviraj Raso\" for its elements of heroic exploits, romance and revenge. Because of this, it became the most popular biography of Prithviraj among the Rajputs. James Tod, who introduced the text to the Western scholarship, characterised it as an authentic historical source but is today considered himself not to be reliable. As a result of James Tod's writings, \"Prithviraj Raso\" overshadowed other legendary texts about Prithviraj Chauhan (such as the \"Alha Khand\" and \"Prithviraja Vijaya\"). From 1900 onwards, several Hindi-language narratives based on Prithviraj Raso were published.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12804",
"title": "Grigori Rasputin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Historians often suggest that Rasputin's terrible reputation helped discredit the tsarist government, and thus helped precipitate the overthrow of the Romanov dynasty, which happened a few weeks after he was assassinated. Accounts of his life and influence were often been based on hearsay and rumor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39621940",
"title": "Rasputin (1938 film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Rasputin (French: La Tragédie impériale) is a 1938 French historical film directed by Marcel L'Herbier and starring Harry Baur, Marcelle Chantal and Pierre Richard-Willm. It depicts the rise and fall of the Russian mystic Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin, the advisor to the Romanov royal family. The film's sets were designed by the art director Guy de Gastyne.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5lq7a5
|
how do some websites offer free returns on unwanted goods?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some of it is about price. Whether that comes from charging the customer more, or getting the goods cheaper. Some websites (such as Amazon) have stipulations about free returns depending on who you purchased from or what good it is, unless you pay for Prime, so it isn't actually free. And of course, there are always stipulations about the condition of the item when returned. For example, a fragrance has to be in the original cellophane. So they may eat the cost of return shipping but they get a sellable good back.\n\nFinally, it's about a commitment to quality and a willingness to stand by their products, even if it costs them a bit. A site selling legitimate goods (as opposed to counterfeits, tampered or with undisclosed flaws or damage) seems, on average, more likely to offer free returns as they have confidence that the buyer will be satisfied with their genuine article and its condition upon arrival.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a cost retailers bake into their business model, and it's a trade off for customers not having physical ability to try on or examine a product. So they might pay shipping on a returned good 1/10 of time but that's still cheaper than maintaining a physical network of stores, or more stores, or stores with much more additional inventory and staff to cover distributed demand. And the lack of risk to customers boosts sales substantially. Plus, online retailers have reduced rates negotiated with shoppers so they aren't paying what you or I would to ship a similar package -- Zappos might pay $2 for what would cost us $10.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10442845",
"title": "Travel website",
"section": "Section::::Bargain sites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Travel bargain websites collect and publish bargain rates by advising consumers where to find them online (sometimes but not always through a direct link). Rather than providing detailed search tools, these sites generally focus on offering advertised specials, such as last-minute sales from travel suppliers eager to deplete unused inventory; therefore, these sites often work best for consumers who are flexible about destinations and other key itinerary components.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23301259",
"title": "Product return",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "Many retailers will accept returns provided that the customer has a receipt as a proof of purchase, and that certain other conditions, which depend on the retailer's policies, are met. These may include the merchandise being in a certain condition (usually resellable if not defective), no more than a certain amount of time having passed since the purchase, and sometimes that identification be provided (though usually only if a receipt is not provided). In some cases, only exchanges or store credit are offered, again usually only without a receipt, or after an initial refund period has passed. Some retailers charge a restocking fee for non-defective returned merchandise, but typically only if the packaging has been opened.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2493498",
"title": "Online shopping rewards",
"section": "Section::::The marketing model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1098,
"text": "Cash back and reward-based websites operate using a marketing model known as affiliate marketing, which is a performance-based marketing tool. Affiliate marketing networks make it possible to track in detail where users come from (which website is referring the customers), what users buy (down to the product) and when. Rewards-based websites track and reconcile this information with their own user database, and pass on a proportion or even all of the commission received to the customer. From the customer's perspective they are getting something back, usually at no extra cost and often with an additional discount or bonus. From the retailer's perspective, the role and costs of marketing are passed on almost entirely to the affiliate. While hundreds of thousands of websites can easily use affiliate programs to advertise products and retailers (from sports blogs, fanzines through to almost any niche website), cash back and rewards-based programs are much fewer in number, because of the need to track, store, and retrieve individual customer information with a high degree of precision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46887899",
"title": "RePack",
"section": "Section::::Business.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "On supported e-commerce sites the customer can select to use RePack as the online order's delivery packaging, the user will then receive the goods in RePack's recyclable packaging. This packaging can be returned to RePack by dropping it to a local letter box and then can be reused, on average up to 20 times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46510938",
"title": "Twice (online retailer)",
"section": "Section::::Buying & Selling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Users can sell clothing, shoes and handbags in two ways: request a prepaid selling kit or print out a shipping label. Twice processes the items and sends an all-or-nothing offer to the user within days, which users accept or reject. If accepted, Twice offers multiple options for immediate payout including PayPal and Venmo. If rejected, Twice charges $4.95 for return shipping. Items that are not returned are donated or recycled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183515",
"title": "Retail",
"section": "Section::::Retail format: types of retail outlet.:Retail types by marketing strategy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 217,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 217,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "As the name implies, a give-away shop provides goods for free. There are several different models of give-away shop in popular use. One is where goods are free to any shopper; an alternative is that shoppers must provide a product before they can take a product and a third variation is where consumers have the option of taking goods for free or paying any amount that they can afford. For example, Australia's restaurant group Lentil as Anything operates on a pay whatever you feel is right model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12282037",
"title": "Check kiting",
"section": "Section::::Retail-based kiting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Another version of this scheme involves purchasing an item from a place of retail with a check, and returning it promptly for a cash refund, followed by depositing that cash into the transactional account. This is more difficult these days, as more places of retail will delay a refund on purchases made by check.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14cwfz
|
What is the oldest translated book?
|
[
{
"answer": "An actual historian can give you a more detailed answer, but you should check out the Wikipedia page on [ancient literature](_URL_1_). The short answer would be the Sumerian texts discovered in Abu Salabikh and the Akkadian legend of Etana. While there are earlier examples of writing that has been translated, these are the first things that can really be called \"texts\". If you're interested in reading some really old texts check out the [Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature](_URL_0_). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16767",
"title": "King James Version",
"section": "Section::::Literary attributes.:Translation.:Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "The translators appear to have otherwise made no first-hand study of ancient manuscript sources, even those that – like the Codex Bezae – would have been readily available to them. In addition to all previous English versions (including, and contrary to their instructions, the \"Rheimish New Testament\" which in their preface they criticized); they made wide and eclectic use of all printed editions in the original languages then available, including the ancient Syriac New Testament printed with an interlinear Latin gloss in the Antwerp Polyglot of 1573. In the preface the translators acknowledge consulting translations and commentaries in Chaldee, Hebrew, Syrian, Greek, Latin, Spanish, French, Italian, and German.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16893191",
"title": "Church History (Eusebius)",
"section": "Section::::Translations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "The work was translated into other languages in ancient time (Latin, Syriac, Armenian). Codex Syriac 1 housed at the National Library of Russia is one of the oldest Syriac manuscripts, dated to the year 462. The first English translation was by Mary Basset, the granddaughter of Sir Thomas More, made between 1544 and 1553; the first version to be printed was by Meredith Hanmer, in 1576.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "763919",
"title": "Early Modern English Bible translations",
"section": "Section::::Versions.:Coverdale's Bible.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "The first complete printed translation into English, and the first complete translation into Modern English, was compiled by Myles Coverdale and published in 1535. It was much influenced by Tyndale: Coverdale took Tyndale's New Testament and the published portions of his Old Testament, and translated the remainder of the Old Testament himself from Latin and German versions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2433094",
"title": "Apollonius of Tyre",
"section": "Section::::Translations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The earliest vernacular translation is an incomplete Old English prose text from the 11th century, sometimes called the first English novel. The existence of this unique text is unusual, as secular prose fiction from that time is extremely rare. The manuscript copy may only have survived because it was bound into a book together with Archbishop Wulfstan's homilies. Various versions of the tale were later written in most European languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31848834",
"title": "Bible translations into Mongolian",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "The earliest preserved translation of the Bible into the Mongolian language dates to 1827, but there is a written record of what may perhaps have been a translation existing as early as 1305. Since 1827, numerous other translations have been made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16767",
"title": "King James Version",
"section": "Section::::Literary attributes.:Translation.:Old Testament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 1007,
"text": "For the Old Testament, the translators used a text originating in the editions of the Hebrew Rabbinic Bible by Daniel Bomberg (1524/5), but adjusted this to conform to the Greek LXX or Latin Vulgate in passages to which Christian tradition had attached a Christological interpretation. For example, the Septuagint reading \"They pierced my hands and my feet\" was used in (vs. the Masoretes' reading of the Hebrew \"like lions my hands and feet\"). Otherwise, however, the Authorized Version is closer to the Hebrew tradition than any previous English translation – especially in making use of the rabbinic commentaries, such as Kimhi, in elucidating obscure passages in the Masoretic Text; earlier versions had been more likely to adopt LXX or Vulgate readings in such places. Following the practice of the Geneva Bible, the books of 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras in the medieval Vulgate Old Testament were renamed 'Ezra' and 'Nehemiah'; 3 Esdras and 4 Esdras in the Apocrypha being renamed '1 Esdras' and '2 Esdras'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69888",
"title": "New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures",
"section": "Section::::Translation.:Textual basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "The master text used for translating the Old Testament into English was Kittel's Biblia Hebraica. The Hebrew texts, Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia and Biblia Hebraica Quinta, were used for preparing the latest version of this translation. Other works consulted in preparing the translation include Aramaic Targums, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Samaritan Torah, the Greek Septuagint, the Latin Vulgate, the Masoretic Text, the Cairo Codex, the Aleppo Codex, Christian David Ginsburg's Hebrew Text, and the Leningrad Codex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5bwyv2
|
posting for a friend, "so color is just a specific reflection of light, correct? would that mean that a planet under another star (ex. krypton and it's red sun) would have completely different colors?"
|
[
{
"answer": "No, not completely. The colour of an object is depending on what light it reflect but our eyes can only see colours within certain wavelengths. That doesn't change on another planet. Certainly a different colour from a light source changes the colour you see from an object but that can be shown on Earth no need to go to another planet. A dark room for photo development for instance is lit normally by red light. That makes the objects seem red because the only wavelengths of visible light is red so only that is getting reflected. If the sun only gave off light in a narrow wavelength then it would change our perception of things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Color is not a specific reflection of light per se, but rather a specific *wavelength* of light. When light hits an object that object will absorb most of it and reflect some of it. This reflection is what we see and label as it's \"color\". If we go to a different planet where the star is purple, the objects would have a purple hue due to the ambient light, but that wouldnt change the specific wavelengths these objects reflect. Green things would look the same as a green thing on earth in a room lit by a purple light.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A very red sun would make it more difficult to see colours but the human eye is very good at adapting to different lighting conditions. For example, we can see colours quite well by candle light even though the flame is only about 1500K compared to our sun's 6000K. Modern digital cameras do a reasonable job of automatically choosing a colour temperature too; pro cameras can set colour temperature manually.\n\nThe key is that objects at a particular temperature give off a range of colours so even if \"Krypton and it's Red Sun\" had primarily red light, there would still be some green and blue light. The graph showing colour intensity at different frequencies looks like a bell curve with intensity tapering off only slowly for colours/wavelengths away from the central colour.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We evolved eyes suited for the light wavelengths produced by our sun. Things might appear blander under another planet's sun, due to the absence of some color we are used to. Or perhaps so obscenely blue and bright that our eyes and skin burn.\n\nBut it wouldn't make colors that couldn't be seen in a computer monitor or printer paper under a white (= all colors mixed) fluorescent light. It wouldn't add exotic new pigments to our eyes to let us see a different set of wavelengths.\n\nLook up ultramarine for a color that might appear shocking to be displayed on your monitor. It's so unnatural. But that's just because real stuff that makes it is so rare, it's still just a particular tingling of your existing photoreceptors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2719753",
"title": "Scattered disc",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Astronomers originally supposed that the entire trans-Neptunian population would show a similar red surface colour, as they were thought to have originated in the same region and subjected to the same physical processes. Specifically, SDOs were expected to have large amounts of surface methane, chemically altered into complex organic molecules by energy from the Sun. This would absorb blue light, creating a reddish hue. Most classical objects display this colour, but scattered objects do not; instead, they present a white or greyish appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "948685",
"title": "TrES-1b",
"section": "Section::::Detection and discovery.:Transit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "In the infrared panel, the colors reflect what our eyes might see if we could retune them to the invisible, infrared portion of the light spectrum. The hot star is less bright in infrared light than in visible and appears fainter. The warm planet peaks in infrared light, so is shown brighter. Their hues represent relative differences in temperature. Because the star is hotter than the planet, and because hotter objects give off more blue light than red, the star is depicted in blue, and the planet, red.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11946500",
"title": "HD 189733 b",
"section": "Section::::Detection and discovery.:Visible color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "In 2008, a team of astrophysicists appeared to have detected and monitored the planet's visible light using polarimetry, which would have been the first such success. This result seemed to be confirmed and refined by the same team in 2011. They found that the planet albedo is significantly larger in blue light than in the red, most probably due to Rayleigh scattering and molecular absorption in the red. The blue color of the planet was subsequently confirmed in 2013, which would have made HD 189733 the first planet to have its overall color determined by two different techniques. These measurements in polarized light have since been disputed by two separate teams using more sensitive polarimeters, with upper limits of the polarimetric signal provided therein.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6102",
"title": "Cyan",
"section": "Section::::In science and nature.:Astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "BULLET::::- The planet Uranus is colored cyan because of the abundance of methane in its atmosphere. Methane absorbs red light and reflects the blue-green light which allows observers to see it as cyan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "408026",
"title": "Relativistic Doppler effect",
"section": "Section::::Visualization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Real stars are not monochromatic, but emit a range of wavelengths approximating a black body distribution. It is not necessarily true that stars ahead of the observer would show a bluer color. This is because the whole spectral energy distribution is shifted. At the same time that visible light is blueshifted into invisible ultraviolet wavelengths, infrared light is blueshifted into the visible range. Precisely what changes in the colors one sees depends on the physiology of the human eye and on the spectral characteristics of the light sources being observed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42210873",
"title": "Green star (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::Why stars do not look green.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Human color vision is in fact more complicated than suggested by the explanation above, and in particular the perceived color of an object depends not only on the light it emits, but also on the colors of nearby objects. For example, a blue object close to a red object may appear somewhat greenish; this effect accounts for many apparently green stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19216955",
"title": "Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "BULLET::::- Periodic variable stars that are invisible for most of the time, and that brighten up with a red colour for a short while once per cycle. In Doppler's opinion they are binary stars. Such a star is usually invisible because it emits infrared instead of white light. In the orbit section with the maximal radial speed in the direction of Earth, the observed frequency on Earth is shifted from infrared to visible red.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5wie8d
|
why is an accounting firm responsible for the academy award envelopes?
|
[
{
"answer": "Tabulating vote data, ensuring its accuracy, and security from disclosure are all things that fall under the realm of accounting/auditing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20265620",
"title": "The Surplus",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1145,
"text": "Oscar (Oscar Nunez) informs Michael (Steve Carell) that the office must spend a $4300 surplus or lose it in next year's budget. When Michael opens up the floor for suggestions, factions break out and officemates square off against one another in order to get what they want. Oscar suggests that they replace the copier while Pam (Jenna Fischer) suggests they buy new chairs and Toby (Paul Lieberstein) suggests that they get the air quality in the office tested saying that there is radon coming from downstairs and asbestos coming from the ceiling. Jim (John Krasinski) takes Oscar's side, much to Pam's shock, because he started making copies himself since he and Pam started dating (asking Pam to make copies makes him feel awkward) and knows how bad the copier is, while the rest of the employees side with Pam. Pam notices the copier malfunctioning when she uses it, but still wants to replace the chairs. Michael does not choose a side, because he does not want to be the bad guy, so both sides start warming up to him to win him over. Jim and Oscar take Michael out for lunch, while Pam puts on more make-up and starts to hit on Michael.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "178826",
"title": "Joaquin Phoenix",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "In October 2012, Phoenix labeled the Academy Awards \"bullshit\". He later gave an interview apologizing for his earlier comments and acknowledging that the Oscars provide an important platform for many deserving filmmakers. He added more to the topic while on \"Jimmy Kimmel Live\" in 2015, saying that he is uncomfortable receiving accolades for his work in films when he considers the filmmaking process to be a collaborative one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49329502",
"title": "89th Academy Awards",
"section": "Section::::Ceremony information.:Best Picture announcement error.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "According to \"The Hollywood Reporter\", PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) – the accounting firm responsible for tabulating results, preparing the envelopes, and handing them to presenters – creates two sets of envelopes, which are kept on opposite sides of the stage. It is intended that each award has one primary envelope and one backup envelope that remains with one of the PwC Accountants in the wings. Video stills from the broadcast show that Beatty and Dunaway had been given the single remaining still-unopened backup envelope for Actress in a Leading Role as they walked onto the stage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "324",
"title": "Academy Awards",
"section": "Section::::Oscar statuette.:Ownership of Oscar statuettes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "While the Oscar is owned by the recipient, it is essentially not on the open market. Michael Todd's grandson tried to sell Todd's Oscar statuette to a movie prop collector in 1989, but the Academy won the legal battle by getting a permanent injunction. Although some Oscar sales transactions have been successful, some buyers have subsequently returned the statuettes to the Academy, which keeps them in its treasury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48434105",
"title": "Oscar Health",
"section": "Section::::Product and services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Oscar assigns each of its members to a “Concierge Team” which is made up of a team of three care guides and a registered nurse that handle both traditional customer service questions as well as coordination of clinical care. In an interview with the \"Phoenix Business Journal\" in 2017, Oscar's VP of Customer Care Paul Gazely said that Oscar's concierge model “helps to build a relationship and build trust with our members with their health care needs,” and that the model helps Oscar familiarize itself “with the member’s needs by looking at the entire member’s health history.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39842",
"title": "Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences",
"section": "Section::::Galleries and theaters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The Academy's numerous and diverse operations are housed in three facilities in the Los Angeles area: the headquarters building in Beverly Hills, which was constructed specifically for the Academy, and two Centers for Motion Picture Study – one in Beverly Hills, the other in Hollywood – which were existing structures restored and transformed to contain the Academy's Library, Film Archive and other departments and programs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29395257",
"title": "Oscar season",
"section": "Section::::Campaigning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "The Oscars represent a rare slice of Hollywood where independent film distributors with their moderate and low-budget films can best the major studios and their blockbusters. Because Oscar voters gravitate to serious content that is abundant in indie films, the glossy major-studio films are usually passed over. The awards campaigns involve placed advertising labeled with the subtle “for your consideration”, talent appearances in industry seminars, by-invitation parties, soliciting press coverage, screenings of films in theaters, online or via mailed DVDs, and direct email and print mail marketing messages to voters. The Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences that confers the Oscars also sets rules limiting overt campaigning by its members, which the movie industry generally complies with.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3j8mq5
|
Just how successful or influential was the global protest movement in shaping the course of the Vietnam War?
|
[
{
"answer": "Have you read Todd Gitlin's [The Whole World is Watching: Mass Media in the Making & Unmaking of the New Left](_URL_0_) (1980)? Gitlin is now an academic, but during 1963-4, he used to be the head of the SDS, the main student activist organization in the US, and was involved heavily with the anti-war movement. He wrote in detail about how the media skewed the protest movement in order to contain and control its impact. Rather than the protest movement itself, Gitlin actually credits the mass media and its distortion of the Tet Offensive with turning the national tide against the war, with implications for policy makers in Washington. He argues that the anti-war movement was heavily instrumentalized by the media in order to justify their headlines. In any case, it's worth a read, and it also points to a number of follow-up sources on the political impact of Tet, although they're a bit dated by now. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15706527",
"title": "Peace movement",
"section": "Section::::History.:Vietnam War protests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "High-profile opposition to the Vietnam war turned to street protests in an effort to turn U.S. political opinion against the war. The protests gained momentum from the Civil Rights Movement that had organized to oppose segregation laws, which had laid a foundation of theory and infrastructure on which the anti-war movement grew. Protests were fueled by a growing network of independently published newspapers (known as \"underground papers\") and the timely advent of large venue rock'n'roll festivals such as Woodstock and Grateful Dead shows, attracting younger people in search of generational togetherness. The movement progressed from college campuses to middle-class suburbs, government institutions, and labor unions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8544676",
"title": "Counterculture of the 1960s",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Vietnam War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "The Vietnam War, and the protracted national divide between supporters and opponents of the war, were arguably the most important factors contributing to the rise of the larger counterculture movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7603453",
"title": "Walek Dzedzej",
"section": "Section::::Early years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Political turmoil in the United States during the Vietnam War years of 1965-73 caused tremendous social, intellectual and cultural upheaval which reverberated with particular intensity throughout most of the countries of the Western Hemisphere, including Poland. The impact of the counterculture and the musical influence of the Woodstock generation had an immeasurable effect upon an entire generation of young Poles growing up under the restricting yoke of Communism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39766716",
"title": "Anti-war movement",
"section": "Section::::History of modern movements.:Vietnam War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1174,
"text": "Organized opposition to U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War began slowly and in small numbers in 1964 on various college campuses in the United States and quickly as the war grew deadlier. In 1967 a coalition of antiwar activists formed the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam which organized several large anti-war demonstrations between the late-1960s and 1972. Counter-cultural songs, organizations, plays and other literary works encouraged a spirit of nonconformism, peace, and anti-establishmentarianism. This anti-war sentiment developed during a time of unprecedented student activism and right on the heels of the Civil Rights Movement, and was reinforced in numbers by the demographically significant baby boomers. It quickly grew to include a wide and varied cross-section of Americans from all walks of life. The anti-Vietnam war movement is often considered to have been a major factor affecting America's involvement in the war itself. Many Vietnam veterans, including the former Secretary of State and former U.S. Senator John Kerry and disabled veteran Ron Kovic, spoke out against the Vietnam War on their return to the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172543",
"title": "Black bloc",
"section": "Section::::History.:International development.:North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 913,
"text": "In the years after the end of the Vietnam War, protest in the US came to assume more legalistic, orderly forms, and was increasingly dominated by the middle-class. This corresponded with the rise of a highly effective police strategy of crowd control called \"negotiated management.\" Many social scientists have noted the \"institutionalization of movements\" in this period. These currents largely constrained disruptive protest until 1999. In an unprecedented success for post-Vietnam era civil disobedience, the WTO Ministerial Conference opening ceremonies were shut down completely, host city Seattle declared a state of emergency for nearly a week, multilateral trade negotiations between the wealthy and developing nations collapsed, and all of this was done without fatalities. This occurred in the midst of mass rioting which had been set off by militant anarchists, some of them in a black bloc formation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32611",
"title": "Vietnam War",
"section": "Section::::Opposition to U.S. involvement, 1964–73.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "High-profile opposition to the Vietnam War increasingly turned to mass protests in an effort to shift U.S. public opinion. Riots broke out at the 1968 Democratic National Convention during protests against the war. After news reports of American military abuses, such as the 1968 My Lai Massacre, brought new attention and support to the anti-war movement, some veterans joined Vietnam Veterans Against the War. On 15 October 1969, the Vietnam Moratorium attracted millions of Americans. The fatal shooting of four students at Kent State University in 1970 led to nationwide university protests. Anti-war protests declined with the final withdrawal of troops after the Paris Peace Accords in 1973.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10926530",
"title": "Central Park be-ins",
"section": "Section::::Protest against the War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "During the 1960s America was involved in the Vietnam War. This war was a controversial one because many people were against the United States' involvement in South Vietnam. Adding to the tension of the Americans against the war was the emergence of a generation of people who were a part of the counter-culture and believed that they should do anything possible to go against the establishment. When Central Park was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965, this counter-culture generation decided that the park would be the perfect host for their demonstrations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3tyhxd
|
When in high school I remember somebody telling me the fire us made of a different sate of matter (different being not solid, liquid or gas) called plasma. Is there any truth to this statement and if so what exactly is plasma?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Is there any truth to this statement and if so what exactly is plasma?\n\nAbsolutely it is true!\n\nThe standard response is that plasmas are the fourth state of matter, just like you can heat a solid into a liquid and a liquid into a gas you can heat a gas into a plasma. The transition happens because individual atoms receive enough energy to ionize, ie one (or more) of their bound electrons are stripped off. You are left with a gas made up of positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons.\n\nIn a flame this happens because it is high temperature. Hot electrons collide with atoms and cause them to become ionized. \n\nThe definition actually extends broader since things like an electron+positron gas is a plasma or a collection charged dust particles with electrons is a plasma. The exact transition from gas- > plasma is also slightly blurry since we would consider things like the photosphere of the Sun (at ~6000K) to be a plasma despite it only being something like 1 part in 10^4-5 ionized. This is also the case in your flame where the gas will only be weakly ionized. However, [if you put a flame in an electric field you can easily tell it is a plasma!](_URL_0_)\n\nOther examples of plasmas in your life are: plasma tvs and (there is a tiny plasma inside every pixel!) flourescent tube lights. Also almost everything these days has been made with plasmas at some point. All electronic chips are manufactured using plasma etching and deposition along with coatings on any number of objects...mirrors, phone screens, plastics, chrome on cars...etc.\n\nThis is how we really hone in on what makes a plasma. Plasma behaviour shares some broad similarities with a gas but due to the electric charge of the composite species it ends up very different. The reason why is simply because gasses interact mostly by short range forces during binary collisions, whereas plasmas interact via long range electromagnetic forces.\n\nThese electromagnetic forces give rise to a set of collective behaviours that are unique to plasmas, the range of these behaviours is vast. The most useful (in my opinion) definition of a plasma is that it is a gas where there are a sufficiently large fraction of charged particles to enter a regime where the collective electromagnetic response is more important than the binary collisions of a gas. This is a characteristic of all the examples of plasmas I gave before.\n\nI could probably write several more pages on what a plasma is (and I did when I wrote my PhD thesis) but I'll stop here before every single person has stopped reading.\n\nedit:clarity",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I hate it when people talk about states of matter as if there were only three. There are many thermodynamically stable phases of matter. \n\nLiquid crystals have liquid, smectic phases, solid etc. \n\nThere are many phases of liquid helium, especially mixtures of He4 and He3. \n\nAnd of course there are the different phases observed in cold atomic vapors, BEC, Mot insulator, Efimov states, etc. (my area of research)\n\nMany physicists spent there whole life studying the phases of matter. And there are probably many phases of matter that nobody has even thought of yet. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I had a professor that claimed the effort to call plasma a fourth state of matter is just a PR effort. Really, plasma is superheated gas which gains electromagnetic properties as a result.\n\nI'm hesitant to believe his word on it just being a PR thing. In general it is considered a separate state of matter as far as I know. Whether that's technically accurate, I am not sure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is completely true. Plasma is a state of matter where the electrons of the ionised atoms gain enough energy to leave the nuclei behind,what you get is a soup of free electrons and positively charged nuclei (ions) because of the free electrons fire is also conductive. If you go to even higher energies (a few orders of magnitude i think) you get Quark-Gluon plasma where the nuclei themselves decay into free protons and neutrons. Hope this helps",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was a good thread on this, especially /u/zeug 's answer:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIn summary: If you're talking about distinguishing states of matter by their mechanical properties (stress-strain relations), then it doesn't make sense to say that gas and plasma are different. If you aren't, perhaps including electronic properties as well, then there are many many more states of matter than just four -- for example you would need to distinguish insulator and conductor phases of solids.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1251318",
"title": "Plasma window",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Plasma is any gas whose atoms or molecules have been ionized, and is a separate phase of matter. This is most commonly achieved by heating the gas to extremely high temperatures, although other methods exist. Plasma becomes increasingly viscous at higher temperatures, to the point where other matter has trouble passing through.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25916521",
"title": "Plasma (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Properties and parameters.:Comparison of plasma and gas phases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Plasma is often called the \"fourth state of matter\" after solid, liquids and gases, despite plasma typically being an ionized gas. It is distinct from these and other lower-energy states of matter. Although it is closely related to the gas phase in that it also has no definite form or volume, it differs in a number of ways, including the following:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25916521",
"title": "Plasma (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Properties and parameters.:Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Plasma is a state of matter in which an ionized gaseous substance becomes highly electrically conductive to the point that long-range electric and magnetic fields dominate the behaviour of the matter. The plasma state can be contrasted with the other states: solid, liquid, and gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61580",
"title": "Electrical resistivity and conductivity",
"section": "Section::::Causes of conductivity.:Plasma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Plasma is often called the \"fourth state of matter\" after solid, liquids and gases. It is distinct from these and other lower-energy states of matter. Although it is closely related to the gas phase in that it also has no definite form or volume, it differs in a number of ways, including the following:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25916521",
"title": "Plasma (physics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Plasma () is one of the four fundamental states of matter, and was first described by chemist Irving Langmuir in the 1920s. It consists of a gas of ions, atoms which have some of their orbital electrons removed, and free electrons. Plasma can be artificially generated by heating or subjecting a neutral gas to a strong electromagnetic field to the point where an ionized gaseous substance becomes increasingly electrically conductive, and long-range electromagnetic fields dominate the behaviour of the matter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25916521",
"title": "Plasma (physics)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "The word \"plasma\" comes or 'jelly', and describes the behaviour of the ionized atomic nuclei and the electrons within the surrounding region of the plasma. Very simply, each of these nuclei are suspended in a movable sea of electrons. Plasma was first identified in a Crookes tube, and so described by Sir William Crookes in 1879 (he called it \"radiant matter\"). The nature of this \"cathode ray\" matter was subsequently identified by British physicist Sir J.J. Thomson in 1897.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30747793",
"title": "Plasma polymerization",
"section": "Section::::Basic operating mechanism.:Glow discharge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 925,
"text": "Plasma consists of a mixture of electrons, ions, radicals, neutrals and photons. Some of these species are in local thermodynamic equilibrium, while others are not. Even for simple gases like argon this mixture can be complex. For plasmas of organic monomers, the complexity can rapidly increase as some components of the plasma fragment, while others interact and form larger species. Glow discharge is a technique in polymerization which forms free electrons which gain energy from an electric field, and then lose energy through collisions with neutral molecules in the gas phase. This leads to many chemically reactive species, which then lead to a plasma polymerization reaction. The electric discharge process for plasma polymerization is the “low-temperature plasma” method, because higher temperatures cause degradation. These plasmas are formed by a direct current, alternating current or radio frequency generator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9i8rbf
|
Why does damped oscillation depend on velocity?
|
[
{
"answer": "Friction forces are not typically considered damping. You are confusing energy dissipation (which can come from anything, including friction) with damping. Damping is a type of energy dissipation, as is friction. But damping is a specific type of energy dissipation, specifucally given to energy dissipation proportional to velocity. \n\nDamping also fits in to our differential equation models extremely nicely since it is dependent on velocity, another state that we can calculate with our existing differential equations. Friction does not fit differential equations very well; as energy dissipation due to friction is nonlinear in nature (either on or off, no middle ground). As such, friction is always modeled as an external force instead of a damping force. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The linear damping force -bv is sometimes chosen because it models a particular physical force reasonably well, but more often it's chosen simply because it leads to relatively easy to solve equations. The solutions are useful for gaining intuition about how damped oscillators behave, so they are used even when they aren't the best models of real world phenomena.\n\nSome people tend to have very rigid ideas about the definitions of particular terms, but in practice many technical terms are used in a variety of ways. For example, \"damping\" can mean:\n\n* Anything that takes energy away from an oscillator and makes its amplitude decrease.\n\n* A force proportional to velocity as is produced by an idealized model f= -bv.\n\n* A force produced by a damper or \"dashpot\", which is a device that mostly appears in introductory textbooks but occasionally appears in real life as well, and is designed to produce a force that is approximately proportional to velocity.\n\nIf you are interested in the actual behavior of some particular oscillator, the right model would depend on the particular energy loss mechanisms. You could describe one of interest, but consider a rotary mass-spring oscillator in a watch. You have friction in the bearing (constant force) wind resistance (which could be modeled as linear, but it might be better modeled as proportional to the square of velocity), and hysteresis loss in the spring (which is inherently nonlinear but could be modeled as linear as a rough model). To know what would be a good model, you might want to consider:\n\n* What do you want to assess with the model? Just the frequency of oscillation? The precise trajectory? \n\n* What are the relative sizes of the various loss-related forces?\n\n* How heavily damped is it--how big are the loss-related forced compared to the spring force?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13899",
"title": "Harmonic oscillator",
"section": "Section::::Damped harmonic oscillator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "In real oscillators, friction, or damping, slows the motion of the system. Due to frictional force, the velocity decreases in proportion to the acting frictional force. While in a simple undriven harmonic oscillator the only force acting on the mass is the restoring force, in a damped harmonic oscillator there is in addition a frictional force which is always in a direction to oppose the motion. In many vibrating systems the frictional force \"F\" can be modeled as being proportional to the velocity \"v\" of the object: , where \"c\" is called the \"viscous damping coefficient\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "821611",
"title": "Complex harmonic motion",
"section": "Section::::Different Types of Complex Harmonic Motion.:Damped Harmonic Motion.:Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Damped harmonic motion happens because the spring is not very efficient at storing and releasing energy so that the energy dies out. The damping force is proportional to the velocity of the object and is at the opposite direction of the motion so that the object slows down quickly. Specifically, When an object is damping, the damping force will relate to velocity with a coefficient c. The equation is \"F=-cv\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "821611",
"title": "Complex harmonic motion",
"section": "Section::::Different Types of Complex Harmonic Motion.:Damped Harmonic Motion.:Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Damped harmonic motion is a real oscillation, in which an object is hanging on a spring. Because of the existence of internal friction and air resistance, the system will over time experience a decrease in amplitude. The decrease of amplitude is due to the fact that the energy goes into thermal energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "760994",
"title": "Electron mobility",
"section": "Section::::Electric field dependence and velocity saturation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "This velocity saturation phenomenon results from a process called \"optical phonon scattering\". At high fields, carriers are accelerated enough to gain sufficient kinetic energy between collisions to emit an optical phonon, and they do so very quickly, before being accelerated once again. The velocity that the electron reaches before emitting a phonon is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13762563",
"title": "Undular bore",
"section": "Section::::In hydraulics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "The undulations form a standing wave pattern, relative to the undular bore front. So, the phase velocity (propagation velocity relative to still water) of the undulations is just high enough to keep the undulations stationary relative to the bore front. Now, in water waves, the group velocity (which is also the energy-transport velocity) is less than the phase velocity. Therefore, on average, wave energy of the undulations is transported away from the front, and contributing to the energy loss in the region of the front.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20646772",
"title": "Vibration",
"section": "Section::::Vibration analysis.:Free vibration with damping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "When a \"viscous\" damper is added to the model this outputs a force that is proportional to the velocity of the mass. The damping is called viscous because it models the effects of a fluid within an object. The proportionality constant \"c\" is called the damping coefficient and has units of Force over velocity (lbf⋅s/in or N⋅s/m).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13899",
"title": "Harmonic oscillator",
"section": "Section::::Simple harmonic oscillator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "The velocity and acceleration of a simple harmonic oscillator oscillate with the same frequency as the position, but with shifted phases. The velocity is maximal for zero displacement, while the acceleration is in the direction opposite to the displacement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
qhf4c
|
Why are low-pitch sounds generally relaxing while high-pitch sounds are annoying?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because the higher the frequency the more waves are hitting your ears (and all the stuff in them) per second and the lower the frequency the less that is.\n\nSay I punch you in the arm at a rate of 4 times per minute, it's not as bad as being punched 400 times per minute. Just pretend the movement of your arm from my punches are like the vibrations of your ear drum!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "145233",
"title": "Ocarina",
"section": "Section::::Musical performance.:Tone production/acoustics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "BULLET::::5. Blowing more softly lowers the pitch; blowing harder raises it. Breath force can change the pitch by three semitones. This is why ocarinas generally have no tuning mechanism or dynamic range, and why it is hard to learn to play one in tune.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "326011",
"title": "Djembe",
"section": "Section::::Sound and beating technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "The difference in pitch of the sounds arises because the different striking techniques selectively emphasize specific vibrational modes of the drum head. A tone emphasizes the (0,1) mode while suppressing the bass (Helmholtz resonance) and higher-order modes as much as possible. A slap emphasizes the (2,1), (0,2), (3,1), (1,2), and (0,3) modes (as well as higher-order modes) while suppressing the Helmholtz resonance and the (0,1) and (1,1) modes. Skilled players can also produce a medium-pitched sound (between a tone and slap) that is variously called \"third slap\", \"tonpalo\", or \"lé\"; this sound emphasizes the (1,1) mode while suppressing all other modes as much as possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3203300",
"title": "Tone terracing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Since the pitch of the low tone remains more-or-less constant at the lower end of the speaker's vocal range, while the other tones shift downward, the difference in their pitches narrows, eventually obscuring the tones altogether. At this point pitch reset is required if the tone system is to continue functioning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50087269",
"title": "Game feel",
"section": "Section::::Aesthetic.:Sound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Sound effects emphasize the interactions between objects in the game. Having weak or quiet sound effects can lead to the game objects feeling weak and less impactful. If the sounds themselves are low quality, it can be especially distracting to the player. Good game feel requires appropriate, impactful, and pleasing (non-repetitive) sound effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1952105",
"title": "Deep Note",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Lucasfilm version (1983–2015).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "The sound is perceived as louder than it actually is; sound designer Gary Rydstrom explains that, \"from a technical standpoint, 'Deep Note' just feels loud because it has a spectrum of frequencies that grows from small to large.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1379269",
"title": "Musical acoustics",
"section": "Section::::Physical aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "Whenever two different pitches are played at the same time, their sound waves interact with each other – the highs and lows in the air pressure reinforce each other to produce a different sound wave. Any repeating sound wave that is not a sine wave can be modeled by many different sine waves of the appropriate frequencies and amplitudes (a frequency spectrum). In humans the hearing apparatus (composed of the ears and brain) can usually isolate these tones and hear them distinctly. When two or more tones are played at once, a variation of air pressure at the ear \"contains\" the pitches of each, and the ear and/or brain isolate and decode them into distinct tones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16805305",
"title": "Chalkboard scraping",
"section": "Section::::Emotional response.:Physical hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "In a 2011 study, musicologists Michael Oehler and Christoph Reuter hypothesize that the unpleasantness of the sound is caused by acoustic resonance due to the shape of the human ear canal which amplifies certain frequencies, especially those in the range of 2000 to 4000 Hz (the median pitches mentioned above), at such a level that the sound would trigger pain in human ears.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3kjx1m
|
why is a viral disease, cat leukemia, named as a cancer type?
