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= Ruthenium =
Ruthenium is a chemical element with symbol Ru and atomic number 44 . It is a rare transition metal belonging to the platinum group of the periodic table . Like the other metals of the platinum group , ruthenium is inert to most other chemicals . The Baltic German scientist Karl Ernst Claus discovered the element in 1844 and named it after his homeland , the Russian Empire ( one of Russia 's Latin names is Ruthenia ) . Ruthenium is usually found as a minor component of platinum ores ; the annual production is about 20 tonnes . Most ruthenium produced is used in wear @-@ resistant electrical contacts and thick @-@ film resistors . A minor application for ruthenium is in platinum alloys and as a chemistry catalyst .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
A polyvalent hard white metal , ruthenium is a member of the platinum group and is in group 8 of the periodic table :
Whereas all other group 8 elements have 2 electrons in the outermost shell , in ruthenium , the outermost shell has only one electron ( the final electron is in a lower shell ) . This anomaly is observed in the neighboring metals , niobium ( 41 ) , rhodium ( 45 ) , and palladium ( 46 ) .
Ruthenium has four crystal modifications and does not tarnish unless subject to high temperatures . Ruthenium dissolves in fused alkalis to give ruthenates ( RuO2 −
4 ) , is not attacked by acids ( even aqua regia ) but is attacked by halogens at high temperatures . Indeed , ruthenium is most readily attacked by oxidizing agents . Small amounts of ruthenium can increase the hardness of platinum and palladium . The corrosion resistance of titanium is increased markedly by the addition of a small amount of ruthenium . The metal can be plated by electroplating and by thermal decomposition . A ruthenium @-@ molybdenum alloy is known to be superconductive at temperatures below 10 @.@ 6 K. Ruthenium is the last of the 4d transition metals that can assume the group oxidation state + 8 , and even then is less stable there than the heavier congener osmium : this is the first group from the left of the table where the second and third @-@ row transition metals display notable differences in chemical behavior . Like iron but unlike osmium , ruthenium can form aqueous cations in its lower oxidation states of + 2 and + 3 .
Ruthenium is the first in a downward trend in the melting and boiling points and atomization enthalpy in the 4d transition metals after the maximum seen at molybdenum , because the 4d subshell is more than half full and the electrons are contributing less to metallic bonding . ( Technetium , the previous element , has an exceptionally low value that is off the trend due to its half @-@ filled [ Kr ] 4d55s2 configuration , though the small amount of energy needed to excite it to a [ Kr ] 4d65s1 configuration indicates that it is not as far off the trend in the 4d series as manganese in the 3d transition series . ) Unlike the lighter congener iron , ruthenium is paramagnetic at room temperature , as iron also is above its Curie point .
The reduction potentials in acidic aqueous solution for some common ruthenium ions are shown below :
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring ruthenium is composed of seven stable isotopes . Additionally , 34 radioactive isotopes have been discovered . Of these radioisotopes , the most stable are 106Ru with a half @-@ life of 373 @.@ 59 days , 103Ru with a half @-@ life of 39 @.@ 26 days and 97Ru with a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 9 days .
Fifteen other radioisotopes have been characterized with atomic weights ranging from 89 @.@ 93 u ( 90Ru ) to 114 @.@ 928 u ( 115Ru ) . Most of these have half @-@ lives that are less than five minutes except 95Ru ( half @-@ life : 1 @.@ 643 hours ) and 105Ru ( half @-@ life : 4 @.@ 44 hours ) .
The primary decay mode before the most abundant isotope , 102Ru , is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta emission . The primary decay product before 102Ru is technetium and the primary decay product after is rhodium .
= = = Occurrence = = =
As the 74th most abundant element in Earth 's crust , ruthenium is relatively rare , found in about 100 parts per trillion . This element is generally found in ores with the other platinum group metals in the Ural Mountains and in North and South America . Small but commercially important quantities are also found in pentlandite extracted from Sudbury , Ontario , Canada , and in pyroxenite deposits in South Africa . The native form of ruthenium is a very rare mineral ( Ir replaces part of Ru in its structure ) .
= = Production = =
= = = Mining = = =
Roughly 12 tonnes of ruthenium are mined each year with world reserves estimated as 5 @,@ 000 tonnes . The composition of the mined platinum group metal ( PGM ) mixtures varies widely , depending on the geochemical formation . For example , the PGMs mined in South Africa contain on average 11 % ruthenium while the PGMs mined in the former USSR contain only 2 % ( 1992 ) . Ruthenium , osmium , and iridium are considered the minor platinum group metals .
Ruthenium , like the other platinum group metals , is obtained commercially as a by @-@ product from nickel , and copper , and platinum metals ore processing . During electrorefining of copper and nickel , noble metals such as silver , gold , and the platinum group metals precipitate as anode mud , the feedstock for the extraction . The metals are converted to ionized solutes by any of several methods , depending on the composition of the feedstock . One representative method is fusion with sodium peroxide followed by dissolution in aqua regia , and solution in a mixture of chlorine with hydrochloric acid . Osmium , ruthenium , rhodium , and iridium are insoluble in aqua regia and readily precipitate , leaving the other metals in solution . Rhodium is separated from the residue by treatment with molten sodium bisulfate . The insoluble residue , containing Ru , Os , and Ir is treated with sodium oxide , in which Ir is insoluble , producing dissolved Ru and Os salts . After oxidation to the volatile oxides , RuO
4 is separated from OsO
4 by precipitation of ( NH4 ) 3RuCl6 with ammonium chloride or by distillation or extraction with organic solvents of the volatile osmium tetroxide . Hydrogen is used to reduce ammonium ruthenium chloride yielding a powder . The first method to precipitate the ruthenium with ammonium chloride is similar to the procedure that Smithson Tennant and William Hyde Wollaston used .
Several methods are suitable for industrial scale production . In either case , the product is reduced using hydrogen , yielding the metal as a powder or sponge metal that can be treated with powder metallurgy techniques or argon @-@ arc welding .
= = = From used nuclear fuels = = =
Fission products of uranium @-@ 235 contain significant amounts of ruthenium and the lighter platinum group metals , and spent nuclear fuel is a potential source of ruthenium . The extraction and refinement is expensive and the radioactive isotopes of ruthenium require the spent fuel to be stored for multiple half @-@ lives of those isotopes . Those factors have so far discouraged large @-@ scale extraction , and none has been started .
= = Chemical compounds = =
The oxidation states of ruthenium range from 0 to + 8 , and − 2 . The properties of ruthenium and osmium compounds are often similar . The + 2 , + 3 , and + 4 states are the most common . The most prevalent precursor is ruthenium trichloride , a red solid that is poorly defined chemically but versatile synthetically .
= = = Oxides and chalcogenides = = =
Ruthenium can be oxidized to ruthenium ( IV ) oxide ( RuO2 , oxidation state + 4 ) which can in turn be oxidized by sodium metaperiodate to the volatile yellow tetrahedral ruthenium tetroxide , RuO4 , an aggressive , strong oxidizing agent with structure and properties analogous to osmium tetroxide . Like osmium tetroxide , ruthenium tetroxide is a potent fixative and stain for electron microscopy of organic materials , and is mostly used to reveal the structure of polymer samples . Dipotassium ruthenate ( K2RuO4 , + 6 ) , and potassium perruthenate ( KRuO4 , + 7 ) are also known . Unlike osmium tetroxide , ruthenium tetroxide is less stable and is strong enough as an oxidising agent to oxidise dilute hydrochloric acid and organic solvents like ethanol at room temperature , and is easily reduced to ruthenate ( RuO2 −
4 ) in aqueous alkaline solutions ; it decomposes to form the dioxide above 100 ° C. Unlike iron but like osmium , ruthenium does not form oxides in its lower + 2 and + 3 oxidation states . Ruthenium forms dichalcogenides only when reacted directly with the chalcogens , which are diamagnetic semiconductors crystallizing in the pyrite structure and thus must contain ruthenium ( II ) .
Like iron , ruthenium does not readily form oxoanions , and prefers to achieve high coordination numbers with hydroxide ions instead . Ruthenium tetroxide is reduced by cold dilute potassium hydroxide to form black potassium perruthenate , KRuO4 , with ruthenium in the + 7 oxidation state . Potassium perruthenate can also be produced by oxidising potassium ruthenate , K2RuO4 , with chlorine gas . The perruthenate ion is unstable and is reduced by water to form the orange ruthenate . Potassium ruthenate may be synthesized by reacting ruthenium metal with potassium hydroxide and potassium nitrate .
Some mixed oxides are also known , such as MIIRuIVO3 , Na3RuVO4 , Na
2RuV
2O
7 , and MII
2LnIIIRuVO
6 .
= = = Halides and oxyhalides = = =
The highest known ruthenium halide is the hexafluoride , a dark brown solid that melts at 54 ° C. It hydrolyzes violently upon contact with water and easily disproportionates to form a mixture of lower ruthenium fluorides , releasing fluorine gas . Ruthenium pentafluoride is a tetrameric dark green solid that is also readily hydrolyzed , melting at 86 @.@ 5 ° C. The yellow ruthenium tetrafluoride is probably also polymeric and can be formed by reducing the pentafluoride with iodine . Among the binary compounds of ruthenium , these high oxidation states are known only in the oxides and fluorides .
Ruthenium trichloride is a well @-@ known compound , existing in a black α @-@ form and a dark brown β @-@ form : the trihydrate is red . Of the known trihalides , trifluoride is dark brown and decomposes above 650 ° C , tetrabromide is dark @-@ brown and decomposes above 400 ° C , and triiodide is black . Of the dihalides , difluoride is not known , dichloride is brown , dibromide is black , and diiodide is blue . The only known oxyhalide is the pale green ruthenium ( VI ) oxyfluoride , RuOF4 .
= = = Coordination and organometallic complexes = = =
Ruthenium forms a variety of coordination complexes . Examples are the many pentammine derivatives [ Ru ( NH3 ) 5L ] n + that often exist for both Ru ( II ) and Ru ( III ) . Derivatives of bipyridine and terpyridine are numerous , best known being the luminescent tris ( bipyridine ) ruthenium ( II ) chloride .
Ruthenium forms a wide range compounds with carbon @-@ ruthenium bonds . Grubbs ' catalyst is used for alkene metathesis . Ruthenocene is analogous to ferrocene structurally , but exhibits distinctive redox properties . The colorless liquid ruthenium pentacarbonyl converts in the absence of CO pressure to the dark red solid triruthenium dodecacarbonyl . Ruthenium trichloride reacts with carbon monoxide to give many derivatives including RuHCl ( CO ) ( PPh3 ) 3 and Ru ( CO ) 2 ( PPh3 ) 3 ( Roper 's complex ) . Heating solutions of ruthenium trichloride in alcohols with triphenylphosphine gives tris ( triphenylphosphine ) ruthenium dichloride ( RuCl2 ( PPh3 ) 3 ) , which converts to the hydride complex chlorohydridotris ( triphenylphosphine ) ruthenium ( II ) ( RuHCl ( PPh3 ) 3 ) .
= = History = =
Though naturally occurring platinum alloys containing all six platinum @-@ group metals were used for a long time by pre @-@ Columbian Americans and known as a material to European chemists from the mid @-@ 16th century , not until the mid @-@ 18th century was platinum identified as a pure element . That natural platinum contained palladium , rhodium , osmium and iridium was discovered in the first decade of the 19th century . Platinum in alluvial sands of Russian rivers gave access to raw material for use in plates and medals and for the minting of ruble coins , starting in 1828 . Residues from platinum production for coinage were available in the Russian Empire , and therefore most of the research on them was done in Eastern Europe .
It is possible that the Polish chemist Jędrzej Śniadecki isolated element 44 ( which he called " vestium " after the asteroid Vesta discovered shortly before ) from South American platinum ores in 1807 . He published an announcement of his discovery in 1808 . His work was never confirmed , however , and he later withdrew his claim of discovery .