|
[
{
"answer": "This virus causes the cats to get this type of cancer.\n\nJust like some strains of HPV result in cervical/penile (and throat) cancer in humans, some viruses will integrate into the genome of some of your cells and cause them to turn cancerous.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cancer isn't one disease is a catch-all term for a pile of diseases that make cells grow out of control. There are lots of cancers that can be caused or at least correlate with viral infections. In humans HPV (human papillomavirus) Is credited with an increased risk of cervical cancers for instance. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "632626",
"title": "AIDS-related lymphoma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "A lymphoma is a type of cancer arising from lymphoid cells. In AIDS, the incidences of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, primary cerebral lymphoma and Hodgkin's disease are all increased. There are three different varieties of AIDS-related lymphoma: Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, B-cell immunoblastic lymphoma, and Burkitt's lymphoma (small non-cleaved cell lymphoma).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1460525",
"title": "Oncovirus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "It now refers to any virus with a DNA or RNA genome causing cancer and is synonymous with \"tumor virus\" or \"cancer virus\". The vast majority of human and animal viruses do not cause cancer, probably because of longstanding co-evolution between the virus and its host. Oncoviruses have been important not only in epidemiology, but also in investigations of cell cycle control mechanisms such as the retinoblastoma protein.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19167679",
"title": "Virus",
"section": "Section::::Role in human disease.:Cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "Viruses are an established cause of cancer in humans and other species. Viral cancers occur only in a minority of infected persons (or animals). Cancer viruses come from a range of virus families, including both RNA and DNA viruses, and so there is no single type of \"oncovirus\" (an obsolete term originally used for acutely transforming retroviruses). The development of cancer is determined by a variety of factors such as host immunity and mutations in the host. Viruses accepted to cause human cancers include some genotypes of human papillomavirus, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, Epstein–Barr virus, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and human T-lymphotropic virus. The most recently discovered human cancer virus is a polyomavirus (Merkel cell polyomavirus) that causes most cases of a rare form of skin cancer called Merkel cell carcinoma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24678469",
"title": "Lutzner cells",
"section": "Section::::Diseases.:Lymphoma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "It is an unrare form of cancer that originates in the lymph system and causes the destructive effects in the immune system. There are two types of lymphoma, Hodgkin’s lymphoma and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Both types of lymphomas form from a white blood cell or lymphocyte. Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma is the more common of the two cancers. The only way to tell these two forms of lymphoma apart is to perform a biopsy in order to get a microscopic view of the cancer cells. Hodgkin’s lymphoma involves the abnormal growth of undifferentiated lymphocytes, while non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma involves differentiated immune cells like B cells and T cells for example. Lutzner cells are involved with non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71418",
"title": "Non-Hodgkin lymphoma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Lymphomas are types of cancer that develop from lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. Risk factors include poor immune function, autoimmune diseases, \"Helicobacter pylori\" infection, hepatitis C, obesity and Epstein-Barr virus infection. The World Health Organization (WHO) classifies lymphomas into five major groups, including one for Hodgkin's lymphoma. Within the four groups for NHL, there are over 60 specific types of lymphoma. Diagnosis is by examination of a bone marrow or lymph node biopsy. Medical imaging is done to help with cancer staging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71422",
"title": "Lymphoma",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Lymphomas in the strict sense are any neoplasms of the lymphatic tissues (\"lympho-\" + \"-oma\"). The main classes are malignant neoplasms (that is, cancers) of the lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell that belongs to both the lymph and the blood and pervades both. Thus, lymphomas and leukemias are both tumors of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues, and as lymphoproliferative disorders, lymphomas and lymphoid leukemias are closely related, to the point that some of them are unitary disease entities that can be called by either name (for example adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3813982",
"title": "Lymphoma in animals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Lymphoma (lymposarcoma) in animals is a type of cancer defined by a proliferation of malignant lymphocytes within solid organs such as the lymph nodes, bone marrow, liver and spleen. The disease also may occur in the eye, skin, and gastrointestinal tract.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9kbg2p
|
Is it true that Germans didn't actually use the term Blitzkrieg themselves?
|
[
{
"answer": "It’s true the term “Blitzkrieg” does not come up often in German plans, old memoirs, or communiques. It’s closest word or phrase that the Germans/Prussians may have used more often was Bewegungkrieg or maneuver warfare. The term Blitzkrieg however pops up more post-war to describe the tactics of their Wehrmacht during the WW2. But to be honest the Prussians and later Germans have been practicing these kind of tactics for years and the end result was this form of warfare during WW2. \n\nThe reason Blitzkrieg is so prevalent when talking about the Germans is because it’s a buzzword that most people recognize and can understand automatically.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4652",
"title": "Blitzkrieg",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "Despite being common in German and English-language journalism during World War II, the word was never used by the Wehrmacht as an official military term, except for propaganda. According to David Reynolds, \"Hitler himself called the term Blitzkrieg 'A completely idiotic word' (ein ganz blödsinniges Wort)\". Some senior officers, including Kurt Student, Franz Halder and Johann Adolf von Kielmansegg, even disputed the idea that it was a military concept. Kielmansegg asserted that what many regarded as blitzkrieg was nothing more than \"ad hoc solutions that simply popped out of the prevailing situation\". Student described it as ideas that \"naturally emerged from the existing circumstances\" as a response to operational challenges. The Wehrmacht never officially adopted it as a concept or doctrine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4652",
"title": "Blitzkrieg",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Origin of the term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 2046,
"text": "The origin of the term \"blitzkrieg\" is obscure. It was never used in the title of a military doctrine or handbook of the German army or air force, and no \"coherent doctrine\" or \"unifying concept of blitzkrieg\" existed. The term seems rarely to have been used in the German military press before 1939 and recent research at the German \"Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt\" at Potsdam found it in only two military articles from the 1930s. Both used the term to mean a swift strategic knock-out, rather than a radical new military doctrine or approach to war. The first article (1935) deals primarily with supplies of food and materiel in wartime. The term \"blitzkrieg\" is used with reference to German efforts to win a quick victory in the First World War but is not associated with the use of armoured, mechanised or air forces. It argued that Germany must develop self-sufficiency in food, because it might again prove impossible to deal a swift knock-out to its enemies, leading to a long war. In the second article (1938), launching a swift strategic knock-out is described as an attractive idea for Germany but difficult to achieve on land under modern conditions (especially against systems of fortification like the Maginot Line), unless an exceptionally high degree of surprise could be achieved. The author vaguely suggests that a massive strategic air attack might hold out better prospects but the topic is not explored in detail. A third relatively early use of the term in German occurs in \"Die Deutsche Kriegsstärke\" (German War Strength) by Fritz Sternberg, a Jewish, Marxist, political economist and refugee from the Third Reich, published in 1938 in Paris and in London as \"Germany and a Lightning War\". Sternberg wrote that Germany was not prepared economically for a long war but might win a quick war (\"\"Blitzkrieg\"\"). He did not go into detail about tactics or suggest that the German armed forces had evolved a radically new operational method. His book offers scant clues as to how German lightning victories might be won.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25467180",
"title": "Battle of Gembloux (1940)",
"section": "Section::::Military theory.:German.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1303,
"text": "The term \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\" is seen as an anomaly, since there was no explicit reference to such strategy, operations or tactics in German battle plans. There is no evidence in German strategic, military or industrial preparations implying the existence of a thought-out \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\" tendency. Evidence suggests that in 1939 and 1940 the German \"Reich\" was preparing the war economy for a war of attrition, not a quick war of manoeuvre, although there was no total economic mobilisation for the war. Hitler's miscalculations in 1939 forced him into war before the war economy was ready and under these circumstances, the German General Staff reverted \"Vernichtungsgedanke\", attempting to win a war quickly, with swift attacks on the flanks and rear of opposing armies, leading to their destruction before the economic and material superiority of the Allies became overwhelming. It was only after the defeat of France in 1940, that the German military intentionally pursued a \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\"-kind of warfare to achieve its ambitions in Europe. In 2005, Karl-Heinz Frieser echoed Matthew Cooper in 1978, who had called \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\" a myth and that it was the weakness of German enemies not the strength of the German army, which had led to the devastating German victories early in the war. Frieser wrote:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25467180",
"title": "Battle of Gembloux (1940)",
"section": "Section::::Military theory.:German.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1406,
"text": "The strategy, operational methods and tactics of the German Army and \"Luftwaffe\" have often been labelled \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\" (Lightning War). The concept is controversial and is connected to the problem of the nature and origin of \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\" operations, of which the 1940 campaign is often described as a classic example. An essential element of \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\" was considered to be a strategic, or series of operational developments, executed by mechanised forces to cause the collapse of the defenders' armed forces. \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\" has also been looked on as a revolutionary form of warfare but its novelty and its existence have been disputed. Rapid and decisive victories had been pursued by armies well before the Second World War. In the German wars of unification and First World War campaigns, the German General Staff had attempted \"Bewegungskrieg\" (war of manoeuvre), similar to the modern perception of \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\", with varying degrees of success. During the First World War, these methods had achieved tactical success but operational exploitation was slow as armies had to march beyond railheads. The use of tanks, aircraft, motorised infantry and artillery, enabled the Germans to attempt \"Bewegungskrieg\" with a faster tempo in 1940, than that of the slow-moving armies of 1914. The internal combustion engine and radio communication solved the problem of operational-level exploitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4652",
"title": "Blitzkrieg",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "In 2005, the historian Karl-Heinz Frieser summarized blitzkrieg as the result of German commanders using the latest technology in the most beneficial way according to traditional military principles and employing \"the right units in the right place at the right time\". Modern historians now understand blitzkrieg as the combination of the traditional German military principles, methods and doctrines of the 19th century with the military technology of the interwar period. Modern historians use the term casually as a generic description for the style of manoeuvre warfare practised by Germany during the early part of World War II, rather than as an explanation. According to Frieser, in the context of the thinking of Heinz Guderian on mobile combined arms formations, blitzkrieg can be used as a synonym for modern manoeuvre warfare on the operational level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4652",
"title": "Blitzkrieg",
"section": "Section::::Post-war controversy.:Strategy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 919,
"text": "Other historians wrote that blitzkrieg was an operational doctrine of the German armed forces and a strategic concept on which the leadership of the \"Third Reich\" based its strategic and economic planning. Military planners and bureaucrats in the war economy appear rarely, if ever, to have employed the term \"blitzkrieg\" in official documents. That the German army had a \"blitzkrieg doctrine\" was rejected in the late 1970s by Matthew Cooper. The concept of a blitzkrieg \"Luftwaffe\" was challenged by Richard Overy in the late 1970s and by Williamson Murray in the mid-1980s. That the \"Third Reich\" went to war on the basis of \"blitzkrieg economics\" was criticised by Richard Overy in the 1980s and George Raudzens described the contradictory senses in which historians have used the word. The notion of a German blitzkrieg concept or doctrine survives in popular history and many historians still support the thesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4652",
"title": "Blitzkrieg",
"section": "Section::::Military operations.:Poland, 1939.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Despite the term \"blitzkrieg\" being coined by journalists during the Invasion of Poland of 1939, historians Matthew Cooper and J. P. Harris have written that German operations during it were consistent with traditional methods. The Wehrmacht strategy was more in line with \"Vernichtungsgedanken\" a focus on envelopment to create pockets in broad-front annihilation. Panzer forces were dispersed among the three German concentrations with little emphasis on independent use, being used to create or destroy close pockets of Polish forces and seize operational-depth terrain in support of the largely un-motorized infantry which followed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4yx3o5
|
how would we know how much *successful* voting fraud is happening, if by definition successful attempts at fraud go undetected?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a bit like Russel's Teapot--it's very difficult if not impossible to prove that there *isn't* a teapot floating around somewhere between Mars and Earth. It's more useful to focus on the fact there is no evidence to suggest that there *is*.\n\nThere are many ways we could detect large-scale in-person voter fraud if it existed. When someone votes, the fact that they voted is recorded. (Unlike in some countries, their ballot is a secret; it's that they showed up to vote that is recorded.) If fraudsters frequently impersonated registered voters, then two things would happen: when that genuine voter comes to the polling place, it will be discovered that someone has already voted in their name. And looking back at the voting records, which are public, we would find that the records reflect more frequent voting than the registered voter claims.\n\nBoth events are relatively easy to test. Any loser in an election has an incentive to investigate this, and it would be a scoop for any news organization, and both have the means to do so. Yet we do not find them occurring often, in fact rarely ever.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30861517",
"title": "Hello Garci scandal",
"section": "Section::::Fraud techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Electoral fraud in the country was usually done by manipulating the ballots. However, a new technique has arisen which just involves the manipulating the \"election return\" or \"ER\", which is a summary of the votes in precincts. Evidence exist showing that the 32,000 sets of overprinted ERs of the Commission of Elections could manipulate an election by as much as three million votes. Such number of votes could change a result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "864164",
"title": "Election law",
"section": "Section::::Regimes in comparative law.:Italy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "If a fraud is proven by the judge, it does not cancel necessarily the elections, unless they think that the result of election without the fraud would not have been identical. The survival of the acts already performed by the elected organs would seem solved by abundant case law that protects innocent trust of third parties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "382165",
"title": "Electoral fraud",
"section": "Section::::Specific methods.:Destruction or invalidation of ballots.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "One of the simplest methods of electoral fraud is to destroy ballots for an opposing candidate or party. While mass destruction of ballots can be difficult to execute without drawing attention, in a very close election, it may be possible to destroy a very small number of ballot papers without detection, thereby changing the overall result. Blatant destruction of ballot papers can render an election invalid and force it to be re-run. If a party can improve its vote on the re-run election, it can benefit from such destruction as long as it is not linked to it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "382165",
"title": "Electoral fraud",
"section": "Section::::Specific methods.:Electorate manipulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Electoral fraud can occur in advance of voting if the composition of the electorate is altered. The legality of this type of manipulation varies across jurisdictions. Deliberate manipulation of election outcomes is widely considered a violation of the principles of democracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "382165",
"title": "Electoral fraud",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "In national elections, successful electoral fraud can have the effect of a coup d'état or corruption of democracy. In a narrow election, a small amount of fraud may be enough to change the result. Even if the outcome is not affected, the revelation of fraud can have a damaging effect, if not punished, as it can reduce voters' confidence in democracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37179209",
"title": "Voter ID laws in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "There is no empirical evidence that voter fraud occurs often enough to have any plausible impact on elections. One study, commonly cited by President Trump and other Republicans, purported to show that non-citizens vote in large numbers in the United States, but the findings of the study were later shown to be driven by measurement error and have been comprehensively rebutted. The authors of the study have conceded that measurement error \"may have biased our numbers\", and have also rebuked President Trump for claiming that millions voted illegally in 2016.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23390604",
"title": "Results of the 2009 Iranian presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.:Statistical analyses of results.:General considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "Several statisticians have attempted to determine whether the results (or some of the results) are significantly different from what is expected. This approach considers whether the election results can be modeled accurately; if not, this could indicate widespread fraud (though it could also indicate an inadequate model). Alternatively, it looks for specific results which do not fit the model; if found, these outliers could indicate fraud in those results (though they could also indicate deviation from the model for non-fraudulent reasons). Some statisticians have also argued for caution in examining claims of fraud based purely on statistical analysis of the results. While statistical analysis may indicate something unusual, in many cases this must be taken as an impetus for further investigation rather than conclusive evidence in and of itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1eiu53
|
why do i get automated phone calls that promptly hang up?
|
[
{
"answer": "Assuming that you don't owe the ISP money, there's a good chance that the person making the calls on the other end is a machine. If you pick up, AND the operator isn't on another call, the machine will connect you two. \n\nOr, it could be that the operator on the other end has to log a certain number of calls a day, and hanging up automatically allows them to say that you weren't answering. That makes the lack of resolution your fault and not theirs. Plus, it allows them to knock out more calls per day. \n\nIt could be happening because someone signed up for internet service and gave the ISP your number instead of their own, intending not to pay for the service. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As I understand it these companies call multiple lines at once, and the first to pick up cuts all of the others of. You're one of the ones who gets cut off. If you know the company responsible then report them for cold calling.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "According to [unca Cecil](_URL_0_) it could be line testing of some sort.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe they're called 'robocalls' and they're done to see if your number is a live line, in which case your number is sold to spammers",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the same thing was happening to me. some time later i noticed that some extra money was being added to my phone bill every month--some company was charging me for these calls and getting paid by the phone company. they must be masking their phone number. you should destroy your phone immediately and get a new phone number unless you want to be stuck footing the bill",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some companies use auto diallers to call you then if you pick up transfer you to a human, if there are no available humans the machine hangs up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I get many of those too. After about 15 minutes I usually get a telemarketer calling me.\n\nThey have a long list of numbers to call, and can't waste time risking people won't answer. So the computer goes on and calls a block of numbers. If they answer, they are marked as \"available\" and as soon as someone is free, they call you again to sell you stuff.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Telemarketing -- They will call thousands of phones at once, and get a few bites. But they don't have enough operators to serve you all at once, so the dialing system (on their end) hangs up if it can't connect you.\n\nIf you have an equivalent of a \"telephone preference service\" in your country, consider registering for that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Please read the FAQ and forums at _URL_0_!](http://_URL_0_) where you can search the number robocalling you and potentially find your answer.\n\nBriefly (probably with an error or two), one operator in the US buys 30,000 - 60,000 numbers, set up their own telco exchange, robocalling out of Belize spoofing the caller id. As a telco they earn a fee from network switch interconnect reciprocity. That's right, they earn money by the act of calling. They also operate several telemarketing call centers that you are sometimes redirected to when you answer; the product is irrelevant (duct cleaning, Google SEO, Amex), if some fool signs up they just earn more free money. This is why the human voice can be really rude to you or just hang up, you are irrelevant to them as they've already earned money from you answering.\n\nThe 800notes site, and another linked there that I forget the name of, has a long description on the (ill)legality, previous state government litigation, and extreme difficulties of prosecuting these scum.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11178440",
"title": "Ugandan English",
"section": "Section::::Vocabulary and idioms.:Terms for communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Mobile phone services are prepaid. A person finding himself with inadequate prepaid time to make a call will ring up the intended recipient of the call and hang up immediately. The receiver of the call, hearing the phone ring once and seeing the number, understands himself to have been \"beeped\". Alternatively, it is called being \"flashed\" on account of the brief flashing of the screen. The understood message is \"I wish to talk to you at your expense\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "914499",
"title": "SightSpeed",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Phone Out\" is the name of the service that allows users to make phone calls to landlines and mobile phones, paying with pre-paid credit. \"Phone In\" allows SightSpeed users to receive phone calls from regular telephones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277163",
"title": "Predictive dialer",
"section": "Section::::Regulations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "In the UK, Ofcom requires that predictive dialers abandon fewer than 3% of answered calls on a daily basis. Ofcom also requires that if an agent is not available within 2 seconds the call is considered \"abandoned\" and an automated message is played. The automated message must identify the company making the call, the purpose of the call, a free phone or basic rate phone number to call back on and must not contain any form of marketing. A phone call to the return number must not be treated by the company as an opportunity to market, but to be removed from the calling list. In the UK \"abandoned\" calls must not be called back within 72 hours unless there is a dedicated agent available. GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) also requires that the purpose of any call be related to the reason for collecting data in the first place..\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "406812",
"title": "Call waiting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Call waiting is a telecommunication service offered by a telephone service provider to a subscriber by which the subscriber may suspend a telephone call already in progress to accept a second call. The subscriber may switch between calls, typically by using the hook flash signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8956557",
"title": "Do Not Disturb (telecommunications)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "The implementation of this feature is vendor-specific. In some cases, the ringer just does not ring and the called party is thus not alerted. Usually, though, the phone just acts as being busy. Depending on the infrastructure, the caller may end up on the called party's voice mailbox, sometimes after a certain delay.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2930079",
"title": "Special information tone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "Like a dial tone or busy signal, the SIT is an in-band signal intended both to be heard by the caller, and to be detected by automated dialing equipment to determine a call has failed. In North America, the AT&T/Bellcore SIT standard allows the frequency and duration of the tones to vary slightly - making eight distinct messages specifically for automated equipment; indicating not only a failed call, but also the specific reason for the failure (e.g., disconnected number, busy circuits, dialing error, etc.). The equipment can then make an intelligent choice about what to do next. If the circuits were busy, then calling again later makes sense; if the number was disconnected, then calling again is futile. The eight SIT signals are defined below and accompanied by audio files.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40748",
"title": "Automatic callback",
"section": "Section::::Using callback on popular business telephone systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "When you reach a station that is busy or does not answer, press CAMP. When the phone you wish to reach becomes idle, your phone will ring with five short tones. Press ITCM to cause the other phone to ring. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4159wn
|
why is the lesbian/gay/transgender community referred to with so many different acronyms, many of which are long and confusing?
|
[
{
"answer": "Organizations focusing on inclusiveness, but also trying to respect individual differences. Thus: gay - > gay & lesbian - > gay & lesbian & bi - > lesbian & gay & bi & trans - > etc.\n\nUnfortunately there is no single term that seems to encompass all of these, so they end up using a long list of words, which is then so long that they turn it into an acronym.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Individuals don't decide these terms. We in the community are just as confused as everyone else sometimes. \"Oh, so that's what we're calling ourselves now.... okay\" \n\nAny marginalized community has smaller groups in it that are further marginalized by that community and society at large. They get double hate. I know some gay people that have said horrible things about transgender people and bisexuals. There comes a point where the group says, \"We shouldn't hate on ourselves\". Subgroups start getting more recognized. This leads to new terminology and respect for the subgroup and redefinition/fragmentation of the group name at large. Initially, it causes confusion for everyone. Utimately, it leads to positive visibility, inclusion, and understanding. This what most people want.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There isn't a committee or something that decides these terms. They just kind of evolve over time.\n\nThere isn't really a single community - there are *many* different communities, some of them very different from each other, who are brought together by common needs and interests. And because what constitutes *\"common needs and interests\"* is subjective, who exactly is or should be included in this acronym depends on who an when you ask.\n\nBack in the 40's and 50's, the word \"gay\" tended to be used alone. But this term was overwhelmingly associated with men, and in the 60's and 70's women fighting for a more visible presence in the movement started using the term \"Gay and Lesbian\" to refer to all non-heterosexual people.\n\nIn the 90's bi and trans people fighting for recognition started to become more visible, and Bisexual and Transgender were added to the list - giving us the acronym GLBT. In the early 2000's this got reordered to LGBT.\n\nBut this term is still evolving. And a big problem with an acronym that tries to list every group of people being included in it, is that it implicitly excludes anyone *not* specifically listed. Are asexual people part of this conglomerate community? What about intersex people? Poly folk? The BDSM community? What about people from other cultures, who see their identities as similar to but distinct from the social categories that have evolved in the US - e.g., Hijra?\n\nThe acronym GSM (Gender and Sexual Minorities) seems to be gaining traction as an alternative. Because it doesn't list every group of people included, it can get the general idea across without getting excessively long. But there are concerns that this will lead to the marginalization of minority groups within the community - that GSM will become effectively synonymous with \"Gay\", putting us in a situation similar to where we started in the 50's.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1421393",
"title": "LGBT history",
"section": "Section::::Modern Europe.:Psychology and terminology shifts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "An addendum to the terminology of homosexuality is the seemingly ever-changing acronym, with its roots in the 1980s when female homosexuals began to identify themselves as lesbians instead of gay. This led to references of \"gay and lesbian\" every time homosexuals were discussed in the media. Non-heterosexuals such as bisexual people and those who are transgender have also been classed alongside gay people and lesbians, resulting in the popular LGBT acronym (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender). However, the acronym is not set in stone; it has sometimes appeared as LGBTQ (to include questioning or queer people).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55206108",
"title": "LGBTQ psychology",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "The names for this field are different in different parts of the world. In the UK, the acronym LGBTQ is widely used. In contrast, in the USA, LGBT is more commonly used. The terms 'lesbian', 'gay', 'bisexual', 'trans' and 'queer' are not used all around the world and definitions vary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "591031",
"title": "Men who have sex with men",
"section": "Section::::As a constructed behavioral category.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "MSM are not limited to small, self-identified, and visible sub-populations. \"MSM\" and \"gay\" refer to different things: behaviors and social identities. \"MSM\" refers to sexual activities between men, regardless of how they identify, whereas \"gay\" can include those activities but is more broadly seen as a cultural identity. \"Homosexuality\" refers to sexual/romantic attraction between members of the same sex and may or may not include romantic relationships. \"Gay\" is a social identity and is generally the preferred social term, whereas \"homosexual\" is used in formal contexts, though the terms are not entirely interchangeable. Men who are non-heterosexual or questioning may identify with all, none, a combination of these, or one of the newer terms indicating a similar sexual, romantic, and cultural identity like \"bi-curious\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66936",
"title": "LGBT",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "' (or ') is an initialism that stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender. In use since the 1990s, the term is an adaptation of the initialism , which was used to replace the term \"gay\" in reference to the LGBT community beginning in the mid-to-late 1980s. Activists believed that the term \"gay community\" did not accurately represent all those to whom it referred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33586685",
"title": "Style (sociolinguistics)",
"section": "Section::::Case studies.:Gay styles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "On the other hand, there are many different styles represented within the gay community. There is much linguistic variation in the gay community, and each subculture appears to have its own distinct features. According to Podesva et al., \"gay culture encompasses reified categories such as leather daddies, clones, drag queens, circuit boys, guppies (gay yuppies), gay prostitutes, and activists both mainstream and radical, as well as more local communities of practice which may not even have names.\" Thus, each of these sub-cultures speaks with a different style than all the other sub-cultures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68264",
"title": "Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures",
"section": "Section::::LGBT culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "LGBT culture is the common culture shared by lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people. It is sometimes referred to as \"gay culture\" or \"queer culture\", but those terms can also be specific to gay men's culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1457022",
"title": "LGBT culture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "LGBT culture is a culture shared by lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning, and queer individuals (and may also include less known identities, such as pansexual). It is sometimes referred to as queer culture (indicating people who are queer), while the term gay culture may be used to mean \"LGBT culture\" or to refer specifically to homosexual culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4110pp
|
why do people lose their senses of hearing and sight, but not their sense of touch, taste, or smell?
|
[
{
"answer": "People can also lose their sense of taste and smell...you are just a lot less likely to notice them.\n\nPeople also can lose there sense of touch over part of their bodies, but there are not a lot of neurological disorders to totally remove touch...at least not without also killing you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On the contrary, We certainly lose our sense of touch, taste and smell as we age. Part of the challenge of being a caregiver for an elderly person is to encourage them to maintain a good calorie intake while the food tastes and smells more and more bland. \n\nElderly people are at risk of burns and skin injuries due to a lessened sense of touch. Even an electric heating pad can cause major burns in the elderly due to lack of pain perception.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "948900",
"title": "Sensorium",
"section": "Section::::Ratios of sensation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "This interplay of various ways of conceiving the world could be compared to the experience of synesthesia, where stimulus of one sense causes a perception by another, seemingly unrelated sense, as in musicians who can taste the intervals between notes they hear (Beeli \"et al\"., 2005), or artists who can smell colors. Many individuals who have one or more senses restricted or lost develop a sensorium with a ratio of sense which favors those they possess more fully. Frequently the blind or deaf speak of a compensating effect, whereby their sense of touch or smell becomes more acute, changing the way they perceive and reason about the world; especially telling examples are found in the cases of \"wild children\", whose early childhoods were spent in abusive, neglected, or non-human environments, both intensifying and minimizing perceptual abilities (Classen 1991).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12947872",
"title": "Adult development",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary and classic theories.:Normative physical changes in adulthood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1194,
"text": "At the sensory level, changes occur to vision, hearing, taste, touch, and smell, and taste. Two common sensory changes that begin in midlife include our ability to see close objects and our ability to hear high pitches. Other developmental changes to vision might include cataracts, glaucoma, and the loss of central visual field with macular degeneration . Hearing also becomes impaired in midlife and aging adults, particularly in men. In the past 30 years, hearing impairment has doubled. Hearing aids as an aid for hearing loss still leave many individuals dissatisfied with their quality of hearing. Olfaction can co-occur with changes in sense of taste. “Olfactory dysfunction can impair quality of life and may be a marker for other deficits and illnesses” and can also lead to decreased satisfaction in taste when eating. Losses to the sense of touch are usually noticed when there is a decline in the ability to detect a vibratory stimulus. The loss in sense of touch can harm a person’s fine motor skills such as writing and using utensils. The ability to feel painful stimuli is usually preserved in aging, but the process of decline for touch is accelerated in those with diabetes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24466540",
"title": "Perfect Sense",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Humans begin to lose their senses one at a time. Each loss is preceded by an outburst of an intense feeling or urge. First, people begin suffering uncontrollable bouts of crying and this is soon followed by the loss of their sense of smell. An outbreak of irrational panic and anxiety, closely followed by a bout of frenzied gluttony, precedes the loss of the sense of taste. The film depicts people trying to adapt to each loss and trying to carry on living as best they can, rediscovering their remaining senses as they do so. Michael and his co-workers do their best to cook food for people who cannot smell nor taste.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "436825",
"title": "Geriatrics",
"section": "Section::::Scope.:Geriatric giants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Impaired vision and hearing loss are common chronic problems among older people. Hearing problems can lead to social isolation, depression, and dependence as the person can no longer talk to other people, receive information over the telephone, or engage in simple transactions, such as talking to a person at a bank or store. Vision problems lead to falls from tripping over unseen objects, medicine being taken incorrectly because the written instructions could not be read, and finances being mismanaged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42888",
"title": "Human genome",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Humans have undergone an extraordinary loss of olfactory receptor genes during our recent evolution, which explains our relatively crude sense of smell compared to most other mammals. Evolutionary evidence suggests that the emergence of color vision in humans and several other primate species has diminished the need for the sense of smell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1903855",
"title": "Sensory substitution",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "When a person becomes blind or deaf they generally do not lose the ability to hear or see; they simply lose their ability to transmit the sensory signals from the periphery (retina for visions and cochlea for hearing) to brain. Since the vision processing pathways are still intact, a person who has lost the ability to retrieve data from the retina can still see subjective images by using data gathered from other sensory modalities such as touch or audition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33340026",
"title": "Deaf hearing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "When patients are completely deaf in both ears they begin to rely more strongly on their other senses. Because hearing relies on external sound waves, a deaf patient will feel the vibrations, rather than relying on what would normally be perceived as sound. As a patient relies on \"feeling\" sounds rather than hearing them, they subconsciously hear with their sense of touch, therefore reacting to auditory stimuli without actually hearing sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
26hvyy
|
If shoot a gun in a car at 10 m/s, and the car is travelling at 5 m/s relative to an outside observer, is the bullet really moving at exactly 15 m/s? Do velocities really transfer fully?
|
[
{
"answer": "For the numbers you mention, the answer is for all intents and purposes yes. But according to special relativity velocities u and v add according to the formula w = (u+v)/(1+uv/c^2) where c is the speed of light. For small u and v this works out to very close to just w = u+v.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. Here is a good video demonstrating that the initial motion of the projectile matters in determining its velocity in relation to a static point when the projectile is fired. \n\n_URL_1_\n\nThey rig up a pitching machine on the back of a truck to fire backwards at the exact speed the truck is moving. From the point of view of the truck the baseball is shot away at (whatever speed it was moving). From the point of view of the camera the ball drops straight to the ground.\n\nThe exception to the vector addition of velocities is for things that move at light speed. Regardless of its relative motion, light will always move at C. Scientists in the late 1800s conducted experiments testing for the speed of light from a source in relative motion were surprised to find that no matter the speed at which the source of light was moving, light had a constant velocity. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "211983",
"title": "Physics of firearms",
"section": "Section::::Velocity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "From Eq. 1 we can write for the velocity of the gun/shooter: V = mv/M. This shows that despite the high velocity of the bullet, the small bullet-mass to shooter-mass ratio results in a low recoil velocity (V) although the force and momentum are equal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215760",
"title": "Tax horsepower",
"section": "Section::::France.:1978 formula.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "BULLET::::- formula_11 = parameter calculated from a weighted arithmetic average speed in kilometers per hour theoretically reached by the vehicle at an engine speed of 1000 revolutions per minute in each gearbox ratio}}.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1080889",
"title": "Nissan Sentra",
"section": "Section::::B14 (1995–1999).:Engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "BULLET::::- GA16DE: 1.6 (1,597 cc) DOHC with a 6,900 rpm redline and at 6,000 rpm, 110 lb.ft at 4,000 rpm, available in 5-speed manual/4-speed automatic; 30/40mpg 5sp. man., 28/37 4sp. auto. Acceleration 0–60 mph in 8.5 seconds for a 95 GXE M/T (Car and Driver 6/95).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "821939",
"title": ".22 Long Rifle",
"section": "Section::::Muzzle velocity (nominal).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Note: actual velocities are dependent on many factors, such as barrel length of a given firearm and manufacturer of a given batch of ammunition, and will vary widely in practice. The above velocities are typical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426738",
"title": "Radar gun",
"section": "Section::::How it works.:Stationary radar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Since this type of speed gun measures the difference in speed between a target and the gun itself, the gun must be stationary in order to give a correct reading. If a measurement is made from a moving car, it will give the difference in speed between the two vehicles, not the speed of the target relative to the road, so a different system has been designed to work from moving vehicles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7665043",
"title": "Sniper equipment",
"section": "Section::::Ammunition.:Velocity of a sniper bullet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Depending on the rifle, bullets typically travel between 800 and 1000 m/s (2600 and 3400 feet per second) at the moment they leave the rifle's barrel. The bullet slows down considerably due to friction with the air over a distance. The distance a bullet will travel is determined by its shape, weight, launch velocity and launch angle as with any projectile, the study of which is referred to as external ballistics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "584911",
"title": "External ballistics",
"section": "Section::::Using ballistics data.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 187,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 187,
"end_character": 1071,
"text": "This table demonstrates that, even with a fairly aerodynamic bullet fired at high velocity, the \"bullet drop\" or change in the point of impact is significant. This change in point of impact has two important implications. Firstly, estimating the distance to the target is critical at longer ranges, because the difference in the point of impact between 400 and is 25–32 in (depending on zero), in other words if the shooter estimates that the target is 400 yd away when it is in fact 500 yd away the shot will impact 25–32 in (635–813 mm) below where it was aimed, possibly missing the target completely. Secondly, the rifle should be zeroed to a distance appropriate to the typical range of targets, because the shooter might have to aim so far above the target to compensate for a large bullet drop that he may lose sight of the target completely (for instance being outside the field of view of a telescopic sight). In the example of the rifle zeroed at , the shooter would have to aim 49 in or more than 4 ft (1.2 m) above the point of impact for a target at 500 yd.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32mmx0
|
why didn't other european powers shut down hitler as soon as he violated the versailles treaty?