Jöns Berzelius and Gottfried Osann nearly discovered ruthenium in 1827 . They examined residues that were left after dissolving crude platinum from the Ural Mountains in aqua regia . Berzelius did not find any unusual metals , but Osann thought he found three new metals , which he called pluranium , ruthenium , and polinium . This discrepancy led to a long @-@ standing controversy between Berzelius and Osann about the composition of the residues . As Osann was not able to repeat his isolation of ruthenium , he eventually relinquished his claims . The name " ruthenium " was chosen by Osann because the analysed samples stemmed from the Ural Mountains in Russia . The name itself derives from Ruthenia , the Latin word for Rus ' , a historical area that included present @-@ day western Russia , Ukraine , Belarus , and parts of Slovakia and Poland .
In 1844 , Karl Ernst Claus , a Russian scientist of Baltic German descent , showed that the compounds prepared by Gottfried Osann contained small amounts of ruthenium , which Claus had discovered the same year . Claus isolated ruthenium from the platinum residues of rouble production while he was working in Kazan University , Kazan , the same way its heavier congener osmium had been discovered four decades earlier . Claus showed that ruthenium oxide contained a new metal and obtained 6 grams of ruthenium from the part of crude platinum that is insoluble in aqua regia . Choosing the name for the new element , Claus stated : " I named the new body , in honour of my Motherland , ruthenium . I had every right to call it by this name because Mr. Osann relinquished his ruthenium and the word does not yet exist in chemistry . "
= = Applications = =
Because it hardens platinum and palladium alloys , ruthenium is used in electrical contacts , where a thin film is sufficient to achieve the desired durability . With similar properties and lower cost than rhodium , electric contacts are a major use of ruthenium . The plate is applied to the base by electroplating or sputtering .
Ruthenium dioxide with lead and bismuth ruthenates are used in thick @-@ film chip resistors . These two electronic applications account for 50 % of the ruthenium consumption .
Ruthenium is seldom alloyed with metals outside the platinum group , where small quantities improve some properties . The added corrosion resistance in titanium alloys led to the development of a special alloy with 0 @.@ 1 % ruthenium . Ruthenium is also used in some advanced high @-@ temperature single @-@ crystal superalloys , with applications that include the turbines in jet engines . Several nickel based superalloy compositions are described , such as EPM @-@ 102 ( with 3 % Ru ) , TMS @-@ 162 ( with 6 % Ru ) , TMS @-@ 138 , and TMS @-@ 174 , the latter two containing 6 % rhenium . Fountain pen nibs are frequently tipped with ruthenium alloy . From 1944 onward , the famous Parker 51 fountain pen was fitted with the " RU " nib , a 14K gold nib tipped with 96 @.@ 2 % ruthenium and 3 @.@ 8 % iridium .
Ruthenium is a component of mixed @-@ metal oxide ( MMO ) anodes used for cathodic protection of underground and submerged structures , and for electrolytic cells for such processes as generating chlorine from salt water . The fluorescence of some ruthenium complexes is quenched by oxygen , finding use in optode sensors for oxygen . Ruthenium red , [ ( NH3 ) 5Ru @-@ O @-@ Ru ( NH3 ) 4 @-@ O @-@ Ru ( NH3 ) 5 ] 6 + , is a biological stain used to stain polyanionic molecules such as pectin and nucleic acids for light microscopy and electron microscopy . The beta @-@ decaying isotope 106 of ruthenium is used in radiotherapy of eye tumors , mainly malignant melanomas of the uvea . Ruthenium @-@ centered complexes are being researched for possible anticancer properties . Compared with platinum complexes , those of ruthenium show greater resistance to hydrolysis and more selective action on tumors . NAMI @-@ A and KP1019 are two drugs undergoing clinical evaluation for treatment of metastatic tumors and colon cancers .
Ruthenium tetroxide exposes latent fingerprints by reacting on contact with fatty oils or fats with sebaceous contaminants and producing brown / black ruthenium dioxide pigment .
= = = Catalysis = = =
Ruthenium is a versatile catalyst . With an aqueous suspension of CdS particles loaded with ruthenium dioxide , the energy of visible light can split Hydrogen sulfide . This process may be one day be used to remove H2S in oil refineries and other industrial processing facilities . Organometallic ruthenium carbene and alkylidene complexes have been found to be highly efficient catalysts for olefin metathesis , a process with important applications in organic and pharmaceutical chemistry . Ruthenium @-@ promoted cobalt catalysts are used in Fischer @-@ Tropsch synthesis .
= = = Solar energy conversion = = =
Some ruthenium complexes absorb light throughout the visible spectrum and are being actively researched for solar energy technologies . For example , Ruthenium @-@ based compounds have been used for light absorption in dye @-@ sensitized solar cells , a promising new low @-@ cost solar cell system .
= = = Data storage = = =
Chemical vapor deposition of ruthenium is used to produce thin films of pure ruthenium on substrates . These films show promise for use in microchips and for the giant magnetoresistive read element for hard disk drives . Ruthenium is also suggested for microelectronics because it is compatible with semiconductor processing techniques .
= = = Exotic materials = = =
Many ruthenium @-@ based oxides show very unusual properties , such as a quantum critical point behavior , exotic superconductivity , and high @-@ temperature ferromagnetism .
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= Chris Howard ( American football ) =
Christopher L. " Chris " Howard ( born May 5 , 1975 ) is a retired professional American football running back who played in the National Football League ( NFL ) for the Jacksonville Jaguars . Howard had been drafted by the Denver Broncos in the fifth round of the 1998 NFL Draft . His professional football career was haunted by fumble troubles , which caused the Broncos to release him before he played a regular season game for them . Howard began to have fumble problems again when the Jaguars acquired and promoted him to a role as a regular player .
He had previously played for the Michigan Wolverines football team where in the 1997 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season , his final year at Michigan , they won a National Championship . Howard led the National Champion 1997 Michigan Wolverines football team in rushing and was a Hula Bowl MVP in 1998 . Chris attended Louisiana high school football powerhouse , John Curtis Christian High School in River Ridge , Louisiana . He was formerly married to Gabrielle Union .
= = Early years = =
Howard was born in Kenner , Louisiana . He enrolled at Michigan after playing for Louisiana High School football powerhouse John Curtis Christian High School .
= = College career = =
In four years at Michigan from 1994 to 1997 , he totaled 1876 yards rushing on 418 carries and added 429 yards receiving on 60 receptions . He totaled nine 100 @-@ yard rushing efforts for Michigan including four during the 1997 championship season . In college , his biggest rushing effort was 127 yards against the Minnesota Golden Gophers in 1996 . However , he once rushed for 109 yards and 4 touchdowns against the UCLA Bruins . In addition , Howard also posted the fourth longest rush in school history , an 86 @-@ yard rush .
In 1996 , he had five 100 @-@ yard games despite only playing in ten games as a junior . He totaled 725 yards rushing and ten touchdowns in the ten games . However , he was second on the team in rushing to sophomore Clarence Williams who tallied 837 yards in 12 games .
In the 1997 championship season , he was the rushing leader for a fundamentally sound undefeated 12 – 0 Michigan team that did not have a 1000 @-@ yard rusher or 500 @-@ yard receiver . The team emphasized defense behind 1997 Heisman Trophy winning defensive back Charles Woodson . Howard totaled 938 yards rushing on 199 carries and 276 yards receiving on 37 receptions . He was second on the team in scoring to placekicker Kraig Baker with 7 rushing touchdowns and 1 receiving touchdown . He was complemented in the backfield by freshman Anthony Thomas who added 549 yards and 5 rushing touchdowns .
One of the key games in Michigan 's 1997 National Championship season was the game against the unbeaten Penn State Nittany Lions , then ranked Number 2 in the nation . Howard rushed for 120 yards and a touchdown in the win over the Nittany Lions , prompting Coach Lloyd Carr to comment : " I think that Chris Howard is a very underrated back . He proved that today . " Michigan controlled the game and led 34 – 0 after 3 quarters behind Howard ’ s best collegiate performance in terms of yards from scrimmage with 120 yards rushing and 41 yards receiving .
The 1997 season concluded with a 21 – 16 win over Washington State in the January 1 , 1998 Rose Bowl . Howard led all rushers in the game with 70 yards rushing on 19 carries .
He was also the North MVP for the 1998 edition of the Hula Bowl , an invitational college football all @-@ star game . He rushed for 116 yards on 14 carries and was involved in the culminating score in the North ’ s second half comeback . He handed off to Joe Jurevicius on a reverse play which ended with Jurevicius passing to Brian Griese for a five @-@ yard touchdown pass . The North would lose , however , when the missed extra point left the door open for a game winning field goal .
= = Professional career = =
Howard was selected by the Denver Broncos in the fifth round of the 1998 NFL Draft , but he had a difficult pre @-@ season with the Broncos in 1998 , fumbling five times in two games . The Broncos released him from their practice squad in September 1998 , and he was signed by the Jacksonville Jaguars . At the time , Jacksonville Coach Tom Coughlin said : " Chris Howard is a young man and he certainly still is developmental . A couple weeks into our system and I think he 'll be a guy who can be counted on . But I 'm not going to say we 're done with our evaluations just yet . " Coughlin said of Howard 's fumbles with Denver : " It was carelessness . Basically , we 'll start from scratch with him fundamentally here . " Howard had professional totals of 123 yards rushing on 41 carries and 37 yards receiving on five receptions . In 2000 , his final year , he fumbled twice on only 21 carries in the first two games . These were his final two career NFL games .
= = Personal life = =
Chris Howard married actress Gabrielle Union on May 5 , 2001 . They separated in 2005 and their divorce was made final in April 2006 .
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= Rage Against the Machine =
Rage Against the Machine ( also known as RATM or just Rage ) is an American rap metal band from Los Angeles , California . Formed in 1991 , the group consists of rapper and vocalist Zack de la Rocha , bassist and backing vocalist Tim Commerford , guitarist Tom Morello , and drummer Brad Wilk . They draw inspiration from early heavy metal instrumentation , as well as hip hop acts such as Afrika Bambaataa , Public Enemy , the Beastie Boys , and Dutch crossover band Urban Dance Squad . Rage Against the Machine is well known for the members ' leftist and revolutionary political views , which are expressed in many of the band 's songs . As of 2010 , they had sold over 16 million records worldwide .
In 1992 , the band released its self @-@ titled debut album , which became a commercial and critical success , leading to a slot in the 1993 Lollapalooza festival . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 368 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . The band did not release a follow @-@ up record until 1996 , with Evil Empire . The band 's third album , The Battle of Los Angeles , followed in 1999 , and in 2003 , the album was ranked number 426 on the same list . During their initial nine @-@ year run , they became one of the most popular and influential bands in music history , according to music journalist Colin Devenish . They were also ranked No. 33 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock . The band had a large influence on the nu metal genre which came to prominence during the second half of the 1990s .
In 2000 , the band released the cover album , Renegades . The same year , growing tensions over the direction of the band prompted de la Rocha to quit , leading to the band 's breakup . De la Rocha started a low @-@ key solo career , while the rest of the band formed the rock supergroup Audioslave with Chris Cornell , then @-@ former frontman of Soundgarden ; Audioslave recorded three albums before disbanding in 2007 . The same year , Rage Against the Machine announced a reunion and performed together for the first time in seven years at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in April 2007 . Up until 2011 , the band continued to perform at more live venues and festivals around the world . As of 2012 , the group has no plans to perform or release new music . In 2016 Morello , Commerford and Wilk formed a new band , Prophets of Rage , with Chuck D and B @-@ Real .
= = History = =
= = = 1991 – 92 : Early years = = =
In 1991 , following the break @-@ up of guitarist Tom Morello 's former band Lock Up , former Lock Up drummer Jon Knox encouraged Commerford and Zack de la Rocha to jam with Tom Morello as he was looking to start a new group . Tom soon contacted Brad Wilk , who had unsuccessfully auditioned for Lock Up . This line @-@ up went on to form Rage Against the Machine . The newly christened Rage Against the Machine named themselves after a song de la Rocha had written for his former popular underground hardcore punk band , Inside Out ( also to be the title of the unrecorded Inside Out full @-@ length album ) . Kent McClard , with whom Inside Out were associated , had coined the phrase " rage against the machine " in a 1989 article in his zine No Answers .
Shortly after forming , they gave their first public performance on October 23 , 1991 at The Quad of California State University , Northridge . The blueprint for the group 's major @-@ label debut album , demo tape Rage Against the Machine , was laid on a twelve @-@ song self @-@ released cassette , the cover image of which was the stock market with a triple match taped to the inlay card . Not all 12 songs made it onto the final album — two were eventually included as B @-@ sides , while three others never saw an official release . Several record labels expressed interest , and the band eventually signed with Epic Records . Morello said , " Epic agreed to everything we asked — and they 've followed through .... We never saw a [ n ] [ ideological ] conflict as long as we maintained creative control . "
= = = 1992 – 2000 : Mainstream success = = =
The band 's debut album , Rage Against the Machine , reached triple platinum status , driven by heavy radio play of the song " Killing in the Name " , a heavy , driving track featuring only eight lines of lyrics . The " Fuck You " version , which contains 17 iterations of the word fuck , was once accidentally played on the BBC Radio 1 Top 40 singles show on February 21 , 1993 . The album 's cover featured Malcolm Browne 's Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning photograph of Thich Quang Duc , a Vietnamese Buddhist monk , burning himself to death in Saigon in 1963 in protest of the murder of Buddhists by the US @-@ backed Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem 's regime . The album was produced by Garth Richardson . To promote the album , the band went on tour , playing at Lollapalooza 1993 and as support for Suicidal Tendencies in Europe . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 368 on Rolling Stone Magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
After their debut album , the band appeared on the soundtrack for the film Higher Learning with the song " Year of tha Boomerang . " An early version of " Tire Me " also appeared during the movie . Subsequently , they re @-@ recorded the song " Darkness " from their original demo for the soundtrack of The Crow , while " No Shelter " appeared on the Godzilla soundtrack .
Despite rumors of a breakup for several years , Rage Against the Machine 's second album , Evil Empire , entered Billboard 's Top 200 chart at number one in 1996 , and subsequently rose to triple platinum status . The song " Bulls on Parade " was performed on Saturday Night Live in April 1996 . Their planned two @-@ song performance was cut to one song when the band attempted to hang inverted US flags from their amplifiers ( " a sign of distress or great danger " ) , a protest against having Republican presidential candidate Steve Forbes as guest host on the program that night .
In 1997 , the band opened for U2 on their PopMart Tour , for which all of Rage 's profits went to support social organizations. including U.N.I.T.E. , Women Alive and the Zapatista Front for National Liberation . Rage subsequently began an abortive headlining US tour with special guests Wu @-@ Tang Clan . Police in several jurisdictions unsuccessfully attempted to have the concerts cancelled , citing amongst other reasons , the bands ' " violent and anti @-@ law enforcement philosophies . " Wu @-@ Tang Clan were eventually removed from the line @-@ up and replaced with The Roots . On the Japan leg of their tour promoting Evil Empire , a compilation album composed of the band 's B @-@ side recordings titled Live & Rare was released by Sony Records . A live video , also titled Rage Against the Machine , was released later the same year .
In 1999 Rage Against the Machine played at the infamous Woodstock ' 99 concert . The following release , The Battle of Los Angeles also debuted at number one in 1999 , selling 450 @,@ 000 copies in the first week and then going double @-@ platinum . That same year the song " Wake Up " was featured on the soundtrack of the film The Matrix . The track " Calm Like a Bomb " was later featured in the film 's sequel , 2003 's The Matrix Reloaded . In 2000 , the band planned to support the Beastie Boys on the " Rhyme and Reason " tour ; however , the tour was cancelled when Beastie Boys drummer Mike D suffered a serious injury . In 2003 , The Battle of Los Angeles was ranked number 426 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = = 2000 – 06 : Break @-@ up and subsequent projects = = =
On January 26 , 2000 , an altercation during filming of the video for " Sleep Now in the Fire " , directed by Michael Moore , caused the doors of the New York Stock Exchange to be closed and the band to be escorted from the site by security after band members attempted to gain entry into the exchange . The video shoot had attracted several hundred people , according to a representative for the city ’ s Deputy Commissioner for Public Information . New York City 's film office does not allow weekday film shoots on Wall Street . Moore had permission to use the steps of Federal Hall but did not have a permit to shoot on the sidewalk or the street , nor did he have a loud @-@ noise permit or the proper parking permits . " Michael basically gave us one directorial instruction , " No matter what happens , don 't stop playing , " Tom Morello recalls . When the band left the steps , NYPD apprehended Moore and led him away . Moore yelled to the band , " Take the New York Stock Exchange ! " In an interview with the Socialist Worker , Morello said he and scores of others ran into the Stock Exchange . " About two hundred of us got through the first set of doors , but our charge was stopped when the Stock Exchange 's titanium riot doors came crashing down . " " For a few minutes , Rage Against the Machine was able to shut down American capitalism , " Moore said . " An act that I am sure tens of thousands of downsized citizens would cheer . "
On September 7 , 2000 , the band attended the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards , and performed " Testify . " However , after the Best Rock Video award was given to Limp Bizkit . Commerford climbed onto the scaffolding of the set . Commerford and his bodyguard were sentenced to a night in jail and de la Rocha reportedly left the awards after the stunt . Morello recalled that Commerford related his plan to the rest of the band before the show , and that both de la Rocha and Morello advised him against it immediately after Bizkit was presented the award .
On October 18 , 2000 , de la Rocha released a statement announcing his departure from the band . He said , " I feel that it is now necessary to leave Rage because our decision @-@ making process has completely failed . It is no longer meeting the aspirations of all four of us collectively as a band , and from my perspective , has undermined our artistic and political ideal . " " There was so much squabbling over everything , " explained Morello , " and I mean everything . We would even have fist fights over whether our T @-@ shirts should be mauve or camouflaged ! It was ridiculous . We were patently political , internally combustible . It was ugly for a long time . "
The band 's next album , Renegades , was a collection of covers of artists as diverse as Devo , EPMD , Minor Threat , Cypress Hill , The MC5 , Afrika Bambaataa , The Rolling Stones , Eric B. & Rakim , Bruce Springsteen , The Stooges , and Bob Dylan . It achieved platinum status a month later . The following year saw the release of another live video , The Battle of Mexico City , while 2003 brought the live album Live at the Grand Olympic Auditorium , an edited recording of the band 's final concerts on September 12 and 13 , 2000 at the Grand Olympic Auditorium in Los Angeles . It was accompanied by an expanded DVD release of the last show , which included a previously unreleased video for " Bombtrack " .
In the wake of 9 / 11 , the controversial 2001 Clear Channel memorandum contained a long list of what the memo termed " lyrically questionable " songs for the radio , uniquely listing all of Rage Against the Machine 's songs .
After the group 's breakup , Morello , Wilk , and Commerford decided to stay together and find a new vocalist . " There was talk for a while of us becoming Ozzy Osbourne 's backing band , and even Macy Gray 's , " said Morello . " We informed them that losing our singer was actually a blessing in disguise , and that we had bigger ambitions than being somebody 's hired musicians . " They eventually teamed up with then @-@ former Soundgarden singer Chris Cornell to form Audioslave . The first Audioslave single , " Cochise " , was released in early November 2002 , and a self @-@ titled debut album followed to mainly positive reviews . Compared to Rage Against the Machine , most of Audioslave 's music was apolitical , although some songs touched on political issues . Their second album Out of Exile debuted at the number one position on the Billboard charts in 2005 . Audioslave released its third album Revelations on September 5 , 2006 , but an accompanying tour never occurred as Cornell and Morello were working on solo albums . After months of inactivity and rumors of a breakup , Audioslave disbanded on February 15 , 2007 after Cornell announced he was leaving the band .
Morello began his own solo career in 2003 , playing political acoustic folk music at open @-@ mic nights and various clubs under the alias The Nightwatchman , which he formed as an outlet for his political views while playing apolitical music with Audioslave . He first participated in Billy Bragg 's Tell Us the Truth tour with no plans to record , but later recorded a song for Songs and Artists that Inspired Fahrenheit 9 / 11 , " No One Left " . In February 2007 , he announced a solo album , entitled One Man Revolution , which was released in April 2007 . Morello followed up his first studio album with " The Fabled City " which was released on September 30 , 2008 . During the latter of his career as The Nightwatchman , Morello joined up with Boots Riley and formed the rap rock group Street Sweeper Social Club , which released its debut self @-@ titled album in June 2009 .
Meanwhile , de la Rocha had been working on a solo album collaboration with DJ Shadow , Company Flow , Roni Size and The Roots ' Questlove , but dropped the project in favor of working with Nine Inch Nails ' Trent Reznor . Recording was completed but the album has never been released . A collaboration between de la Rocha and DJ Shadow , the song " March of Death " was released for free over the World Wide Web in 2003 in protest against the imminent invasion of Iraq , and the 2004 soundtrack Songs and Artists that Inspired Fahrenheit 9 / 11 included one of the collaborations with Reznor , " We Want It All " . In late 2005 , de la Rocha was seen singing and playing the jarana huasteca with Son Jarocho band Son de Madera on multiple occasions . Rage Against the Machine was ranked 33rd on VH1 's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock list in 2005 .
Members of the band had been offered large sums of money to reunite for concerts and tours , and had turned the offers down . Rumors of tension between de la Rocha and the other former band members subsequently circulated , but Commerford said that he and de la Rocha saw each other often and went surfing together , while Morello said he and de la Rocha communicated by phone , and had met up at a September 15 , 2005 protest in support of the South Central Farm .
= = = 2007 – 08 : Reunion and tours = = =
Rumors that Rage Against the Machine could reunite at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival were circulating in mid @-@ January 2007 , and were confirmed on January 22 . The band was confirmed to be headlining the final day of Coachella 2007 . The reunion was described by Morello as primarily being a vehicle to voice the band 's opposition to the " right @-@ wing purgatory " the United States has " slid into " under the George W. Bush administration since RATM 's dissolution . Though the performance was initially thought to be a one @-@ off , this turned out not to be the case .
On April 14 , 2007 , Morello and de la Rocha reunited onstage early to perform a brief acoustic set at a Coalition of Immokalee Workers rally in downtown Chicago . Morello described the event as " very exciting for everybody in the room , myself included . " This was followed by the scheduled Coachella performance on Sunday , April 29 where the band staged a much anticipated performance in front of an EZLN backdrop to the largest crowds of the festival .
Rage Against the Machine continued to tour in the United States , New Zealand , Australia , and Japan , and also played a series of shows in Europe in Summer 2008 including Rock am Ring and Rock im Park , Pinkpop Festival , T in the Park in Scotland , the Hultsfred Festival in Sweden , the Reading and Leeds Festivals in England and the Oxegen Festival in Ireland . The band also performed on August 2 , 2008 , in Chicago as one of the headliners ( Radiohead , Kanye West and Nine Inch Nails being the other three ) for the 2008 Lollapalooza Music Festival . When asked in May 2007 if the band were planning on writing a new album , Morello replied :
There are no plans to do that ... That 's a whole other ball of wax right there . Writing and recording albums is a whole different thing than getting back on the bike ( laughs ) , you know , and playing these songs . But I think that the one thing about the Rage catalog is that to me none of it feels dated . You know , it doesn 't feel at all like a nostalgia show . It feels like these are songs that were born and bred to be played now .
Morello declined to comment about the possibility of a new album when interviewed by MTV News in April 2008 . In July 2008 , it was revealed that de la Rocha had begun a new project called One Day as a Lion with drummer Jon Theodore formerly of The Mars Volta , with an eponymous EP released on July 22 , 2008 .
In August 2008 , de la Rocha revealed his take on the possibility of new material :
We ’ re going to keep playing shows – we have a couple of big ones happening in front of both conventions . As far as us recording music in the future , I don ’ t know where we all fit with that . We ’ ve all embraced each other ’ s projects and support them , and that ’ s great .