|
[
{
"answer": "That would require mobilization of troops and resources that many European powers just didn't have. World War I decimated many European countries in manpower, resources and financially and the Great Depression didn't help any.\n\nNot to mention that many politicians wanted to avoid war because it would have been detrimental to their political career.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because of WWI. It was called the \"war to end all wars\" and the countries involved lost so many people, so many towns and cities that there was an extreme reluctance to entering another war. Until Hitler invaded France, there was a feeling that if they just appeased him enough and gave him the Sudetenland and Austria and Poland, that there would be an end to his conquests. In retrospect, it was obviously foolish, but this was the prevailing sentiment in Europe at the time. The first war was that devastating that people were willing to ignore the evidence right in front of their faces. Anything to avoid another war. There were some loud voices calling the West to stop him, such as Churchill, but they didn't gain enough traction until it was too late.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the European powers:\n\n* Were terrified of another war after WWI\n* Agreed that the Versailles Treaty was too harsh on Germany and was willing to let Germany bend it bit by bit\n* Thought that Hitler was a reasonable man and would stop once he gets his bid to please the people in Germany\n* Did not want to be the \"leader\" who threatened world peace and thought that other countries would stop Germany\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How come a plane full of people couldn't stop 7 guys with box cutters? How about in a checkout line when someone freaks out? Everyone shuts up, or pretends not to notice. The fact is, crazy people rule the world because humans are pack animals, like dogs. We're meant to follow leaders, unlike cats.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "432715",
"title": "J. B. M. Hertzog",
"section": "Section::::Prime Minister.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 987,
"text": "Alongside this, Hertzog saw France as the main threat to peace in Europe, viewing the Treaty of Versailles as an unjust and vindictive peace treaty, and argued the French were the principal trouble-makers in Europe by seeking to uphold the Versailles treaty. Hertzog argued that if Adolf Hitler had a belligerent foreign policy, it was only because of the Treaty of Versailles was intolerably harsh towards Germany and if the international system was revised to take account of Germany's \"legitimate\" complaints against Versailles, then Hitler would become a moderate and reasonable statesman. When Germany remilitarized the Rhineland in March 1936, Hertzog informed the British government that there was no possibility of South Africa taking part if Britain decided to go to war over the issue, and in the ensuing crisis, South African diplomats took a very pro-German position, arguing that Germany was indeed right to violate the Treaty of Versailles by remilitarizing the Rhineland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16547",
"title": "Joachim von Ribbentrop",
"section": "Section::::Early diplomatic career.:Undermining Versailles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "The Nazis and Germany's professional diplomats shared the goal of destroying the Treaty of Versailles and restoring Germany as a great power. In October 1933, German Foreign Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath presented a note at the World Disarmament Conference announcing that it was unfair that Germany should remain disarmed by Part V of the Versailles treaty and demanded that the other powers either disarm to Germany's level, or that they abolish Part V and allow Germany \"Gleichberechtigung\" (\"equality of armaments\"). When France rejected Neurath's note, Germany stormed out of the League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference. It all but announced its intention to unilaterally violate Part V. Consequently, there were several calls in France that autumn for a preventive war to put an end to the Nazi regime while Germany was still more-or-less disarmed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57538",
"title": "Beer Hall Putsch",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "The Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I, sounded the death knell of German power and prestige. Like many Germans of the period, Hitler (who still held Austrian citizenship at the time) believed that the treaty was a betrayal, with the country having been \"stabbed in the back\" by its own government, particularly as the German Army was popularly thought to have been undefeated in the field. Germany, it was felt, had been betrayed by civilian leaders and Marxists, who were later called the \"November Criminals\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57979",
"title": "Disarmament",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "A final attempt was made at the Geneva Disarmament Conference from 1932–37, chaired by former British Foreign Secretary Arthur Henderson. Germany demanded the revision of the Versailles Treaty and the granting of military parity with the other powers, while France was determined to keep Germany demilitarised for its own security. Meanwhile, the British and Americans were not willing to offer France security commitments in exchange for conciliation with Germany. The talks broke down in 1933, when Adolf Hitler withdrew Germany from the conference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33651146",
"title": "Foreign relations of Nazi Germany",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Following the Treaty of Versailles, Germany succumbed to a considerably weakened position in pan-European politics, losing its colonial possessions and its military assets, and committed to reparations to the Allied Powers. Upon Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933, Germany began a program of industrialization and rearmament. It re-occupied the Rhineland and sought to dominate neighboring countries with significant German populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32927",
"title": "World War II",
"section": "Section::::Course of the war.:Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later. He therefore decided to try to strengthen Germany's relations with the Soviets, or failing that to attack and eliminate them as a factor. In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the Tripartite Pact. The Soviets showed some interest, but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4305070",
"title": "History of Western civilization",
"section": "Section::::Second World War and its aftermath: 1939–1950.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 205,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 205,
"end_character": 1242,
"text": "The late 1930s saw a series of violations of the Versailles Treaty by Germany, however, France and Britain refused to act. In 1938, Hitler annexed Austria in an attempt to unite all German-speakers under his rule. Next, he annexed a German-speaking area of Czechoslovakia. Britain and France agreed to recognize his rule over that land and in exchange Hitler agreed not to expand his empire further. In a matter of months, however, Hitler broke the pledge and annexed the rest of Czechoslovakia. Despite this, the British and French chose to do nothing, wanting to avoid war at any cost. Hitler then formed a secret non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, despite the fact that the Soviet Union was Communist and Germany was Nazi. Also in the 1930s, Italy conquered Ethiopia. The Soviets too began annexing neighboring countries. Japan began taking aggressive actions towards China. After Japan opened itself to trade with the West in the mid-19th century, its leaders learned to take advantage of Western technology and industrialized their country by the end of the century. By the 1930s, Japan's government was under the control of militarists who wanted to establish an empire in the Asia-Pacific region. In 1937, Japan invaded China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
235hx5
|
Why did the Germans seemingly abandon their colonial holdings in Asia during WWI?
|
[
{
"answer": "They were un defendable these colonies were right on the doorstep of Australia and New Zealand two British colonies with millions of people compared to the German colonies couple of thousands. If they had tried they would have failed. Any attempt to reinforce would have resulted in the ships sinking by the Royal Navy.if they had attempted to reinforce before the war then they would be blockaded and surrender. The action the Germans took was the only option.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "762770",
"title": "German colonial empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Germany lost control of its colonial empire when the First World War began in 1914 and many of its colonies were seized by the Allies during the first weeks of the war. However some colonial military units held out for a while longer: German South West Africa surrendered in 1915, Kamerun in 1916 and German East Africa in 1918. In the case of German East Africa, the defenders under the command of Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, had engaged a guerrilla war against British colonial and Portuguese forces and did not surrender until after the end of the war. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "762770",
"title": "German colonial empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Germany's colonial empire was officially confiscated with the Treaty of Versailles after Germany's defeat in the war and each colony became a League of Nations mandate under the supervision (but not ownership) of one of the victorious powers. The German colonial empire ceased to exist in 1919. Plans to regain their lost colonial possessions persisted through WW2, with many at the time suspecting that was a goal of the Third Reich all along. Despite having a short in existence compared to other colonial empires, Germany's colonial ventures changed the places and people they came into contact with. The Germans participated in medicinal and scientific research in Africa, as well as attempting to build up an infrastructure there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15443",
"title": "Western imperialism in Asia",
"section": "Section::::World War I: Changes in Imperialism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "World War I brought about the fall of several empires in Europe. This had repercussions around the world. The defeated Central Powers included Germany and the Turkish Ottoman Empire. Germany lost all of its colonies in Asia. German New Guinea, a part of Papua New Guinea, became administered by Australia. German possessions and concessions in China, including Qingdao, became the subject of a controversy during the Paris Peace Conference when the Beiyang government in China agreed to cede these interests to Japan, to the anger of many Chinese people. Although the Chinese diplomats refused to sign the agreement, these interests were ceded to Japan with the support of the United States and the United Kingdom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "762770",
"title": "German colonial empire",
"section": "Section::::Acquisition of colonies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "The German Colonial empire got its start around 1884, and in those years they acquired several territories. German East Africa, German South-West Africa, Cameroon, and Togo in Africa. Germany was also active in the Pacific annexing a series of islands that would be called German New Guinea. The northwestern region of New Guinea was called Kaiser-Wilhelmsland, the Bismarck Archipelago to the islands east, this also contained two larger islands named New Mecklenburg and New Pomerania, they also acquired the Northern Solomon Islands. These islands were given the status of protectorate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "350576",
"title": "French Protectorate of Cambodia",
"section": "Section::::World War II in Cambodia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "The subject of European colonies in Asia was among those discussed during the war by the Big Three Allied leaders, Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill at the three summit meetings held in Cairo, Tehran and Yalta. With regard to the largest colony of India, Roosevelt pressed very strongly for a declaration of grant of independence by war's end, a pressure doggedly resisted by Churchill. As regards non-British colonies in Asia, Roosevelt and Stalin had decided in Tehran that the French and the Dutch would not return to Asia after the war. Roosevelt's untimely death before even the war's end, was followed by developments very different from what Roosevelt had envisaged. The British backed the return of French and Dutch rule in Asia and even organised dispatches of Indian soldiers under British command for this purpose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43788910",
"title": "History of Lae",
"section": "Section::::1900s.:Confiscation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Germany's overseas empire was dismantled following defeat in World War I. With the concluding Treaty of Versailles, Article 22, German colonies were divided between Belgium, the United Kingdom, and certain British Dominions, France, and Japan with the determination not to see any of them returned to Germany – a guarantee secured by Article 119.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59539169",
"title": "German colonial projects before 1871",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "When the German Empire came into existence in 1871, none of its constituent states had any overseas colonies. Only after the Berlin Conference in 1884 did Germany begin to acquire new overseas possessions, but it had a much longer relationship with colonialism dating back to the 1520s. Before the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, various German states established chartered companies to set up trading posts; in some instances they also sought direct territorial and administrative control over these. After 1806 attempts at securing possession of territories overseas were abandoned; instead, private trading companies took the lead in the Pacific while joint-stock companies and colonial associations initiated projects elsewhere, although many never progressed beyond the planning stage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ashwlm
|
how is netflix able to provide seemingly perfect subtitles to basically every show/movie on their platform and what allows them to do this so well?
|
[
{
"answer": "The people that make the show or movie write down the subtitles, from the script. They package that as a subtitle file inside the video file, and Netflix opens that up to show it to you if you enable subtitles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When a show is delivered to Netflix it must conform to their specifications, including subtitles. Netflix is not generating these files. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8860",
"title": "Dubbing (filmmaking)",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives.:Dubbing and subtitling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 266,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 266,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Netflix provides both subtitles and dubbed audio with its foreign language shows, including Brazil’s dystopian “3%” and the German thriller \"Dark\". Viewer testing indicates that its audience is more likely to finish watching a series if they select to view it with dubbed audio rather than translated subtitles. Netflix now streams its foreign language content with dubbed audio as default in an effort to increase viewer retention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7224224",
"title": "Subtitle",
"section": "Section::::Categories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "BULLET::::- Content subtitles are a North American Secondary Industry (non-Hollywood, often low-budget) staple. They add content dictation that is missing from filmed action or dialogue. Due to the general low-budget allowances in such films, it is often more feasible to add the overlay subtitles to fill in information. They are most commonly seen on America's Maverick films as forced subtitles, and on Canada's MapleLeaf films as optional subtitles. Content subtitles also appear in the beginning of some higher-budget films (e.g., Star Wars) or at the end of a film (e.g., Gods and Generals).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7224224",
"title": "Subtitle",
"section": "Section::::Translation.:Subtitles vs. dubbing and lectoring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "In many Latin American countries, local network television will show dubbed versions of English-language programs and movies, while cable stations (often international) more commonly broadcast subtitled material. Preference for subtitles or dubbing varies according to individual taste and reading ability, and theaters may order two prints of the most popular films, allowing moviegoers to choose between dubbing or subtitles. Animation and children's programming, however, is nearly universally dubbed, as in other regions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50276542",
"title": "Criticism of Netflix",
"section": "Section::::Accessibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1182,
"text": "In July 2012, Netflix formed an experimental project to crowdsource the closed-captioning effort using the Amara (formerly Universal Subtitles) platform. However, this proved problematic in the face of claims that crowdsourced subtitles, regardless of whether they are transcriptions or translations, are derivative works which infringe copyright if created or distributed without consent from the film's copyright owner. Amara operates under DMCA safe-harbor provisions which indemnify it from secondary copyright infringement lawsuits over user-uploaded content, and presumably Netflix would not publish any subtitles produced by this effort without authorization. Netflix stated it is not committed to using any subtitles produced by the crowdsourcing project. In October 2012, Netflix was found to be offering the television series \"Andromeda\" to customers in Finland with unauthorized subtitles from the fansub scene. When confronted, Netflix apologized and promised to remove the unauthorized translations but did not explain how the content came to be offered in the first place, or whether other potentially copyright-infringing subtitles exist in the company's repertoire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50276542",
"title": "Criticism of Netflix",
"section": "Section::::Accessibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Netflix has still faced criticism over the quality of subtitles on some of its content and original productions; the service's video player contains a function allowing users to report issues with captioning. In one notable instance in 2018, \"Queer Eye\" contained sentences of dialogue missed by the subtitles, and censoring of expletives that were not censored in the audio. Netflix corrected these subtitles after receiving criticism via social media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "668442",
"title": "Lip sync",
"section": "Section::::In video.:Language dubbing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "In English-speaking countries, many foreign TV series (especially anime like \"Pokémon\") are dubbed for television broadcast. However, cinematic releases of films tend to come with subtitles instead. The same is true of countries in which the local language is not spoken widely enough to make the expensive dubbing commercially viable (in other words, there is not enough market for it).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175537",
"title": "Netflix",
"section": "Section::::International expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 168,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 168,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "As of July 2019, Netflix officially supports 23 languages for user interface and customer support purposes: Arabic (Modern Standard), Chinese (Simplified and Traditional), Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian (Bokmål), Polish, Portuguese (Brazilian and European), Romanian, Spanish (Castilian and Latin American), Swahili, Swedish, Thai and Turkish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mbbe8
|
how does venture capitalism work?
|
[
{
"answer": "On one end, there are the big money funds. Some groups that have tons of money. Enough that they've already put a lot into traditional stocks and bonds and money market stuff. Now they want to take some more and put it in a different area: new companies that aren't on the stock market yet.\n\nOn the other end, there are the entrepreneurs. These guys want to start a new company or maybe they have already started it and it's humming along. Either way, starting and growing a young business is hard. It's hard to make stuff without hiring people and it's hard to pay your hires if you haven't already made and sold the stuff. If you just had a bunch of money to start with, it would be a lot easier to get the ball rolling and make something great.\n\nIn order to bridge the gap between the funds and the entrepreneurs, the big money funds hire money managers. Those are the VCs. The VCs travel around looking for new companies that would be able grow in value by a large amount if they had a cash injection to kick it off. (There are also VCs who use their own money rather than simply representing a fund. That type of VC is traditionally called an \"angel investor\".)\n\nIf the VCs find a company they really like, they sit down with the company founders and hammer out a deal. There are lots of options and variations and details in VC deals, but usually it goes something like this:\n\n > Lets argue for a long time about how much the company is currently worth. It's really hard to pin that down because your aren't making any money right now, but there's a lot of potential. OK, we all agree it's currently worth about $10 million? How about we put an additional $10 million in cash into the company? Then it will be worth $20 million and we'll both agree that moving forward 50% of the value of the company belongs to you and 50% belongs to us. Sounds fair? Hopefully, together we'll be able to use that extra $10 million to grow this company to $200 million in about 5 years or so. That would be awesome.\n\nThat would be the most straight-forward VC deal ever. Real deals have lots of details covering all of the possible events that could happen to the company. But, the general theme is that if the company takes off, gets bought by Google, has a big stock market IPO, or whatever, the fund that the VCs represent gets their share of the earnings.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On one end, there are the big money funds. Some groups that have tons of money. Enough that they've already put a lot into traditional stocks and bonds and money market stuff. Now they want to take some more and put it in a different area: new companies that aren't on the stock market yet.\n\nOn the other end, there are the entrepreneurs. These guys want to start a new company or maybe they have already started it and it's humming along. Either way, starting and growing a young business is hard. It's hard to make stuff without hiring people and it's hard to pay your hires if you haven't already made and sold the stuff. If you just had a bunch of money to start with, it would be a lot easier to get the ball rolling and make something great.\n\nIn order to bridge the gap between the funds and the entrepreneurs, the big money funds hire money managers. Those are the VCs. The VCs travel around looking for new companies that would be able grow in value by a large amount if they had a cash injection to kick it off. (There are also VCs who use their own money rather than simply representing a fund. That type of VC is traditionally called an \"angel investor\".)\n\nIf the VCs find a company they really like, they sit down with the company founders and hammer out a deal. There are lots of options and variations and details in VC deals, but usually it goes something like this:\n\n > Lets argue for a long time about how much the company is currently worth. It's really hard to pin that down because your aren't making any money right now, but there's a lot of potential. OK, we all agree it's currently worth about $10 million? How about we put an additional $10 million in cash into the company? Then it will be worth $20 million and we'll both agree that moving forward 50% of the value of the company belongs to you and 50% belongs to us. Sounds fair? Hopefully, together we'll be able to use that extra $10 million to grow this company to $200 million in about 5 years or so. That would be awesome.\n\nThat would be the most straight-forward VC deal ever. Real deals have lots of details covering all of the possible events that could happen to the company. But, the general theme is that if the company takes off, gets bought by Google, has a big stock market IPO, or whatever, the fund that the VCs represent gets their share of the earnings.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "257210",
"title": "Venture capital",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 728,
"text": "Venture capital is also a way in which the private and public sectors can construct an institution that systematically creates business networks for the new firms and industries, so that they can progress and develop. This institution helps identify promising new firms and provide them with finance, technical expertise, mentoring, marketing \"know-how\", and business models. Once integrated into the business network, these firms are more likely to succeed, as they become \"nodes\" in the search networks for designing and building products in their domain. However, venture capitalists' decisions are often biased, exhibiting for instance overconfidence and illusion of control, much like entrepreneurial decisions in general.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "36478004",
"title": "Vulture capitalist",
"section": "Section::::Distinguishing between venture and vulture capitalists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "A venture capitalist is an investor who provides funding for start-ups, early stage firms and companies with growth potential. These types of firms seek out venture capitalists, as they are too small or too new to have credit profiles, making them ineligible for bank loans and other forms of raising capital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59310790",
"title": "Venture equity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Venture equity is an investment strategy that includes a hybrid of venture capital and private equity approaches. Firms or individuals involved in venture equity acquire struggling startups, make improvements to the companies to help spur growth, and resell them for a profit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "257210",
"title": "Venture capital",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "Venture capital (VC) is a type of private equity, a form of financing that is provided by firms or funds to small, early-stage, emerging firms that are deemed to have high growth potential, or which have demonstrated high growth (in terms of number of employees, annual revenue, or both). Venture capital firms or funds invest in these early-stage companies in exchange for equity, or an ownership stake, in the companies they invest in. Venture capitalists take on the risk of financing risky start-ups in the hopes that some of the firms they support will become successful. Because startups face high uncertainty, VC investments do have high rates of failure. The start-ups are usually based on an innovative technology or business model and they are usually from the high technology industries, such as information technology (IT), clean technology or biotechnology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21660525",
"title": "Software entrepreneurship",
"section": "Section::::Bank Financing.:Venture Capital.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Venture capital is risk capital invested into a start-up company at its early stages. Venture capitalists usually invest in start-ups that already have a relatively developed software product and some early sales. They look for products that have a large potential in a growing market with a competitive edge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59310790",
"title": "Venture equity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Venture equity firms work with early-stage startups that may have raised seed funding and are generating revenue, but may be unable to achieve the level of growth needed to secure additional funding or attract buyers. Venture equity involves companies with high growth potential, similar to venture capital. Similar to traditional private equity firms, venture equity firms acquire companies and take control in their operation. Venture equity firms invest in sales, marketing and operations in an effort to achieve greater growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13476101",
"title": "Venture Development",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Venture development describing economic development activity that is focused on using best-practices and activities of experienced business mentoring and pre-angel and venture capital investing in order to help create venture and angel-capital-ready firms which have the promise to create significant economic wealth for a region, state or country including entrepreneurial wealth and jobs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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]
}
] | null |
4waexw
|
What was the general public perception of Dunkirk immediately after the rescue throughout the nations involved in WWII?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can give a broad summary from the point of view of the British as, like so many other British War myths, it is more complicated than it has subsequently been reduced to and therefore infinitely more interesting as a result (in my admittedly nerdy opinion).\n\nSo I will assume the common narrative is widely known, the surprise and certain defeat, the plucky English resolve, Churchill and rousing speeches and the little boats. Now much of this lies in well founded fact, though shaves off a lot of the complexities which then simply reduces the nature of British society and politics during the war.\n\nFirst things first the reaction was not simply joyous. It was a clear defeat and setback which signalled a grave turn in the war. And while the absence of more death and capture was certainly good for morale at home it did not distract from this fact far beyond the last boat reaching blighty. Indeed the press, bouncing off this disaster, had a field day attacking the ex-PM Chamberlain and his ilk for their inadequate preparations. Linking implicitly, and at times explicitly the disaster - perhaps a little unfairly - at the door of Chamberlain. A great example of this feeling was the pamphlet *Guilty men* which opened a rabid attack on interwar government with the beaches of Dunkirk, casting the honest soldiers there victim of the ineptitude and complacency of the uninspired grandees of the previous decade. The anonymous writers (a Tory, Liberal and Labour supporter and future leader) emphasised the futile bravery of the front in marked contrast to the antagonists. To quote its evocative first chapter's final line: \n\n\n*It is a story of an army doomed before they took the field.*\n\nDespite publishers avoiding it, *Guilty men\" sold 200,000 copies.\n\n\nNow this was perhaps a little unfair, while there was plenty of blame and there were problems which led to this disaster, to lay this in the laps of solely the old political order was a little much. Without wanting to get into the monkey knife-fight that is appeasement historiography on the internet, Chamberlain perhaps did not deserve the image portrayed in this book. However, it certainly did not do Churchill any harm to have his rivals in the party (Chamberlain and Halifax, the preferred contender for the PM's office against Churchill) so publicly savaged. His wartime coalition shedded meaningful need for these individuals and as a result became easier to manage. It also saved the reputation of many men still involved in the war effort yet perhaps also partially responsible. Anything else one wishes to add is speculation so far as I understand, whether this was a happy coincidence for Mr Churchill or something more orchestrated lacks firm evidence one way or the other.\n\nAside from this the cultivated and co-opted press loudly triumphed the official narrative of heroism on the day. From the Daily Mirror proclaiming the heroic retreat as *\"bloody marvellous\"* to War Illustrated outlining the *\"Immortal story of Dunkirk\"*. However this struggled at times when squared with the experiences of retreating men. Gardiner emphasises the combination of the chaos of war with the wounded pride of retreating men creating a toxic atmosphere of recrimination. For example in one village pub a patron recounted an NCO whose:\n\n*\"loud-mouthed criticism of junior officers of his Ack-Ack unit seizing the only available transport and making for the French coast, leaving their NCOs and men to fend for themselves\"*\n\nor the sister of a soldier, Harry Woolf, who recounted:\n\n*\"he saw his cousin dead on the beach & another man on the street. He was talking to a chap who was showing a silk handkerchief bought for his joy lady. That moment a bomb killed him. Harry took the handkerchief. Harry has had eno' of this war and is certain of our defeat - got no arms & no aeroplanes - how can we do anything\"*\n\nThe civilian population, though clearly depending on a multitude of disparate and ever shrinking factors, was mixed in its reaction. Women assisted in aid stations, some cheered paraded troops (one commentator noted that the lining of the streets and accolades were more frequent then than during the soldier's embarking to France). Church membership rocketed up, with Calder pointing out that:\n\n*\"even Guildhall was not big enough to accomodate more than half the congregation that flooded to the united service\"* \n\nwith 2000 listing outside on loudspeakers. \n\nElsewhere Donald Johnson, a medical officer, recounted:\n\n*\"From the moment you woke up, you thought, ‘Oh, my God’ as you realised [Britain’s] position afresh …It was only after two or three beers at lunch that the situation did not seem quite as bad; but by three thirty in the afternoon it was desperate again—and it was quite time to go back to the mess for another drink. In the evening, the outlook depended entirely on the amount of alcohol you consumed. I use the plural ‘you’ because everyone was in the same boat.”*\n\nPeople carrying gas masks increased from basically 0% to 30%, black marketeers trade slightly declined and strikes fell in the month following. There was a 25% increase in production as workers worked longer, without holidays and weekends one must distinguish between patriotic fervour and invasion-panic.\n\nAn interesting example is how one pigeonholes the famous \"fight them on the beaches\" speech made to the Commons, and delivered in extracts by a BBC announcer to the wider public. While it has been proclaimed as a masterful oratory, public reaction was mixed. Addison in his wonderful work based on Mass Observation, one of my favourite-ist things going in this period points out the following extracts:\n\n*\"he grave tone of Churchill’s speech made some impression and may have contributed in some measure to the rather pessimistic atmosphere of today. […] The contents of the speech were on the whole expected but some apprehension has been caused throughout the country on account of the PM’s reference to ‘fighting alone’. This has led to some slight increase in doubt about the intentions of our ally [France].\"*\n\nHowever it is worth noting the the general consensus from the different areas of the British Isle was that the speech was well received if not fervour-rousing. Though, as a *further* caveat, even its immediate effect was perhaps not brilliant, as Winston's wife said afterwards about the House of Commons and the original speech:\n\n*\"a great section of the Tory Party were not behind Winston & had received his great speech […] even in sullen silence.\"*\n\nThis may point to the esteem the 'double-rat' and wilderness-dweller Churchill held amongst his backbenches, shocked & pessimistic immediate reaction to the news or the quality of the speech (or any of the above in combination).\n\nInterestingly, the rumour summaries for each day (may I say you should really get [his book](_URL_0_)) emphasise a rich and at time bizarre array of rumours emanating from the disaster which demonstrates a society perhaps not entirely unified. A common a pressing one was the well-trodden discontent of the army with the RAF, the latter being perceived too weak/suspiciously absent during the evacuation. The report nervously notes that this should be checked though an official statement as its effects would be:\n\n*\"most unfortunate in military and civilian circles\"*\n \nAdditionally paranoia of infiltrators and aliens underlined the daily rumour mill. From arrests of German parachutists in the Midlands (usually neither German nor parachutists) to Belgians children being denied access to play groups in London (probably not because they are Belgian), suspicions ruled supreme. This is just a taster -there were many other examples of rumours showing a society confused, angry and scared, all suggesting a society ill-at ease.\n\nNow clearly self-interest and patriotism are interlinked and are certainly not mutually exclusive, but it would be wrong to characterise the work ethic which followed as simply a \"we are all in this together\", long lasting and significant shift in the relationship workers had with the wartime economy. While people were more acutely aware of their national predicament and therefore willing to sacrifice this may well have been as much for narrow self-interest than a stoic submission to the needs of Britannia. \n\nAs the immediate fear of invasion fell back so too did these positive and negative effects. Indeed this boost in production fell back a few weeks later as workers tired and the propaganda around immediate invasion rang increasingly hollow. Gas mask-uptake fell back down to 10% by August and the black market returned to booming normal. Even the rumour mill died down, which is often an excellent barometer of public feeling. Therefore it is difficult to view Dunkirk as a profound rallying of the public will. As (a) it caused as much division and ill feeling as it did unity and (b) its effects were temporary. \n\nHowever there is an interesting argument that Dunkirk, though much of the effects on soldiers and civilians was indeed negative, acted as a positive 'bookend' to the war. Essentially it acted as a shift in narrative between the war of the 'old guard', complacent, elitist and slow to the war of the people. A more dynamic war effort and one where society had a greater stake. Now indeed it helped that the old guard were functionally out of office and replaced with an evolving coalition of all major parties, so this potentially toxic narrative did not disrupt politics too greatly immediately. However I have seen Addison argue that this is in part a reason for the result in 1945, so intimately connected was the mainstream Conservative party to this clique in the minds of many. I perhaps would not go that far, but it certainly added to the milieu of the time.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2952210",
"title": "Isle of Man Steam Packet Company",
"section": "Section::::History.:War service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "In the Second World War, ten of the fleet of sixteen ships were commandeered for active duty, four of which were lost. The Dunkirk evacuation was perhaps the company's finest hour, with \"Mona's Isle (IV)\" being the first to leave Dover and the first to complete the round trip during the evacuation. Eight company ships took part in this mission, rescuing a total of 24,699 British troops – one in fourteen of those evacuated from Dunkirk. However this was also saw the company's blackest day, as three of the line's ships were lost:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "253767",
"title": "Dunkirk evacuation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"end_character": 785,
"text": "The Dunkirk evacuation, code-named Operation Dynamo, also known as the Miracle of Dunkirk, was the evacuation of Allied soldiers during World War II from the beaches and harbour of Dunkirk, in the north of France, between 26 May and 4 June 1940. The operation commenced after large numbers of Belgian, British, and French troops were cut off and surrounded by German troops during the six-week long Battle of France. In a speech to the House of Commons, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill called this \"a colossal military disaster\", saying \"the whole root and core and brain of the British Army\" had been stranded at Dunkirk and seemed about to perish or be captured. In his \"we shall fight on the beaches\" speech on 4 June, he hailed their rescue as a \"miracle of deliverance\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27740865",
"title": "May 1940",
"section": "Section::::May 31, 1940 (Friday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 205,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 205,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "BULLET::::- Poor weather over Dunkirk allowed the British to conduct the day's evacuations with reduced fear of German air attacks. This day was the high point of the evacuation, with a total of 68,014 rescued.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "73246",
"title": "Battle of Dunkirk",
"section": "Section::::\"Dunkirk Spirit\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "British press later exploited the successful evacuation of Dunkirk in 1940, and particularly the role of the \"Dunkirk little ships\", very effectively. Many of them were private vessels such as fishing boats and pleasure cruisers, but commercial vessels such as ferries also contributed to the force, including a number from as far away as the Isle of Man and Glasgow. These smaller vessels—guided by naval craft across the Channel from the Thames Estuary and from Dover—assisted in the official evacuation. Being able to move closer into the beachfront shallows than larger craft, the \"little ships\" acted as shuttles to and from the larger ships, lifting troops who were queuing in the water, many waiting shoulder-deep in water for hours. The term \"Dunkirk Spirit\" refers to the solidarity of the British people in times of adversity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13083104",
"title": "HMS Calcutta (D82)",
"section": "Section::::Service.:Second World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "Following the completion of the evacuation from Dunkirk, British Forces continued to operate in France, with Operation Ariel taking part in the second half of June 1940 to evacuate the remainder of British forces from ports in the west of France. \"Calcutta\" took part in Operation Ariel, providing anti-aircraft cover for evacuations from Saint-Jean-de-Luz in the far South-East of France, near the border with Spain from 23 to 25 June, when the Armistice between France and Germany ended the evacuations. On the return journey, \"Calcutta\" was in company with the Canadian destroyers and , when on the evening of 25 June \"Calcutta\" collided with \"Fraser\" off the Gironde estuary, cutting the destroyer in two. The front of \"Fraser\" sank quickly, while the aft part was scuttled by \"Restigouche\". \"Calcutta\" was undamaged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1461804",
"title": "Timeline of the Battle of France",
"section": "Section::::May 1940.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "BULLET::::- 26 May: Around 850 British civilian ships and vessels help assisted Allied forces of Dunkirk, which would become the largest military evacuation in history. On 6:57 PM Operation Dynamo code name for the evacuation of British forces from Dunkirk took place. Hitler also ordered his army forces towards Dunkirk to finally destroy the Allies. HMS \"Curlew\" was sunk from the air by the Luftwaffe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18336337",
"title": "Dunkirk (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "\"Dunkirk\" used archive film footage, eyewitness accounts and original dramatised sequences to describe the events of the 1940 Dunkirk evacuation. The BBC also included an interactive 'red button' facility allowing television viewers to reach further information. The documentary has been described as helping the BBC build 'Digital Britain' and fulfill its public service remit.\n",
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] | null |
814gkk
|
How do you calculate the focal length of a multi-lens setup?
|
[
{
"answer": "In my opinion, the cleanest formalism for linear optics is using [transfer matrices](_URL_0_). There is a fixed matrix for each type of optical element, and to find the optics of a series of optical elements, you just multiply the corresponding matrices in the right order. Then you get one final matrix that describes the transport of a ray with any initial condition. Certain elements of the final matrix can be associated with the total focal length, the magnification, etc.\n\nIf you have a doublet consisting of a thin focusing and a thin defocusing lens with a drift in between them, you can see what the matrix looks like on slide 15 [here](_URL_1_) (ignore that the slideshow is about charged particle optics for particle accelerators, it works the same way as light optics).\n\nFor two lenses, this is not really that difficult. You could just memorize that effective focal length equation like people do in Physics 101.\n\nBut this formalism gives you the power to chain together arbitrarily many cells like this. And even add other optical elements, rather than just thin lenses and drifts. There are some other nice features, like being able to analyze the stability of the system. If the focusing isn't strong enough, or if it's *too* strong, the trajectories of individual rays may not be transported through the entire optical system. Analyzing the stability of the entire system is as simple as taking the trace of the final matrix.",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "889742",
"title": "Prime lens",
"section": "Section::::Popular focal lengths.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Many lens manufacturers produce or produced prime lenses at or near the following focal lengths: 20mm, 24mm, 28mm, 35mm, 40mm, 50mm, 85mm, 105mm, 135mm, 200mm, 300mm, 400mm, and 600mm. For these lengths many manufacturers produce two or more lenses with the same focal length but with different maximum apertures to suit the different needs of photographers. Additional focal lengths can be created by using a teleconverter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "176053",
"title": "Angle of view",
"section": "Section::::Calculating a camera's angle of view.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "For a lens projecting a rectilinear image (focused at infinity, see derivation), the angle of view (\"α\") can be calculated from the chosen dimension (\"d\"), and effective focal length (\"f\") as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "176351",
"title": "Normal lens",
"section": "Section::::The image circle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1274,
"text": "A normal lens typically has an angle of view that is close to one radian (~57.296˚) of the optical system's image circle. For 135 format (24 x 36 mm), with an escribed image circle diameter equal to the diagonal of the frame (43.266 mm), the focal length that has an angle of one radian of the escribed circle is 39.6 mm; the focal length that has an angle of one radian of the horizontally-bound inscribed image circle, is 33 mm; the focal length that has an angle of one radian of the vertically-bound inscribed circle, is 22 mm. This correlates with the popularity of 35 and 24 mmlenses, and the existence of 40mm lenses, albeit the latter in a more restrained offer. A 50 mm lens has a vertical-bound inscribed circle angle of view of ~0.5 radians. A 70mm focal length (typically only available in zoom lenses) has a horizontally-bound inscribed circle angle of view of ~0.5 radians. An 85 mm lens has an escribed (frame diagonal) circle angle of view of ~0.5 radians. Effectively, the 24, 35 and 40 mm trio have a 1:2 relation to the 50, 70 and 85 trio of focal lengths. \"Normal\" lenses, those that cover one radian in at least one of their inscribed or escribed image circles, belong to the first group, with 35 and 40 mm lenses closer to one radian than 50mm lenses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "20151959",
"title": "Photographic lens design",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Design requirements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "The design of a fixed focal length lens (also known as \"prime lenses\") presents fewer challenges than the design of a zoom lens. A high-quality prime lens whose focal length is about equal to the diameter of the film frame or sensor may be constructed from as few as four separate lens elements, often as pairs on either side of the aperture diaphragm. Good examples include the Zeiss Tessar or the Leitz Elmar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "82269",
"title": "Focal length",
"section": "Section::::General optical systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "For a \"thick\" lens (one which has a non-negligible thickness), or an imaging system consisting of several lenses or mirrors (e.g., a photographic lens or a telescope), the focal length is often called the \"effective focal length\" (EFL), to distinguish it from other commonly used parameters:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33904406",
"title": "Length measurement",
"section": "Section::::Interferometer measurements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "The figure shows schematically how length is determined using a Michelson interferometer: the two panels show a laser source emitting a light beam split by a \"beam splitter\" (BS) to travel two paths. The light is recombined by bouncing the two components off a pair of \"corner cubes\" (CC) that return the two components to the beam splitter again to be reassembled. The corner cube serves to displace the incident from the reflected beam, which avoids some complications caused by superposing the two beams. The distance between the left-hand corner cube and the beam splitter is compared to that separation on the fixed leg as the left-hand spacing is adjusted to compare the length of the object to be measured.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7527592",
"title": "T-mount",
"section": "Section::::Adapters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "The thickness of the external ring on an adapter is equal to the difference of the flange distance between the T-mount and the corresponding lens mount in order to achieve infinity focus. Other large format camera lenses have a flange distance longer than 55 mm. They can be attached to smaller format cameras with a combination of corresponding lens-to-T-mount-adapter and a T-Ring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bmjywd
|
how do they measure the visual acuity of animals?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of the oldest way to test it is the following:\n\n1. set up 2 doors: one with food and one without. Put a label on top of each door with black square (door no food) and black square with a single white stripe (door with food).\n2. During the first few times, open both door and let the animal go. After a few times they'll learn that door with white stripe has food.\n3. Close both doors in such a way that the animal can still open it easily, but cannot see through it. Then let the animal go. Since they remember that the one with the stripe has food, they'll pick the door they see the stripe.\n4. Reduce the width of the white stripe. Then let the animal go find the food (repeat this a few times for reliability). Repeat this process until the animal is unable to reliably locate the door with a white stripe. \n\nSource: remember watching a video of eagle vision test (couldn't find it now). The stripe was so small that humans cannot see it with naked eye. The stripe was made using computer-assisted tool.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "157898",
"title": "Eye",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Visual acuity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "For a human eye with excellent acuity, the maximum theoretical resolution is 50 CPD (1.2 arcminute per line pair, or a 0.35 mm line pair, at 1 m). A rat can resolve only about 1 to 2 CPD. A horse has higher acuity through most of the visual field of its eyes than a human has, but does not match the high acuity of the human eye's central fovea region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "648954",
"title": "Visual acuity",
"section": "Section::::Measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Visual acuity is measured by a psychophysical procedure and as such relates the physical characteristics of a stimulus to a subject's percept and his/her resulting responses. Measurement can be by using an eye chart invented by Ferdinand Monoyer, by optical instruments, or by computerized tests like the FrACT.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "326787",
"title": "Teleost",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Sensory systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "Teleosts possess highly developed sensory organs. Nearly all daylight fish have colour vision at least as good as a normal human's. Many fish also have chemoreceptors responsible for acute senses of taste and smell. Most fish have sensitive receptors that form the lateral line system, which detects gentle currents and vibrations, and senses the motion of nearby fish and prey. Fish sense sounds in a variety of ways, using the lateral line, the swim bladder, and in some species the Weberian apparatus. Fish orient themselves using landmarks, and may use mental maps based on multiple landmarks or symbols. Experiments with mazes show that fish possess the spatial memory needed to make such a mental map.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19337310",
"title": "Rodent",
"section": "Section::::Behavior and life history.:Communication.:Visual.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1150,
"text": "Rodents, like all placental mammals except primates, have just two types of light receptive cones in their retina, a short wavelength \"blue-UV\" type and a middle wavelength \"green\" type. They are therefore classified as dichromats; however, they are visually sensitive into the ultraviolet (UV) spectrum and therefore can see light that humans can not. The functions of this UV sensitivity are not always clear. In degus, for example, the belly reflects more UV light than the back. Therefore, when a degu stands up on its hind legs, which it does when alarmed, it exposes its belly to other degus and ultraviolet vision may serve a purpose in communicating the alarm. When it stands on all fours, its low UV-reflectance back could help make the degu less visible to predators. Ultraviolet light is abundant during the day but not at night. There is a large increase in the ratio of ultraviolet to visible light in the morning and evening twilight hours. Many rodents are active during twilight hours (crepuscular activity), and UV-sensitivity would be advantageous at these times. Ultraviolet reflectivity is of dubious value for nocturnal rodents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4699587",
"title": "Fish",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and physiology.:Sensory and nervous system.:Sense organs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "Most fish possess highly developed sense organs. Nearly all daylight fish have color vision that is at least as good as a human's (see vision in fishes). Many fish also have chemoreceptors that are responsible for extraordinary senses of taste and smell. Although they have ears, many fish may not hear very well. Most fish have sensitive receptors that form the lateral line system, which detects gentle currents and vibrations, and senses the motion of nearby fish and prey. Some fish, such as catfish and sharks, have the Ampullae of Lorenzini, organs that detect weak electric currents on the order of millivolt. Other fish, like the South American electric fishes Gymnotiformes, can produce weak electric currents, which they use in navigation and social communication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "648954",
"title": "Visual acuity",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "The precise distance at which acuity is measured is not important as long as it is sufficiently far away and the size of the optotype on the retina is the same. That size is specified as a visual angle, which is the angle, at the eye, under which the optotype appears. For 6/6 = 1.0 acuity, the size of a letter on the Snellen chart or Landolt C chart is a visual angle of 5 arc minutes (1 arc min = 1/60 of a degree). By the design of a typical optotype (like a Snellen E or a Landolt C), the critical gap that needs to be resolved is 1/5 this value, i.e., 1 arc min. The latter is the value used in the international definition of visual acuity:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10589867",
"title": "Slimonia",
"section": "Section::::Paleobiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "Visual acuity, the clarity of vision, can be determined in arthropods by determining number of lenses in their compound eyes and the interommatidial angle (shortened as IOA and referring to the angle between the optical axes of the adjacent lenses). The IOA is especially important as it can be used to distinguish different ecological roles in arthropods, being low in modern active arthropod predators. \"Slimonia\" was very similar to the basal pterygotid \"Erettopterus\" in terms of visual acuity, with the number of lenses being comparable to those of \"Pterygotus\" and \"Jaekelopterus\" and possessing an IOA between 2 and 3 (which is higher than the IOA of \"Pterygotus\" and \"Jaekelopterus\", suggesting that the visual acuity of \"Slimonia\" was good, but not as good as in the derived pterygotids).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1tg4ff
|
how can north korea have work camps and not get in trouble for it?
|
[
{
"answer": "The UN is mostly toothless, and there's no such thing as \"world police\". \n\nFurther, no one is willing to go up militarily against a nuclear state for fear of starting World War III.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they're a country. They're not a person and can be arrested by the police. The only way to force another country to do something is either from the threat or application of military or economic action. \n\nNorth Korea has a military 9 million strong and doesn't have an economy to ruin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "North Korea would undoubtedly see outside interference as a pretext for war. Nobody wants a conflict with North Korea. They come across as the equivalent of the proverbial bull in a china shop, but the china is nukes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1565499",
"title": "Human rights in North Korea",
"section": "Section::::Criminal justice.:Prisons.:Re-education camps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "In October 2014, North Korea admitted for the first time that it had labor camps. Choe Myong Nam, a North Korean foreign ministry, said \"Both in law and practice, we do have reform through labor detention camps – no, detention centers – where people are improved through their mentality and look on their wrongdoings\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30166893",
"title": "Human trafficking in North Korea",
"section": "Section::::Trafficking by type.:Forced labor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Within North Korea, forced labor is part of an established system of political repression. North Koreans do not have a choice in the jobs they work and are not free to change jobs at will; the North Korean government determines what work each citizen will have. From April to September 2009, the government initiated a “150-Day Battle” campaign to boost the economy by requiring increased work hours and production targets of citizens, and implementing government-imposed programs, such as road building and construction work. The country initiated a second “labor mobilization” campaign, the “100-Day Battle,” immediately after the initial “150-Day Battle.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30166893",
"title": "Human trafficking in North Korea",
"section": "Section::::Trafficking by type.:North Korean workers sent abroad.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Tens of thousands of North Korean workers are estimated to be employed in Russian logging camps, where they reportedly have only two days of rest per year and face punishments when they fail to meet production targets. Wages of some North Korean workers employed in Russia reportedly were withheld until the laborers returned home, in a coercive tactic by North Korean authorities to compel their labor. North Korean workers at joint ventures with foreign investors within North Korea are employed under arrangements similar to those that apply to overseas contract workers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49507147",
"title": "Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea",
"section": "Section::::North Korea's reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "North Korean officials stated that there were \"no prison camps\" operating in North Korea but that there were \"detention centres where people are improved through their mentality and look on their wrongdoings.\" Officials also stated that North Korea was a \"transition society\" and as such \"there might be some problems, for example in the economic and other areas, we may need to establish more houses and social facilities in order to provide people with better living conditions.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3682015",
"title": "North Korean defectors",
"section": "Section::::Life in South Korea.:Mental health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 1021,
"text": "With limited government-sponsored programs for migrants, North Koreans face vocational, medical, and educative difficulties assimilating in South Korea and rely on nongovernmental organizations. In addition to the traumatic circumstances of their homeland, North Koreans may face social exclusion. In a survey of over 24,000 of North Koreans who migrated to South Korea between August and December 2012, 607 identified as suffering from depression, anxiety, or suicidal ideation. Due to mistrust between both North and South Koreans, evidence from a study of 182 defectors reveal that defectors are unable to receive medical coverage from doctors. Intergovernmental organizations such as the United Nations have repeatedly urged recipient nations of North Korean defectors to increase the efforts in identifying defectors who are at high risk for poor mental health and provide appropriate medical services and social support. Neither public nor private providers have been convinced to support due to identity politics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53755018",
"title": "Conscription in North Korea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Conscription in North Korea occurs despite ambiguity concerning its legal status. Men are universally conscripted while females undergo selective conscription. Conscription takes place at age 17 and service ends at 30. Children of the political elites are exempt from conscription, as are people with bad \"songbun\" (ascribed social status in North Korea). Recruitment is done on the basis of annual targets drawn up by the Central Military Commission of the Workers' Party of Korea and implemented locally by schools.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16084512",
"title": "Women in North Korea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "North Korea has enacted laws such as the Law on Sex Equality, the Labor Law, and the Law on Nationalization of Essential Industries. Although these social systems have not entirely been successful, they have been integrated into daily life to help women. The reforms implemented provided women's rights at work, rights of inheriting and sharing of properties, and rights of free marriage and divorce. North Korea also outlawed polygamy. The state confiscated all privately owned land, eliminating property discrimination. Today, women in North Korea participate in a variety of labor forces, and there is a considerable number of women who are in high positions. Also, there are many facilities for women including sanatoria, rest homes, and maternity hospitals. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yuncy
|
Does mental/emotional trauma halt maturation of the mind?
|
[
{
"answer": "Clinical psychologist here. The effects aren't nearly that predictable or lawful. Various effects are possible, its not a straightforward case of arrested development. Some victims of abuse are amazingly [resilient](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "350106",
"title": "Primal Integration",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1157,
"text": "Its theoretical basis emphasizes early trauma in shaping an individual's consciousness. It claims that trauma that takes place before, during and soon after birth has strong influences on how someone interprets and copes with their future life. These early preverbal traumata, as well as later difficult childhood experiences, can only be fully recognized by re-living the experience at an emotional level. This emotional expression of deep memory is called a \"primal\". Its expression begins the process of integration of the experience into the personality of the individual and the re-adjustment of his or her world view. The human mind as a self healing organic process constantly draws the individual's attention to potential situations in which these traumata can be relived and integrated. The individual unconsciously blocks these pathways in order to function in everyday life. The provision of a safe environment is enough to allow the paths to be approached. A safe environment is created through the presence of skilled facilitators and the \"Stop I Mean It\" rule which allows a participant to bring any activity to an immediate halt at any time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41310078",
"title": "Abandonment (emotional)",
"section": "Section::::Psychological trauma.:Post-traumatic stress disorder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "There are various predisposing psycho-biological and environmental factors that go into determining whether one's earlier emotional trauma might lead to the development of a true clinical picture of post-traumatic stress disorder. One factor has to do with variation in certain brain structures. According to Jerome Kagan, some people are born with a locus coeruleus that tends to produce higher concentrations of norepinephrine, a brain chemical involved in arousal of body's self-defense response. This would lower their threshold for becoming aroused and make them more likely to become anxious when they encounter stresses in life that are reminiscent of childhood separations and fears, hence making them more prone to becoming post-traumatic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "788091",
"title": "Psychological trauma",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Trauma therapy allows processing trauma-related memories and allows growth towards more adaptive psychological functioning. It helps to develop positive coping instead of negative coping and allows the individual to integrate upsetting-distressing material (thoughts, feelings and memories) and to resolve these internally. It also aids in growth of personal skills like resilience, ego regulation, empathy, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2413401",
"title": "Dissociative disorder",
"section": "Section::::Current debates and the DSM-5.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "A 2012 review article supports the hypothesis that current or recent trauma may affect an individual's assessment of the more distant past, changing the experience of the past and resulting in dissociative states. However, experimental research in cognitive science continues to challenge claims concerning the validity of the dissociation construct, which is still based on Freudian notions of repression. Even the claimed etiological link between trauma/abuse and dissociation has been questioned. An alternative model proposes a perspective on dissociation based on a recently established link between a labile sleep–wake cycle and memory errors, cognitive failures, problems in attentional control, and difficulties in distinguishing fantasy from reality.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30868741",
"title": "Traumatic memories",
"section": "Section::::Psychotherapeutic treatments.:Cognitive behavioral therapies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Research has shown several cognitive behavioural therapies to be effective methods of reducing the emotional distress and negative thought patterns associated with traumatic memories in both those suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder and depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "350072",
"title": "Primal therapy",
"section": "Section::::Concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Janov states that neurosis is the result of suppressed pain, which is the result of trauma, usually trauma of childhood origin. According to Janov, the only way to reverse neurosis is for the neurotic to recall their trauma in a therapeutic setting. Janov contends that the neurotic can thereby re-experience their feelings in response to the original traumatic incidents but can now express the emotions that at that time were repressed, thereby resolving the trauma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55307761",
"title": "Betrayal trauma",
"section": "Section::::Key features.:Dissociation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Trauma and stressor-related disorders frequently include dissociative experiences. Evidence suggests that dissociation during trauma enables affected individuals to compartmentalize the traumatic experience from their conscious awareness. In the context of BTT, dissociation is conceptualized as an adaptive process aimed to maintain self-preservation and serve as protection against psychological pain. Perspectives from the development of psychopathology paired with attachment theory cite the mechanism of dissociation as a core feature in understanding environmentally produced psychiatric disorders. Evidence has indicated that dissociation can occur in extreme cases of dissociation an alternative personality state can emerge (i.e., alters) as frequently implicated in the dissociative identity disorder (DID).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bcr935
|
who pays for the plane ticket back to your home country if you’re denied entry to a country?
|
[
{
"answer": "The airline that took the person in has to take them back out again, however the airline can then get the money back from individual (or attempt to).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The passenger legally has to pay, but the airline is required to take them back no matter what. If the airline will actually get their money is another question.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many countries will not allow you on to an international flight to a foreign (not your native) country without a round trip ticket.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's worth pointing out that when you check in for an international flight, especially from the US, the airline agent will be looking at the basics to make sure you're admitted.\n\nEnsuring you have a passport, valid for the required length of time of the destination, any required visas, etc.\n\nThey can't foresee (or check) every issue that could get you turned away, but they try to catch what they can before you leave home to begin with.\n\nAs passenger data and information sharing (especially amongst allies) gets more advanced, airline agencies are capable of catching more and more \"deny entry flags\" before someone even checks in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18772757",
"title": "Onward ticket",
"section": "Section::::When required.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "An onward ticket can be required, based on the countries' entry requirements (which may or may not include the onward ticket). Many countries insist a flight ticket be held out from their country, which must be presented upon arrival at immigration. They set this requirement, so that if travellers run out of money, the country is certain that the traveller can depart. In the past, travellers would remain in a country supporting themselves by illicit employment. Without an onward ticket, a traveller may be refused entry to these countries and subsequently placed on the next plane for the destination from where he arrived. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "247927",
"title": "Border control",
"section": "Section::::Specific requirements.:Electronic Travel Authorisations.:North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 167,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 167,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "East of the Pacific, both America and Canada have introduced electronic travel authorisations. Travellers from visa-free countries entering Canada by air, except American nationals (including those with and without full citizenship), must obtain an Electronic Travel Authorisation prior to arrival but not if arriving by land or sea. Travellers under the American Visa Waiver Programme are required to obtain permission through the Electronic System for Travel Authorisation if arriving America by air or cruise but not if entering by land or by ferry, using a passport issued by the Government of Bermuda to a British Overseas Territories Citizen, or if entering as a Canadian citizen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4447229",
"title": "Visa policy of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Visa exemptions.:Transit without visa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Some travelers do not need a Transit visa (subclass 771) if they depart Australia by air within 8 hours of the scheduled time of their arrival, hold confirmed onward booking and documentation necessary to enter the country of their destination and remain in the transit lounge at an airport (i.e. they do not need to clear immigration in order to re-check their luggage).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40901044",
"title": "Visa policy of Central African Republic",
"section": "Section::::Transit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Passengers with a confirmed onward ticket for a flight on the same aircraft to a third country. They must stay in the aircraft or in the international transit area of the airport and have documents required for the next destination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35618022",
"title": "One-way travel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "One-way travel is travel paid for by a fare purchased for a seat on an aircraft, a train, a bus, or some other mode of travel without a return trip. One way tickets may be purchased for a variety of reasons, such as if one is planning to permanently relocate to the destination, is uncertain of one's return plans, has alternate arrangements for the return, or if the traveler is planning to return, but there is no need to pay the fare in advance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23674739",
"title": "Visa policy of Canada",
"section": "Section::::Transit.:Special waivers for travellers to and from the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "In addition, passengers must remain in the sterile international transit area when arriving from the U.S., or the post-preclearance area when arriving from a third country and have cleared U.S. immigration and customs. Leaving the designated area is not permitted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2583324",
"title": "United States border preclearance",
"section": "Section::::Benefits and drawbacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "Another advantage is that Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers are able to ultimately exclude inadmissible passengers and prohibited goods before a flight, train journey, or voyage commences. This saves CBP the hassle of dealing with them on U.S. soil, thus helping minimise the risk of any untoward incident happening there. Therefore, when a person is denied entry into the United States, he or she is not allowed to board the US-bound flight and has to merely leave the airport by land transport instead of being put on a return flight (unless the passenger arrived at the preclearance airport from an earlier flight).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1b11zu
|
I heard in a PBS documentary that Napoleon's policies set the framework for what would become modern France. How specifically did he help build this framework? And to what extent did Napoleon pick up on the shortcomings of the French Revolution to spur the country into its 'modernity'?
|
[
{
"answer": "Oh man, I have tons of notes on this subject from a previous class but they're all stuck on a windows partition that just shit the bed today.\n\nBasically, Napoleon reorganized how France was governed in the form of departments and greatly increased the bureaucracy. This allowed for much more efficient governing as well as harnessing the resources of the state to a greater degree than any other country in Europe. When France conquered most of Europe, this system was brought to these other states and usually the longer that the French stayed, the more entrenched the system became. A prime example of this would be Belgium. He essentially set the framework for modern states and did away with much of the remnants of the old noble governing.\n\nThe framework was built upon a mix of meritocracy and nepotism. Napoleon did like appointing friends and family, but usually to high positions rather than heads of departments.\n\nI wish I could expand more but I haven't revisited this subject in two years and have been focusing my studies elsewhere as of late.",
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"answer": "Napoleon did a number of things which built the framework for modern France. Some of the more substantial things were making all Frenchmen equal before the law, regardless of social class or other factors, he greatly increased the efficiency of the French bureaucracy (something which was picked up by many European states, including conservative ones), he abolished the system of feudalism in many areas of Europe, and weakened many noble rights which were in place. \n\nEven after he abdicated many of these changes remained. If you look at the French Charter of 1814, which re-established the Bourbons as the Monarchs in France, you will see many of these policies. After Napoleon popularized many of these policies there was simply no turning back without huge revolts from the masses, and almost all of the political leaders at the time wanted stability more than anything (If interested look up The Concert of Europe).\n\nHope that helps! ",
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"answer": "By \"set the framework for modern France,\" the documentary was probably referring to the [Civil Code](_URL_0_) of 1804. That link provides the Code in its entirety, so you can peruse at your leisure.\n\nThe Civil Code standardized legal jurisdictions across all of France regarding subjects such as inheritance, civil rights, marriage, finance, etc. To understand what a monumental achievement this is, it's important to realize what law was like under the Old Regime. Each region in France was governed by a set of overlapping juridical bodies that often vied for power: local nobles argued with the king's functionaries (notably the royal tax collectors, the _intendants_), the _parlements_ (regional judicial bodies) argued with the crown over matters of authority, guilds argued with municipal authorities over labor rights, and so forth. There was no such thing as a single, universal law that applied to all of France, and such a concept would have been anachronistic under a system regulated by privilege based on social class and geographic location.\n\nThe Civil Code changed this by standardizing legal codes and partitioning France into the _départements_ (administrative units, sort of like American or British counties) it still uses today. [Here](_URL_5_) is a convenient visual of that administrative structure. Most importantly, the Code greatly facilitated a process of state centralization begun under the Old Regime that the French still debate to this day.\n\nBonaparte, however, didn't create a standardized law _ex nihilo_. Rather, he modified developments that were already under way during the French Revolution. The idea of a universal law was a concept articulated by [The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen](_URL_1_). Also, the system of _départements_ was originally proposed by the National Constituent Assembly in 1790. Divorce [became easier](_URL_4_) during the Revolution and [feudal privileges were abolished](_URL_2_) on August 4, 1789.\n\nIn other words, the ideas and structures that Bonaparte implemented were outgrowths of the French Revolution. Martin Lyons [makes an explicit point](_URL_3_) to view Bonaparte and his accomplishments as children of the Revolution, rather than understanding the coup on 18 _brumaire_ as a radical break or an end-point.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54326238",
"title": "International relations, 1648–1814",
"section": "Section::::Europe: 1715–1789.:Napoleonic wars.:Impact of the French Revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Outside France the Revolution had a major impact. Its ideas became widespread. Roberts argues that Napoleon was responsible for key ideas of the modern world, so that, \"meritocracy, equality before the law, property rights, religious toleration, modern secular education, sound finances, and so on-were protected, consolidated, codified, and geographically extended by Napoleon during his 16 years of power.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13212",
"title": "History of Europe",
"section": "Section::::From revolution to imperialism (1789–1914).:Napoleon.:Impact of the French Revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 162,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 162,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Outside France the Revolution had a major impact. Its ideas became widespread. Roberts argues that Napoleon was responsible for key ideas of the modern world, so that, \"meritocracy, equality before the law, property rights, religious toleration, modern secular education, sound finances, and so on-were protected, consolidated, codified, and geographically extended by Napoleon during his 16 years of power.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5843419",
"title": "France",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "In the 19th century, Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire. His subsequent Napoleonic Wars (1803–15) shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a tumultuous succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. France was a major participant in World War I, from which it emerged victorious, and was one of the Allies in World War II, but came under occupation by the Axis powers in 1940. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War. The Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains today. Algeria and nearly all the other colonies became independent in the 1960s, with most retaining close economic and military connections with France.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1643390",
"title": "Economic history of France",
"section": "Section::::1789–1914.:Napoleon and Bourbon reaction: 1799-1830.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "Napoleon's impact on the French economy was of modest importance in the long run. He did sweep away the old guilds and monopolies and trade restrictions. He introduced the metric system and fostered the study of engineering. Most important he opened up French finance by the creation of the indispensable Bank of France. However, entrepreneurs had little opportunity to take advantage of these reforms. Napoleon provided a protected continental market by systematic exclusion of all imports from Britain. This had the effect of encouraging innovation in Britain, where the Industrial Revolution was well underway, and diverting the need for innovation in France. What innovation took place focused on armaments for the army, and was of little value in peacetime. In France the business crisis in 1810-1812 undermined what successes entrepreneurs had achieved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69880",
"title": "Napoleon",
"section": "Section::::Reforms.:Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 197,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 197,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Napoleon's educational reforms laid the foundation of a modern system of education in France and throughout much of Europe. Napoleon synthesized the best academic elements from the \"Ancien Régime\", The Enlightenment, and the Revolution, with the aim of establishing a stable, well-educated and prosperous society. He made French the only official language. He left some primary education in the hands of religious orders, but he offered public support to secondary education. Napoleon founded a number of state secondary schools (\"lycées\") designed to produce a standardized education that was uniform across France.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69880",
"title": "Napoleon",
"section": "Section::::Ruler of France.:French Consulate.:Temporary peace in Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 936,
"text": "The brief peace in Europe allowed Napoleon to focus on the French colonies abroad. Saint-Domingue had managed to acquire a high level of political autonomy during the Revolutionary Wars, with Toussaint Louverture installing himself as de facto dictator by 1801. Napoleon saw his chance to recuperate the formerly wealthy colony when he signed the Treaty of Amiens. During the Revolution, the National Convention voted to abolish slavery in February 1794. Under the terms of Amiens, Napoleon agreed to appease British demands by not abolishing slavery in any colonies where the 1794 decree had never been implemented. The resulting Law of 20 May never applied to colonies like Guadeloupe or Guyane, even though rogue generals and other officials used the pretext of peace as an opportunity to reinstate slavery in some of these places. The Law of 20 May officially restored the slave trade to the Caribbean colonies, not slavery itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47555277",
"title": "List of modern great powers",
"section": "Section::::Early modern powers.:France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "Early French victories exported many ideological features of the French Revolution throughout Europe. Napoleon gained support by appealing to some common concerns of French people. These included dislike of the emigrant nobility who had escaped persecution, fear by some of a restoration of the \"ancien régime\", a dislike and suspicion of foreign countries had tried to reverse the Revolution – and a wish by Jacobins to extend France's revolutionary ideals. Seigneurial system of New France and Seigneurial system of New France were abolished, aristocratic privileges were eliminated in all places except Poland, and the introduction of the Napoleonic Code throughout the continent increased legal equality, established jury systems, and legalized divorce. Napoleon placed relatives on the thrones of several European countries and granted many noble titles, most of which expired with the fall of the Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
623qan
|
why african americans are not given the prefix of their country of origin while european's are?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because most of them are descended from slaves, and don't know what country they're originally from, what languages their family originally spoke, etc. Slaves weren't usually permitted to talk about that stuff, families were broken up and sold off so many slaves never knew their parents, non-English/French languages were forbidden.\n\nThat's also why there are Irish-American bars/parades/traditions/pride things, German-American, English-American, etc, but just 'black' for the descendants of slaves. They don't know.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many do not have records of their ancestors' country of origin.\n\nMany have ancestors from numerous different African countries.\n\nSome of the countries in Africa where slaves were usually kidnapped from no longer exist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because Black Americans who are descendants of slaves usually don't know their family's country of origin. Slave owners and traders were not interested in the ethnic origins of their slaves and kept only the most rudimentary records. Many Black Americans find it impossible to trace their families back more than a few generations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because most African-Americans are descended from slaves, and thus don't know their country of origin. Even if distinct \"countries\" as we understand them could be said to have existed at the time of the slave trade, detailed records were not kept.\n\nFor more recent immigrants and their descendants, it certainly would not be uncommon to adopt a \"hyphenated\" ethnicity, e.g. Nigerian-Americans or Ethiopian-Americans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to what others have said, at the time that slaves were being taken from Africa, there didn't exist countries in that area in the sense that we think of today - essentially every country that currently exists in western africa is a relatively modern political concept, and many of these countries have complicated mixes of different ethnicities within them.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I have previously asked some friends of mine this exact question, because some of them DID know where they came from (generally-ish, at least), but all still wanted to be thought of and called African American or black.\n\n\nThe reasons varied a bit, but could be paraphrased like this: \"Black Americans are their own culture and totally different from African Africans of any type. I'm not one of them, I'm different. I'm not my country of origin, I'm a unique culture that only exists here.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to this, I've always been interested in the American system of putting a prefix in there at all. I've noticed Americans saying 'I'm Irish' or 'Italian', when in other countries, it's more typical to just say that you're the nationality you were born in.\n\nIs it because America still holds a lot of value over the idea that they're a 'nation of immigrants'? A lot of countries are, but they don't tend to hold onto that idea as much. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2154",
"title": "African Americans",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 166,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 166,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Many African Americans have expressed a preference for the term \"African American\" because it was formed in the same way as the terms for the many other ethnic groups currently living in the nation. Some argued further that, because of the historical circumstances surrounding the capture, enslavement and systematic attempts to de-Africanize blacks in the United States under chattel slavery, most African Americans are unable to trace their ancestry to a specific African nation; hence, the entire continent serves as a geographic marker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1241",
"title": "American (word)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Compound constructions such as \"African Americans\" likewise refer exclusively to people in or from the United States of America, as does the prefix \"Americo-\". For instance, the Americo-Liberians and their language Merico derive their name from the fact that they are descended from African American settlers, i.e. former slaves in the United States of America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4745",
"title": "Black people",
"section": "Section::::North America.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 1063,
"text": "In 1988, the civil rights leader Jesse Jackson urged Americans to use instead the term \"African American\" because it had a historical cultural base and was a construction similar to terms used by European descendants, such as German American, Italian American, etc. Since then, African American and black have often had parallel status. However, controversy continues over which if any of the two terms is more appropriate. Maulana Karenga argues that the term African-American is more appropriate because it accurately articulates their geographical and historical origin. Others have argued that \"black\" is a better term because \"African\" suggests foreignness, although Black Americans helped found the United States. Still others believe that the term black is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones. Some surveys suggest that the majority of Black Americans have no preference for \"African American\" or \"Black\", although they have a slight preference for \"black\" in personal settings and \"African American\" in more formal settings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4745",
"title": "Black people",
"section": "Section::::North America.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "By that time, the majority of black people in the United States were native-born, so the use of the term \"African\" became problematic. Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared that the use of African as an identity would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the US. They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating black people back to Africa. In 1835, black leaders called upon Black Americans to remove the title of \"African\" from their institutions and replace it with \"Negro\" or \"Colored American\". A few institutions chose to keep their historic names, such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church. African Americans popularly used the terms \"Negro\" or \"colored\" for themselves until the late 1960s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3058522",
"title": "Race and ethnicity in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Racial makeup of the U.S. population.:Black and African Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "Black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to the Office of Management and Budget, the grouping includes individuals who self-identify as African-American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and Sub-Saharan Africa who may alternatively identify as Black or some other written-in race versus African-American given they were not part of the historic US slave system. In this case, grouping is thus based on the geography of the individual, and may contradict or misrepresent their self-identification, for instance not all immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa are \"Black\". Among these racial outliers are persons from Cape Verde, Madagascar, various Hamito-Semitic populations in East Africa and the Sahel, and the Afrikaners of Southern Africa including such notable figures as the inventor Elon Musk and actress Charlize Theron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45281",
"title": "Indigenous peoples",
"section": "Section::::Indigenous peoples by region.:Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Though the vast majority of African peoples are indigenous in the sense that they originate from that continent, in practice, identity as an \"indigenous people\" per the modern definition is more restrictive, and certainly not every African ethnic group claims identification under these terms. Groups and communities who do claim this recognition are those who, by a variety of historical and environmental circumstances, have been placed outside of the dominant state systems, and whose traditional practices and land claims often come into conflict with the objectives and policies implemented by governments, companies and surrounding dominant societies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "605581",
"title": "European Americans",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "The term is used by some to emphasize the European cultural and geographical ancestral origins of Americans, in the same way as is done for African Americans and Asian Americans. A European American awareness is still notable because 90% of the respondents classified as white in the U.S. Census knew their European ancestry. Historically, the concept of an American originated in the United States as a person of European ancestry, thus excluding non-European groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
1np8qu
|
What Really Happened Between Edison and Tesla?
|
[
{
"answer": "Tesla claims, in his autobiographical [*My Inventions*](_URL_1_), the following regarding his time at the Machine Works in NY:\n\n > For nearly a year my regular hours were from 10.30 A.M. until 5 o'clock the next morning without a day's exception. Edison said to me: \"I have had many hard-working assistants but you take the cake.\" During this period I designed twenty-four different types of standard machines with short cores and of uniform pattern which replaced the old ones. The Manager had promised me fifty thousand dollars on the completion of this task but it turned out to be a practical joke. This gave me a painful shock and I resigned my position.\n\nWe don't know for sure that \"The Manager\" was Edison, and the use of that title suggests it was someone else. Tesla resigned in 1885, when Edison's involvement in company operations was very limited (the death of Mary in 1884 had deeply affected him), and day to day management was the province of [Samuel Insull](_URL_2_). Insull apparently disliked Tesla; he referred to the prospect of dealing with him over his patent for certain lamps to be \"most objectionable\" in 1887. Of course, it was also a good way for Tesla to tell that part of the story without running the risk of a lawsuit. We don't know the details beyond that, because here's what Edison had to say about this period with Tesla in his own papers:\n\nNothing.\n\nAbsolutely nothing. \n\nNot in the Edison Electric Company papers, not in Edison's personal papers, nowhere--no reports from others at the Works, no angry notes from Tesla, nothing. I've been in those papers for this very period, and all we have is evidence of him being on the payroll before this time. If we had the records of the European company in better order there might be something there (he worked in Europe before coming to New York). But the truthfulness of this claim will never be established, and it has been taken as gospel and magnified by every author since O'Neill's hagiography in the 1940s. Some of the embellishments appear to have no actual source.\n\nBut it gets better and more suggestive than that, even. Edison and Tesla corresponded in the 1890s over X-rays and may have worked together; we don't have Tesla's letters to Edison, but Edison wrote to Tesla on 18 March 1896: \"My dear Tesla, Many thanks for your letter. I hope you are progressing and will give us something that will beat Roentgen.\" (LB062322) That's hardly the language or activity of mortal enemies. I've never seen the original letter Tesla sent, or what he was offering--was it collaboration, purchase, contract? Edison even seems somewhat protective of Tesla in this time; in response to a critical essay to be published in the *Electrical Review* in May of 1896, Edison said he didn't care what the article stated for his own sake, but that Tesla \"was of a nervous temperament and it will greatly grieve him and interfere with his work. While Tesla gives vent to his sanguine expectations when he should not do so, it must not be forgotten by [the article author] Mr Moore that Tesla is an experimenter of the highest type and may produce in time all that he says he can.\" (LB062498) Again, if the bad blood was between those two, why this expression of confidence in Tesla's work and ambitions? There's more to this story, and it may be hiding among Tesla's papers in Belgrade in any of a dozen languages. *Good luck, researchers!*\n\nMy personal suspicion was that any clash probably involved Insull, and that were any idle offer made, Tesla did not really believe it--he was idealistic, but not *that* naive. It's worth pointing out that Insull was alive in 1919 (until 1938 really) and controlled an empire worth hundreds of millions of dollars, and he didn't get there by being nice--so Tesla would be suicidal to cast aspersions on someone of Insull's power and reach. Of course after Edison died, Tesla tossed a few barbs at his crude methods of experimentation, which was totally in keeping with his opinion in 1919. But if either had another grudge, the War of the Currents had probably been the real poisoner of the well. In that case, Tesla had cause to be angry at Morgan and Westinghouse in the aftermath more than Edison. \n\n(For sources, the numbers and letters after the quotes above refer to the digital edition of the [Edison Papers](_URL_0_)--plug in the doc number and up it will come. Not everything has been digitized--some things are still on microfilm--but the hardcopies at West Orange don't seem to include any Tesla surprises.)\n\n[edit: too many semicolons; added TLDR]\n\n**TL,DR: Tesla says there was a joke offer of money he took seriously and quit over; Edison says nothing about Tesla at that time, nothing at all. Evidence suggests that the two were at least cordial until the late 1890s, contrary to popular belief.**",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21473",
"title": "Nikola Tesla",
"section": "Section::::Tesla Electric Light & Manufacturing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "The investors showed little interest in Tesla's ideas for new types of alternating current motors and electrical transmission equipment. After the utility was up and running in 1886, they decided that the manufacturing side of the business was too competitive and opted to simply run an electric utility. They formed a new utility company, abandoning Tesla's company and leaving the inventor penniless. Tesla even lost control of the patents he had generated, since he had assigned them to the company in exchange for stock. He had to work at various electrical repair jobs and as a ditch digger for $2 per day. Later in life Tesla would recount that part of 1886 as a time of hardship, writing \"My high education in various branches of science, mechanics and literature seemed to me like a mockery\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "342086",
"title": "War of the currents",
"section": "Section::::The current war ends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "The fifteen electric companies that existed 5 years before had merged down to two; General Electric and Westinghouse. The war of currents came to an end and this merger of the Edison company, along with its lighting patents, and the Thomson-Houston, with its AC patents, created a company that controlled three quarters of the US electrical business. From this point on General Electric and Westinghouse were both marketing alternating current systems. Edison put on a brave face noting to the media how his stock had gained value in the deal but privately he was bitter that his company and all of his patents had been turned over to the competition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2599071",
"title": "Tesla Electric Light and Manufacturing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "The investors showed little interest in Tesla's ideas for new types of motors and electrical transmission equipment and, with the market already heavily controlled by Brush Electric Illuminating Company and the Thomson-Houston Electric Company, they came to the conclusion it was better to develop an electrical utility than invent new systems. By the fall of 1886 they had formed the Union County Electric Light & Manufacturing Company spelling the end for Tesla Electric Light and Manufacturing and leaving Tesla penniless. Tesla even lost control of the patents he had generated since he had assigned them to the company in lieu of stock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "342086",
"title": "War of the currents",
"section": "Section::::The current war ends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 1627,
"text": "With Thomas Edison no longer involved with Edison General Electric, the war of currents came to a close with a financial merger. Edison president Henry Villard, who had engineered the merger that formed Edison General Electric, was continually working on the idea of merging that company with Thomson-Houston or Westinghouse. He saw a real opportunity in 1891. The market was in a general downturn causing cash shortages for all the companies concerned and Villard was in talks with Thomson-Houston, which was now Edison General Electric's biggest competitor. Thomson-Houston had a habit of saving money on development by buying, or sometimes stealing, patents. Patent conflicts were stymieing the growth of both companies and the idea of saving on some 60 ongoing lawsuits as well as saving on profit losses of trying to undercut each other by selling generating plants below cost pushed forward the idea of this merger in financial circles. Edison hated the idea and tried to hold it off but Villard thought his company, now winning its incandescent light patent lawsuits in the courts, was in a position to dictate the terms of any merger. As a committee of financiers, which included J.P. Morgan, worked on the deal in early 1892 things went against Villard. In Morgan's view Thomson-Houston looked on the books to be the stronger of the two companies and engineered a behind the scenes deal announced on April 15, 1892, that put the management of Thomson-Houston in control of the new company, now called General Electric (dropping Edison's name). Thomas Edison was not aware of the deal until the day before it happened.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21473",
"title": "Nikola Tesla",
"section": "Section::::AC and the induction motor.:Market turmoil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "Tesla's demonstration of his induction motor and Westinghouse's subsequent licensing of the patent, both in 1888, came at the time of extreme competition between electric companies. The three big firms, Westinghouse, Edison, and Thomson-Houston, were trying to grow in a capital-intensive business while financially undercutting each other. There was even a \"War of Currents\" propaganda campaign going on with Edison Electric trying to claim their direct current system was better and safer than the Westinghouse alternating current system. Competing in this market meant Westinghouse would not have the cash or engineering resources to develop Tesla's motor and the related polyphase system right away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "21473",
"title": "Nikola Tesla",
"section": "Section::::Tesla Electric Light & Manufacturing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Soon after leaving the Edison company, Tesla was working on patenting an arc lighting system, possibly the same one he had developed at Edison. In March 1885, he met with patent attorney Lemuel W. Serrell, the same attorney used by Edison, to obtain help with submitting the patents. Serrell introduced Tesla to two businessmen, Robert Lane and Benjamin Vail, who agreed to finance an arc lighting manufacturing and utility company in Tesla's name, the Tesla Electric Light & Manufacturing. Tesla worked for the rest of the year obtaining the patents that included an improved DC generator, the first patents issued to Tesla in the US, and building and installing the system in Rahway, New Jersey. Tesla's new system gained notice in the technical press, which commented on its advanced features.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
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"wikipedia_id": "21473",
"title": "Nikola Tesla",
"section": "Section::::AC and the induction motor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
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"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "In late 1886, Tesla met Alfred S. Brown, a Western Union superintendent, and New York attorney Charles F. Peck. The two men were experienced in setting up companies and promoting inventions and patents for financial gain. Based on Tesla's new ideas for electrical equipment, including a thermo-magnetic motor idea, they agreed to back the inventor financially and handle his patents. Together they formed the Tesla Electric Company in April 1887, with an agreement that profits from generated patents would go 1/3 to Tesla, 1/3 to Peck and Brown, and 1/3 to fund development. They set up a laboratory for Tesla at 89 Liberty Street in Manhattan, where he worked on improving and developing new types of electric motors, generators, and other devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
29d09f
|
why do dogs drink out of the toilet, even though you give them fresh water?