In August 2008 , Rage headlined the free Tent State Music Festival to End the War in Denver during the Democratic National Convention . The band was supported by Flobots , State Radio , Jello Biafra , and Wayne Kramer . Following the concert , the band , following uniformed veterans from Iraq Veterans Against the War , led the 8 @,@ 000 attendees to the Denver Coliseum on a 6 @-@ mile march to Invesco Field , host of the DNC . After a 4 @-@ hour stand @-@ off with police , Obama 's campaign agreed to meet with members of Iraq Veterans Against the War and hear their demands .
In September 2008 , Rage performed at the Target Center in Minneapolis during the Republican National Convention . The previous day , they attempted to play a surprise set at a free anti @-@ RNC concert at the Minnesota Capitol in St. Paul , but were prevented from doing so by the police . Instead , de la Rocha and Morello rapped and sang through a megaphone . Later that evening , Morello and Boots Reilly joined up with Billy Bragg and Jim Walsh for a three @-@ hour jam session at Pepitos Parkway theater in south Minneapolis .
In December 2008 , Tom Morello revealed that Rage Against the Machine shows in 2009 were a possibility , although plans for the band to record a new studio album were very unlikely . When asked by Billboard.com whether they planned to head to the studio in 2009 , Morello stated that : " we 've had a wonderful year and a half of playing shows , and I don 't see any reason to not play more shows . The thing is there 's only so many hours in the musical day , and mine are very occupied right now . "
Morello elaborated that The Nightwatchman is now " my principal musical focus , as I see it , for the remainder of my life . From the earliest days of playing open mic nights at coffee houses , it was apparent to me that this music was as important to me as any music I 've ever been involved in . It really encapsulates everything I want to do as an artist . " He repeated this point in an interview with the Los Angeles Times .
However , After the " Rage Factor " celebratory show in Finsbury Park on June 6 , 2010 , after the campaign to get Killing in the Name to Christmas Number 1 , Zack de la Rocha stated that it was a " genuine possibility " . Stating that they may use the momentum from the campaign to get back into the studio and write a follow @-@ up record to 2000s Renegades after 10 years . When talking to NME , Zack de la Rocha said : " I think it 's a genuine possibility , We have to get our heads around what we ’ re going to do towards the end of the year and finish up on some other projects and we ’ ll take it from there . "
= = = 2009 @-@ 2015 : Killing in the Name campaign , European tour , and L.A. Rising = = =
In December 2009 , a campaign was launched on Facebook by Jon Morter and his wife Tracy , in order to stop , most notably , The X Factor hits from becoming almost automatic Christmas number ones on the UK Singles Chart . It generated nationwide publicity and took the track " Killing in the Name " to the coveted Christmas number one slot in the UK Singles Chart , which had been dominated for four consecutive years from 2005 by winners from the popular TV show The X Factor . Before the chart was announced on December 20 , 2009 , the Facebook group membership stood at over 950 @,@ 000 , and was acknowledged ( and supported ) by Tom Morello , Dave Grohl , Paul McCartney , Muse , Fightstar , NME , John Lydon , Bill Bailey , Lenny Henry , BBC Radio 1 , Hadouken ! , The Prodigy , Stereophonics , BBC Radio 5 Live , and even the 2004 X Factor winner Steve Brookstein , amongst numerous others . On the morning of December 17 , Rage Against the Machine played a slightly censored version of " Killing in the Name " live on Radio 5 Live , but four repeats of ' Fuck you I won 't do what you tell me ' were aired before the song was pulled . During the interview before the song they reiterated their support for the campaign and their intentions to support charity with the proceeds . The campaign was ultimately successful , and " Killing in the Name " became the number @-@ one single in the UK for Christmas 2009 . A similar campaign was run on Facebook in Ireland the same year but Killing in the Name placed 2nd that Christmas to X Factors 2010 single . Rage 's Zack de la Rocha spoke to BBC1 upon hearing the news , stating that :
The band also set a new record , achieving the biggest download sales total in a first week ever in the UK charts. de la Rocha also promised the band would perform a free concert in the UK sometime in 2010 to celebrate the achievement . True to their word , the band announced that they would be performing a free concert at Finsbury Park , London on June 6 , 2010 . The concert , dubbed " The Rage Factor " , gave away all the tickets by free photo registration to prevent touting over the weekend of the February 13 – 14 , followed by an online lottery on February 17 . This proved to be overwhelmingly popular , with many users facing connection issues . The tickets were all allocated by 13 : 30 that same day . After allowing ticket holders to vote for who they wanted to be the support acts for " The Rage Factor " , it was announced that Gogol Bordello , Gallows and Roots Manuva would support Rage Against the Machine at this concert .
In addition to the free gig at Finsbury Park , the band headlined European festivals in June 2010 including the Download Festival at Donington Park , England , Rock am Ring and Rock im Park in Germany and Rock in Rio Madrid in Spain . They also performed in Ireland on June 8 and The Netherlands on June 9 . Zack de la Rocha had stated that it was a definite possibility that the band would record a new album , the first time since 2000 's Renegades Morter confirmed this , stating the discussions he and the band had backstage before the Finsbury Park gig saying the band did write new material , but they had no motivation to release them until now . De la Rocha mentioned the very strong reaction from the Download Festival 2010 audience as an incentive for releasing new material . In addition , the band returned to Los Angeles on July 23 , 2010 for their first US show in two years and their first hometown show in 10 years . The concert benefited Arizona organizations that are fighting the SB1070 immigration law . On the night of the show , a spokesperson announced to the crowd that ticket sales — all of which are non @-@ profit to the bands — had raised $ 300 @,@ 000 . The band has been confirmed to do a short South American tour in October , performing at venues such as the SWU Festival in Brazil , the Maquinaria Festival in Chile , and Pepsi Music Festival in Argentina . It was the first time the band played on those countries .
During an interview with the Chilean newspaper La Tercera in October 2010 , Rage frontman Zack de la Rocha allegedly confirmed that a new album was in the works , with a possibility of a 2011 release . De la Rocha is reported as saying , “ We are all bigger and more mature and we do not fall into the problems we faced 10 or 15 years ago . This is different and we project a lot : we are working on a new album due out next year , perhaps summer for the northern hemisphere . " However , in early May 2011 , guitarist Tom Morello said that the band were not working on a new album , but would not rule out the possibility of future studio work . " The band is not writing songs , the band is not in the studio , " Morello told The Pulse of Radio . " We get along famously and we all , you know , intend to do more Rage Against the Machine stuff in the future , but beyond sort of working out a concert this year , there 's nothing else on the schedule ( for 2011 ) . " The band created its own festival , the L.A. Rising . As Morello stated , the only Rage appearance for 2011 was a performance on July 30 at the L.A. Rising festival with El Gran Silencio , Immortal Technique , Lauryn Hill , Rise Against and Muse . As of mid @-@ 2012 , there are no plans for any more shows . During an interview on July 30 , 2011 , Commerford seemingly contradicted Morello 's comments , stating that new material was being written , and specific plans for the next two years were in place .
In an October 2012 interview with TMZ , bassist Tim Commerford was asked if Rage Against the Machine was working on a new album . He simply responded , " maybe " . Asked by TMZ again in November 2012 whether a new album was being worked on , Commerford replied " definitely maybe ... anything 's possible . " Later that month , however , Morello denied that they were working on new material , and stated that Rage Against the Machine has " no plans beyond " the reissue of their self @-@ titled debut album . Morello said he would be open to recording new Rage Against the Machine material , but added that it is " not on the table right now . "
The band announced on October 9 via their Facebook page that they would be releasing a special 20th anniversary box set to commemorate the group 's debut album . The full box set contains never @-@ before @-@ released concert material , including the band 's 2010 Finsbury Park show and footage from early in their career , as well as a digitally @-@ remastered version of the album , b @-@ sides and the original demo tape ( on disc for the first time ) . The band released 3 @-@ disc and single @-@ disc versions . The collection was released on November 27 .
On April 30 , 2014 , drummer Brad Wilk stated that Rage Against the Machine 's 2011 performance at L.A. Rising may have been their final show . In February 2015 , Tim Commerford precised that uncertainty was typical of the band 's functioning , speculating : " It could be tomorrow ; it could be 10 years from now " .
On October 16 , 2015 , the 2010 gig in Finsbury Park was officially released as a DVD and Blu @-@ ray called Live at Finsbury Park .
= = = 2016 – present : Prophets of Rage = = =
In May 2016 , the band launched a mysterious countdown website , prophetsofrage.com , with a clock counting down to June 1 . Accompanying the clock was an image of a broken slash through a circle with silhouettes of five people all extending their arms and clenched fists with the hashtag " # takethepowerback " underneath the timer . This led to speculation of the return of the band later in the year . However , a source close to Rage Against the Machine told Rolling Stone that the Prophets of Rage website had nothing do with the announcement of a " Rage @-@ specific reunion " , but added that " some of the members " of the band have been working on a project that will include live shows .
Finally , it was confirmed that Prophets of Rage is a new supergroup formed by Morello , Wilk and Commerford , plus Chuck D of Public Enemy and B @-@ Real of Cypress Hill . The band will be on tour and play some songs of the three bands in which the members of this group participated before .
Despite Morello , Wilk and Commerford 's involvement in Prophets of Rage , Commerford confirmed in an interview with Rolling Stone that Rage Against the Machine has not split up , explaining , " We just do things our own way . Throughout our career , we never did what anyone wanted us to do . We never made the records people wanted us to make . We never played by the rules people wanted us to play by . And here we are , 25 years later , still a band . Clearly that means something . And if we did ever play or make new music or anything , it would be a very big deal . And there 's a lot of bands that I ’ ve seen come along during that 25 @-@ year period that did everything the record companies and the powers @-@ that @-@ be wanted them to do , and they sold millions of records . But where are they now ? They 're gone . " Morello added , " Right now ... the cold embers of Rage Against the Machine are now the burning fire of Prophets of Rage . Where Rage Against the Machine lives , is this summer in these songs that we are playing . And we have nothing but the greatest love and honor and respect for Zack de la Rocha , the brilliant lyricist of Rage Against The Machine , who is working on his own music , which I 'm sure will be fantastic — he 's a great artist in his own right . But where you 're going to hear Rage Against the Machine is in Prophets of Rage . "
= = Musical style and influences = =
Rage Against the Machine has been noted for its " fiercely polemical music , which brewed sloganeering leftist rants against corporate America , cultural imperialism , and government oppression into a Molotov cocktail of punk rock , hip @-@ hop , and thrash . " Zack de la Rocha 's lyrics and choruses are defined by a heavy use of sloganeering and repetition on songs like Bulls on Parade , Guerrilla Radio , Testify , and Down Rodeo . Guitarist Tom Morello , on the other hand , was considered the guitar player but also the DJ in Rage .
The band is associated with the 1990s alternative movement . They are also considered rap metal , rap rock and funk metal .
= = Political views and activism = =
The members of Rage Against the Machine are well known for their leftist and revolutionary political views , and almost all of the band 's songs focus on these views . Key to the band 's identity , Rage Against the Machine has voiced viewpoints highly critical of the domestic and foreign policies of current and previous US governments . Throughout its existence , RATM and its individual members participated in political protests and other activism to advocate these beliefs . The band sees its music as a vehicle for social activism ; De la Rocha explained that " I 'm interested in spreading those ideas through art , because music has the power to cross borders , to break military sieges and to establish real dialogue . " Morello said of wage slavery in America :
America touts itself as the land of the free , but the number one freedom that you and I have is the freedom to enter into a subservient role in the workplace . Once you exercise this freedom you 've lost all control over what you do , what is produced , and how it is produced . And in the end , the product doesn 't belong to you . The only way you can avoid bosses and jobs is if you don 't care about making a living . Which leads to the second freedom : the freedom to starve .