|
[
{
"answer": "The toilet water is renewed more often than most people refill their dog's bowl. They probably think it tastes better after a fresh flush than in a bowl filled with standing water. \nIf you close the bathroom door and fill their bowl with clean cool water a few times a day they might stop going to the toilet for a drink.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As far as the dog's concerned, a source of water is a source of water. All he'll care about is that there's always water there, it's clean (by the dog's standards) and at a convenient head height for drinking. Dogs are also creatures of habit and will keep going back to the same places for food and water just because that's what they're used to doing.\n\nIf a dog's drinking out of the toilet, encourage him to drink from his own bowl by making sure that his bowl is always kept full of fresh water, that it contains enough water for him, that the bowl is always accessible and that it is always in the same place (preferably close to where he eats and/or sleeps). Also, reinforce good behaviour by giving him treats for drinking from his own bowl.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For the same reasons that they drink out of mud puddles, and eat carrion if given the chance. It doesnt matter to them. A humans idea of clean or safe is a complete abstraction that dogs dont understand. Also a dogs digestive tract and immune system is WAAAAAYYYYYY more robust than that of a human. My own observation of dogs is that they prefer gross stuff to clean stuff.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27078829",
"title": "Street dogs in Moscow",
"section": "Section::::Types of street dogs.:Beggars' techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "According to Alexei Vereshchagin, a graduate student of Poyarkov's who has studied them, the dogs generally go out of their way to avoid conflict with humans, and rarely defecate in busy areas or onto pavements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18870225",
"title": "Dog grooming",
"section": "Section::::Bathing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Dogs can be bathed by being sprayed with a hand-held shower head, or doused with water from a bucket. Often, one bath will not make a dog truly clean. A second bath is excellent to ensure the entire body has been cleaned. Dogs should be bathed with warm, not hot water, in order to make it a more enjoyable experience. Dogs with a heavy or matted coat should never be bathed without first being completely brushed out or clipped of any mats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52637243",
"title": "Sport dog nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Dogs require a constant source of clean and fresh water. This is especially true for sporting dogs participating in high energy activities. High protein diets require increased water intake for removal of extra nitrogen via urination.12 Furthermore, to deposit protein within the animal, water is also an essential mediator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43304079",
"title": "Animal welfare and rights in China",
"section": "Section::::Animals used for food.:Controversial practices and incidents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Pictures have also circulated featuring two dogs in boiling water in China. It is claimed that this is because some Chinese prefer the taste of adrenaline-soaked meat. In some areas, dogs are beaten to death in order to release blood into the meat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1981919",
"title": "Anal gland",
"section": "Section::::Dogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "In dogs, these sacs (anal glands) are occasionally referred to as \"scent glands\", because they enable the animals to mark their territory and identify other dogs. For most dogs the anal glands will empty a small amount of fluid each time the dog passes faeces. But sometimes the anal glands do not empty naturally or do not empty enough and this can lead to the glands filling up and becoming uncomfortable, leaking at inconvenient times or even becoming impacted and infected if left untreated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52637243",
"title": "Sport dog nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "The sporting dog should have access to water at all times. This is due to the fact that water intake needs are constantly adapting based on body water stores, exercise, food type, and sodium intake.12,13 Sporting dogs fed a raw or wet diet receive additional water from the high moisture content of these food types. This is in comparison to those fed a dry extruded diet. However, this does not mean sporting dogs fed a raw or wet diet should be offered less water throughout the day. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159421",
"title": "Urination",
"section": "Section::::Other species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Domestic dogs mark their territories by urinating on vertical surfaces (usually at nose level), sometimes marking over the urine of other dogs. When one dog marks over another dog's urine, this is known as \"counter-marking\" or \"overmarking\". Male dogs urine-mark more frequently than female dogs, typically beginning after the onset of sexual maturity. Male dogs, as well as wolves, sometimes lift a leg and attempt to urinate even when their bladders are empty – this is known as a \"raised-leg display\", \"shadow-urination\", or \"pseudo-urination\". They typically mark their territory due to the presence of new stimuli or social triggers in a dog's environment, as well as out of anxiety. Marking behavior is present in both male and female dogs, and is especially pronounced in male dogs that have not been neutered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a0s77w
|
How large was the U.S involvement in the Boxer rebellion?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Boxer Rebellion, which took place at the start of the 20th century, was a 3-way power struggle between Chinese peasants, the Boxers (a xenophobic, anti-Christian, anti-modernization, mystic religious group), the Qing Empire and (mostly) Western foreign powers.\n\nThe United States desired to set up commercial operations in China (Open Door policy) before the rebellion to compete with other European powers, especially British dominance, but had no interest in involving itself in military matters. However, after realizing how serious the rebellion was becoming, the McKinley Administration through Secretary of State John Hay, approved military action combined with European powers (the Eight Nation Alliance included Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy, Russia, France, Japan & USA), despite its diplomatic tradition of avoiding entangling alliances, and the policies of the Monroe Doctrine, to avoid getting involved in the politics of European colonial powers.\n\nThe defeat of the Qing Empire in Tianjin and siege of Beijing by the Boxer rebels in July 1900 caused major world powers to intervene more directly, and the Eight Nation Alliance arrived in Beijing (Peking) to lift the siege.\n\nUS Troops were sent from the naval base in the Philippines and included the 9th Infantry, 14th Infantry, 6th Cavalry, 5th Artillery regiments and a Marine battalion under the command of Lt. Gen Adna Romanza Chaffee and was known as the \"US Army China Relief Expedition\". This was the first time US forces fought on Chinese soil, and also set a historical precedent where the president could intervene in a sovereign nation's affairs without the express authorization from Congress.\n\nJapan sent the largest contingent of troops: 20,840 and 18 warships, but they also suffered a disproportionate number of casualties: more than half of allied casualties in Tianjin, and almost two-thirds of the losses in Beijing. The reason is that (according to a British military observer), the Japanese were aggressive, used densely-packed formations and were over-willing to attack.\n\nThe British was also engaged in the Boer conflict at the same time, so they had limited troops available, and had to rely on the 'China Squadron' and troops from India. They were the third largest contingent after the Japanese.\n\nThe Russians had the second largest force, of 12,400.\n\nAustria-Hungary sent a single cruiser and sent some sailors to defend positions in Tianjin.\n\nThe Germans initially had a garrison of about 2,000 men around Qingdao (Tsingtao), and sent a larger force of around 15,000 later in the struggle, but they arrived too late to take part in any major action.\n\nThe French sent three battalions and a brigade of marines.\n\nThe Italians had around 2,000 troops, initially made up of sailors from warships and later included troops dispatched from Italy.\n\nAfter the rebellion was culled, the signing of the Boxer Protocol of 1901 which was signed between the Eight Nation Alliance and the Qing Empire then allowed Britain and the USA (and to a lesser extent the other 6 nations) to have a great deal of influence in Beijing and to be in control of how the country could be partitioned.\n\nBefore the rebellion, there was a lot of discussion in the media about the rebellion, and The Washington Post, for example, had a field day publishing reports about it, mostly factually incorrect, as they had no reporters on the ground; there was a major disconnect between the information in China and the US public and it could be argued that the public opinion in the US was shaped by American and Chinese interest groups to support the rebellion and draw US forces into the war. \n\nAfter the rebellion, there was a great deal of debate about the US involvement. It was revealed that a number of atrocities were committed by foreign troops, and precious artifacts and treasures were heavily looted from places like the Forbidden City. Mark Twain gave his famous \"I am a Boxer\" speech that mocked and criticized Christian missionaries and the US government involvement in China. Furthermore, the reparations payments on China were extremely high and they were forced into virtual disarmament.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37258993",
"title": "United States involvement in regime change",
"section": "Section::::1893–1917: U.S. empire and expansionism.:1890s.:1898–1901: China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "The Boxer Rebellion was a proto-nationalist movement in China between 1898 and 1901, so called because it was led by fighters who called themselves the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists. The United States was part of an Eight-Nation Alliance that brought 20,000 armed troops to China, defeated the Imperial Chinese Army, and captured Beijing. The Eight-Nation Alliance was a military coalition formed to defeat the rebellion, and the eight nations, in addition to the US, were Japan, Russia, Britain, France, the Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1942564",
"title": "Eight-Nation Alliance",
"section": "Section::::Member nations.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1140,
"text": "In the United States, the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion was known as the \"China Relief Expedition\". The United States was able to play a major role in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion largely due to the presence of American forces deployed in the Philippines since the US annexation after the Spanish–American War in 1898. Of the foreigners under siege in Beijing, there were 56 American Sailors and Marines from the USS \"Oregon\" and USS \"Newark\". The main American formations deployed to relieve the siege were the 9th Infantry and 14th Infantry regiments, elements of the 6th Cavalry regiment, the 5th Artillery regiment, and a Marine battalion, all under the command of Adna Chaffee. Future President Herbert Hoover and Mrs. Lou Henry Hoover were living in the foreign compound during the siege when Mr. Hoover was working for the Chinese Engineering and Mining Company. Mr. Hoover helped erect barricades and formed a protective force of the able bodied men. Mrs. Hoover helped set up a hospital, nursed the wounded, set up a dairy, took part in the night watch, took tea to sentries and carried a Mauser .38 semi-automatic pistol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27742718",
"title": "Dong Fuxiang",
"section": "Section::::Military career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "The Boxer Rebellion broke out in 1900, and Dong and his Wuwei troops joined the Boxers in declaring war on the Eight-Nation Alliance. They formed the rear division, and the westerners called them the \"10,000 Islamic rabble\". They were the most effective attackers on the foreign legions, and struck fear into the minds of the westerners. His troops were responsible for so much trouble that the United States Marine Corps had to be called in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39411906",
"title": "United States at the 2004 Summer Olympics",
"section": "Section::::Boxing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "The United States sent nine boxers to Athens. They claimed two medals, a gold and a bronze. Two boxers lost their first bouts. Four made the quarterfinals, with two falling there, one falling in the semifinal, and the fourth taking the gold by going undefeated. The combined record of the nine Americans was 12-8. The U.S. was fifth in the boxing medal count.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "331452",
"title": "Yellow Peril",
"section": "Section::::The Boxer Rebellion.:Western perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Most of the victims of the Boxer Rebellion were Chinese Christians, but the massacres of Chinese people were of no interest to the West, who demanded Asian blood to avenge the Western colonists killed by rebellious Chinese natives. In response, Great Britain, the U.S., Imperial Japan, France, Imperial Russia, Imperial Germany, Austria–Hungary, and Italy formed the Eight-Nation Alliance, and despatched an international military expeditionary force to end the Siege of the International Legations in Beijing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1327792",
"title": "Jerry Perenchio",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Sports promotion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 883,
"text": "In March 1971 Perenchio promoted the Fight of the Century at Madison Square Garden that brought together two unbeaten world heavyweight boxing champions, Muhammad Ali and Joe Frazier. Each fighter was guaranteed $2.5 million for the fight. The event blended sports with spectacle and glamorized boxing, in part because the sold-out crowd at the Garden included celebrities and politicians. Perenchio enlisted concert promoters to help sell 1.5 million closed-circuit tickets throughout the United States, and sold the rights in over 100 countries. Two years later, in September 1973, he promoted the Battle of the Sexes tennis match between Billie Jean King and Bobby Riggs that took place at the Houston Astrodome. It was the largest live audience (30,472) for any tennis match ever, and was the highest rated broadcast for that year when it was televised during prime-time on ABC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7331989",
"title": "Protestant missions in China",
"section": "Section::::Boxer Rebellion (1900).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "The Boxer Rebellion in 1900 was the worst disaster in missionary history. One hundred and eighty-nine Protestant missionaries, including 53 children, (and many Roman Catholic priests and nuns) were killed by Boxers and Chinese soldiers in northern China. An estimated 2,000 Protestant Chinese Christians also were killed. The China Inland Mission lost more members than any other organization: 58 adults and 20 children were killed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2hcjc6
|
what is happening in our heads that allow thousands of people to sing, shout, clap or speak in almost perfect unison?
|
[
{
"answer": "I haven't been able to find anything completely definitive, but the phenomenon you're talking about is called [entrainment](_URL_0_) (specifically, beat induction), and is similar to how fireflies synchronize their flashes.\n\nThere's a neural deficiency known as [beat deafness](_URL_1_) that prevents people from being able to detect the beat in music. This appears to be caused (in at least some cases) by issues with the left auditory cortex, which is involved in beat detection (as opposed to the right audio cortex, which detects harmonies).\n\nSo the short answer is \"our brains are hard-wired to be able to find beats in music (including that produced by people around us in a crowd), and to coordinate our actions with that beat.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19249767",
"title": "Hip hip hooray",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "By a sole speaker, it is a form of interjection. In a group, it takes the form of call and response: the cheer is initiated by one person exclaiming \"Three cheers for...[someone or something]\" (or, more archaically, \"Three times three\"), then calling out \"hip hip\" (archaically, \"hip hip hip\") three times, each time being responded by \"hooray\" or \"hurrah\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "437454",
"title": "Applause",
"section": "Section::::Protocol and variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "In Deaf culture, Deaf audiences will use a more visually expressive variant of clapping. Instead of clapping their palms together, they raise their hands straight up with outstretched fingers and twist their wrists. However, in a situation more specific to hearing culture, the traditional clap is used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12319158",
"title": "Ring shout",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "A shout or ring shout is an ecstatic, transcendent religious ritual, first practiced by African slaves in the West Indies and the United States, in which worshipers move in a circle while shuffling and stomping their feet and clapping their hands. Despite the name, shouting aloud is not an essential part of the ritual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3259783",
"title": "Hitbodedut",
"section": "Section::::Silent meditation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "This is actually a scream and not mere imagination. Just as some vessels bring the sound from your lungs to your lips, others bring it to the brain. You can draw the sound through these nerves, literally bringing it into your head. When you do this, you are actually shouting inside your brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3384925",
"title": "Talking drum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "The talking drum is an hourglass-shaped drum from West Africa, whose pitch can be regulated to mimic the tone and prosody of human speech. It has two drumheads connected by leather tension cords, which allow the player to modulate the pitch of the drum by squeezing the cords between their arm and body. A skilled player is able to play whole phrases. Most talking drums sound like a human humming depending on the way they are played. Similar hourglass-shaped drums are found in Asia, but they are not used to mimic speech, although the idakka is used to mimic vocal music. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12319158",
"title": "Ring shout",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "\"Shouting\" often took place during or after a Christian prayer meeting or worship service. Men and women moved in a circle in a counterclockwise direction, shuffling their feet, clapping, and often spontaneously singing or praying aloud. In Jamaica and Trinidad the shout was usually performed around a special second altar near the center of a church building. In the Sea Islands of Georgia and South Carolina, shouters formed a circle outdoors, around the church building itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14241813",
"title": "Rageaholic",
"section": "Section::::Potential triggers and coping skills.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Yelling:\" When people yell, raise their voices, or talk in a mean tone, they fuel their own anger. Many are unaware when they start to raise their voices. People should ask others to respond when the volume is rising and thank them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1r8b8y
|
Are alligators and crocodiles actually living dinosaurs? Or did their ancestors just exist at the same time as dinosaurs?
|
[
{
"answer": "Crocodylians, which include alligators and crocodiles, are not dinosaurs. They are the closest living relatives of dinosaurs, however (because birds *are* theropod dinosaurs).\n\nDinosauria is a group that was originally defined by anatomist [Richard Owen](_URL_2_) based on a few described taxa, including [*Iguanodon*](_URL_3_) and [*Megalosaurus*](_URL_0_). There are a few more technical ways to define the group, but no matter what it falls out being comprised of two smaller groups: [Ornithischia](_URL_8_) and [Saurischia](_URL_5_), although these groups were not recognized at the time. Ornithischia includes dinosaurs like *Triceratops*, *Iguanodon*, and ankylosaurs. Saurischia includes sauropods and theropods.\n\nCrocodylians, dinosaurs, and a couple other groups (including pterosaurs) are [archosaurs](_URL_17_) (side note: people often refer to pterosaurs as dinosaurs, but they're actually not). \n\nTo get more at the heart of your question: Crocodylians are widely perceived as these unchanging, prehistoric animals. They're really not. Crown-group crocodylians (that is, the group consisting of the common ancestor of all living species and all of the descendents of that ancestor) first show up in the Late Cretaceous, around 84 million years ago. This actually isn't a terribly long time ago, and it overlaps with the non-avian dinosaurs for about 20 million years. For reference, the [oldest known placental mammal](_URL_9_) is 160 million years old. \n\nIt is true that crocodylians do have relatives that extended back much further, because archosaurs started to diversify in the Triassic some 250 million years ago, but the crocs you see today are highly derived, not long-forgotten vestiges of the Mesozoic. It's true that some have had a fairly stable body plan, but it's also a body plan that has cropped up multiple times in vertebrate evolution, including in [temnospondyl amphibians](_URL_18_) some 270 million years ago. In a lot of these cases it has evolved independently.\n\nThe major radiation of archosaurs that includes modern crocodylians is known as Pseudosuchia, and it [first shows up about 250 million years ago](_URL_14_). These early [relatives of crocs](_URL_16_) looked more like [this](_URL_15_) (in that cladogram Crurotarsi = Pseudosuchia). Nothing like a modern croc. \n\nEven as we move up the tree towards Crocodylia, early crocodyliforms looked like [this](_URL_12_). These were fairly gracile, terrestrial animals. Again, a similar croc body plan pops up in a few lineages, like in the [phytosaurs](_URL_13_), which are likely a basal pseudosuchian but not closely related to crocodylians.\n\n[Mesoeucrocodylians](_URL_10_), a grade of crocodyliforms that isn't a valid taxon but useful for referring to groups outside the crown group, often look more like the body plan associated with typical crocodylians, but they also show significantly more morphological diversity than that. Pholidosaurs (like [*Sarcosuchus*](_URL_7_)) and dyrosaurs have a similar body plan. Metriorhynchids like [*Metriorhynchus*](_URL_4_) were marine and had flippers. Notosuchians like [*Simosuchus*](_URL_1_) are very different. *Simosuchus* probably wasn't even carnivorous. It was also pretty adorable. \n\nThe oldest members of crown-group Crocodylia are more morphologically similar to extant crocodylians. However, you still have morphological variation within Crocodylia, such as the [pristichampsids](_URL_6_), which were terrestrial. Terrestriality shows up again even in the family Crocodylidae (with the Mekosuchinae, including *Quinkana*).\n\nThe oldest members definitely attributable the genus *Crocodylus* [date to the Late Miocene](_URL_11_) (paywalled, sorry), and the genus probably diverged in the last 10 million years or so. That's pretty recent in the grand scheme of things, and some 55 million years after the non-avian dinosaurs went extinct.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4958030",
"title": "Pseudosuchia",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "As the Mesozoic progressed, the Protosuchia gave rise to more typically crocodile-like forms. While dinosaurs were the dominant animals on land, the crocodiles flourished in rivers, swamps, and the oceans, with far greater diversity than they have today. With the end Cretaceous extinction, the dinosaurs became extinct, with the exception of the birds, while the crocodilians continued with little change. Today, the crocodiles, alligators, and gharials are the surviving representatives of this lineage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8311",
"title": "Dinosaur",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:General description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1054,
"text": "In 2016, the estimated number of dinosaur species that existed in the Mesozoic era was estimated to be 1,543–2,468. Some are herbivorous, others carnivorous, including seed-eaters, fish-eaters, insectivores, and omnivores. While dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal (as are all modern birds), some prehistoric species were quadrupeds, and others, such as \"Anchisaurus\" and \"Iguanodon\", could walk just as easily on two or four legs. Cranial modifications like horns and crests are common dinosaurian traits, and some extinct species had bony armor. Although known for large size, many Mesozoic dinosaurs were human-sized or smaller, and modern birds are generally small in size. Dinosaurs today inhabit every continent, and fossils show that they had achieved global distribution by at least the early Jurassic period. Modern birds inhabit most available habitats, from terrestrial to marine, and there is evidence that some non-avian dinosaurs (such as \"Microraptor\") could fly or at least glide, and others, such as spinosaurids, had semiaquatic habits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24749",
"title": "Permian–Triassic extinction event",
"section": "Section::::Biotic recovery.:Land vertebrates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "Archosaurs (which included the ancestors of dinosaurs and crocodilians) were initially rarer than therapsids, but they began to displace therapsids in the mid-Triassic. In the mid to late Triassic, the dinosaurs evolved from one group of archosaurs, and went on to dominate terrestrial ecosystems during the Jurassic and Cretaceous. This \"Triassic Takeover\" may have contributed to the evolution of mammals by forcing the surviving therapsids and their mammaliform successors to live as small, mainly nocturnal insectivores; nocturnal life probably forced at least the mammaliforms to develop fur and higher metabolic rates, while losing part of the differential color-sensitive retinal receptors reptilians and birds preserved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "522768",
"title": "Secondarily aquatic tetrapods",
"section": "Section::::Diapsid.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Living at the same time as, but not closely related to, dinosaurs, the mosasaurs resembled crocodiles but were more strongly adapted to marine life. They became extinct 66 million years ago, at the same time as the dinosaurs. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162780",
"title": "Megafauna",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "BULLET::::- Alligators and crocodiles are large semiaquatic reptiles, the largest of which, the saltwater crocodile (\"Crocodylus porosus\"), can grow to a weight of . Crocodilians' distant ancestors and their kin, the pseudosuchians (traditional crurotarsans), dominated the world in the late Triassic, until the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event allowed dinosaurs to overtake them. They remained diverse during the later Mesozoic, when crocodyliforms such as \"Deinosuchus\" and \"Sarcosuchus\" reached lengths of 12 m. Similarly large crocodilians, such as \"Mourasuchus\" and \"Purussaurus\", were present as recently as the Miocene in South America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "492039",
"title": "Archosaur",
"section": "Section::::Extinction and survival.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Non-avian dinosaurs and pterosaurs perished in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which occurred approximately million years ago, but birds (the only remaining dinosaur group) and crocodilians survived. Both are descendants of archosaurs, and are therefore archosaurs themselves under phylogenetic taxonomy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31102995",
"title": "Outline of dinosaurs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Dinosaurs – diverse group of animals of the clade and superorder Dinosauria. They were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates for over 160 million years, from the late Triassic period (about 230 million years ago) until the end of the Cretaceous (66 million years ago), when the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event led to the extinction of all non-avian dinosaurs at the close of the Mesozoic era.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3sis6i
|
if i drive 5 miles going 40 mph vs. the same 5 miles going 80 mph, will one require more gas than the other?
|
[
{
"answer": "The short answer is that at those speeds yes, air resistance increases and going 80 will take more fuel. If you stick your hand out of the car window when doing both of those speeds you will notice that the air pushes harder on your hand at 80mph. The car engine needs to output more power to hold the speed because the resistance is higher, and thus needs more fuel to do so.\n\nNow going slower using less fuel is not always true. With a modern car the highest fuel efficiency is somewhere around 35-40mph. If for example you did that 5 miles at 5 mph the car would actually use more fuel than at 40 miles per hour. This is because there is some base amount of energy the engine needs to just keep itself running and that becomes a much higher percentage of the total energy used to travel the set distance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just to summarize some of the comments here. Two main factors affect fuel efficiency at different speeds:\n\n1. Resistance - wind resistance is ~~exponential~~ **quadratic** with speed, so the faster you go, the more wind resistance there will be\n\n2. Driving inside your powerbelt: \nThis is the region where your engine is most efficient. Your car runs best when in the top gear with RPMs in the power belt. For most cars, this is 45-55 mph. A hybrid takes advantage of this by always running a small engine within its power-belt and using it to make electricity then converting the electricity back into moving your car forward. \n\nIn general, a gas car is most efficient at 45-55 mph, which is why they usually have a higher \"highway\" than \"city\" mpg. A hybrid only needs to worry about wind resistance, so its \"city\" mpg is usually higher than \"highway\" (regenerative braking helps here too). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9438818",
"title": "Daimler DR450",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "On test by \"Autocar\" average fuel consumption for the total distance of 1404 miles proved to be 14.7 miles per gallon or 19.2 L/100 km. The maximum speed of the car was a (mean) of 113.5 mph, 182.6 km/h and the best run 114 or 183.2 km/h.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1240528",
"title": "Toyota Previa",
"section": "Section::::First generation (XR10, XR20; 1990–1999).:Additional notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "BULLET::::- Gas mileage is below average (11-13L/100 km or 18.1–21.4mpg city, 10-11L/100 km or 21.4–23.5mpg highway); the small 4-cyl engine needs to work a bit harder owing to the power to weight ratio of the vehicle, compared with today's 6-cyl engines. The addition of the supercharger slightly improves power and gives better fuel consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28572384",
"title": "Speed limits in Romania",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Vehicles with trailers or semis must travel at 10 km/h less than the speed limit for their category, when out of localities. Overweight automobiles, trucks and buses or those transporting oversized or dangerous products have a speed limit of 30 km/h in localities and 60 km/h out of localities. Also, drivers with less than one year of experience or learning how to drive must travel at 20 km/h less than the speed limit for their category, when out of localities, or with 10 km/h less than the speed limit when they are in a locality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30639051",
"title": "Volkswagen New Compact Coupé",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "The average fuel consumption is just 4.2 litres per 100 kilometers; the emission value is 98 grams of CO2 per kilometer. In contrast, the driving values are a top speed of 227 km/h and a sprint time of 8.6 seconds from 0 to 100 km/h.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187473",
"title": "Compressed air car",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "BULLET::::- A 2005 study demonstrated that cars running on lithium-ion batteries out-perform both compressed air and fuel cell vehicles more than threefold at the same speeds. MDI claimed in 2007 that an air car will be able to travel 140 km in urban driving, and have a range of 80 km with a top speed of on highways, when operating on compressed air alone but as of August 2017 have yet to produce a vehicle that matches this performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6968798",
"title": "Headway",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Other examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Widely used numbers are that a car traveling at 60 mph will require about 225 feet to stop, a distance it will cover just under 6 seconds. Nevertheless, highway travel often occurs with considerable safety with tip-to-tail headways on the order of 2 seconds. That's because the user's reaction time is about 1.5 seconds so 2 seconds allows for a slight overlap that makes up for any difference in braking performance between the two cars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28572384",
"title": "Speed limits in Romania",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The speed limit in localities is set at 50 km/h, but the owner of the road (usually the state) can apply for permission to raise it up to 80 km/h for automobiles and motorcycles or decrease it as low as 10 km/h for tramways and 30 km/h for automobiles. It is because of this that some city boulevards have a speed limit of 60 km/h, and some National Road stretches that pass through villages have a speed limit of 55 km/h.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fn91h
|
what was happening in north america during the bible?