Some critics have accused the group of hypocrisy for voicing commitment to leftist causes while being millionaires signed to Epic Records , a subsidiary of media conglomerate Sony Records . Infectious Grooves released a song called " Do What I Tell Ya ! " which mocks lyrics from " Killing in the Name " , accusing the band of being hypocrites . In response to such critiques , Morello offered the rebuttal :
= = Members = =
Zack de la Rocha – lead vocals ( 1991 – 2000 , 2007 – 2011 )
Tom Morello – guitars ( 1991 – 2000 , 2007 – 2011 )
Tim Commerford – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 1991 – 2000 , 2007 – 2011 )
Brad Wilk – drums , percussion ( 1991 – 2000 , 2007 – 2011 )
= = Discography = =
Rage Against the Machine ( 1992 )
Evil Empire ( 1996 )
The Battle of Los Angeles ( 1999 )
Renegades ( 2000 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
Rage Against the Machine has received two Grammy Awards ; Best Metal Performance for the song " Tire Me " and Best Hard Rock Performance for " Guerrilla Radio " . The band has also received three nominations from the MTV Video Music Awards , but has yet to win an award . In 2008 the band were given a special " Hall of Fame " award from Kerrang ! .
Grammy Awards
MTV Video Music Awards
NME Awards
Kerrang ! Awards
Classic Rock Roll of Honour Awards
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= French destroyer Mogador =
Mogador was the lead ship of the French Navy 's Mogador class of destroyers ( French : contre @-@ torpilleur ) . Named for the Moroccan town , she was built before the outbreak of World War II . The ship was heavily damaged during the British attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir on 3 July 1940 , but was later repaired and sailed to Toulon . She was scuttled in Toulon Harbor when the Germans tried to seize her , along with the rest of the fleet , on 27 November 1942 .
She was the last contre @-@ torpilleur built by the French Navy , a not entirely successful attempt to build a ship capable of out @-@ fighting every other ship below her tonnage . " In technological terms Mogador and Volta were ships with the armament of a light cruiser in the hull of destroyer ; the contre @-@ torpilleur as a type had been pushed past the limits of its capabilities . "
= = Design and description = =
Mogador had an overall length of 137 @.@ 5 meters ( 451 ft 1 in ) , a beam of 12 @.@ 57 meters ( 41 ft 3 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 74 meters ( 15 ft 7 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 997 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 950 long tons ) at standard load and 4 @,@ 018 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 955 long tons ) at deep load . The Rateau @-@ Bretagne geared steam turbines were designed to produce 92 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 68 @,@ 604 kW ) , which would propel the ship at 39 knots ( 72 km / h ; 45 mph ) . However , during sea trials in March 1938 , Mogador 's turbines provided 118 @,@ 320 shp ( 88 @,@ 230 kW ) and she reached 43 @.@ 45 knots ( 80 @.@ 47 km / h ; 50 @.@ 00 mph ) for a single hour . The ship carried 360 metric tons ( 354 long tons ) of fuel oil at normal load and an additional 350 metric tons ( 340 long tons ) at deep load .
Mogador carried eight Canon de 138 mm Modèle 1929 in four twin turrets , two each superimposed , fore and aft . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Mle 1933 guns in a single mount positioned on the rear deck house forward of the rear turrets . She also mounted four 13 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) Mle 1929 heavy machine guns in two twin mounts located between the forward superstructure and the forward guns . Mogador carried 10 above @-@ water 550 @-@ millimeter ( 22 in ) torpedo tubes : a pair of triple mounts between the funnels and a pair of double mounts aft of the rear funnel . A pair of depth charge chutes were built into Mogador 's stern ; these housed a total of 16 Guirard depth charges . Mine rails were fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 40 mines .
= = Service history = =
Mogador , with her sister Volta , comprised the 6th Large Destroyer Division ( 6e Division de contre @-@ torpilleurs ) and was assigned to the Force de Raid based at Brest when the war began . This group 's purpose was to hunt German blockade runners and raiders and to escort convoys that might be in danger from the same . From 21 – 30 October 1939 the Force de Raid escorted the KJ.4 convoy to protect it against the German cruiser Deutschland which had sortied into the North Atlantic before the war began . A sortie by the Gneisenau and Scharnhorst into the North Atlantic on 21 November prompted the Force de Raid to sail from Brest to rendezvous with the British battlecruiser HMS Hood and patrol the area south of Iceland , but the German ships were able to return safely under the cover of heavy weather without being engaged .
Mogador was refitted at Lorient between January and March 1940 and a number of minor changes were made . The necessary improvements identified for the main armament during her sea trials a year prior were finally implemented , the canvas cover for the back of the turrets was replaced by a rolling door , new radios were installed , and shields were fitted to the anti @-@ aircraft machine guns and the searchlights . A SS @-@ 6 sonar was fitted in June 1940 , but proved to be ineffectual .
Mogador was present during the British attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir on 3 July 1940 , but she was severely damaged by a hit from an armour @-@ piercing 15 @-@ inch ( 38 cm ) shell in the rear hull that detonated her ready depth charges although it failed to detonate itself . The explosion destroyed her upper rear hull , but , miraculously , the rear magazines failed to explode . One propeller shaft was undamaged and the other shaft and the two propellers were intact , albeit damaged . She was towed to Oran for repairs . She was dry docked on 17 July , the remains of her No. 4 turret were removed and the after bulkheads repaired and reinforced to make her seaworthy . She sailed for Toulon on 1 December where she was docked pending reconstruction .
The French Navy decided to reinforce her anti @-@ aircraft armament in light of its wartime experience . Her no . 3 gun turret was to be moved to the No. 4 position , its magazine converted for extra fuel storage , and a new twin 37 mm Mle 1933 mount would replace it on top of the rear deck house . Two more Mle 1933 mounts were to fitted on each side of the rear deckhouse and a fourth mount was to replace the 13 @.@ 2 Hotchkiss machine guns forward of the bridge . One 13 @.@ 2 mm Browning machine gun was to planned to be mounted on each side of the forward twin 37 mm guns . This plan was later amended to add a degaussing cable , replacement of the SS @-@ 6 sonar by a French copy of the British ASDIC and six of the new mitrailleuse de 25 mm contre @-@ aéroplanes Modèle 1940 anti @-@ aircraft guns , plus two more 13 @.@ 2 mm Brownings mounted on the forward corners of the center deck house .
The rebuilding was slowed by material shortages and she wasn 't taken into hand by the shipyard Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranée at La Seyne @-@ sur @-@ Mer until late February 1942 . In October it was estimated that she wouldn 't be completed until Jul 1943 . She was scuttled in La Seyne @-@ sur @-@ Mer on 27 November 1942 to prevent her capture by the Germans . She was refloated by the Italians on 5 April 1943 , but not repaired . Mogador was sunk by Allied bombers in late 1944 , but was raised in 1949 and scrapped .
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= 1901 Louisiana hurricane =
The 1901 Louisiana hurricane was the first hurricane to make landfall in Louisiana in the month of August or earlier since 1888 . The fourth tropical cyclone and second hurricane of the season , this storm developed southwest of the Azores on August 2 . Moving southwestward and later westward , the depression remained weak for several days , until strengthening into a tropical storm while approaching the Bahamas early on August 9 . It then crossed through the islands and intensified only slightly . Late on August 10 , the storm made landfall near Deerfield Beach , Florida . After reaching the Gulf of Mexico the next day , continuous intensifying occurred and by August 12 , the storm reached hurricane status . Peaking with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) , it struck Louisiana late on August 14 and then Mississippi less than 24 hours later . The system weakened to a tropical storm early on August 16 and became extratropical several hours later .
Along portions of the east coast of Florida , " considerable damage " was reported due to strong winds . In Alabama , trees were uprooted , houses were de @-@ roofed , and chimneys collapsed in Mobile . Some areas of the city were also inundated with up to 18 inches ( 460 mm ) of water due to storm tide . Several yachts , schooners , and ships were wrecked or sunk , resulting in at least $ 70 @,@ 000 ( 1901 USD ) in damage . However , due to warnings by the Weather Bureau , the Mobile Chamber of Commerce estimated that several millions of dollars in damage was evaded . All towns along the coast of Mississippi " suffered seriously " . In Louisiana , severe damage was reported at some towns due to strong winds and high tides . The community of Port Eads reported that only the lighthouse was not destroyed , while other sources state that an office building also remained standing . In New Orleans , overflowing levees inundated numerous streets . Outside the city , crops suffered severely , particularly rice . Overall , the storm caused 10 – 15 deaths and $ 1 million in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical depression developed about 615 miles ( 990 km ) southwest of Flores Island , Azores at 0000 UTC on August 2 . The depression moved southwestward and remained weak for several days . On August 5 , it re @-@ curved west @-@ southwestward and then westward while passing north of the Lesser Antilles . The next day , the system curved west @-@ northwestward and briefly to the west on August 8 . Finally , the depression strengthened into a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on August 9 , while located about 50 miles ( 80 km ) northeast of Cat Island , Bahamas . Around that time , the Weather Bureau first observed a " feeble disturbance in the subtropical north of Cuba . " Between August 9 and August 10 , the storm strengthened slightly further and moved through the Bahamas , passing over Cat Island and the Berry Islands . Around 2200 UTC on August 10 , the system made landfall near Deerfield Beach , Florida with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) .
Early on August 11 , the storm weakened slightly while crossing Florida . It then decelerated and reached the eastern Gulf of Mexico several hours later . Thereafter , the system began to re @-@ strengthen and became a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale at 1200 UTC on August 12 . Early the next day , the storm attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . It weakened slightly early on August 14 and curved northwestward while approaching the coast of Louisiana . At 2100 UTC , the storm made landfall near Buras with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Curving northeastward , the hurricane re @-@ emerged into the Gulf of Mexico early on August 15 . However , around 1700 UTC , it made another landfall near Ocean Springs , Mississippi at the same intensity . Early on August 16 , the system weakened to a tropical storm . It then weakened much quicker and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over Mississippi at 0000 UTC on August 17 . The remnant extratropical cyclone persisted until late the next day , at which time it dissipated over Indiana .
= = Preparations and impact = =
As the storm approached the east coast of Florida on August 10 , a warning was sent to all Weather Bureau stations in Florida , as well as Savannah , Georgia , and Charleston , South Carolina , regarding a " disturbance of moderate intensity " , which posed a threat to small crafts in Florida and the western Bahamas . The next day , as the storm was moving across Florida , another message sent to Weather Bureau stations from New Orleans to Charleston warned of the potential for severe squalls along the west coast of Florida . While approaching the Gulf Coast of the United States on August 13 , storm warnings were ordered for Alabama , Mississippi and Louisiana , as well as for the west coast of Florida . At the National Weather Service office in New Orleans , hurricane warnings were ordered in Louisiana from mouth of the Mississippi River westward on August 15 and expanded to eastern Texas later that day . In New Orleans , 500 men , who were city authorities or levee board members , worked to strengthen the levees along canals in the city . Throughout much of the Gulf Coast of the United States , vessels and ships were warned to take precautions and remain in port .
In Florida , " considerable damage " due to strong winds was reported along portions of the east coast . Wind gusts reached 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) in Pensacola . Offshore , the Portuguese bark Propheta , with a cargo of timber worth $ 5 @,@ 000 , was badly damaged . Strong winds up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) were observed in the Mobile area of Alabama , uprooting trees , unroofing houses , and toppling chimneys . Tides inundated the cotton exchange with up to 18 inches ( 460 mm ) of water , while the Western Union , post office , and electrical house for railroads were also flooded . The pleasure yacht Ariel , which was bound for the Fish River , was smashed into pieces at a wharf along the eastern end of Mobile Bay . Between 12 and 15 schooners from the F. F. Saunders company fishing fleet were badly damaged ; four of which sank , resulting in $ 70 @,@ 000 in damage . However , due to warnings by the Weather Bureau , the Chamber of Commerce estimated that several millions of dollars in damage was evaded . All towns along the coast of Mississippi " suffered seriously " .
High winds and rough seas were observed in Louisiana . In Port Eads , five @-@ minute sustained winds reached 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) , before the anemometer blew away . At the same location , a 24 @-@ hour rainfall record was set for the month of August , with 7 @.@ 64 inches ( 194 mm ) of precipitation observed . According to a contemporaneous report , the weather instrument shelter was swept away due to storm tides and the flag staff was broken . While the office building did weather the storm intact , documents in it were soaked . However , a report written in 2010 states that in Port Eads only the lighthouse remained standing in the aftermath of the devastation . Fifteen fatalities were reported after a house was swept away by storm tides . The 2010 report , however , states that a total of ten deaths were caused by the storm over its entire existence . In Pilottown , the large " lookout " tower was toppled and destroyed . The outhouse that displaymen used and slept in was blown over and then rapidly filled with water , due to tides rising to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in only 10 minutes . Additionally , property of the Weather Bureau was also damaged .