|
[
{
"answer": "The guys who wrote the bible weren't aware it existed.\n\nEdit: To clarify for people complaining about the answer:\n\nMost (or possibly all) of the events of the bible did not literally occur, making the story as a whole, fictional. Asking what was happening in North America 'during the bible' is like asking what happened in North America during the events of \"A Game of Thrones\". North America did not exist in either of those fictional universes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Gonna have to be a bit more specific on what PART of the bible's timeline you are talking about. Damn book goes from the beginning of the world to the end.... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_ \n_URL_1_\n\nProbably a lot more than is shown there, but the indigenous people did not keep written records, so it's hard to know very much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Natives. Literally.\n\nIf we look at the bible as a semi-historical text, it goes back a few thousand years.\n\nPeople started migrating over the Land Bridge into North America from Asia before that. Meaning that while David fought Goliath, Geronima was chasing the buffalo. While Moses led the Jews out of Egypt, Sacagawea was helping prepare food. While Jesus was sitting at the last supper, Squanto was deciding whether or not to travel to the winter camp.\n\nThe Natives have little written history, and even that which does exist, in drawings and oral history has been destroyed. We can't tell what exactly was happening, but we have a decent idea that the Native Americans were just living their lives. Like the Picts were living their lives, the Japanese were living their's, and the Australians, and Indians, etc.\n\nEdited for political correctness, because apparently English versions of Native Names are racist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well considering the Bible covers a period of roughly 4000 years, what part of it are you talking about? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some religious folk (I'm looking at you Mormons!) believe there was a bunch of Jewish descendant there, having wars, writing their own Bible and waiting for Jesus to come down and give them all high fives.\n\nAs mentioned by other comments though, the actual historical record is pretty scant. We have some broad educated guesses but the actual details is anyone's guess.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "During the bible, let's say 4000 BC to < 100 AD. North America, not including Mesoamerica, was in the Archaic period where we had bands of natives living in some permanent and semi-permanent villages. The end of the archaic saw larger settlements and public-ceremonial building construction. Mounds and earthworks. By 1000 BC or so to 100 AD was the Woodland period where we started seeing more complex societies, more permanent settlements, and much more mound construction especially in the Southeast and Ohio River valleys. \n \nEdit: I can give more detail if I'm given a smaller region/specific time period to work with. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Bible makes no mention of it, since the writers didn't know it existed (this gap is where Mormons make their theology).\n\nHistorically speaking, there were civilizations in the Americas at that time, but we know comparatively little about them as compared to the ancient European or Asian civilizations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Book of Mormon actually talks about the North/south American tribes exposure to the \"spirit of god.\" The book depicts Jesus visiting the continent after he was crucified and gives a rather large and interesting story of the major tribes the nephittes vs the lamenites. The book ends with the nephittes being destroyed by the lamenites. Then a man by the name of Mormon (I think, or Moroni) hiding it in the ground and many years later it's location was revealed to Joseph smith by god. \n\nSorry for any spelling mistakes and my rather crude summary. I was raised in the lds beliefs. I'm not a Mormon anymore, I honestly got tired of religion and rely on thinking with logic and reasoning, having faith in crazy things is just not my way. I was raised Mormon however, was an interesting book to say the least. (I've been inactive for about 3-4 years so be wary of details and such I've said)\n\nEDIT: Don't down vote me, I'm literally explaining a religion's beliefs I'm not a part of. It's not like I'm preaching.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not to offend this sub, but this question would be better for /r/askhistorians. You're more likely to receive a well sourced answer on a subject like this. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The best answer is, no clue. My people had no written records and everything was oral. Much like early Anglo-Saxon tradition when something really important happened it transformed into a tall tale or a song. A lot of these tales and songs were lost throughout the ages and had to be \"reborn\" into a heaping pile of bullshit that is rather meaningless.\n\nThe thing about early aboriginals was that the Americas were a giant land that had tonnes of huntable wildlife, one of the largest fish reserves in the world, and some reputably bad seasonal weather shifts. Being a nomadic people made a lot of sense. The earliest European settlers in North America couldn't stomach the weather shifts so they'd leave when winter arrived.\n\nYes, there were wars. They were not as plentiful as that of Europe and Asia Minor. Without crops and without real land claims there wasn't much a reason to go to war... unless two tribes were hunting in the same region at the same time.\n\nYes there was trade and yes there was politics. The Iroquis nation split the six nations (Seneca, Cayuga, Onandaga, Tuscara, Oneida, and Mohawk) across modern day Ontario and Quebec. Clearly there was enough of an administration and politics involved for six different tribes to form a confederacy.\n\nA lot of the findings we have of early aboriginals is movement records. They're not fun, and they don't make great stories. The earliest written records we had of aboriginals came from the Vikings who setup shop in North Newfoundland and Labrador only to be expunged by a far more violent and far more war like aboriginal tribe (presumably the Beothuks).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "247364",
"title": "Bible Belt",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 3308,
"text": "It seems a link between the colonial Bible Belt (the North, especially New England with its Puritan heritage) and the later Southern Bible Belt may be seen in the impact which some Northern figures had on the religious development of the South (perhaps not incomparable to the origins of Mormonism in the North, in spite of its later association with Utah). \"The centre of Particular Baptist activity in early America was in the Middle Colonies. In 1707 five churches in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware were united to form the Philadelphia Baptist Association, and through the association they embarked upon vigorous missionary activity. By 1760 the Philadelphia association included churches located in the present states of Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, and West Virginia; and by 1767 further multiplication of churches had necessitated the formation of two subsidiary associations, the Warren in New England and the Ketochton in Virginia. The Philadelphia association also provided leadership in organizing the Charleston Association in the Carolinas in 1751.\" An influential figure was Shubal Stearns: \"Shubael Stearns, a New England Separate Baptist, migrated to Sandy Creek, North Carolina, in 1755 and initiated a revival that quickly penetrated the entire Piedmont region. The churches he organized were brought together in 1758 to form the Sandy Creek Association\". Stearns was brother-in-law of Daniel Marshall, who was born in Windsor, Connecticut and \"is generally considered the first great Baptist leader in Georgia. He founded Kiokee Baptist Church, the oldest continuing Baptist congregation in the state\". Also, Wait Palmer, of Toland, Connecticut, may have influenced African American Christianity in the South: \"The Silver Bluff, South Carolina, revival was a seminal development, whose role among blacks rivalled that played by the Sandy Creek revival of the Separate Baptists, to which it was indirectly related. It was probably the same Wait Palmer who had baptized Shubal Stearns in 1751 who came to Silver Bluff in 1775, baptizing and constituting a church. Abraham Marshall, who encouraged the later offshoots, was a Separate Baptist of the Sandy Creek school. The revival at the Silver Bluff plantation of George Galphin (some twelve miles from Augusta, Georgia) had brought David George to the Afro-Baptist faith and had provided a ministry for George Liele\". According to Thomas S. Kidd, \"As early as 1758, Sandy Creek missionaries helped organize a slave congregation, the Bluestone Church, on the plantation of William Byrd III, which may have been the first independently functioning African American church in North America. The church did not last long, but it reflected the Baptists' commitment to evangelizing African Americans\". And according to Gayraud S. Wilmore, \"The preaching of New England Congregationalists such as Jonathan Edwards about the coming millennium, and his conviction that Christians were called to prepare for it, reached the slaves through the far-ranging missionary work of white evangelists such as Shubal Stearns, Wait Palmer, and Matthew Moore - all of whom left Congregationalism and became Separatist Baptist preachers in the plantation country of Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5437492",
"title": "Lincoln Cathedral Library",
"section": "Section::::Collections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Mamusse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God\" (aka: \"Algonquian Bible\") was the first Bible printed in the Americas in 1663. The English Puritan missionary John Eliot produced a translation of the Geneva Bible into the Indian Massachusett language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12973842",
"title": "Moravian Church in North America",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1426,
"text": "The beginning of the church's work in North America is usually given as 1740, when Bishop August Gottlieb Spangenberg sent Christian Henry Rauch to New York City on a mission to preach and convert native peoples. Eager to learn more, the Mahican chiefs \"Tschoop\" and \"Shabash\" invited Rauch to visit their village (in present-day Dutchess County) to teach them. In September 1740, they led him to \"Shekomeko\", where he established a Moravian mission. The two Indian chiefs converted to the Christian faith. By summer 1742, Shekomeko was established as the first native Christian congregation in the present-day United States. Over the next two years, the Moravians endeavored to reconcile the ancient Indian traditions with the new ways of the western society. They made a center for missions to the native peoples. Within the next two years, several more missionaries along with their wives began to settle in the area. Among these were Gottlob Buettner and his wife, Anna Margaret Bechtel, daughter of a minister. Meanwhile, European settlers who opposed the Moravians' defense of Native Americans spread rumors that they were secret Catholic Jesuits allied with the French, British enemies. Such settlers finally were successful in persuading the colonial governor Clinton to restrict the missionaries' efforts. They were expelled in 1744. Buettner died at Shekomeko early in 1745, and the colony dwindled away soon after.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4484075",
"title": "General Conference Mennonite Church",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Mennonites first came to North America as early as 1644. The first permanent settlement was in the Germantown, Pennsylvania area when a group of 34 Mennonites and Quakers from Krefeld, Germany arrived in 1683. A total of 4000 Mennonites and 200 Amish, a closely related group, settled in eastern Pennsylvania by the 1820s. This group tended to separate from their neighbors because of refusal to participate in the American Revolution, opposition to public education and rejection of religious revivalism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64176",
"title": "Franciscans",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary organizations.:Third Order.:Third Order Regular.:Third Order Regular in North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "This movement continued in North America as various congregations arose from one coast to another, in answer to the needs of the large emigrant communities that were flooding the cities of the United States and Canada.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21898297",
"title": "History of Christianity in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "Christianity was introduced to North America as it was colonized by Europeans beginning in the 16th and 17th centuries. The Spanish, French, and British brought Roman Catholicism to the colonies of New Spain, New France and Maryland respectively, while Northern European peoples introduced Protestantism to Massachusetts Bay Colony, New Netherland, Virginia colony, Carolina Colony, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Lower Canada. Among Protestants, adherents to Anglicanism, Methodism, the Baptist Church, Congregationalism, Presbyterianism, Lutheranism, Quakerism, Mennonite and Moravian Church were the first to settle in the US, spreading their faith in the new country. Notwithstanding this commonplace timeline, scholars of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints assert that Christianity was first introduced to the Americas approximately 34 A.D., according to what is recorded in 3 Nephi Chapter 43, which chronicles the appearance of Jesus Christ to the Native Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1354987",
"title": "Laurentide Ice Sheet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "The last advance covered most of northern North America between c. 95,000 and c. 20,000 years before the present day and, among other geomorphological effects, gouged out the five Great Lakes and the hosts of smaller lakes of the Canadian Shield. These lakes extend from the eastern Northwest Territories, through most of northern Canada, and the upper Midwestern United States (Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan) to the Finger Lakes, through Lake Champlain and Lake George areas of New York, across the northern Appalachians into and through all of New England and Nova Scotia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ff27i
|
Humans at one point used to see slavery as a positive good. At what time did this change to where now modern humans are disgusted by its practice?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can only speak of the American slave trade, and not anything that happened before 1492, but as far as the Transatlantic slave trade goes, slavery was never seen universally as a positive good.\n\nBartolomé de las Casas was a contemporary of Christopher Columbus's and participated in early expeditions to America. He criticized the practice of slavery vehemently, and wrote a book called [*A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies*](_URL_3_) that was published in 1542. The light he shed on what was happening in the Americas led to the banning of slavery by Spain, at least for the time being.\n\nJumping forward and north to British North America, in the first decades of colonization of the future U.S., there wasn't yet full slavery. There was indentured servitude, which still guaranteed some rights to those servants (not splitting up families, you could take your master to court, things like that). In the 1640s and 50s, outright slavery began to be instituted and it was more or less immediately criticized.\n\nQuaker leader George Fox wrote in support of the slaves' struggle [as early as 1657](_URL_1_). \n\nIn 1673, Puritan leader Richard Baxter published [*A Christian directory, or, A summ of practical theologie and cases of conscience*](_URL_0_) which speaks against the evils of slavery.\n\nIn 1684, Thomas Tryon published [\"The Negro's Complaint of Their Hard Servitude, and the Cruelties Practised upon Them\"](_URL_4_), another anti-slavery text.\n\nIn 1688, the people of Germantown, Pennsylvania, signed a document now called the [\"1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery\"](_URL_2_) admonishing the practice of slavery and calling for its end. \n\nFrom that same year, there is also [\"Oroonoko or The Royal Slave\"](_URL_5_), a work of fiction published in London that often ridicules the practice.\n\nIt took many decades for slavery to become normalized in the American South, and it never became normalized in the North. New York was the only state north of Maryland where it ever took off, but never to the same extent as in the slave states. Future slavery was banned in New York pretty much the moment that the American Revolution ended. But by then, it had become a widely accepted practice in Maryland, Virginia, and all points south, which led to it being protected in those states when the U.S. Constitution was written.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27992",
"title": "Slavery",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern history.:Americas.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 175,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 175,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "In the 19th century, proponents of slavery often defended the institution as a \"necessary evil\". White people of that time feared that emancipation of black slaves would have more harmful social and economic consequences than the continuation of slavery. The French writer and traveler Alexis de Tocqueville, in \"Democracy in America\" (1835), expressed opposition to slavery while observing its effects on American society. He felt that a multiracial society without slavery was untenable, as he believed that prejudice against blacks increased as they were granted more rights. Others, like James Henry Hammond argued that slavery was a \"positive good\" stating: \"Such a class you must have, or you would not have that other class which leads progress, civilization, and refinement.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2248779",
"title": "Constitution of Mississippi",
"section": "Section::::History.:1832 constitution.:Provisions.:Slavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "This represented a shift in ideology regarding the moral nature of slavery after the Missouri Compromise of 1820, in which many people began to see slavery not as a \"great evil\" as they did in the late 18th century, but rather, in the words of 19th century South Carolinian Democrat John C. Calhoun, a \"positive good\". As a result of this shift, laws began to be passed throughout southern slave states that restricted the emancipation of slaves, something that was somewhat common during the late 18th century around the time of the American Revolution, where slave owners such as Edward Coles and Robert Carter freed their slaves using the American Enlightenment principles of the colonial revolutionaries as their inspiration. Abraham Lincoln noticed this shift in ideology, writing in an 1855 letter to a friend that:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8654403",
"title": "Proslavery",
"section": "Section::::In the United States.:Abolitionism in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1011,
"text": "Until the middle of the 18th century, slavery was practiced with little challenge anywhere in the world. For centuries philosophers as varied as Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, and John Locke accepted slavery as part of a proper social system. However, across Europe through the last part of the 18th century there were intellectual antislavery arguments based on Enlightenment thought, as well as moral arguments (notably among Quakers, in Great Britain and the United States) which questioned the legitimacy of slavery. Only in the American Revolutionary War era did slavery first become a significant social issue in North America. In the North, beginning during the Revolution and continuing through the first decade of the next century, state by state emancipation was achieved by legislation or lawsuit although in the larger slaveholding states such as New York and Pennsylvania emancipation was gradual. By 1810, 75% of Northern slaves had been freed and virtually all were freed within the next generation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2532528",
"title": "Curse of Ham",
"section": "Section::::Misconception, racism, and slavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 2149,
"text": "For Southern slave owners who were faced with the abolitionist movement to end slavery, the curse of Ham was one of the only grounds upon which Christian slave owners could formulate an ideological defense of slavery. Even before slavery, in order to promote economic motivations within Europe associated with colonialism, the curse of Ham was used to shift the common Aristotelian belief that phenotypic differentiation among humans was a result of climatic difference, to a racialist perspective that phenotypic differentiation among the species was due to there being different racial types. This latter effort started in England. Englishmen were widely afraid to further the colonial efforts of The Crown and begin a new life in lower latitude colonies for fear of becoming black. In 1578, George Best, a sea captain who was a member of the Elizabethan court, first popularized the myth of racial differences within what would be a widely read book on the search for a Northwest passage to Asia. Best uses careful ethnographic descriptions to portray the indigenous peoples of the North West as being sophisticated hunters and gatherers, not different in spirit than the white Englishmen, at the same time he presents a scathing account of Africans, saying of them that they are a \"black and loathsome\" people on account of being descendants of the “cursed chus\". Interestingly, Best doesn’t mention the curse as lying upon Ham, but rather Chus. The fact is there is no indication in Genesis proper that can be used to justify racism and slavery, but the vagueness of Genesis 9-11 coupled with a damning curse from an important biblical patriarch was used as propaganda to influence popular belief by racist Christians who were trying to further particular agendas. The historian David Whiteford writes of a “curse matrix” which was derived from the vagueness of genesis 9 and interpreted to mean that it didn’t matter who was cursed or what group of people the curse originated with, all that mattered was that there was a vague reference to a generational curse that could be exploited any which way by agenda-driven racists like George Best.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "408840",
"title": "Origins of the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Emergence of Lincoln.:Sectional battles over federal policy in the late 1850s.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 199,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 199,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "In \"The Rise of American Civilization\" (1927), Charles and Mary Beard argue that slavery was not so much a social or cultural institution as an economic one (a labor system). The Beards cited inherent conflicts between Northeastern finance, manufacturing, and commerce and Southern plantations, which competed to control the federal government so as to protect their own interests. According to the economic determinists of the era, both groups used arguments over slavery and states' rights as a cover.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "253264",
"title": "Slavery in the United States",
"section": "Section::::1790 to 1860.:Justification in the South.:\"A necessary evil\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "In the 19th century, proponents of slavery often defended the institution as a \"necessary evil\". White people of that time feared that emancipation of black slaves would have more harmful social and economic consequences than the continuation of slavery. In 1820, Thomas Jefferson, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, wrote in a letter that with slavery:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34558",
"title": "20th century",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Social change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "At the beginning of the century, strong discrimination based on race and sex was significant in general society. Although the Atlantic slave trade had ended in the 19th century, the fight for equality for non-white people in the white-dominated societies of North America, Europe, and South Africa continued. During the century, the social taboo of sexism fell. By the end of the 20th century, women had the same legal rights as men in many parts of the world, and racism had come to be seen as abhorrent. Attitudes towards homosexuality also began to change in the later part of the century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dul0kb
|
Do videos and photos help children remember their early childhoods?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes and no? Depends on how you would define memory I guess. \n\nWhen we recall something we rewrite said memory in the way we recalled it at that moment. Stuff we miss-remember becomes part of the memory and stuff we leave out will be forgotten. This has all kinds of implications like the setting in which we remember something influencing the content of the memory, memories that have been recalled many times tend to have more (falsely) added details etc. This is the basic function behind the false memory phenomenon. \n\nSo if you were to remind a child of an event, either through photographs or story telling or whatever, you aren't necessarily reinforcing their memory, you are reinforcing your representation of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31655498",
"title": "Childhood memory",
"section": "Section::::Recall.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1391,
"text": "The types of childhood memories that an adult recalls may be linked to personality. Research into memory in both children and adults reminiscing about childhood memories is not well-established, but considerable attention has been devoted to assessing the validity of strategies that can be used to recall early memories, particularly in situations where the accuracy of recall is critical, such as reports of child abuse. Some people claim to have vivid memories from very early ages, while others remember life events beginning around age five. Variables that affect age of first childhood memory include early family environments. One such factor is maternal reminiscing style. There is a long-lasting improvement in autobiographical memory in children whose mothers used an elaborative style of conversation after experiencing an event with the child. Autobiographical memory improves with age along with semantic knowledge of the world and ability to construct a coherent life narrative, but age and gender may influence ability to recall early memories. One study found that older adolescents and females perform better on both episodic autobiographical memory and memory for everyday events, given that females tend to provide more emotional, accurate, vivid, and detailed recollections, although conditions of high retrieval support (probing questions) reduced this sex difference. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33106906",
"title": "Eyewitness memory",
"section": "Section::::Child testimony.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Moreover, children often have a limited vocabulary, a desire to please the officer, or difficulty answering questions because of trauma. Using early childhood memories in eyewitness testimony can also be challenging because for the first 1–2 years of life, brain structures such as the limbic system, which holds the hippocampus and the amygdala and is involved in memory storage, are not yet fully developed. Research has demonstrated that children can remember events from before the age of 3–4 years, but that these memories decline as children get older (see childhood amnesia).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33034803",
"title": "Childhood amnesia",
"section": "Section::::Implications.:False memories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1575,
"text": "Very few adults have memories from before 2.5 years old. Those who do report memories from before this age usually cannot tell the difference between personal memory of the event and simple knowledge of it, which may have come from other sources. Events from after the age of 10 years are relatively easy to remember correctly, whereas memories from the age of 2 are more often confused with false images and memories. Memories from early childhood (around age two) are susceptible to false suggestion, making them less trustworthy. These should be treated with caution, especially if they have severe consequences. Imagining details of a false event can encourage the generation of false memories. Studies have shown that people who merely imagine a childhood event are more likely to believe that it happened to them compared to events they did not imagine. This term has been coined imagination inflation and shows that merely imagining an event can make it seem more plausible that it really happened. Using the same paradigm, people that are shown a doctored photograph of themselves as a child in an event that never occurred can create false memories of the event by imagining the event over time. Therefore, this implies that it would be possible for false memories to be generated in and/or fed by a court case. This concern has led the APA to advise caution in accepting memories of physically and sexually abusive events from before the age of 2. However they also recommend that these memories not be entirely discounted, due to the heinous nature of the crimes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33034803",
"title": "Childhood amnesia",
"section": "Section::::Accessible and inaccessible memories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Some research suggests that until around the age of 4, children cannot form context-rich memories. Although more evidence is needed, the relative lack of episodic memories of early childhood may be linked to maturation of prefrontal cortex. It also suggest adults can access fragment memories (isolated moments without context, often remembered as images, behaviors, or emotions) from around age 3, whereas event memories are usually recalled from slightly later. This is similar to research showing the difference between personal recollections and known events. Known memories change to more personal recollections at approximately 4.7 years old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31136207",
"title": "Memory development",
"section": "Section::::Episodic Memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "By school age, the typical child shows skill in recalling details of past experiences and in organizing those details into a narrative form with cohesion. Memories formed at this age and beyond are more likely to stand the test of time over the years and be recalled in adulthood, compared to earlier memories. Young children can sometimes retain information from specific episodes over very long periods of time, but the particular information a child of a particular age is likely to retain over different periods of time is unpredictable. This depends on the nature of the memory event and individual differences in the child such as gender, parental style of communication, and language ability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7233531",
"title": "Minnesota State Public School for Dependent and Neglected Children",
"section": "Section::::\"The Children Remember\" documentary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "\"The Children Remember\" is an 87-minute film that brings together a revealing and stirring collection of oral history spoken by thirteen candid survivors of life in the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s at the Minnesota State School for Dependent and Neglected Children. It was completed in 2002, after a two-year production process. The film was the winner of the Bill Snyder Award for Best Documentary Feature at the 2003 Fargo Film Festival Fargo Film Festival and was selected as one of the Best of Fest at the 2003 Minneapolis-St. Paul International Film Festival.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55912670",
"title": "Patricia Bauer",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "In one of her papers co-authored with Mandler, Bauer tested the ability of toddlers to remember events and whether their abilities were comparable to those of preschool-age children as well as adults. This study demonstrated the importance of causal connections and temporal structure in supporting children's earliest event memories. Toddlers, like older children and adults, are more likely to remember a series of events if causal relationships were present that linked the elements in the series. Other notable work on the development of memory is Bauer and colleagues' SRCD monograph on \"Parameters of Remembering and Forgetting in the Transition from Infancy to Early Childhood.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xt1ao
|
/r/darknetplan
|
[
{
"answer": "So websites have names. The place that has all these names is called ICANN. When you type in a website name, ICANN tells you the address for you to go to so you can get to that website. A lot of other fancy stuff happens that makes the information get from one place to another.\n\nThis is good most of the time. Remember a name, get to a website. The big problem is that because all of this information runs through ICANN, among other systems, it's easy to see who was looking for what. That means people can watch what you're doing on the internet. This is important.\n\nNow, say you don't want people to know what you're doing, whether you're talking bad about your government, peddling illegal wares, or just exercising your right to privacy. You need a new way to transfer info without the internet. A darknet will do that. It is an untraceable way to communicate with other over a network.\n\n/r/darknetplan is a just a way for people to organize the best procedure and method of creating this theoretical \"darknet\".\n\nAn alternative option is an easier but less secure method, generally known as an \"undernet\". It's not completely untraceable like the darknet, but still has more anonymity than the normal internet. TOR is an example of this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's an attempt to set up a delocalised alternative to the internet, where no government or corporation can monitor or shutdown.\n\nWatch [this](_URL_0_) video.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the Internet used to be free from government/corporate spying and interference, where people had privacy. but not anymore, so they're making a second Internet that will avoid all of this",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49316492",
"title": "Darkforest",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Darkforest is a computer go program developed by Facebook, based on deep learning techniques using a convolutional neural network. Its updated version Darkfores2 combines the techniques of its predecessor with Monte Carlo tree search. The MCTS effectively takes tree search methods commonly seen in computer chess programs and randomizes them. With the update, the system is known as Darkfmcts3.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1081431",
"title": "Darkeden",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "DarkEden is a free-to-play massively multiplayer online role-playing computer game in isometric projection or 3/4 perspective developed and published by SOFTON. The game has a horror theme based on a war between humans (Slayers), vampires and Ousters in a region called Helea located in a fictional country of Eastern Europe known as Eslania. The original version of the game, and the most advanced one, is the Korean one from which several other versions have been derived from such as the Japanese, Chinese, Thai and International versions. The Thai and international versions are currently closed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6226535",
"title": "Darken",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Darken is a completed webcomic set in a \"Dungeons & Dragons\"-style fantasy world, featuring a cast of morally ambiguous or outright evil characters led by Gort, lord of hellfire. It is based on a story by Mike Foulks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49316492",
"title": "Darkforest",
"section": "Section::::Style of play.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 961,
"text": "Darkforest uses a neural network to sort through the 10 board positions, and find the most powerful next move. However, neural networks alone cannot match the level of good amateur players or the best search-based Go engines, and so Darkfores2 combines the neural network approach with a search-based machine. A database of 250,000 real Go games were used in the development of Darkforest, with 220,000 used as a training set and the rest used to test the neural network's ability to predict the next moves played in the real games. This allows Darkforest to accurately evaluate the global state of the board, but local tactics were still poor. Search-based engines have poor global evaluation, but are good at local tactics. Combining these two approaches is difficult because search-based engines work much faster than neural networks, a problem which was solved in Darkfores2 by running the processes in parallel with frequent communication between the two.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3458214",
"title": "Darkon (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Darkon is an award-winning feature-length documentary film that follows the real-life adventures of the Darkon Wargaming Club in Baltimore, Maryland, a group of fantasy live-action role-playing (LARP) gamers. The film was directed by Andrew Neel and Luke Meyer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "504871",
"title": "Darkstalkers",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "The \"Darkstalkers\" games take place on the planet Earth that is in the process of merging with a realm known as Makai. The reason for this merger varies depending on the continuity, but a continuing theme is that the union of realms brings the arrival of the Darkstalkers to the human world, the term being a catch-all for the various creatures of legend. The greatest of these supernatural creatures, and the greatest among those who hunt them, meet in battle to determine who will rule the night.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51055238",
"title": "Darktrace",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Darktrace was founded in 2013 by mathematicians from the University of Cambridge and individuals with cyber operations experience at intelligence agencies. Its Enterprise Immune System technology uses AI and unsupervised machine learning to autonomously detect and take action against cyber-threats across all diverse digital environments, including cloud and virtual environments, Internet of Things, and industrial control systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4vwe4t
|
what causes baseball pitchers speed to be capped at approximately 105 mph?
|
[
{
"answer": "The human factor. We are near the peak of human capability in many aspects as science has helped us get very efficient with training and nutrition. You may see a ball a little bit faster, but you're not going to see a 200 mph fastball until we start using bionics and other tech. Same with running. We see under a 4 minute mile right now, but under a 2 minute mile, that's over 30 mph. We're just not built for that without inventing a human 2.0",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I recall reading a popular mechanics article about this. One interesting aspect was that the amount of torque needed to throw the ball in excess of 105 mph corresponded roughly to the point where a certain ligament in the elbow would tear. \n\nFor reference:\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure anyone can say that 105mph is the maximum speed, just that pitchers today are approaching a max speed. Eventually someone will come along and toss a ball at 106.\nI think of it the same way as Bolt's 100m time being the \"fastest possible\". It's approaching the fastest, but someone will eventually beat it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "just watched a Netflix documentary on fastballs called \"Fastball\". One item to note is today fastballs are measured basically right when they leave the pitchers hand. Back when radar guns first game out and they clocked Nolan Ryan at 100.6 they did the detection 10 feet in front of home plate. Calculating for distance/air resistance/etc it's calculated he threw 110 mph early in his career if measured using today's setup. (The ball is slower by the time it reaches the catchers mitt)\n\nAs for ligaments exploding at 105 he regularly threw 150+ pitches per game.\n\nSo 105 isn't the max, but no one seems to be coming around throwing 120 anytime soon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not a biologist, but I am a big baseball fan who likes science. To start, I think it would be better to say the cap seemed to be at 103mph - [only four pitchers have been clocked at over 103mph](_URL_0_) and only Chapman above 105mph.[1]\n\nThe cap seems to be the ulnar collateral ligament or the UCL which is in your elbow. Scientists believe that the fastball [puts the UCL right at its breaking point](_URL_1_) and that if somebody was throwing much faster they would break it. \n\nIn fact, we often see power pitchers need to have Tommy John surgery where the UCL is repaired with a ligament from the leg. There are even times where [some pitchers](_URL_2_) with a repaired UCL come back throwing faster than before. \n\nI like your observation that \"there are plenty of smaller build pitchers that can throw very fast.\" It makes me think of Pedro Martinez who threw up to 97mph at 5'10\" or 11\" or Tim Lincecum who was [clocked at 101mph](_URL_0_) at 5'11\". \n\nThough the fastest pitchers of all time have been above average height even if not much so: Chapman is 6'4\", Zumaya is 6'3\", and Nolan Ryan is 6'2\".\n\nIf you'd like to learn more you can watch a great Netflix documentary called Fastball. \n\n**tl/dr**: The UCL is the limiting factor so we aren't likely to see pitchers throw much faster, even with better nutrition and conditioning.\n\n[1] We have changed the way we've measured fastballs, so we think that Nolan Ryan might have hit 108.1mph in the 70's. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I find it awesome how for most pitchers the gold standard for a velocity ceiling is exactly 100. A manmade ball with an arbitrary height and distance of mound...and it produced a benchmark of exactly 100 mph for a long time. Thanks a lot Aroldis Chapman.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "467802",
"title": "Fastball",
"section": "Section::::Pitches.:Four-seam fastball.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "How has pitch velocity gone up so much? Mostly by the development of better training and clearer communication within the baseball community that velocity is so valued. People like Tom House, Eric Cressey, Kyle Boddy, and Ron Wolforth have all pushed the edge and dedicated careers to research on what makes the ultimate pitcher. Pitchers are getting bigger, faster and stronger, and pushing their bodies in the weight room as well as with weighted ball throwing. All of this has created a faster, more powerful game for pitchers on the mound today. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1377339",
"title": "Steve Dalkowski",
"section": "Section::::Baseball career.:Pitching speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Scientists contend that the theoretical maximum speed that a pitcher can throw is slightly above . Beyond that the pitcher would cause himself a serious injury. There is no doubt that a pitcher who can throw at 100 mph+ is rare, with only a small handful of pitchers every generation being capable of this feat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32412309",
"title": "Ontario Amateur Softball Association",
"section": "Section::::Game Play.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "In fastpitch softball, a \"windmill\" style of pitching is utilized, as the pitcher's arm makes a complete backward rotation before completing the pitch. With this style of pitching, elite male pitchers have been known to reach around 70 mph.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "635408",
"title": "Two-seam fastball",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "The velocity of this pitch also varies greatly from pitcher to pitcher. At the major collegiate level and higher, two-seam fastballs are typically thrown in the low 90s (MPH), but with much variation. Pitchers such as Greg Maddux, Bob Stanley, Brandon McCarthy, David Price, and Eddie Guardado are notable for having success at the major-league levels with two-seam fastballs in the mid 80s to lower 90s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "467802",
"title": "Fastball",
"section": "Section::::Pitches.:Rising fastball.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "What is likely happening is that the pitcher first throws a fastball at one speed, and then, using an identical arm motion, throws another fastball at a higher speed. The higher-speed fastball arrives faster and sinks less due to its high speed. The added back-spin from the higher speed further decreases the amount of sink. When the pitch is thrown, the batter expects a fastball at the same speed, yet it arrives more quickly and at a higher level. The batter perceives it as a fastball which has risen and increased in speed. A switch from a two-seam to a fastball can enhance this effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "467802",
"title": "Fastball",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "The fastball is the most common type of pitch thrown by pitchers in baseball and softball. \"Power pitchers,\" such as former American major leaguers Nolan Ryan and Roger Clemens, rely on speed to prevent the ball from being hit, and have thrown fastballs at speeds of (officially) and up to (unofficially). Pitchers who throw more slowly can put movement on the ball, or throw it on the outside of home plate where batters can't easily reach it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80763",
"title": "Softball",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Pitching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Fastpitch pitches may reach high speeds; At the 1996 Summer Olympics one pitch reached . Male pitching can reach speeds around . To compare, MLB players average around 90 mph but can reach speeds up to 100 mph.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bxnze2
|
Does the availability of Narcan (naloxone) encourage opioid use?
|
[
{
"answer": "This [National Academy of Sciences review paper](_URL_0_) cites several studies showing that Narcan is associated with lower overall heroin use, fewer opioid-related ER visits, and fewer deaths due to opioid OD. I assume your thought process is that people are more likely to take a more risky dose if they know their buddy is there with Narcan.\n\nHere’s an example of the thought process of some drug users that results in the opposite: opioid users are generally not happy when you hit them with Narcan. First, you’ve completely ruined what I have to imagine was great high, even if it was life-threatening. Second, not only did you ruin it, but they are now actively in withdrawal, and no one is happy to be in opioid withdrawal.\n\nThere is one way that Narcan does encourage opioid use, but not how you expect. Buprenorphine is a drug used for opioid addicts among others. It’s a very high affinity partial agonist of opioid receptors; where rubber meets road, this means it stimulates the opioid receptors enough to keep withdrawals manageable (in theory), but will out-compete any other opioids the person takes, making them useless. Buprenorphine is also given compounded with naloxone to further prevent abuse of other opioids. Because these drugs technically still stimulate opioid receptors, they do have some street value (apparently higher than methadone according to the same article). In that sense they do encourage opioid use, but they encourage use of themselves while discouraging use of other opioids.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "137986",
"title": "Harm reduction",
"section": "Section::::Drugs.:Naloxone distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Naloxone is a drug used to counter an overdose from the effect of opioids; for example, a heroin or morphine overdose. Naloxone displaces the opioid molecules from the brain's receptors and reverses the respiratory depression caused by an overdose within two to eight minutes. The World Health Organization (WHO) includes naloxone on their \"List of Essential Medicines\", and recommends its availability and utilization for the reversal of opioid overdoses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43393518",
"title": "Buprenorphine/naloxone",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Buprenorphine/naloxone has been found to be effective for treating opioid dependence, and serves as a recommended first line medication according to the U.S. National Institute on Drug Abuse. The medication is an effective maintenance therapy for opioid dependence and has generally similar efficacy to methadone, which are both substantially more effective than abstinence-based treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "142818",
"title": "Naloxone",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "If naloxone is administered in the absence of concomitant opioid use, no functional pharmacological activity occurs, except the inability for the body to combat pain naturally. In contrast to direct opiate agonists, which elicit opiate withdrawal symptoms when discontinued in opiate-tolerant people, no evidence indicates the development of tolerance or dependence on naloxone. The mechanism of action is not completely understood, but studies suggest it functions to produce withdrawal symptoms by competing for opiate receptor sites within the CNS (a competitive antagonist, not a direct agonist), thereby preventing the action of both endogenous and xenobiotic opiates on these receptors without directly producing any effects itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43393518",
"title": "Buprenorphine/naloxone",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "Buprenorphine/naloxone is used for the treatment of opioid use disorder. Long term outcomes are generally better with use of buprenorphine/naloxone than attempts at stopping opioid use altogether. This includes a lower risk of overdose with medication use. Due to the high binding affinity and low activation at the opioid receptor, cravings and withdrawal for opioids are decreased while preventing a person from getting high and relapsing on another opioid. The combination of the two medications is preferred over buprenorphine alone for maintenance treatment due to the presence of naloxone in the formulation, which helps function as an abuse deterrent, especially against intravenous use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "772724",
"title": "Opioid use disorder",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Opioid related deaths.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "Naloxone is used for the emergency treatment of an overdose. It can be given by many routes (e.g., intramuscular, intravenous, subcutaneous, intranasal, and inhalation) and acts quickly by displacing opioids from opioid receptors and preventing activation of these receptors by opioids. Naloxone kits are recommended for laypersons who may witness an opioid overdose, for individuals with large prescriptions for opioids, those in substance use treatment programs, or who have been recently released from incarceration. Since this is a life-saving medication, many areas of the United States have implemented standing orders for law enforcement to carry and give naloxone as needed. In addition, naloxone could be used to challenge a person's opioid abstinence status prior to starting a medication such as naltrexone, which is used in the management of opioid addiction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1195987",
"title": "Naltrexone",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1068,
"text": "The FDA authorized use of injectable naltrexone for opioid addiction using a single study that was led by Evgeny Krupitsky at Bekhterev Research Psychoneurological Institute, St Petersburg State Pavlov Medical University, St Petersburg, Russia, a country where opioid agonists such as methadone and buprenorphine are not available. The study was a \"double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized\", 24-week trial running \"from July 3, 2008, through October 5, 2009\" with \"250 patients with opioid dependence disorder\" at \"13 clinical sites in Russia\" on the use of injectable naltrexone (XR-NTX) for opioid dependence. The study was funded by the Boston-based biotech Alkermes firm which produces and markets naltrexone in the United States. A 2011 article reported that this single trial of naltrexone was performed not by comparing it to the best available, evidence-based treatment (methadone or buprenorphine), but by comparing it with a placebo. A subsequent RCT in Norway did compare injectable naltrexone to buprenorphine and found them to be similar in outcomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "313009",
"title": "Drug overdose",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 904,
"text": "The distribution of naloxone to injection drug users and other opioid drug users decreases the risk of death from overdose. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that U.S. programs for drug users and their caregivers prescribing take-home doses of naloxone and training on its utilization are estimated to have prevented 10,000 opioid overdose deaths. Healthcare institution-based naloxone prescription programs have also helped reduce rates of opioid overdose in the U.S. state of North Carolina, and have been replicated in the U.S. military. Nevertheless, scale-up of healthcare-based opioid overdose interventions is limited by providers' insufficient knowledge and negative attitudes towards prescribing take-home naloxone to prevent opioid overdose. Programs training police and fire personnel in opioid overdose response using naloxone have also shown promise in the U.S.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9lcitd
|
how are horses taught to respond to the controls of the rider?
|
[
{
"answer": "Repetition and reward. It's a long process to train a horse, and there are different methods (Western vs English mainly) but it all boils down to repetition and reward. Just like teaching a dog to sit, or a toddler to use the potty.\n\nThanks Pavlov",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21758657",
"title": "Racewood",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The simulators are controlled two different ways. The instructor mode is by pressing buttons on the side of the simulators to start, speed up, slow down or stop the horse whilst the rider mode is aid sensitive in the form of squeezing his/her leg on a side sensor panel to start the ride and squeezing again to speed up. To slow down or stop, the rider has to pull the reins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9151212",
"title": "Turn on the haunches",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "For the rider, the turn on the haunches can teach coordination of aids, as the rider must balance both the driving and restraining aids, as well as maintain the correct bend using the inside leg pushing into the outside aids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "912032",
"title": "Equitation",
"section": "Section::::Dressage seat equitation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "The rider is judged on a proper classical position. This includes evaluating leg position, seat, hands, balance, and rhythm. The rider is to be relaxed and not interfere with the horse's movement, but able to make full use of all riding aids. The rider and horse should have unity, and the rider should use the aids correctly and efficiently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8255169",
"title": "Riding aids",
"section": "Section::::Natural aids.:Voice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Riding school horses, who hear instructors telling the pupils what do to, are known to obey spoken commands, which sometimes gives the false impression that the horse is obeying the rider. Likewise, experienced show horses will sometimes respond to the commands for changes of gait given by the announcer over the public address system rather than listening to their riders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10986517",
"title": "Competitive trail riding",
"section": "Section::::Preparing for competition.:Conditioning the horse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Riders need to be familiar with their horses' resting and working heart and respiration rates and know when an animal is stressed. This is an important part of the conditioning routine to ensure that a rider is able to anticipate the results at a P&R check in competition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8255169",
"title": "Riding aids",
"section": "Section::::Natural aids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Good training of the rider will aim to produce someone with an \"independent seat\", meaning someone who is able to give the aids independent of each other (without, for example, sitting forward while adding leg). The rider's first task is to learn to ride the horse \"without\" interfering: keeping a steady contact with the bit, sitting in a balanced, relaxed position that allows them to absorb the horse's movement, and keeping a steady, quiet leg that does not pinch, bounce, or push forward or back. Only then will the rider be able to really start to influence the horse in such a way to help it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2079903",
"title": "Western pleasure",
"section": "Section::::Class procedure and requirements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "The riders compete as a group at the same time, traveling around the outer edge of the arena. All contestants, at the command of the event's judge, are asked to have their horse walk, jog (a slow trot), and lope both directions in an arena, as well as to stand quietly and back up readily.This may seem easy to some, but actually involves more types of riding skills than the casual observer may realize. The judge looks at every detail. In addition, many judges will ask for extended gaits, particularly an extended jog and, in some breeds, the hand gallop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2nv8rc
|
Did Salmon Evolve From Freshwater Fish Or Saltwater Fish?