Buras reported 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water in town . River stages along the Mississippi River at New Orleans rose to a level of 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) during the storm , producing much flooding . The Carondelet Canal also overflowed , inundating streets in the neighborhood of Tremé with 1 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water . Levee breaks around New Orleans flooded the city . Additionally , strong winds littered the streets with tree branches . The worst hit areas of New Orleans were the neighborhoods of Bucktown , Milneburg , West End , all of which are located on the shore of Lake Pontchartrain . In the New Orleans suburb of Shell Beach , severe crop damage was reported , particularly to rice . While sailing the Mississippi River just outside New Orleans , Dr. J. N. Thomas reported that a schooner and a small boat were wrecked , resulting in 60 deaths . However , this was not confirmed . Overall , damage in Louisiana reached $ 1 million , which excluded losses to crops .
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= Jet stream =
Jet streams are fast flowing , narrow , meandering air currents found in the upper atmosphere or in troposphere of some planets , including Earth . The main jet streams are located near the altitude of the tropopause . The major jet streams on Earth are westerly winds ( flowing west to east ) . Their paths typically have a meandering shape . Jet streams may start , stop , split into two or more parts , combine into one stream , or flow in various directions including opposite to the direction of the remainder of the jet . The strongest jet streams are the polar jets , at 9 – 12 km ( 30 @,@ 000 – 39 @,@ 000 ft ) above sea level , and the higher altitude and somewhat weaker subtropical jets at 10 – 16 km ( 33 @,@ 000 – 52 @,@ 000 ft ) . The Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere each have a polar jet and a subtropical jet . The northern hemisphere polar jet flows over the middle to northern latitudes of North America , Europe , and Asia and their intervening oceans , while the southern hemisphere polar jet mostly circles Antarctica all year round .
Jet streams are the product of two factors : the atmospheric heating by solar radiation that produces the large scale Polar , Ferrel , and Hadley circulation cells , and the action of the Coriolis force acting on those moving masses . The Coriolis force is caused by the planet 's rotation on its axis . On other planets , internal heat drives their jet streams . The Polar jet stream forms near the interface of the Polar and Ferrel circulation cells ; while the subtropical jet forms near the boundary of the Ferrel and Hadley circulation cells .
Other jet streams also exist . During the Northern Hemisphere summer , easterly jets can form in tropical regions , typically where dry air encounters more humid air at high altitudes . Low @-@ level jets also are typical of various regions such as the central United States .
Meteorologists use the location of some of the jet streams as an aid in weather forecasting . The main commercial relevance of the jet streams is in air travel , as flight time can be dramatically affected by either flying with the flow or against . Clear @-@ air turbulence , a potential hazard to aircraft passenger safety , is often found in a jet stream 's vicinity , but it does not create a substantial alteration on flight times .
= = Discovery = =
After the 1883 eruption of the Krakatoa volcano , weather watchers tracked and mapped the effects on the sky over several years . They labelled the phenomenon the " equatorial smoke stream " . In the 1920s , a Japanese meteorologist , Wasaburo Oishi , detected the jet stream from a site near Mount Fuji . He tracked pilot balloons , also known as pibals ( balloons used to determine upper level winds ) , as they rose into the atmosphere . Oishi 's work largely went unnoticed outside Japan because it was published in Esperanto . American pilot Wiley Post , the first man to fly around the world solo in 1933 , is often given some credit for discovery of jet streams . Post invented a pressurized suit that let him fly above 6 @,@ 200 metres ( 20 @,@ 300 ft ) . In the year before his death , Post made several attempts at a high @-@ altitude transcontinental flight , and noticed that at times his ground speed greatly exceeded his air speed . German meteorologist Heinrich Seilkopf is credited with coining a special term , Strahlströmung ( literally " jet current " ) , for the phenomenon in 1939 . ( Modern German usage is " Strahlstrom " . ) Many sources credit real understanding of the nature of jet streams to regular and repeated flight @-@ path traversals during World War II . Flyers consistently noticed westerly tailwinds in excess of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) in flights , for example , from the US to the UK . Similarly in 1944 a team of American meteorologists in Guam , including Reid Bryson , had enough observations to forecast very high west winds that would slow bombers going to Japan .
= = Description = =
Polar jet streams are typically located near the 250 hPa ( about 1 / 4 atmosphere ) pressure level , or 7 to 12 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 to 7 @.@ 5 mi ) above sea level , while the weaker subtropical jet streams are much higher , between 10 and 16 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 and 9 @.@ 9 mi ) . Jet streams wander laterally dramatically , and have large changes in their altitude . The jet streams form near breaks in the tropopause , at the transitions between the Polar , Ferrel and Hadley circulation cells , and whose circulation , with the Coriolis force acting on those masses , drives the jet streams . The Polar jets , at lower altitude , and often intruding into mid @-@ latitudes , strongly affects weather and aviation . The polar jet stream is most commonly found between latitudes 30 ° and 60 ° ( closer to 60 ° ) , while the subtropical jet streams are located close to latitude 30 ° . The northern Polar jet stream is said to " follow the sun " as it slowly migrates northward as the hemisphere warms , and southward again as the hemisphere cools .
The width of a jet stream is typically a few hundred kilometres or miles and its vertical thickness often less than five kilometres ( 3 mi ) .
Jet streams are typically continuous over long distances , but discontinuities are common . The path of the jet typically has a meandering shape , and these meanders themselves propagate eastward , at lower speeds than that of the actual wind within the flow . Each large meander , or wave , within the jet stream is known as a Rossby wave ( planetary wave ) . Rossby waves are caused by changes in the Coriolis effect with latitude . Shortwave troughs , are smaller scale waves superimposed on the Rossby waves , with a scale of 1 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 620 – 2 @,@ 490 mi ) long , that move along through the flow pattern around large scale , or longwave , " ridges " and " troughs " within Rossby waves . Jet streams can split into two when it encounters an upper @-@ level low , that diverts a portion of the jet stream under its base , while the remainder of the jet moves by to its north .
The wind speeds are greatest where temperature differences ( gradient ) between air masses are greatest , and often exceed 92 km / h ( 50 kn ; 57 mph ) , to over 398 km / h ( 215 kn ; 247 mph ) have been measured .
The jet stream moves from West to East bringing changes of weather . Meteorologists now understand that the path of jet streams steers cyclonic storm systems at lower levels in the atmosphere , and so knowledge of their course has become an important part of weather forecasting . For example , in 2007 and 2012 , Britain experienced severe flooding as a result of the polar jet staying south for the summer .
The polar and subtropical jets merge at some locations and times , while at other times they are well separated .
= = Cause = =
In general , winds are strongest immediately under the tropopause ( except locally , during tornadoes , tropical cyclones or other anomalous situations ) . If two air masses of different temperatures or densities meet , the resulting pressure difference caused by the density difference ( which ultimately causes wind ) is highest within the transition zone . The wind does not flow directly from the hot to the cold area , but is deflected by the Coriolis effect and flows along the boundary of the two air masses .
All these facts are consequences of the thermal wind relation . The balance of forces acting on an atmospheric air parcel in the vertical direction is primarily between the gravitational force acting on the mass of the parcel and the buoyancy force , or the difference in pressure between the top and bottom surfaces of the parcel . Any imbalance between these forces results in the acceleration of the parcel in the imbalance direction : upward if the buoyant force exceeds the weight , and downward if the weight exceeds the buoyancy force . The balance in the vertical direction is referred to as hydrostatic . Beyond the tropics , the dominant forces act in the horizontal direction , and the primary struggle is between the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient force . Balance between these two forces is referred to as geostrophic . Given both hydrostatic and geostrophic balance , one can derive the thermal wind relation : the vertical gradient of the horizontal wind is proportional to the horizontal temperature gradient . If two air masses , one cold and dense to the North and the other hot and less dense to the South , are separated by a vertical boundary and that boundary should be removed , the difference in densities will result in the cold air mass slipping under the hotter and less dense air mass . The Coriolis effect will then cause poleward @-@ moving mass to deviate to the East , while equatorward @-@ moving mass will deviate toward the west . The general trend in the atmosphere is for temperatures to decrease in the poleward direction . As a result , winds develop an eastward component and that component grows with altitude . Therefore , the strong eastward moving jet streams are in part a simple consequence of the fact that the Equator is warmer than the North and South poles .
= = = Polar jet = = =
The thermal wind relation does not explain why the winds are organized into tight jets , rather than distributed more broadly over the hemisphere . One factor that contributes to the creation of a concentrated polar jet is the undercutting of sub @-@ tropical air masses by the more dense polar air masses at the polar front . This causes surface low pressure and higher pressure at altitude . At high altitudes , lack of friction allows air to respond freely to the steep pressure gradient with low pressure at high altitude over the pole . This results in the formation of planetary wind circulations that experience a strong Coriolis deflection and thus can be considered ' quasi @-@ geostrophic ' . The polar front jet stream is closely linked to the frontogenesis process in midlatitudes , as the acceleration / deceleration of the air flow induces areas of low / high pressure respectively , which link to the formation of cyclones and anticyclones along the polar front in a relatively narrow region .
= = = Subtropical jet = = =
A second factor which contributes to a concentrated jet , that is more applicable to the subtropical jet , which forms at the poleward limit of the tropical Hadley cell and to first order this circulation is symmetric with respect to longitude . Tropical air rises to the tropopause , and moves poleward before sinking ; this is the Hadley cell circulation . As it does so it tends to conserve angular momentum , since friction with the ground is significant . Air masses that begin moving northward are deflected to eastward by the Coriolis force ( true for either hemisphere ) , which for poleward moving air implies an increased eastward component of the winds ( note that leftward deflection in the southern hemisphere ) .
= = = Other planets = = =
Jupiter 's atmosphere has multiple jet streams , caused by the convection cells that form the familiar banded color structure ; on Jupiter , these convection cells are driven by internal heating . The factors that control the number of jet streams in a planetary atmosphere is an active area of research in dynamical meteorology . In models , as one increases the planetary radius , holding all other parameters fixed , the number of jet streams decreases .
= = Some effects = =
= = = Hurricane protection = = =
The subtropical jet stream rounding the base of the mid @-@ oceanic upper trough is thought to be one of the reasons most of the Hawaiian Islands have been resistant to the long list of Hawaii hurricanes that have approached . For example , when Hurricane Flossie approached and dissipated just before reaching landfall , NOAA cited vertical wind shear as evidenced in the photo .
= = Uses = =
On Earth , the northern polar jet stream is the most important one for aviation and weather forecasting , as it is much stronger and at a much lower altitude than the subtropical jet streams and also covers many countries in the Northern Hemisphere , while the southern polar jet stream mostly circles Antarctica and sometimes the southern tip of South America . The term jet stream in these contexts thus usually implies the northern polar jet stream .
= = = Aviation = = =
The location of the jet stream is extremely important for aviation . Commercial use of the jet stream began on 18 November 1952 , when Pan Am flew from Tokyo to Honolulu at an altitude of 7 @,@ 600 metres ( 24 @,@ 900 ft ) . It cut the trip time by over one @-@ third , from 18 to 11 @.@ 5 hours . Not only does it cut time off the flight , it also nets fuel savings for the airline industry . Within North America , the time needed to fly east across the continent can be decreased by about 30 minutes if an airplane can fly with the jet stream , or increased by more than that amount if it must fly west against it .
Associated with jet streams is a phenomenon known as clear @-@ air turbulence ( CAT ) , caused by vertical and horizontal wind shear caused by jet streams . The CAT is strongest on the cold air side of the jet , next to and just under the axis of the jet . Clear @-@ air turbulence can cause aircraft to plunge and so present a passenger safety hazard that has caused fatal accidents , such as the death of one passenger on United Airlines Flight 826 ( 1997 ) .