|
[
{
"answer": "[This book](_URL_0_) says that there has been \"considerable debate\" as to whether they evolved from freshwater or saltwater fish and the most recent theories suggest that they evolved from fish that were already able to survive in fresh and salt water.\n\nOriginally though, all fish evolved in the sea and it must have been a strong advantage to be able to survive in fresh (or brackish) water and lay eggs there, away from predators. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12485",
"title": "German cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Hot foods.:Fish.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Today, many sea fish, such as fresh herring, tuna, mackerel, salmon and sardines, are well established throughout the country. Prior to the industrial revolution and the ensuing pollution of the rivers, salmon were common in the rivers Rhine, Elbe, and Oder and only slowly started to return along with a growing consciousness for environmental questions and resulting measures, such as state-of-the-art sewage plants, reduction of agricultural deposits, et cetera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "184661",
"title": "Fish migration",
"section": "Section::::Other examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "Some of the best-known anadromous fishes are the Pacific salmon species, such as Chinook (king), coho (silver), chum (dog), pink (humpback) and sockeye (red) salmon. These salmon hatch in small freshwater streams. From there they migrate to the sea to mature, living there for two to six years. When mature, the salmon return to the same streams where they were hatched to spawn. Salmon are capable of going hundreds of kilometers upriver, and humans must install fish ladders in dams to enable the salmon to get past. Other examples of anadromous fishes are sea trout, three-spined stickleback, sea lamprey and shad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1202747",
"title": "Atlantic salmon",
"section": "Section::::Life stages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Atlantic salmon do not require saltwater. Numerous examples of fully freshwater (i.e., \"landlocked\") populations of the species exist throughout the Northern Hemisphere, including a now extinct population in Lake Ontario, which have been shown in recent studies to have spent their entire life cycle in watershed of the lake. In North America, the landlocked strains are frequently known as \"ouananiche\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37674136",
"title": "Salt River (California)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Prehistory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "Salmon and other anadromous fish used the Salt River to get to tributaries in the Wildcat Hills where they spawned, and juveniles later matured before swimming downstream to the estuary and returning to the sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36984",
"title": "Salmon",
"section": "Section::::Life cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "The smolt body chemistry changes, allowing them to live in salt water. While a few species of salmon remain in fresh water throughout their life cycle, the majority are anadromous and migrate to the ocean for maturation: in these species, smolts spend a portion of their out-migration time in brackish water, where their body chemistry becomes accustomed to osmoregulation in the ocean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2319263",
"title": "Thelodonti",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "The fish lived in both freshwater and marine environments, first appearing during the Ordovician, and perishing during the Frasnian–Famennian extinction event of the Late Devonian. Traditionally they were considered predominantly deposit-feeding bottom dwellers, but more recent studies have showed they occupied various ecological roles in various parts of the water column, much like modern bony fishes and sharks. In particular, a large variety of species preferred reef ecosystems, and it has been suggested that this preference was the reason for the development of their unique scales, protecting against abrasion and allowing for the development of more flexible bodies than other jawless fish, which had inflexible armors and were restricted to open habitats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36984",
"title": "Salmon",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 2208,
"text": "The salmon has long been at the heart of the culture and livelihood of coastal dwellers, which can be traced as far back as 5,000 years when archeologists discovered Nisqually tribes remnants. The original distribution of the Genus Oncorhynchus covered the Pacific Rim coastline. History shows salmon used tributaries, rivers and estuaries without regard to jurisdiction for 18–22 million years. Baseline data is near impossible to recreate based on the inconsistent historical data, but confirmed there have been massive depletion since 1900s. The Pacific Northwest was once sprawled with native inhabitants who practiced eco management, to ensure little degradation was caused by their actions to salmon habitats. As animists, the indigenous people relied not only for salmon for food, but spiritual guidance. The role of the salmon spirit guided the people to respect ecological systems such as the rivers and tributaries the salmon used for spawning. Natives often used the entire fish and left no waste by creating items such turning the bladder into glue, bones for toys, and skin for clothing and shoes. The first salmon ceremony was introduced by indigenous tribes on the pacific coast, which consists of three major parts. First is the welcoming of the first catch, then comes the cooking and lastly, the return of the bones to the Sea to induce hospitality so that other salmon would give their lives to the people of that village. Many tribes such as the Yurok had a taboo against harvesting the first fish that swam upriver in summer, but once they confirmed that the salmon had returned in abundance they would begin to catch them in plentiful. The indigenous practices were guided by deep ecological wisdom, which was eradicated when Euro-American settlements began to be developed. Salmon have a much grander history than what is presently shown today. The Salmon that once dominated the Pacific Ocean are now just a fraction in population and size. The Pacific salmon population is now less than 1–3% of what it was when Lewis and Clark arrived at the region. In his 1908 State of the Union address, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt observed that the fisheries were in significant decline:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5q2ppy
|
What was warfare like in pre-colonial Indonesia?
|
[
{
"answer": "Warning: Wall of text incoming. But then this was /r/AskHistorians, so you expected this.\n\nFor practical reasons this answer relies substantially on European sources and wars against Europeans, but I did intentionally avoid talking about more modern weaponry like muskets or cannons.\n\n---\n\nThis question is really hard to answer, simply because Indonesia was and is such a diverse region. For example, the distance between [Aceh](_URL_4_) and [Pidie](_URL_2_) is, what, 100 km/70 miles? But a local romance notes the drastic difference in tactics between the two (Charney, *Southeast Asian Warfare*, p. 75-76):\n\n > Fighting in Pidië is quite different from fighting in Acheh, bear that in mind! \n\n > Fighting in Acheh is attended by a lot of stratagems; they hide behind fortifications.\n\n > Outside and inside these they dig trenches, and it is very difficult to surmount the palisades and mantraps.\n\n > These fortifications are half a coconut palm high, whitewashed and plastered.\n\n > What are you to do if you do not take with you chisels and saws?\n\n > You will not gain your object, and the people will be slain without the enemy making an appearance.\n\n > You had better go to war here in Pidië, my son...\n\nSo the answer is that \"a battle between two warring kingdoms\" would be drastically different depending on where you are.\n\nWith this in mind, let's look at warfare in one specific area of Indonesia, the peninsula of [South Sulawesi.](_URL_1_)\n\n# Mobilization\n\nWar has just been declared. What now? If you're a king in South Sulawesi, the answer is simple: send out the *bila-bila*.\n\nThe *bila-bila* are knotted palm leaves sent out to all your allies and vassals. The number of knots tells you how many days there are left until war is to begin. If the leaf is knotted eighty times, for example, eighty days later every lord great and little *must* show up with their armies. \n\nBut who are these armies made up of? There was a core of heavily trained nobles (think knights in Europe) who rode on horseback and fought with swords. Once Europeans showed up, they started wearing chainmail and using guns. But these elite troops were a small minority. In a 1676 war between the kingdoms of Gowa and Boné, the king of Gowa himself and two of his leading nobles approached a Boné fortress with 500 troops - but even among these troops deemed worthy of accompanying the king, only a fifth wore chainmail. \n\nThe vast majority of the army was instead composed of peasants and slaves. Peasants were conscripted as part of their corvee duties (corvee is like a tax, but instead of paying money to the government, you pay in labor). Slaves were conscripted because, well, they're slaves.\n\nSo South Sulawesi armies were basically peasant levees. That explains the huge army sizes reported in many sources. 17th-century South Sulawesi probably had a population between 1 and 2 million, but one Frenchman claims that one kingdom could raise 160,000 troops. While this is almost certainly not true, armies in the lower tens of thousands are well-attested. South Sulawesi's kings had chosen quantity over quality.\n\nBut we shouldn't underestimate these troops, even if they weren't professional ones. They were trained three times an year and specialized in different weaponry; one European observer noted that the only weapons common to the entire army were a helmet, a shield, and a piece of armor for the chest. And in a society where war was glorified, even common troops took pride in being a soldier. And so:\n\n > Being full of these notions, they never beg quarter nor give it, and ten Makassars [an ethnicity of South Sulawesi], with their drawn daggers, will attack ten thousand men; and no wonder, for men who have such principles engrafted in their very nature are void of all fear, and are very dangerous people to deal with.\n\n# Weaponry\n\nBefore the coming of guns, South Sulawesi troops were armed with \"cudgels, lances made of sharp-pointed bamboo or wood of the areca palm, various kinds of spears with a fine copper or iron tip, swords, [daggers], blowguns, and shields made of woven twigs.\" Fairly simple weaponry, you might say. \n\nBut being 'simple' does not make weapons any less dangerous. The [blowgun](_URL_3_) was the most terrifying. South Sulawesi troops never used the bow and arrow. Sure, arrows might be more powerful on their own. But the merest scratch from a dart could be mortal, for they were coated with the sap of the [Antiaris tree](_URL_5_), a deadly poison which stops the heart almost the moment it enters the bloodstream. Local sources report the potency of the blowgun in warfare. In the early sixteenth century, the armies of the kingdom of Gowa were said to have been routed by a single enemy blowgun:\n\n > Thus died one by one the people of Gowa. Sombaya [the king of Gowa] was routed. Those people of Gowa who still lived ran tumbling like chicks abandoned by their mother. Hundreds of people from Gowa died in the battle. If they had stayed, clearly all would have died too, because I Buqle [the name of the blowgun] did not shoot in error. All were cut down.\n\nEven if the victim survived, the poison would linger on - as in the case of the unfortunate Dutchman who was hit in the chest by a dart, then, *three years later*, \"felt a burning in the same spot, followed by a raging fever that killed him.\"\n\nBesides the blowgun, poison was applied on stabbing spears and swords. One clever innovation for close-range combat was turning the blowgun into a bayonet. As the Dutch reported:\n\n > We also had to heed the Blow-pipes themselves, because those warriors in the front ranks of the enemy had fastened them with iron blades, like spears, and smeared these with poison.\n\nThere were ways to save yourself from poison, of course. The oxhide armor most troops wore would have protected them from many darts, while an apparently excellent antidote was human feces. But well-made poison darts kill instantly, and a way to save victims of sufficient *Antiaris* poison from immediate death has never been found, not even today. \n\n# Tactics\n\nSo war has begun. What now? Stockades of rammed earth and thorny trees - big enough for a few hundred troops and sometimes as many as 3,000 people - would be built in strategic locations. But these were temporary, mainly intended to deter ambushes and night attacks. It was assumed that stockades would fall before a well-equipped enemy, so one side was always left open so that the defenders could flee when their position was about to fall.\n\nActual fortifications did exist. In the 1670s the Dutch encountered a formidable complex of three stout forts, protected by a six-feet-deep moat and pits full of sharpened bamboo spikes. After the mid-16th century brick forts began to be made and proved a major obstacle even for European firearms. \n\nBut overall, sieges were uncommon. Most battles were fought in the open, often between two stockades. The fight would begin with the armies in a fixed position; in at least one kingdom, there was a central battle corps and flanks to the left and right, and each division was manned by troops from a specific area of the kingdom. One war poem says:\n\n > As soon as the soldiers heard the command\n\n > they took up their positions.\n\n > Every man was at his post\n\n > almost anticipating his general's orders. \n\nBut we actually have little information about the tactics in these battles. It does seem likely that battles were commonly determined by a mass charge launched toward the enemy. As one European said:\n\n > So soon as they see the Enemy, they try to terrifie him with redoubl'd Cries and hideous Yells. All the Drums beat at a Time, and so soon as the King's Standard has given the Signal, they hasten to engage, and fall on with all their Fury upon the First they meet. [...] And then it is, that they butcher one another in such a Horrid manner, that they have an Abhorrency of it themselves, when the Battel is over, and that they have once recovered their Reason.\n\nThese charges often involved soldiers 'running amok,' or in a state of terrifying frenzy. Troops running amok could supposedly brush aside lethal injuries. One European described such an incident:\n\n > I plunged my lance into his stomach; nevertheless, the Makassar, as if he had no sense of feeling, advanced upon the weapon which I held fast in his body, and made incredible efforts to come at me in order to run me through; and he would infallibly have done it, if the hilt of the blade had not hindered him. I found that my best way was to retreat a little, still keeping the lance in his stomach, without venturing to repeat my thrust, till at length I was relieved by others of the lancemen who laid him dead upon the spot.\n\nCharges also involved cavalry, although Europeans believed that South Sulawesi troops \"were much better Infantry than Cavalry.\" Nonetheless, South Sulawesi was a major center of cavalry and \"indigenous cavalry presented a very real challenge\" to the Dutch as late as the 19th century. (If you're wondering how cavalry can exist in the tropics, [Sulawesi has its own breed of ponies.](_URL_0_))\n\nOnce the battle was lost, the defeated army sought to make an honorable retreat. In one campaign the army of Gowa was forced to abandon their stockades, but as they retreated they fired a salvo of muskets to let the enemy know that they had retreated in an organized manner.\n\nOne final tactic was perhaps the simplest: foraging. Armies would raid enemy territories for provisions and plunder, burning down villages and chopping down fruit trees on the way. This was a potentially devastating tactic because it sapped enemy morale and deprived the enemy army of basic supplies. Rape and pillage could win wars just as much as battles and sieges. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22634730",
"title": "History of guerrilla warfare",
"section": "Section::::World Wars (1914–1945).:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Guerrilla tactics were employed in the war in the Pacific as well. When Japanese forces invaded the island of Timor on 20 February 1942, they were resisted by a small, under-equipped force of Allied military personnel— known as Sparrow Force—predominantly from Australia, United Kingdom, and the Netherlands East Indies. Although Portugal was not a combatant, many East Timorese civilians and some Portuguese colonists fought with the Allies as guerrillas (\"criados\"), or provided food, shelter and other assistance. Some Timorese continued a resistance campaign following the Australian withdrawal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10637578",
"title": "Expeditionary warfare",
"section": "Section::::Expeditionary warfare in the Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Expeditionary warfare in East Asia began very much in the same way it had in the Mediterranean with short-term raids by Japanese pirates. Because the Wokou were weakly resisted by the Ming Dynasty, the raiding eventually developed into fully-fledged expeditionary warfare with the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26964392",
"title": "Bersiap",
"section": "Section::::Allied occupation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 997,
"text": "The first stages of warfare were initiated in October 1945 when, in accordance with the terms of their surrender, the Japanese tried to re-establish the authority they relinquished to Indonesians in the towns and cities. Japanese military police killed Republican \"pemuda\" in Pekalongan (Central Java) on 3 October, and Japanese troops drove Republican \"pemuda\" out of Bandung in West Java and handed the city to the British, but the fiercest fighting involving the Japanese was in Semarang. On 14 October, British forces began to occupy the city. Retreating Republican forces retaliated by killing between 130 and 300 Japanese prisoners they were holding. Five hundred Japanese and 2,000 Indonesians had been killed and the Japanese had almost captured the city six days later when British forces arrived. The Allies repatriated the remaining Japanese troops and civilians to Japan, although about 1,000 elected to remain behind and later assisted Republican forces in fighting for independence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66906",
"title": "Indonesian National Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Allied counter revolution.:Allied occupation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1001,
"text": "The first stages of warfare were initiated in October 1945 when, in accordance with the terms of their surrender, the Japanese tried to re-establish the authority they had relinquished to Indonesians in the towns and cities. Japanese military police killed Republican \"pemuda\" in Pekalongan (Central Java) on 3 October, and Japanese troops drove Republican \"pemuda\" out of Bandung in West Java and handed the city to the British, but the fiercest fighting involving the Japanese was in Semarang. On 14 October, British forces began to occupy the city. Retreating Republican forces retaliated by killing between 130 and 300 Japanese prisoners they were holding. Five hundred Japanese and 2,000 Indonesians had been killed and the Japanese had almost captured the city six days later when British forces arrived. The Allies repatriated the remaining Japanese troops and civilians to Japan, although about 1,000 elected to remain behind and later assisted Republican forces in fighting for independence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47184306",
"title": "Indonesian martial arts",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1542,
"text": "Central parts (Indonesia is vast, insular, and there are very isolated parts) of the archipelagic realm that is today Indonesia was the scene of warfare among the native populace for much of its long history, and the people of the region naturally developed effective methods of combat and self-defense. Archaeological findings dating from prehistoric times have uncovered a variety of stone and metal weaponry such as axes, arrows and spearheads. These implements would have doubled as hunting tools and weapons of combat between and among tribes. Tribal warfare, although often motivated by resources, lands and slave grabbing, was also a solution to settling disputes, as well as a component of coming of age rituals. The practice of headhunting developed the martial skills of some tribes to a high level such as the Dayak, Batak, and Nias people. Warriors from militaristic tribes were appreciated by other factions, and were recruited by developed kingdoms and polities as mercenaries. Traditional war dances were used both to reenact battles and as a form of training, a precursor to the preset forms or jurus of later fighting systems. Displaced Baiyue from present-day China and Vietnam (particularly the Dong Son culture) during the first centuries of the common era introduced bronze-casting to the Nusantara and resulted in the development of native edged weapons such as the parang, klewang, mandau, badik, kujang, golok and kris. Chinese straight swords arrived early, and ancient Javanese curved swords show Indian derivation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23476997",
"title": "Dutch East Indies",
"section": "Section::::History.:Dutch conquests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 861,
"text": "Although Indonesian rebellions broke out, direct colonial rule was extended throughout the rest of the archipelago from 1901 to 1910 and control taken from the remaining independent local rulers. Southwestern Sulawesi was occupied in 1905–06, the island of Bali was subjugated with military conquests in 1906 and 1908, as were the remaining independent kingdoms in Maluku, Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Nusa Tenggara. Other rulers including the Sultans of Tidore in Maluku, Pontianak (Kalimantan), and Palembang in Sumatra, requested Dutch protection from independent neighbours thereby avoiding Dutch military conquest and were able to negotiate better conditions under colonial rule. The Bird's Head Peninsula (Western New Guinea), was brought under Dutch administration in 1920. This final territorial range would form the territory of the Republic of Indonesia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6525542",
"title": "Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies",
"section": "Section::::End of the occupation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "The final stages of warfare were initiated in October 1945 when, in accordance with the terms of their surrender, the Japanese tried to re-establish the authority they relinquished to Indonesians in the towns and cities. Japanese military police killed Republican \"pemuda\" in Pekalongan (Central Java) on 3 October, and Japanese troops drove Republican \"pemuda\" out of Bandung in West Java and handed the city to the British, but the fiercest fighting involving the Japanese was in Semarang. On 14 October, British forces began to occupy the city. Retreating Republican forces retaliated by killing between 130 and 300 Japanese prisoners they were holding. Five hundred Japanese and 2000 Indonesians had been killed and the Japanese had almost captured the city six days later when British forces arrived.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4dg1lf
|
Hi, taking the family on vacation to Niagra Falls soon, what was life like around the falls before the Europeans arrived?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are some errors in /u/dbcanuck's post, at least if we're thinking of the area *prior* to the arrival of Europeans. A lot of what's said in that post more closely resembles a later colonial era view. The main issue is that dbcanuck skips over the people who were living in the immediate Niagara area at the time.\n\nAt the time of European contact, or perhaps slightly before, the the Erie had been living east of the Niagara River, with the Seneca being east of them (the Genesee Valley being the boundary). In traditional Iroquoian history, the Erie were once part of the Seneca - and thus part of the Haudenosaunee (the Iroquois Confederacy). Eventually they opted for autonomy and left the Haudenosaunee to form their own confederacy; there are two versions of this story - one that says the split happened during a war and another that says the split was peaceful but a war followed sometime later. Regardless, this war is said to be the reason that the Erie Confederacy moved from the eastern Niagara region to the eastern shore of Lake Erie. \n\nTheir departure left the area between the Niagara River and the Genesee River virtually uninhabited. The Seneca were eyeing it for themselves, but so were the Wenro. The Wenro were one of the nations of the Chonnonton / Neutral Nation that existed in southern Ontario west of the Niagara River. Incidentally, the Niagara are one of the other nations in this group and river and falls were named after them. I wrote more about Chonnonton culture in [this post](_URL_0_). \n\nThe Wenro crossed the Niagara River in the late 1620s, thinking the rest of the Chonnonton would back them up if they needed to fight the Seneca. Seneca called their bluff, and the Chonnonton decided to cut the Wenro loose rather than fight the entirety of the Haudenosaunee. Since they were on their own, the Wenro decided to cede the territory to the Seneca and evacuated to the Wendat (Huron) Confederacy north of Lake Ontario. [This map](_URL_1_) so the situation in 1630, just before the Wenro exodus (**EDIT**: I just notice that the map still has \"St. Lawrence Iroquois\" north of the Mohawk. This is inaccurate since the St. Lawrence Iroquoians lost a war against the Algonquins and ended up merging with the Wendat and the Mohawk. So in 1630, that area should be Algonquin.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "151051",
"title": "Sioux Falls, South Dakota",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "French voyagers/explorers visited the area in the early 18th century. The first documented visit by an American (of European descent) was by Philander Prescott, who camped overnight at the falls in December 1832. Captain James Allen led a military expedition out of Fort Des Moines in 1844. Jacob Ferris described the Falls in his 1856 book \"The States and Territories of the Great West\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "261976",
"title": "Angel Falls",
"section": "Section::::History of Angel Falls.:Exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Sir Walter Raleigh in his expedition to find the fabled city of El Dorado described what was possibly a \"tepui\" (table top mountain), and he is said to have been the first European to view Angel Falls, although these claims are considered far-fetched. Some historians state that the first European to visit the waterfall was , a Spanish explorer and governor from the 16th and 17th centuries. Other sources state that the first westerner to see the waterfall was the Spanish explorer Fèlix Cardona in 1927.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192485",
"title": "Victoria Falls",
"section": "Section::::History.:Pre-colonial history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "In 1860, Livingstone returned to the area and made a detailed study of the falls with John Kirk. Other early European visitors included Portuguese explorer Serpa Pinto, Czech explorer Emil Holub, who made the first detailed plan of the falls and its surroundings in 1875 (published in 1880), and British artist Thomas Baines, who executed some of the earliest paintings of the falls. Until the area was opened up by the building of the railway in 1905, though, the falls were seldom visited by other Europeans. Some writers believe that the Portuguese priest Gonçalo da Silveira was the first European to catch sight of the falls back in the sixteenth century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2407535",
"title": "Murchison Falls National Park",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "The explorers John Speke and James Grant were the first Europeans to visit the present day MFCA in 1862. It was more thoroughly explored by Samuel and Florence Baker in 1863-4. Baker named the falls Murchison Falls after the geologist Roderick Murchison, then the president of the Royal Geographical Society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1358335",
"title": "Campsie Fells",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "The Campsie Fells have cemented their place in history as the birthplace of Scottish skiing, when W.W. Naismith of Glasgow skied the area, becoming the first ever man to ski in Scotland in March 1892.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1908697",
"title": "Waterfall Gully, South Australia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Natural disasters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1262,
"text": "Over the years since European settlement Waterfall Gully has suffered from both bushfires and flooding. The gully was severely hit by a number of bushfires in 1939 that threatened the area, and further bushfires in the early 1940s caused considerable damage because of the war effort diverting supplies and personnel from the Emergency Fire Service. Significant floods occurred in 1889 and 1931, and, on the night of 7 November 2005, Waterfall Gully was one of several areas in Adelaide to experience severe flooding. Waterfall Gully was one of the hardest hit suburbs: Bob Stevenson, Duty Officer of the State Emergency Service (SES), commented that \"There's an area called Waterfall Gully Road, in the foothills, where one of the creeks comes down, and there's quite a few houses affected there ... there was 40 or so houses affected on that one road alone.\" Properties were flooded, two bridges nearly collapsed, and of road was washed away. Burnside council workers, the Country Fire Service (CFS) and the SES repaired the initial damage on the night while reconstruction of infrastructure commenced in late November. Much of the road had been inaccessible, and the suburb was closed except to residents and emergency workers for the remainder of the month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2309094",
"title": "Puerto Iguazú",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca became, in 1542, the first European to discover what are now called Iguazú Falls. He was drawn by the noise of the water, which can be heard at a distance of several kilometers. When the Spanish arrived in the 16th century, the Guaraní people were the principal inhabitants of the area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vytwk
|
How did france combat the longbow?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you are wondering about the 100 years war and the part the longbow played in it, I believe I can help you there. In the battle of Crecy, the English victory was due in part to the cunning leadership of King Edward III. His use of longbowmen was legendary, and the first major victory for longbows over crossbows. Their astounding success was due to the tenacity of the English archers, and their ability to **keep their bowstrings dry**. The crossbowmen could not remove their heavy strings. So, on the rain drenched field of Crecy, their crossbows were proven useless. So, their knights marched on without any cover. This allowed the English knights to move around with impunity, and strike wherever they felt necessary. That, combined with the ranged assistance of the English bowmen, won them Crecy. Apparently, it took them a century to fix their poor tactics, as they suffered yet another crushing defeat on the battlefields of Agincourt, under very similar circumstances. However, the crossbowmen were able to adapt, thus giving their army much needed consistent ranged support. That, and keep in mind that the French were able to draw troops from local conscription; the English were not. It would take amphibious landings to receive additional troops. Also, as armour became more and more advanced, they were able to withstand longbows more well. This is where the crossbow became the ultimate knight-killing machine. A crossbow has much more power in each shot than a bow. It was able to puncture armour more effectively, thus rendering English knights more vulnerable. However, both sides used the crossbow, and the longbow, respectively. The French just used the crossbow more, and were able to drive the English from their land, and keep their country.\nI really hope this helps!\n\n\n\n\n\nSource:_URL_0_\n _URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends on what the French commander had access to, essentially. They used pavise crossbowmen at Constance, rushed the longbowmen with cavalry before they could prepare their defenses at Patay, did the same but with infantry at Pontvallain, used artillery for psychological warfare purposes at Formigny, and forced the English to attack at Castillon (which is sometimes called \"Crecy in reverse\").\n\nGenerally speaking, when provided with good logistics and experienced commanders, French armies found a variety of ways to defeat English armies and the longbowmen they used. The consistent problem facing the French was usually a problem of logistics, in that French commanders could not be certain what forces would be available to them on the battlefield. This prevented effective combined arms counters to the English combined arms forces, and even blunted the force of those counters when they could muster them - look at Crecy and the inability to supply the Genoese crossbowmen with their pavises!\n\nAfter the *Ordonnance* reforms of the 15th century, French armies were able to ensure that they had certain elements (artillery especially) at hand when battle was joined, which in turn allowed commanders more tactical flexibility in order to beat the English at their own game.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16612805",
"title": "Infantry in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Notable infantry of the Middle Ages.:English longbowmen.:The longbow on the battlefield.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 1207,
"text": "Longbowmen were used to great effect on the continent of Europe, as assorted kings and leaders clashed with their enemies on the battlefields of France. The most famous of these battles were Crecy, Poitiers and Agincourt. The English tactical system relied on a combination of longbowmen and heavy infantry, such as dismounted men-at-arms. Difficult to deploy in a thrusting mobile offensive, the longbow was best used in a defensive configuration. Against mounted enemies the bowmen took up a defensive position, and unleashed clouds of arrows into the ranks of knights and men-at-arms. The ranks of the bowmen were extended in thin lines and protected and screened by pits (e.g. Crecy), stakes (e.g. Agincourt) or trenches (e.g. Morlaix). There is some academic controversy about how the longbowmen and heavy infantry related on the battlefield. According to the traditional view articulated by A.H. Burne, the bowmen were deployed in a \"V\" between divisions of infantry, enabling them to trap and enfilade their foes. Other, more recent, historians such as Matthew Bennett dispute this, holding that the archers were normally deployed on the flanks of the army as a whole, rather than between divisions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18432",
"title": "English longbow",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "The English longbow was a powerful medieval type of longbow (a tall bow for archery) about long used by the English and Welsh for hunting and as a weapon in medieval warfare. English use of longbows was effective against the French during the Hundred Years' War, particularly at the start of the war in the battles of Sluys (1340), Crécy (1346), and Poitiers (1356), and perhaps most famously at the Battle of Agincourt (1415). They were less successful after this, with longbowmen having their lines broken at the Battle of Verneuil (1424), and being completely routed at the Battle of Patay (1429) when they were charged before they had set up their defensive position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58916",
"title": "Battle of Crécy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "During a brief archery duel a large force of French mercenary crossbowmen was routed by English longbowmen. The French then launched a series of cavalry charges by their mounted knights. These were disordered by their impromptu nature, by having to force their way through the fleeing crossbowmen, by the muddy ground, by having to charge uphill, and by the pits dug by the English. The attacks were further broken up by the effective fire from the English archers, which caused heavy casualties. By the time the French charges reached the English men-at-arms, who had dismounted for the battle, they had lost much of their impetus. The ensuing hand-to-hand combat was described as \"murderous, without pity, cruel, and very horrible\". The French charges continued late into the night, all with the same result: fierce fighting followed by a French repulse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23468036",
"title": "History of weapons",
"section": "Section::::Later Middle Ages.:Longbow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 1143,
"text": "The English longbow was greatly responsible for making England a major military power in the late medieval period, the English had introduced this deadly longbow during the Battle of Crecy. King Edward III was ravaging the countryside during the invasion of France, King Philip VI of France intercepted the English near the town of Crecy. The French had easily outnumbered the English. Apart from armoured knights the French army also had nearly 4,000 Genoese crossbowmen. But the English archers outnumbered the Genoese and rained arrows, the English could shoot five times faster than the Genoese crossbowmen. When the French mounted knights tried to infiltrate into the English lines, the longbowmen turned their attention to them and started to shoot, resulting in chaos. The horses started to crash into each other, cavalry was destroyed and the French army annihilated. The longbow was made of a simple piece of wood, but its design was fairly sophisticated. The bow's back, the part facing away from the archer, was the more flexible sapwood, that allowed the bow to be bent more sharply without breaking or causing any further damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18432",
"title": "English longbow",
"section": "Section::::Use and performance.:Armour penetration.:Shields.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Following the Battle of Crécy, the longbow did not always prove as effective. For example, at the Battle of Poitiers (1356), the French men-at-arms formed a shield wall with which Geoffrey le Baker recounts \"‘protecting their bodies with joined shields, [and] turned their faces away from the missiles. So the archers emptied their quivers in vain\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4615",
"title": "Battle of Agincourt",
"section": "Section::::Battle.:Fighting.:French cavalry attack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 961,
"text": "The French cavalry, despite being disorganised and not at full numbers, charged towards the longbowmen, but it was a disaster, with the French knights unable to outflank the longbowmen (because of the encroaching woodland) and unable to charge through the forest of sharpened stakes that protected the archers. John Keegan argues that the longbows' main influence on the battle at this point was injuries to horses: armoured only on the head, many horses would have become dangerously out of control when struck in the back or flank from the high-elevation long range shots used as the charge started. The mounted charge and subsequent retreat churned up the already muddy terrain between the French and the English. Juliet Barker quotes a contemporary account by a monk of St. Denis who reports how the wounded and panicking horses galloped through the advancing infantry, scattering them and trampling them down in their headlong flight from the battlefield.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28974679",
"title": "Loire Campaign (1429)",
"section": "Section::::Campaign.:The Battle of Patay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "The standard defensive tactic of the English longbowmen was to drive pointed stakes into the ground near their positions. This prevented cavalry charges and slowed infantry long enough for the longbows to take a decisive toll on the enemy line. However, the English archers inadvertently disclosed their position to French scouts before their preparations were complete when a lone stag wandered onto a nearby field and the archers raised a hunting cry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7huyee
|
how does “i want my lawyer” work when being interrogated?
|
[
{
"answer": "When the police read you your rights (Miranda rights) they tell you that if you do not have a lawyer, that a lawyer will be appointed to you. \n\nYou are also given a phone call, to which you can call your lawyer. Otherwise, the officer/jail will work with you to find/contact your lawyer as they cannot really serve justice without going thru the legal process, which includes you making a statement, etc. \n\nIf you need a lawyer and cannot afford a lawyer, a lawyer is appointed via the public defenders office.\n\nIf you can afford a lawyer, but do not have a lawyer, they will provide you with a phone book, etc, to contact and contract a lawyer. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the US, the right to remain silent and a request for a lawyer usually go hand and hand. You are basically saying, \"I'm not talking anymore, move on to the next step or release me. \n\nIf you are arrested, you are either released after the arrest, or a bond is set. You don't need a lawyer for either of those things, although a lawyer could argue for reduction or elimination of bail. \n They can also persuade the police to not charge you. If your timing is bad, you can wind up spending a night or two in jail, but that is more about waiting for a judge to set bail than finding a lawyer.\n\nThe lawyer comes into play when:\n\n* you want to talk to the police, but be protected from yourself\n* you want to negotiate with the district attorney\n* you are on trial",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the US, your invocation of your right to a lawyer requires the police to stop questioning you until a lawyer is provided.\n\nBecause police know that the lawyer’s advice will be for you to *stop talking no matter what*, asking for a lawyer is ordinarily treated as a de facto exercise of your right to remain silent. When you ask for the lawyer, the interrogation will end. Since you’re no longer being interrogated, there’s no need to go out and find a lawyer for you. By the time your arraignment comes around, you’ll have hired a lawyer or been assigned a public defender. \n\nThere are occasionally exceptions to the above. But that’s the general procedure. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a number of possibilities depending on the situation.\n\nIf youre arrested Friday night, you might be in jail until Monday morning, for example, as a judge won't set bail until then. Same with a 3AM arrest, you're likely to be in jail until morning.\n\nHowever, those aren't strictly the same as INTERROGATION-which is the cops asking specifically about specific crimes of which you are suspected.\n\nIf youre arrested for some BS- fighting, for example, you may not need a lawyer at all. If no one presses charges, or if you were caught up in a sweep at a rowdy protest or tossed in the drunk tank, they may just let you walk.\n\nIf not, for most stuff, the cops want you gone. Having prisoners is expensive and a hassle. You'll get all the collect phone calls you want to whoever you want as long as someone will get your dumb ass.\n\nIf you're being interrogated, an attorney is a right you have. It may be a lawyer you call (they have lists) or a public defender. Either way-once you CLEARLY and UNAMBIGUOUSLY ask for a lawyer, the interrogation stops. \n\nYou must also shut up. If you start talking again, at all, you essentially consent to being questioned again.\n\nBasically, cops are mostly interested in processing you and ensuring you get your rights within the law so you can't make a fuss in court. Getting a lawyer isn't hard-if you aren't the subject of a criminal investigation they want you to have one to go away and if you are they'll happily provide one so you don't sue.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "612011",
"title": "Ernesto Miranda",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:\"Miranda v. Arizona\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The person in custody must, prior to interrogation, be clearly informed that he has the right to remain silent, and that anything he says will be used against him in court; he must be clearly informed that he has the right to consult with a lawyer and to have the lawyer with him during interrogation, and that, if he is indigent, a lawyer will be appointed to represent him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29261260",
"title": "Davis v. United States (1994)",
"section": "Section::::Opinion of the Court.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "According to the court, the interrogators opted for the clarification method to determine if Davis's request for counsel was ambiguous or not. When Davis said “Maybe I should talk to a lawyer”, the interrogators replied by saying that they would not violate his rights. They made it clear that if he wanted a lawyer, they would have stopped the interrogation. When the interrogators asked for clarification, Davis answered that he was not asking for a lawyer. Therefore, the interrogators did not believe his request for counsel was ambiguous since Davis announced he was not requesting counsel in the first place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32415623",
"title": "R v Sinclair",
"section": "Section::::Reasons of the Court.:Purpose of right to counsel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "The majority found that the purpose of the right to speak with counsel is \"to allow the detainee not only to be informed of his rights and obligations under the law but, equally if not more important, to obtain advice as to how to exercise those rights.\" In the context of a police interrogation, the purpose of the right is to support a detainee's right whether or not to cooperate with the police by giving the detainee access to legal advice about the situation he or she is facing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2945072",
"title": "Human rights in Japan",
"section": "Section::::Judicial system.:Prohibition of arbitrary arrest or detention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "Under the Criminal Procedure Code, police and prosecutors have the power to control or limit access by legal counsel when deemed necessary for the sake of an investigation. Counsel may not be present during interrogations at any time before or after indictment. As a court-appointed attorney is not approved until after indictment, suspects must rely on their own resources to hire an attorney before indictment, although local bar associations provided detainees with limited free counseling. Critics charged that access to counsel was limited both in duration and frequency; however, the Government denied that this was the case. Incommunicado detention could be used for up to 23 days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "256092",
"title": "Right to silence",
"section": "Section::::Worldwide.:United Kingdom.:Northern Ireland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 219,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 219,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "\"To deny access to a lawyer for the first 48 hours of police questioning, in a situation where the rights of the defense may well be irretrievably prejudiced, is – whatever the justification for such denial – incompatible with the rights of the accused under Article 6.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32415623",
"title": "R v Sinclair",
"section": "Section::::Reasons of the Court.:Purpose of right to counsel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "In his dissenting decision, Binnie J. found that the purpose of the right to counsel is help a detainee understand his or her rights as well as how to exercise those rights in dealing with the authorities. Justice Binnie pointed out that if the purpose of the right to counsel was just to echo what the police had already said, regardless of what may emerge during the course of the interrogation, then the role of counsel could be replaced with the following recorded message: codice_1\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33111206",
"title": "Indonesian criminal procedure",
"section": "Section::::Legal protections for the accused.:Rights to counsel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Once the suspect obtains legal assistance, the counsel has a right to contact him from the moment he is arrested or detained. The counsel also has a right to be present at, and listen to, interrogations. This ensures that the police do not carry out unfair interrogation techniques.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
49kq37
|
why can't people who are very light in weight donate blood?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because the medical common \"unit of blood\" represent too large a proportion of their total blood - it would be unsafe for them to donate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "they have smaller bodies. Smaller body = less blood. They typically (in the US) take about a pint. That can be too much blood to take from a person if they are too small. \n\nI weigh 180lbs and just so happened to give blood today, and even at 180, giving a pint left me a bit dizzy for a while. I had to sit for a good half hour before i was Ok to walk on my own..",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So, as someone who is ~105 lbs, it really WOULD be unsafe for me to donate blood?? I've always wondered this because I would like to, but the technical min. weight is 110 I believe....however, I'm just 5lbs short! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The estimated amount of blood in a 180 lb. human is about 1.5 gallons.\n\nA pint is 1/8th a gallon. Which comes out to a little more than 8% if that person's blood. In a smaller person, their reduced blood capacity can cause that to jump to over 15%, in which the body begins to get worried, and takes measures to try to compensate.\n\nIf the person is in perfect perfect health, 15% wouldn't do any lasting damage. They might feel woozy or even pass out for a bit. **Nobody** is expected to be in perfect health though, so they only want people whose percentage will be 10% or less. You might feel light headed for a little bit, but that's as far as it should go.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "505536",
"title": "Blood donation",
"section": "Section::::Donor health benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "In patients prone to iron overload, blood donation prevents the accumulation of toxic quantities. Donating blood may reduce the risk of heart disease for men, but the link has not been firmly established and may be from selection bias because donors are screened for health problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1494752",
"title": "Plateletpheresis",
"section": "Section::::Platelet collection.:Apheresis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Blood accounts for about 8% of body weight, so a 50 kg (110 lb) donor has about four liters of blood. No more than 50% of a donor's platelets are ever extracted in one sitting, and they can be replenished by the body in about three days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1318175",
"title": "Signalling theory",
"section": "Section::::Human honest signals.:Physical risks as a costly signal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "In western societies, voluntary blood donation is a common, yet less extreme, form of risk taking. Costs associated with these donations include pain and risk of infection. If blood donation is an opportunity to send costly signals, then donors will be perceived by others as generous and physically healthy. In a survey, both donors and non-donors expressed perceptions of the health, generosity, and ability of blood donors to operate in stressful situations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21420673",
"title": "World Blood Donor Day",
"section": "Section::::History.:2012: Every blood donor is a hero.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "The 2012 campaign focused on the idea that any person can become a hero by giving blood. Blood cannot yet be manufactured artificially, so voluntary blood donation remains vital for healthcare worldwide. Many anonymous blood donors save lives every day through their blood donations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1978782",
"title": "Canadian Blood Services",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "There are several reasons why individuals can be deferred from donating blood, including intravenous drug use, living in the UK for certain periods of time, coming from an HIV-endemic country, as well HIV high risk activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "593388",
"title": "Iron-deficiency anemia",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Blood donation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Frequent blood donors are also at risk for developing iron deficiency anemia. When whole blood is donated, approximately 200mg of iron is also lost from the body. The blood bank screens people for anemia before drawing blood for donation. If the patient has anemia, blood is not drawn. Less iron is lost if the person is donating platelets or white blood cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505536",
"title": "Blood donation",
"section": "Section::::Donor compensation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Most allogeneic blood donors donate as an act of charity and do not expect to receive any direct benefit from the donation. The sociologist Richard Titmuss, in his 1970 book \"The Gift Relationship: From Human Blood to Social Policy\", compared the merits of the commercial and non-commercial blood donation systems of the US and the UK, coming down in favor of the latter. The book became a bestseller in the US, resulting in legislation to regulate the private market in blood. The book is still referenced in modern debates about turning blood into a commodity. The book was republished in 1997 and the same ideas and principles are applied to analogous donation programs, such as organ donation and sperm donation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5af6tj
|
How did the Roaring Twenties happen when the decade before saw both WWI and the Spanish Flu Epidemic, essentially wiping out an entire young generation? What were the lasting negative effects of losing so many young people from 1914-1920?
|
[
{
"answer": "With the greatest respect, your question is based on a largely false or flawed assumption that most western countries did experience unprecedented levels of economic prosperity following the years 1914-1920. Certainly this is true of the US, not so much for Europe. The places where the ravages of the Great War, and/or Spanish Flu hit hardest were the ones that fared worst during the 1920's, which is also partly the reason why fascist leaders came to power in Italy in 1922 with Mussolini, in Germany in 1933 with Hitler, and in Spain in 1936 with Franco. Countries that could not take advantage of the post war economy were even less prepared to weather the Great Depression and, as Franklin Roosevelt said in his State of the Union address in 1944, \"People who are hungry and out of a job are the stuff of which dictatorships are made.\"\n\n**Let's start with the UK:**\n\nOf all European nations, the UK probably fared the best during the Roaring Twenties. However, economically, times were still very tough. Soldiers who returned from the war faced huge levels of unemployment. Between the years 1900-1910, unemployment peaked at 7.8% with it as low as 3.8% in 1913. In 1921 unemployment had risen to 16.9%. Unemployment stayed well above 10%, briefly dipping to 9.7% in 1927, but rose again in '28-'29[.pdf Source](_URL_1_)\n\nThe big reason for this level of unemployment was the lack of demand for British goods. Before the war, the British economy had largely depended on its industrial production of goods and resources. In Liverpool, Manchester, and much of the North East, textiles, particularly in cotton from Egypt and jute from India were enormously important, but developments in new synthetic fabrics from the US, particularly in cotton substitutes like Rayon, hurt the British economy enormously. \n\nSteelworks in Newcastle and Sheffield, without the demands of a war, suffered layoffs and cutbacks from which they would never recover.\n\nCoal mining in Wales was still strong, but as shipping, factories, even domestic heating moved away from coal to petroleum and gas, demand was stagnating. This coupled with frequent strikes and labour disputes put the future of British coal mining on a knife edge.\n\nAs evidenced, the UK's problem wasn't so much a lack of manpower (they hadn't fared nearly so badly as Germany or France), but a shift in the global economy as the US moved to overtake the UK and a global production powerhouse. Massive immigration from Europe helped the US enormously in this regard.\n\n**France:**\n\nFrance, on the other had, hand virtually no unemployment. Hovering between 2%-5%, peaking in 1927 at 11%. [.pdf Source, unemployment tables on page 9](_URL_0_)\n\nFor France, the problem was manpower. Between 1914-1918, French casualties were estimated at 1.6-1.7 million, roughly 4.3%-4.4% of the total population, roughly 1% higher than German casualties as percentage of population. It's important to note that French casualties were higher, or more concentrated in the North and North-East with huge damage done to infrastructure. \n\nFrance made enormous strides in terms of industrial production, as the country continued to industrialize largely rural areas. However the lack of manpower continued to hamstring them. The result was a mixed bag. France struggled to repay its foreign debts, so the nation remained largely poor, but the plentiful work and (comparatively) low working population meant that the coming Great Depression was less severe in France than in the UK or Germany. Many historians have pointed to this as a partial explanation for why fascism failed to make significant inroads in French politics in the 1930's, though communism did. That and the right-wing parties, who were in power during the war, were blamed for the scale of the destruction.\n\n**Germany:**\n\nFamously, Germany fared pretty badly post-war. Not only did it have to make reparations payments for its part in the war, but also trade restrictions and tariffs were placed on German made goods, making reliance on an export economy rather difficult.\n\nRather like France, unemployment was actually fairly low intially, around 2% in 1921-1922, again owing to the casualties from the Great War. For Germany the issue was twofold. Firstly, the German government under Gustav Streseman had tried to kickstart the economy by spending heavily on social services which, without a strong private sector, is very difficult to sustain and was coupled with the aforementioned reparations. Secondly, though industry was on the rebound, exports struggled so they stubbornly refused to become profitable.\n\nAdd to this the infamous hyperinflation Germany suffered in 1923, and the Wall St crash of 1929, which largely scuppered the Young Plan (which was a US led plan to lessen the strain of reparation repayments and to replace the failed Dawes Plan of 1924) and led to many US banks recalling loans to Europe, meant that any small gains the German economy made between 1920 and 1929 were quickly extinguished. As the world economy crumbled, and governments (particularly the US) sought to protect industry at home rather than abroad, world trade fell through the floor and unemployment in Europe soared leading to the Great Depression of 1933 and contributing to the rise of fascist powers in Europe\n\n**Further points:**\n\nUnfortunately, I haven't time to flesh this out properly, so I won't hold it against the mods if they see this as an incomplete answer and choose to remove it, but I hope it provides some context to show that the Roaring Twenties didn't exactly 'roar' for everyone.\n\nA couple more points I want to make very quickly:\n\nWhile I in no way wish to disparage the American contribution to the war effort, American casualties expressed as a percentage of the US population is only around 0.13% which was a loss of manpower the US economy could weather comfortably. Combine that with the mass influx of migrants from Europe and the challenges facing industrial power in UK, France, and Germany, and the relative un-industrialization of the rest of Europe, meant the US was poised to become the dominant economic power, which it achieved comfortably by 1929.\n\nAs an aside, Bill Bryson's *One Summer; America, 1927* provides fantastic context for how America emerged as the dominant economic and cultural power in the mid-late 1920's, essentially, an explanation for why the Twenties Roared so loudly in the US.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To point out a few more false assumptions and points for thought: \n\n* Not nearly \"an entire generation\" was wiped out. Yes, lots and lots and lots of people died. But regarding Germany specifically, approx 2million men died in the war out of approx 13million mobilised.That leaves 11million returning. Additionally, not everyone mobilised was at the front, and even if they were they weren't there all the time - the idea of a \"front generation\" is pretty much a myth. This means that while a significant proportion may have returned psychologically damaged, many more returned to a pretty ordinary life. (See Richard Bessel - *Germany after the First World War* for many more stats and the effects of the demobilisation.)\n\n* To be a young person in the 1920s, you likely didn't fight in WWI. If you're 25 in 1925 (to pick an easy example), you were 14 when the war started, 18 when it ended so at most you were drafted for a few months at the end. If you're 20 then, you definitely didn't fight. (Also see Richard Bessel on the generation that was just too young to fight and how this influenced the romanticisation of the war, the idea of the front generation which could be seen as an \"exclusive club\" that those too young had just missed out on, the effects of many jobs being given to returning soldiers rather than those who had not fought etc.)\n\n* The roaring twenties aren't necessarily about rich glitz and glamour. You link them to economic prosperity but I don't see that a necessary linkage compared to the link to a new and different culture. Sure, they are most easily portrayed that way but post-war Germany was culturally avant-garde. The 20s were a lot about a change in *culture* towards the modern e.g. the new woman, identity, youth-movements and independence etc. You can be an \"new woman\", \"independent\" with your \"own identity\" and go dancing, all without being rich. (Endless literature, maybe Peukert - *The Weimar Republic. A Crisis of Classical Modernity* is a good starting point for a critical view of \"modernity\"). \n\n* As others have pointed out, the twenties weren't a big thing everywhere. German history especially is very Berlin-centered and Berlin was a cultural epicentre. That's what you see in those \"roaring 20s\" representations of the era. What you don't see is the life in other parts of the country. (I found Leif Jerram - *Germany's other modernity* interesting regarding how modernity was experienced in Munich, although it's not a comprehensive overview of course.)\n\n* You hear a lot about a the \"crisis\" of the 20s regarding Europe. And the economic crisis was of course real. But what is interesting that while contemporaries talked about crisis a lot, it didn't necessarily have the negative connotations associated with the word today. Instead, crisis means that a decision is about due that could go either way (think of a crisis in an illness - either the patient recovers or he dies, the crisis comes before the decision). Instead, the contingency of the time period was a big thing. This means the openness of it - the decision is nearly due but it could lead to a good future too. (See Föllmer & Graf *Die Krise der Weimarer Republik*, unfortunate only in German). This openness, the possibilities many people saw (and which was expressed in the literature) is, I would argue, part of the defining feature of the 20s where society and culture breaks away from more conservative norms (although of course the conservative nature and authoritarianism also remained a big deal in postWWI Germany - nothing is true for everyone, everywhere!!). \n\nSo it could be argued that the \"roaring 20s\" were culturally strongly influenced *because* of the aftermath of WWI causing a state of \"crisis\" in which new possibilities arose. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2486778",
"title": "Clarence Barber",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "The death of young men as soldiers in World War I, coupled with the Flu Pandemic of 1918 wrought their eventual harm to the economy as a whole. The increase in secularization during the 'Roaring Twenties', as automobiles became widespread, and availability of electricity and electrical appliances and such, may have had its effect too. Barber showed in \"\"On Causes...\"\" that lower demand for mortgages and other loans preceded by some years a shortage of loan availability as the Great Depression deepened towards 1933.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "198796",
"title": "Spanish flu",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "In the United States, Britain and other countries, despite the relatively high morbidity and mortality rates that resulted from the epidemic in 1918–1919, the Spanish flu began to fade from public awareness over the decades until the arrival of news about bird flu and other pandemics in the 1990s and 2000s. This has led some historians to label the Spanish flu a \"forgotten pandemic\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5511624",
"title": "History of Torquay",
"section": "Section::::World War I.:1918.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "September 1918 saw a serious outbreak of the Spanish flu which was ravaging the world at the time, over 100 American servicemen died at the Oldway Hospital in a fortnight from the disease; they were buried in Paignton cemetery, but were later exhumed and taken back to the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157649",
"title": "Wall Street Crash of 1929",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "The Roaring Twenties, the decade that followed World War I that led to the crash, was a time of wealth and excess. Building on post-war optimism, rural Americans migrated to the cities in vast numbers throughout the decade with the hopes of finding a more prosperous life in the ever-growing expansion of America's industrial sector. While American cities prospered, the overproduction of agricultural produce created widespread financial despair among American farmers throughout the decade. This would later be blamed as one of the key factors that led to the 1929 stock market crash.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36113870",
"title": "History of Málaga",
"section": "Section::::Twentieth century.:Málaga during World War I (1914–1918).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "The pandemic outbreak of influenza in the spring of 1918, along with a major economic slowdown in the postwar period, hit Spain particularly hard, and the country went into debt. From that moment the social conflict was to come to a head. The post-World War I economic difficulties heightened social unrest among urban industrial workers and rural peasants, with a period of strikes and agitation in both the city and the countryside. The Cortes (Spanish parliament) under the constitutional monarchy seemed to have no solution to Spain's unemployment, labor strikes, and poverty. The socialists and anarchists pressed for radical changes, but the government proved unable to reform itself or the nation and frustration mounted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38289",
"title": "Depression (economics)",
"section": "Section::::Other depressions.:Global.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "The late 1910s and early 1920s were marked by an economic depression that unraveled in particularly catastrophic circumstances: The Great War and its aftermath led to a global nosedive in commodities that ruined many developing nations, while servicemen returning from the trenches found themselves with high unemployment as businesses failed, unable to transition into a peacetime economy. Also, the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918-20 brought economic activity to a standstill as even more people became incapacitated. Most developed countries had mostly recovered by 1921-22, however Germany saw its economy crippled until 1923-24 because of the hyperinflation crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8210419",
"title": "Mid-twentieth century baby boom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The middle of the 20th century was marked by a significant and persistent increase in fertility rates in many countries of the world, especially in the West, resulting in the famous baby boomer generation. Although the baby boom traditionally considered to be the post-war phenomenon started immediately after World War II, some demographers place it earlier, at the increase of births during the war or in the late 1930s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
44pt6m
|
Why do antibiotics cause rapid growth in animals?
|
[
{
"answer": "You're right, this is a real effect. And as of right now, we're not really sure how it works, though there are a few ideas. I'll quote verbatim from [this paper](_URL_0_):\n\n > At least four mechanisms have been proposed as explanations of antibiotic mediated growth enhancement: [1] inhibition of sub-clinical infections, [2] reduction of growth-depressing microbial metabolites, [3] reduction of microbial use of nutrients, and [4] enhanced uptake and use of nutrients through the thinner intestinal wall associated with antibiotic-fed animals.\n\nNone of these seem like particularly satisfying explanations, but that's what we're working with.\n\nOf course, the use of antibiotics for growth promotion alone in feed animals is a huge problem, and regulatory agencies are only starting to impose restrictions on this practice. I've written about this in more depth, [here](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40364158",
"title": "Antibiotic use in livestock",
"section": "Section::::Antibiotic resistance.:Mechanisms for transfer to humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Antibiotics given in concentrations too low to combat disease are called “subtherapeutic.” The administration of these drugs when there is no diagnosis of disease result in decreased mortality and morbidity and increased growth in the animals treated. It is theorized that subtherapeutic doses kill some, but not all, of the bacterial organisms in the animal – likely leaving those that are naturally antibiotic-resistant. The actual mechanism by which subtherapeutic antibiotic feed additives serve as growth promoters is still unclear. Some people have speculated that animals and fowl may have subclinical infections, which would be cured by low levels of antibiotics in feed, thereby allowing the animals to thrive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40364158",
"title": "Antibiotic use in livestock",
"section": "Section::::Antibiotic resistance.:Advocates for restricting antibiotic use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Antibiotic use in animals is approved for treatment of sick animals. The FDA has approved responsible use of antibiotics to control disease spread in a population of animals when members of the population are sick, prevent spread of disease for at-risk animals, and treat infected animals. However, the CDC and FDA do not support the use of antibiotics for growth promotion because of evidence that suggests antibiotics for growth promotion lead to the development of resistant bacteria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9028799",
"title": "Bacteria",
"section": "Section::::Growth and reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 977,
"text": "Most laboratory techniques for growing bacteria use high levels of nutrients to produce large amounts of cells cheaply and quickly. However, in natural environments, nutrients are limited, meaning that bacteria cannot continue to reproduce indefinitely. This nutrient limitation has led the evolution of different growth strategies (see r/K selection theory). Some organisms can grow extremely rapidly when nutrients become available, such as the formation of algal (and cyanobacterial) blooms that often occur in lakes during the summer. Other organisms have adaptations to harsh environments, such as the production of multiple antibiotics by \"Streptomyces\" that inhibit the growth of competing microorganisms. In nature, many organisms live in communities (e.g., biofilms) that may allow for increased supply of nutrients and protection from environmental stresses. These relationships can be essential for growth of a particular organism or group of organisms (syntrophy).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38162533",
"title": "Antimicrobials in aquaculture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The overuse of antibiotics can create antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can spontaneously arise when selective pressure to survive results in changes to the DNA sequence of a bacterium allowing that bacterium to survive antibiotic treatments. Because some of the same antibiotics are used to treat fish that are used to treat human disease, pathogenic bacteria causing human disease can also become resistant to antibiotics as a result of treatment of fish with antibiotics. For this reason, the overuse of antibiotics in treatment of fish aquaculture (among other agricultural uses) could create public health issues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38156540",
"title": "Seafood mislabelling",
"section": "Section::::Antimicrobials in aquaculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "The overuse of antibiotics can create antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can spontaneously arise when selective pressure to survive results in changes to the DNA sequence of a bacteria allowing that bacteria to survive antibiotic treatments. Because some of the same antibiotics are used to treat fish that are used to treat human disease, pathogenic bacteria causing human disease can also become resistant to antibiotics as a result of treatment of fish with antibiotics. For this reason, the overuse of antibiotics in treatment of fish aquaculture (among other agricultural uses) could create public health issues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38162533",
"title": "Antimicrobials in aquaculture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Antibiotics are used in aquaculture to treat diseases caused by bacteria. Sometimes the antibiotics are used to treat diseases, but more commonly antibiotics are used to prevent diseases by treating the water or fish before disease occurs. While this prophylactic method of preventing disease is profitable because it prevents loss and allows fish to grow more quickly, there are several downsides. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38156540",
"title": "Seafood mislabelling",
"section": "Section::::Antimicrobials in aquaculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Antibiotics are used in aquaculture to treat diseases caused by bacteria. Sometimes the antibiotics are used to treat diseases, but more commonly antibiotics are used to prevent diseases by treating the water or fish before disease occurs. While this prophylactic method of preventing disease is profitable because it prevents loss and allows fish to grow more quickly, there are several downsides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mbbde
|
Does love (as a feeling) raise testosterone levels in men?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't know how broadly or narrowly you are asking this question. I have not spent any time recently on this literature, but I do know of one study that found that when men fall in love their testosterone goes down. When men are married or cohabiting with their partner, they have lower testosterone than when they were single or not living with their partner. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22138684",
"title": "Alcohol and sex",
"section": "Section::::In men.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "As testosterone is critical for libido and physical arousal, alcohol tends to have deleterious effects on male sexual performance. Studies have been conducted that indicate increasing levels of alcohol intoxication produce a significant degradation in male masturbatory effectiveness (MME). This degradation was measured by measuring blood alcohol concentration (BAC) and ejaculation latency. Alcohol intoxication can decrease sexual arousal, decrease pleasureability and intensity of orgasm, and increase difficulty in attaining orgasm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35334391",
"title": "Sexual arousal",
"section": "Section::::Hormones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 1047,
"text": "Several hormones affect sexual arousal, including testosterone, cortisol, and estradiol. However, the specific roles of these hormones are not clear. Testosterone is the most commonly studied hormone involved with sexuality. It plays a key role in sexual arousal in males, with strong effects on central arousal mechanisms. The connection between testosterone and sexual arousal is more complex in females. Research has found testosterone levels increase as a result of sexual cognitions in females that do not use hormonal contraception. Also, women who participate in polyandrous relationships have higher levels of testosterone. However, it is unclear whether higher levels of testosterone cause increased arousal and in turn multiple partners or whether sexual activity with multiple partners cause the increase in testosterone. Inconsistent study results point to the idea that while testosterone may play a role in the sexuality of some women, its effects can be obscured by the co-existence of psychological or affective factors in others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35536844",
"title": "Sexual desire and intimate relationships",
"section": "Section::::Components of love and sexual desire.:Love, sexual desire and attachment.:Sexual desire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1092,
"text": "Enhanced focus, concern and attention toward the desired other has not only been associated with increased arousal by means of testosterone, but also with elevated concentrations of central dopamine and norepinephrine, and decreased levels of central serotonin. Other forms of physiological arousal associated with enhanced levels of dopamine include increased energy, exhilaration, euphoria, sleeplessness, loss of appetite, trembling, pounding heartbeat, and accelerated breathing. This same increased arousal is also a feature of attraction, and is the suggested cause of feelings of exhilaration, ecstasy, intrusive thinking about the love object, regarding them as unique and a craving for emotional union with this partner or potential partner. Feelings of anxiety, panic and fear in the presence of a beloved may also occur, as well as susceptibility to abrupt mood swings. If a relationship should suffer negatively, this may cause the attracted individual to fall into feelings of despair and brooding, which could translate to behaviours and situations outside of the relationship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18488",
"title": "Libido",
"section": "Section::::Factors that affect libido.:Endogenous compounds.:Sex hormone levels and the menstrual cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Although some specialists disagree with this theory, menopause is still considered by the majority a factor that can cause decreased sex desire in women. The levels of estrogen decrease at menopause and this usually causes a lower interest in sex and vaginal dryness which makes intercourse painful. However, the levels of testosterone increase at menopause and this may be why some women may experience a contrary effect of an increased libido.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30983",
"title": "Testosterone",
"section": "Section::::Biological effects.:Adult.:Romantic relationships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 1313,
"text": "Falling in love decreases men's testosterone levels while increasing women's testosterone levels. There has been speculation that these changes in testosterone result in the temporary reduction of differences in behavior between the sexes. However, it is suggested that after the \"honeymoon phase\" ends—about four years into a relationship—this change in testosterone levels is no longer apparent. Men who produce less testosterone are more likely to be in a relationship or married, and men who produce more testosterone are more likely to divorce; however, causality cannot be determined in this correlation. Marriage or commitment could cause a decrease in testosterone levels. Single men who have not had relationship experience have lower testosterone levels than single men with experience. It is suggested that these single men with prior experience are in a more competitive state than their non-experienced counterparts. Married men who engage in bond-maintenance activities such as spending the day with their spouse and/or child have no different testosterone levels compared to times when they do not engage in such activities. Collectively, these results suggest that the presence of competitive activities rather than bond-maintenance activities are more relevant to changes in testosterone levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69414",
"title": "Castration",
"section": "Section::::Preventive measure.:Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 1227,
"text": "Certain neurologists argue that while testosterone most likely increases internal sexual stimulation, a reduction of sex drive is unlikely to result in a reduction of inappropriate sexual behavior, as reduced internal stimulation from hormones merely increases the required external stimulation to reach orgasm. These neurologists cite that spreading of brain activity that stimulate more brain activity can increase their activity and tire the circuits out, the brain's path to orgasm, enough to tire out with less external stimulation if the internal signal is stronger, and require more specific external stimulation to reach \"satisfaction\" if the internal signal is weaker. Therefore, they argue, a reduced testosterone level would make it more difficult, not easier, to manage remaining vestiges of sex drive by masturbating without the use of pornography or to otherwise get by with more socially and legally acceptable substitutes for desires that it would be unacceptable to act on. These neurologists also cite that many people, both men and women, find that higher levels of initial sexual arousal make it easier to masturbate to orgasm without the preferred type of external stimuli, as predicted by the hypothesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52251177",
"title": "Testosterone (medication)",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.:Women.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1803,
"text": "Although sufficient doses of testosterone are effective in improving sexual function in postmenopausal women, there is little support for the notion that testosterone is a critical hormone for sexual desire and function in women under normal physiological circumstances. Low doses of testosterone resulting in physiological levels of testosterone (< 50 ng/dL) have not been found to significantly increase sexual desire or function in women in most studies. Similarly, there appears to be little to no relationship between total or free testosterone levels within the normal physiological range and sex drive in premenopausal women. Only high doses of testosterone resulting in supraphysiological levels of testosterone (> 50 ng/dL) significantly increase sexual desire in women, with levels of testosterone of 80 to 150 ng/dL described as \"slightly\" increasing sex drive. In accordance, men experience sexual dysfunction at testosterone levels of below 300 ng/dL, with men that have levels of testosterone of approximately 200 ng/dL often experiencing such problems. The high doses of testosterone that are required to increase sex drive in women may have a significant risk of masculinization with long-term therapy, and may be inappropriate. In 2003, the FDA rejected Intrinsa, a 300 µg/day testosterone patch for the treatment of sexual dysfunction in postmenopausal women, due to limited efficacy (about one additional sexually satisfying event per month), concerns about safety and potential adverse effects with long-term therapy, and concerns about inappropriate off-label use. It appears that in women, rather than testosterone, estradiol may be the most important hormone involved in sexual desire, although data on the clinical use of estradiol to increase sexual desire in women is limited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2cm80k
|
twitter reported a q2 loss of $144.6 million. how do they still afford to run a company and attract investors?
|
[
{
"answer": "Investors think they will be very profitable in the future, so they keep investing money, despite it currently operating at a loss. At some point, it becomes necessary to monetarize Twitter, which means (you guessed it) ads.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Apparently, they have more than $144.6m, and/or access to more funding/credit. That's how they can continue afford to operate. As for why they attract investors, it's hard to say why, but apparently, they are successful in convincing people with money that they'll generate more of it if they let them use it to build their company. You'd have to ask the particular investors why they think that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Investing is complicated. There are many different types of companies to invest in. Some companies, like Apple, have lots and lots of money. They are a safe investment, and will will investors money over the long run, but will not fluctuate much. \n\nSome investors are looking for companies that could one day ramp up quickly and reward early investors heavily. Those companies tend to have lots of risk associated with them. In many cases, companies will be funded by Venture Capitalists because the idea is good. It takes a while before such a company can make enough money to actually turn a profit. \n\nThat does not mean the company is making zero dollars in revenue, of course. They are just making less money than they spend to run the company. \n\nSo the key for a company like that is a *trend* of upward moving profits... i.e. they lose less and less every quarter until they actually cross the boundary and start to make money. \n\nWay back when, Amazon was the epitome of this sort of company. People were agog at the number of investor's lining up to buy stock in a company that couldn't turn a profit. Amazon eventually got themselves sorted out. \n\nIn Q1 2014, Twitter made $250M. That's still a lot of money. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5492831",
"title": "History of Yahoo!",
"section": "Section::::Yahoo! (2006–2008).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "On January 29, 2008, Yahoo! announced that the company was laying off 1,000 employees, as the company had suffered severely in its inability to effectively compete with industry search leader Google. The cuts represented 7 percent of the company's workforce of 14,300.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9988187",
"title": "Twitter",
"section": "Section::::History.:Growth.:Initial public offering (IPO).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "On November 7, 2013, the first day of trading on the NYSE, Twitter shares opened at $26.00 and closed at US$44.90, giving the company a valuation of around US$31 billion. The paperwork from show of November 7 that among the founders, Williams received a sum of US$2.56 billion and Dorsey received US$1.05 billion, while Costolo's payment was US$345 million. On February 5, 2014, Twitter published its first results as a public company, showing a net loss of $511 million in the fourth quarter of 2013. On January 5, 2016, CEO Jack Dorsey commented on a report that Twitter planned to expand its character limit to 10,000 (private messages already had the longer limit as of July), requiring users to click to see anything beyond 140 characters. He said while Twitter would \"never lose that feeling\" of speed, users could do more with the text.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9988187",
"title": "Twitter",
"section": "Section::::Finances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "For the fiscal year 2017, Twitter reported losses of US$108 million, with an annual revenue of $2.443 billion, a decrease of 3.9% over the previous fiscal cycle. Twitter's shares traded at over $17 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$25.6 billion in October 2018.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25569041",
"title": "Blue Coat Systems",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The company lost 97% of its value from October 2000 to March 2001 as the dot-com bubble burst. The company continued to lose money. By 2002, several competing internet caching companies had abandoned the market, due to slow adoption of caching technology and most of CacheFlow's revenues came from its IT security products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11108691",
"title": "Richard Johnson (entrepreneur)",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "By 1998, the company produced $4 million; in 1999, $20 million; and by 2000, more than $100 million. By 2001, the company was one of the few profitable dot-com companies; and by years end, it was acquired by Yahoo! for $468 million. In February 2010, it was announced that Monster.com would acquire HotJobs from Yahoo! for $225 million. HotJobs was shut down in favor of Monster.com, and Yahoo! established a traffic sharing agreement with Monster.com.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20829722",
"title": "List of Ponzi schemes",
"section": "Section::::Historical examples.:21st century.:2000s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "BULLET::::- On March 7, 2008, WinCapita Oy's Internet site was shut down, due to investigation of the company. The company had collected about 100 million euros by this point. This, the so-called biggest pyramid-scheme in Finland was put up by Hannu Kailajärvi and his partner Tiina Wartti. They marketed the company by saying that the company is a successful currency exchange firm and that people can join the \"club\" only by invitation. They also marketed the idea for investors by promising net profits of over 400%. In 2013, the court of appeal for Helsinki sentenced Kailajärvi to prison for 5 years and Wartti for one year and 3 months to conditional discharge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1092923",
"title": "Google",
"section": "Section::::History.:2012 onward.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "The year 2012 was the first time that Google generated $50 billion in annual revenue, generating $38 billion the previous year. In January 2013, then-CEO Larry Page commented, \"We ended 2012 with a strong quarter ... Revenues were up 36% year-on-year, and 8% quarter-on-quarter. And we hit $50 billion in revenues for the first time last year – not a bad achievement in just a decade and a half.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xl3fg
|
github, including what branches, commit and repositories are.
|
[
{
"answer": "GitHub is just a git-based code repository. It's used for maintaining a code base, including distribution and version control. There are a lot of them, but git-based ones are popular these days because they work well.\n\nRepositories are communal places to store code and code changes. They can be free and available to all, or restricted to only certain users with certain abilities.\n\nCommits are pieces of code that users have pushed up (committed) to the repository. These commits are changes to code by a user, published so that all other users can see them\n\nWhen I branch code, I'm taking a version that exists, and creating a new version from it. My new version is going to be a new branch, which keeps your changes separate from mine until I...\n\nMerge the branches. Which means I take your code and combine it with mine, to make a single set of code. This new single set of code can be a new head to the tree, or simply a new head to your individual branch, but it's taking multiple branches and making them one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "GitHub is an online place for people to store information. Let's say you and your friends are working on a story, so you start typing it up and you store it online in your own *repository* (just your own little place on the website). You give your friends each the opportunity to set up an account on the website and make it so that they can all make changes.\n\nYou need to have good control over what goes on, though. If you are editing the 3rd paragraph and so is your friend Jeff then you really only want one person to be able to save (\"commit\") their changes. The other person would then have to re-download the data (\"pull\") and compare what is different between their working copy and the copy that's in the repository (diff). Once they have resolved the differences to make sure that their changes make sense with the changes you made they can commit their changes, too. In more formal settings it is likely that two people wouldn't be allowed to work on the same part of the story at the same time anyway. Sometimes, though, you will be working on the 3rd paragraph while Jeff is working on the 18th paragraph and the program is able to combine your changes without any problems (\"merge\").\n\nPerhaps some other guy comes along and sees your story and decides that the story would work better using dinosaurs instead of aliens. Thus, he grabs a copy of the repository (\"clone\") and starts working on his own version (\"branch\"). It starts out as the same but it diverges from there.\n\nAs time goes along perhaps someone sees the story and thinks that there's a change that needs to be put in (perhaps they see a place where you used there instead of their). They can make the change on their own copy then recommend the change to you (\"pull request\").\n\nThroughout the entire process you have the ability to go back and look at any version that has ever been committed to the repository. You can even undo a commit if it broke something (\"revert\").\n\nThis whole process is done through a program called \"Git,\" and GitHub is just one of many places where a repository can be hosted--you can host a Git Repository on your own computer is you know what you're doing. \n\nAll of these uses are a little over-the-top when talking about writing a story, but they become invaluable when working on a programming project with several people. It's important to have everyone working on the same code and it's really nice to have the ability to see who made what changes, especially when a bug pops up that didn't exist before. GitHub is especially useful for open source projects since it lets anyone look through the source code of the project and if someone thinks that the project could be modified for a slightly different use then they can make their own branch without bothering you, then suggest revisions to fix bugs that they happen to come across and fix. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18545292",
"title": "GitHub",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "GitHub was developed by Chris Wanstrath, P. J. Hyett, Tom Preston-Werner and Scott Chacon using Ruby on Rails, and started in February 2008. The company, GitHub, Inc., has existed since 2007 and is located in San Francisco.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46264949",
"title": "Censorship of GitHub",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "GitHub is a web-based Git repository hosting service and is primarily used to host the source code of software and facilitate project management. As of November 2015, GitHub reports having over 11.5 million users and over 28.9 million repositories. It offers free accounts, a pastebin service called Gist, and free website hosting under its github.io domain. The GitHub terms of service prohibits illegal use and it reserves the right to remove content at its discretion. Users can fork (copy and individually develop) other projects, which GitHub does not automatically take down when served DMCA takedown notices. GitHub uses HTTPS for its connections, making data more secure against interception from third parties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18545292",
"title": "GitHub",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "GitHub is an American company that provides hosting for software development version control using Git. It is a subsidiary of Microsoft, which acquired the company in 2018 for $7.5 billion. It offers all of the distributed version control and source code management (SCM) functionality of Git as well as adding its own features. It provides access control and several collaboration features such as bug tracking, feature requests, task management, and wikis for every project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49164683",
"title": "Mindgrub Technologies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Mindgrub Technologies (referred to simply as Mindgrub), headquartered in Baltimore, Maryland, designs and engineers enterprise business solutions for companies. Mindgrub specializes in mobile and web development, marketing, design, user experience, augmented and virtual reality, managed services, team augmentation, robotics, systems integration, and business intelligence for clients such as Exelon, GraphicAudio, Wendy's, DELL, Yamaha Corporation, Under Armour, Crayola, Adobe, GEICO, University of Maryland, NASA, The Smithsonian, and Discovery Communications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18545292",
"title": "GitHub",
"section": "Section::::Services.:Education program.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "GitHub launched a new program called the GitHub Student Developer Pack to give students free access to popular development tools and services. GitHub partnered with Bitnami, Crowdflower, DigitalOcean, DNSimple, HackHands, Namecheap, Orchestrate, Screenhero, SendGrid, Stripe, Travis CI and Unreal Engine to launch the program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18545292",
"title": "GitHub",
"section": "Section::::Services.:GitHub.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Development of the GitHub platform began on October 19, 2007. The site was launched in April 2008 by Tom Preston-Werner, Chris Wanstrath, P. J. Hyett and Scott Chacon after it had been made available for a few months prior as a beta release.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28436476",
"title": "WebORB Integration Server",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "WebORB is an integration server developed and maintained by Midnight Coders Incorporated. It is used in SOA/Rich Internet Application development projects to connect browser clients (Adobe Flex, Adobe Flash, AJAX, Java, .NET, Silverlight, JSON) and mobile clients (Android, Windows Phone 7, BlackBerry PlayBook) with backend services (.NET, Java, PHP and Ruby on Rails) and databases (MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, SQL Azure, PostgreSQL, ODBC and Oracle database). It combines technologies that provide developer productivity tools, AMF remoting, real time messaging, code-level security and real time streaming media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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