= = = Future power generation = = =
Scientists are investigating ways to harness the wind energy within the jet stream . According to one estimate , of the potential wind energy in the jet stream , only 1 percent would be needed to meet the world 's current energy needs . The required technology would reportedly take 10 – 20 years to develop . There are two major scientific articles about jet stream power . Archer & Caldeira claim that the jet streams can generate the total power of 1700 TW , and that the climatic impact will be negligible . Miller , Gans , & Kleidon claim that the jet streams can generate the total power of only 7 @.@ 5 TW , and that the climatic impact will be catastrophic .
= = = Unpowered aerial attack = = =
Near the end of World War II the Japanese fire balloon was designed as a cheap weapon intended to make use of the jet stream over the Pacific Ocean to reach the west coast of Canada and the United States . They were relatively ineffective as weapons , but they were used in one of the few attacks on North America during World War II , causing six deaths and a small amount of damage .
= = Changes due to climate cycles = =
= = = Effects of ENSO = = =
El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) influences the average location of upper @-@ level jet streams , and leads to cyclical variations in precipitation and temperature across North America , as well as affecting tropical cyclone development across the eastern Pacific and Atlantic basins . Combined with the Pacific Decadal Oscillation , ENSO can also impact cold season rainfall in Europe . Changes in ENSO also change the location of the jet stream over South America , which partially affects precipitation distribution over the continent .
= = = = El Niño = = = =
During El Niño events , increased precipitation is expected in California due to a more southerly , zonal , storm track . During the Niño portion of ENSO , increased precipitation falls along the Gulf coast and Southeast due to a stronger than normal , and more southerly , polar jet stream . Snowfall is greater than average across the southern Rockies and Sierra Nevada mountain range , and is well below normal across the Upper Midwest and Great Lakes states . The northern tier of the lower 48 exhibits above normal temperatures during the fall and winter , while the Gulf coast experiences below normal temperatures during the winter season . The subtropical jet stream across the deep tropics of the Northern Hemisphere is enhanced due to increased convection in the equatorial Pacific , which decreases tropical cyclogenesis within the Atlantic tropics below what is normal , and increases tropical cyclone activity across the eastern Pacific . In the Southern Hemisphere , the subtropical jet stream is displaced equatorward , or north , of its normal position , which diverts frontal systems and thunderstorm complexes from reaching central portions of the continent .
= = = = La Niña = = = =
Across North America during La Niña , increased precipitation is diverted into the Pacific Northwest due to a more northerly storm track and jet stream . The storm track shifts far enough northward to bring wetter than normal conditions ( in the form of increased snowfall ) to the Midwestern states , as well as hot and dry summers . Snowfall is above normal across the Pacific Northwest and western Great Lakes . Across the North Atlantic , the jet stream is stronger than normal , which directs stronger systems with increased precipitation towards Europe .
= = = Dust Bowl = = =
Evidence suggests the jet stream was at least partly responsible for the widespread drought conditions during the 1930s Dust Bowl in the Midwest United States . Normally , the jet stream flows east over the Gulf of Mexico and turns northward pulling up moisture and dumping rain onto the Great Plains . During the Dust Bowl , the jet stream weakened and changed course traveling farther south than normal . This starved the Great Plains and other areas of the Midwest of rainfall , causing extraordinary drought conditions .
= = Longer @-@ term climatic changes = =
Climate scientists have hypothesized that the jet stream will gradually weaken as a result of global warming . Trends such as Arctic sea ice decline , reduced snow cover , evapotranspiration patterns , and other weather anomalies are expected to make the Arctic heat up faster than other parts of the globe . This in turn reduces the temperature gradient that drives jet stream winds , causing the jet stream to become weaker and more variable in its course .
Since 2007 , and particularly in 2012 and early 2013 , the jet stream has been at an abnormally low latitude across the UK , lying closer to the English Channel , around 50 ° N rather than its more usual north of Scotland latitude of around 60 ° N. However , between 1979 and 2001 , it has been found that the average position of the jet stream has been moving northward at a rate of 2 @.@ 01 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 25 mi ) per year across the Northern Hemisphere . Across North America , this type of change could lead to drier conditions across the southern tier of the United States and more frequent and more intense tropical cyclones in the tropics . A similar slow poleward drift was found when studying the Southern Hemisphere jet stream over the same time frame .
= = Other upper @-@ level jets = =
= = = Polar night jet = = =
The polar @-@ night jet stream forms only during the winter months when the nights are much longer , hence polar nights , in their respective hemispheres at around 60 ° latitude . The polar night jet moves at a greater height of about 80 @,@ 000 feet ( 24 @,@ 000 m ) than it does during the summer . During these dark months the air high over the poles becomes much colder than the air over the equator . This difference in temperature gives rise to extreme air pressure differences in the stratosphere , which , when combined with the Coriolis effect , create the polar night jets , that race eastward at an altitude of about 30 miles ( 48 km ) . The polar vortex is circled by the polar night jet . The warmer air can only move along the edge of the polar vortex , but not enter it . Within the vortex , the cold polar air becomes increasingly cold with neither warmer air from lower latitudes nor energy from the Sun during the polar night .
= = Low level jets = =
There are wind maxima at lower levels of the atmosphere that are also referred to as jets .
= = = Barrier jet = = =
A barrier jet in the low levels forms just upstream of mountain chains , with the mountains forcing the jet to be oriented parallel to the mountains . The mountain barrier increases the strength of the low level wind by 45 percent . In the North American Great Plains a southerly low @-@ level jet helps fuel overnight thunderstorm activity during the warm season , normally in the form of mesoscale convective systems which form during the overnight hours . A similar phenomenon develops across Australia , which pulls moisture poleward from the Coral Sea towards cut @-@ off lows which form mainly across southwestern portions of the continent .
= = = Valley exit jet = = =
A valley exit jet is a strong , down @-@ valley , elevated air current that emerges above the intersection of the valley and its adjacent plain . These winds frequently reach a maximum of 20 m / s ( 45 mph ) at a height of 40 – 200 m above the ground . Surface winds below the jet may sway vegetation but are significantly weaker .
They are likely to be found in valley regions that exhibit diurnal mountain wind systems , such as those of the dry mountain ranges of the US . Deep valleys that terminate abruptly at a plain are more impacted by these factors than are those that gradually become shallower as downvalley distance increases .
= = = Africa = = =
The mid @-@ level African easterly jet occurs during the Northern Hemisphere summer between 10 ° N and 20 ° N above West Africa , and the nocturnal poleward low @-@ level jet occurs in the Great Plains of east and South Africa . The low @-@ level easterly African jet stream is considered to play a crucial role in the southwest monsoon of Africa , and helps form the tropical waves which move across the tropical Atlantic and eastern Pacific oceans during the warm season . The formation of the thermal low over northern Africa leads to a low @-@ level westerly jet stream from June into October .
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= Ramón Emeterio Betances =
Ramón Emeterio Betances y Alacán ( April 8 , 1827 – September 16 , 1898 ) was a Puerto Rican nationalist . He was the primary instigator of the Grito de Lares revolution and is considered to be the father of the Puerto Rican independence movement . Since the Grito galvanized a burgeoning nationalist movement among Puerto Ricans , Betances is also considered " El Padre de la Patria " ( Father of the [ Puerto Rican ] Nation ) . Because of his charitable deeds for people in need , he also became known as " El Padre de los Pobres " ( " The Father of the Poor " ) .
Betances was also a medical doctor and surgeon in Puerto Rico , and one of its first social hygienists . He had established a successful surgery and ophthalmology practice . Betances was also an abolitionist , diplomat , public health administrator , poet , and novelist . He served as representative and contact for Cuba and the Dominican Republic in Paris , France .
An adherent of Freemasonry , his political and social activism was deeply influenced by the group 's philosophical beliefs .
= = Early years = =
= = = Ancestry = = =
Betances was born in Cabo Rojo , Puerto Rico , in the building that now houses the " Logia Cuna de Betances " ( " Betances ' Cradle Masonic Lodge " ) . Betances ' parents were Felipe Betanzos Ponce , a merchant born in Hispaniola ( in the part that would later become the Dominican Republic ; the surname Betanzos transformed into Betances while the family resided there ) , and María del Carmen Alacán de Montalvo , a native of Cabo Rojo and of French ancestry . They were married in 1812 .
Betances claimed in his lifetime that a relative of his , Pedro Betances , had revolted against the Spanish government of Hispaniola in 1808 and was tortured , executed , and his body burned and shown to the populace to dissuade them from further attempts . Meanwhile , Alacán 's father , a sailor , led a party of volunteers that tried to apprehend the pirate Roberto Cofresí y Ramírez de Arellano in 1824 and did arrest some of Cofresí 's crew , for which he was honored by the Spanish government .
Betances was the fourth of six children ; the oldest of which would die shortly after birth ; Betances was the only male among the surviving siblings . The family was described as being of mixed race in records of the day . His mother died in 1837 , when he was nine years old , and his father remarried in 1839 ; the five children he had with María del Carmen Torres Pagán included Ramón 's half @-@ brother Felipe Adolfo , who was not involved in politics ( according to Ramón ) but was nevertheless arrested following the Grito de Lares years later .
His father eventually bought the Hacienda Carmen in what would later become the nearby town of Hormigueros , and became a wealthy landowner . He owned 200 acres ( 0 @.@ 8 km2 ) of land , a small sugar mill , and some slaves , who shared their duties with free workers . There is speculation that he later freed his slaves , persuaded by his son Ramón .
= = = First years in France = = =
= = = = Primary education = = = =
The young Betances received his primary education from private tutors contracted by his father , a Freemason who owned the largest private library in town . His parents ' attitude towards religion and civil authority shaped his personal beliefs in both subjects . His father would eventually send him to France , to study at the then @-@ named " Collège Royal " ( later named the Lycée Pierre @-@ de @-@ Fermat ) in Toulouse when he was ten years old . A Franco @-@ Puerto Rican family , Jacques Maurice Prévost and María Cavalliery Bey ( who also was a native of Cabo Rojo ) were appointed as his tutors . Prévost opened a drug store in Mayagüez , Puerto Rico , but was forced to return to France ( particularly to his native town , Grisolles ) for not having finished his pharmacy studies . There is also speculation that Prévost was a Freemason , as was Betances ' father .
Betances accompanied the couple in Prévost 's return to his country , and would be under their indirect tutelage while boarding at the school . He showed interest in natural and exact sciences early on , and also became a good fencer .
= = = = Legal " whitening " of family = = = =
While Ramón was in France , his father sought to move the family 's registration from the " mixed race " to the " white " ( Caucasian ) classification of families in Cabo Rojo . The process , when successful , entitled the requester to further legal and property rights for him and his family , and was necessary to allow his daughter , Ana María , to marry José Tió , who was a Caucasian . In the case of Betances ' father , the process lasted two years , and was formalized in 1840 , but not before having to have the family 's lineage and religious affiliations exposed to the general public , something that embarrassed them all . Betances was considerably annoyed by the entire ordeal , since he was the first to acknowledge that he and his entire family were not " blancuzcos " ( " whitish " , a legal term ) but " prietuzcos " ( " blackish " , as Betances mocked it in his letters ) instead . To him the procedure reeked of hypocrisy .
= = = = Medicine studies = = = =
In 1846 , Betances obtained his baccalauréat ( high school diploma ) . After an extended vacation in Puerto Rico , he went on to study medicine at the Faculty of Medicine of Paris from 1848 until 1855 , with a short interlude at the Faculty of Medicine of Montpellier for specific courses in the summer of 1852 .
At the time of his arrival in Paris , Betances witnessed the aftermath of the 1848 Revolution and its backlash , the June Days Uprising , earlier that year . His future political views were directly shaped by what he saw and experienced at the time . He considered himself " an old soldier of the French Republic " . Inspired by the proclamation of the 2e République , he rejected Puerto Rican aspirations for autonomy ( sought from Spain by Puerto Rican politicians since 1810 ) in favor of Puerto Rican independence .
In 1856 , he graduated with the titles of Doctor in Medicine and Surgeon . He was the second Puerto Rican to graduate from the University ( after Pedro Gerónimo Goyco , a later political leader native of Mayagüez who would eventually interact with Betances when both returned to Puerto Rico ) . Among Betances ' teachers were : Charles @-@ Adolphe Wurtz , Jean Cruveilhier , Jean @-@ Baptiste Bouillaud , Armand Trousseau , Alfred @-@ Armand @-@ Louis @-@ Marie Velpeau and Auguste Nélaton .
= = = = Father 's death and family 's economic problems = = = =
While Betances was studying medicine in France , his father died ( in August 1854 ) and his sister Ana María would be forced to take over the Hacienda Carmen 's management . By 1857 the heirs were forced to give the operation 's output to a holding company headed by Guillermo Schröeder .
= = First return to Puerto Rico = =
= = = Cholera epidemic of 1856 = = =
Betances returned to Puerto Rico in April 1856 . At the time , a cholera epidemic was spreading across the island . The epidemic made its way to Puerto Rico 's western coast in July 1856 , and hit the city of Mayagüez particularly hard . At the time , Betances was one of five doctors that would have to take care of 24 @,@ 000 residents . Both he and Dr. José Francisco Basora ( who became lifelong friends and colleagues from that point on ) would alert the city government and press the city managers into taking preventive action .
An emergency subscription fund was established by some of the city 's wealthiest citizens . Betances and Basora had the city 's unsanitary slave barracks torched and a temporary camp set up for its dwellers . A large field at a corner of the city was set aside for a supplementary cemetery , and Betances set and managed a temporary hospital next to it ( which was later housed in a permanent structure and became the Hospital San Antonio , the Mayagüez municipal hospital , which still serves the city ) . However , the epidemic struck the city soon after ; Betances ' stepmother and one of his brothers @-@ in @-@ law would die from it . By October 1856 Betances would have to take care of the entire operation on his own temporarily .
At the time , he had his first confrontation with Spanish authorities , since Betances gave last priority of medical treatment to those Spanish @-@ born military rank and officers who were affected by the disease ( they demanded preferential and immediate treatment , and he openly despised them for it ) . For his hard work to save many Puerto Ricans from the ravages of the cholera epidemic of 1856 , Betances was commended by the city 's government . However , when the central government established a Chief Surgeon post for the city , Betances ( who was the acting chief surgeon ) was passed over , in favor of a Spanish newcomer .
Basora and Betances were eventually honored with streets named after each in the city of Mayagüez . The main thoroughfare that crosses the city from north to south is named after Betances ; a street that links the center of the city with the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez is named after Dr. Basora .
= = Exile from and return to Puerto Rico = =
= = = Abolitionist = = =
Betances believed in the abolition of slavery , inspired not only on written works by Victor Schoelcher , John Brown , Lamartine and Tapia , but also on personal experience , based on what he saw at his father 's farm and in daily Puerto Rican life . Based on his beliefs , he founded a civic organization in 1856 , one of many others that were later called the Secret Abolitionist Societies by historians . Little is known about them due to their clandestine nature , but Betances and Salvador Brau ( a close friend who later became the official Historian of Puerto Rico ) describe them in their writings . Some of these societies sought the freedom and free passage of maroons from Puerto Rico to countries where slavery had been abolished already ; other societies sought to liberate as many slaves as possible by buying out their freedom .
The objective of the particular society Betances founded was to free children who were slaves , taking advantage of their need to receive the sacrament of Baptism at the town church , Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria , which is now the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Mayagüez . Since buying the freedom of slave children cost 50 pesos if the child had been baptized , and 25 pesos if the child had not , Betances , Basora , Segundo Ruiz Belvis and other members of the society waited next to the baptismal font on Sundays , expecting a master to take a slave family to baptize their child . Before the child was baptized , Betances or his partners gave money to the parents , which they in turn used to buy the child 's freedom from his master . The child , once freed , was baptized minutes after . This action was later described as having the child receive the " aguas de libertad " ( waters of liberty ) . Similar events occurred in the city of Ponce .
The baptismal font where these baptisms were performed still exists , and is owned by a local family of merchants , the Del Moral family , who keep it at their Mayagüez house .
As of 2007 the baptismal font has been donated to the Mayagüez Cathedral , Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria , by Doña Elda Del Moral . It had been in conservation from 1963 until donated .
= = = La vièrge de Boriquén ( The Boriquén Virgin ) = = =
The Spanish governor of Puerto Rico , Fernando Cotoner , threatened Betances with exile in 1858 because of his abolitionist tactics . Betances took a leave of absence from his duties as director of the local hospital and again left Puerto Rico for France , followed by Basora . Soon , his half @-@ sister Clara and her husband , Justine Hénri , would also leave for Paris with his niece , María del Carmen Hénri .
María del Carmen , nicknamed Lita , was born in 1838 . She had met Betances when she was 10 , and Betances became instantly fond of her . Once he returned to Puerto Rico from his medical studies he requested the necessary ecclesiastical permissions to marry her ( due to the degree of consanguinity between them ) , which were granted in Rome ( then part of the Papal States ) after an extended delay . Their marriage was supposed to occur on May 5 , 1859 in Paris , but Lita fell sick with typhus and died at the Mennecy house of Dr. Pierre Lamire , a friend from Betances ' medical school days , on April 22 , 1859 ( the Good Friday of that year ) .
Betances was psychologically devastated by Lita 's death . Accompanied by his sister , brother @-@ in @-@ law , local friends and a few Puerto Rican friends residing in Paris at the time ( which included Basora , Francisco Oller and another Cabo Rojo native , future political leader Salvador Carbonell ) , Betances had Lita buried on April 25 . Her body was later reburied in Mayagüez , on November 13 of that year . Salvador Brau , a historian and close friend , later wrote that once Betances returned to Puerto Rico with Lita 's body , he suspended all personal activities besides his medical work , spent a considerable amount of time caring for her tomb at the Mayagüez cemetery , and assumed the physical aspect that most people identify Betances with : dark suit , long unkempt beard , and " Quaker " hat .
Betances immersed himself in work , but later found time to write a short story in French , La Vièrge de Boriquén ( The Boriquén Virgin ) , inspired in his love for Lita and her later death , and somewhat influenced by Edgar Allan Poe 's writing style . Cayetano Coll y Toste later described the story of Lita and Betances in the story La Novia de Betances ,
= = = Return to Mayagüez and second exile = = =
= = = = Doctor and surgeon = = = =
After returning to Puerto Rico in 1859 , Betances established a very successful surgery and ophthalmology practice in Mayagüez . Even fierce political enemies such as Spanish pro @-@ monarchy journalist José Pérez Morís regarded Betances as the best surgeon in Puerto Rico at the time . His good reputation in Puerto Rico would survive his stay in the island nation for many years . In 1895 , while Betances was living in Paris , the manufacturers of the Emulsión de Scott ( a codfish liver oil product that is still sold today , manufactured by GlaxoSmithKline in modern times ) , paid an endorsement fee to Betances to have him appear on advertisements on Spanish language magazines and newspapers all over New York City and the Caribbean , based on his solid reputation as a doctor .
Betances introduced new surgical and aseptic procedures to Puerto Rico . With the assistance of Venezuelan anesthesiologist Pedro Arroyo , Betances performed the first ever surgical procedure under chloroform in Puerto Rico , in November 1862 .
At the same time he spent a considerable amount of time serving Mayagüez 's disadvantaged on a pro bono basis . He gave many donations to the poor , and because of this he became known as " The Father of the Poor " among " Mayagüezanos " according to his contemporary , Eugenio María de Hostos .
= = = = Exile in the Dominican Republic = = = =
The Dominican Republic had its second war for independence in 1844 , which was successful in obtaining independence from Haiti . Spain reannexed the country at the request of its then @-@ dictator , Gen. Pedro Santana ( who attempted to benefit personally from the event ) , in 1861 . A third revolt , the War of Restoration , sought independence from the Spanish in 1863 . Its leaders used Haiti as a guerrilla base , since the Haitian government feared a Spanish takeover and the restoration of slavery in the occupied territories , and was thus sympathetic to their cause . Their stronghold , however , was the Cibao valley in the northeastern part of Hispaniola .
At the same time , the Spanish government , which ruled over Puerto Rico , attempted to banish Betances for a second time , but he and Segundo Ruiz Belvis ( a lawyer and city administrator who became his closest friend and political companion ) fled the island before they were apprehended . Both fled to the northern city of Puerto Plata in the Dominican Republic in 1861 , where Betances established a close personal friendship with Gen. Gregorio Luperón , the military leader of the northern pro @-@ independence faction who led the efforts to restore Dominican sovereignty over their country . Betances was also a collaborator of Dominican priest ( and later Archbishop of Santo Domingo and one @-@ time president of the country ) , Fernando Arturo de Meriño , who was the revolt 's ideological leader ( as well as its delegate in Puerto Rico when he was himself exiled by the restored republican government ) . These two friendships would prove to be key to Betances ' own efforts to achieve Puerto Rican independence later on .
The volatility of the Dominican situation was severe at the time : Luperón fought a guerrilla war against the Spanish and Santana and became vice @-@ president of the country ( in 1863 ) , only to be exiled to Saint Thomas because of his opposition to president Buenaventura Báez ' wishes to annex the country to the United States ( in 1864 ) , to later return , provoke a coup d 'état and be part of a three @-@ way presidency ( 1866 ) , only to be exiled once again ( 1868 ) . Whenever Luperón was in the Dominican Republic , Betances could use it as a base of operations for his later political and military objectives , while offering Luperón logistical and financial assistance in return .
Since Betances ' exile depended on who was governing Puerto Rico at the time , a change in government allowed him to return to Mayagüez in 1862 . However , a few years later , ( 1868 ) Luperón and Betances would both end up exiled in Saint Thomas .
= = = = Second return to Mayagüez = = = =
After returning to Puerto Rico , Betances and Ruiz proposed the establishment of a municipal hospital to take care of the city 's poor . The hospital , named Hospital San Antonio , opened on January 18 , 1865 , with subscription funds and an assignment from the Spanish local government . The Hospital San Antonio is now an obstetrics and pediatrics hospital in the city .
Ruiz was a Freemason who invited Betances to join his lodge , the Logia Unión Germana in nearby San Germán . They both founded ( or revived , depending on the source ) the Logia Yagüez , so as to have a local lodge in Mayagüez . Based on his Masonic beliefs , Ruiz also attempted to establish a university in the city , for which he mortgaged his house . However , the Spanish government actively discouraged the founding of secondary education institutions in Puerto Rico ( so as not to have " seedlings for revolt " come out of them ) , and the project was canceled .
= = = = Simplicia Jiménez = = = =
Betances met his lifelong companion , Simplicia Isolina Jiménez Carlo , in 1864 . Jiménez apparently was born in what would later become the Dominican Republic , on July 28 , 1842 . Her mother 's last name , Carlo , rather common in Cabo Rojo , implies that her family had ties to the town . She worked for one of Betances ' sisters between 1863 and 1864 , and he met her once at his sister 's house . Apparently she was infatuated with him strongly enough to appear at his door with a pair of suitcases , asking him to give her shelter , since " no gentleman would leave a woman alone on the street at night . " Jiménez then became Betances ' common @-@ law wife for thirty @-@ five years , and survived his death in 1898 . They would not have any children . Their godchild , Magdalena Caraguel , was eventually adopted by the couple as their daughter . Little else is documented about Jiménez in history books , and Betances rarely mentions her in his works and correspondence .
While still living in Mayagüez , Betances built a house for himself and his wife , which they only lived in for less than two years ; the house , named the Casa de los Cinco Arcos ( House of the Five Arches ) , still stands on the street that bears his name near the corner with Luis Muñoz Rivera street , south of the city 's center . Apparently a single , elderly man lives in the house to this day .
= = = " Padre de la Patria " ( Father of the Puerto Rican Nation ) = = =
= = = = Seeds for revolt in Puerto Rico = = = =
The Spanish government was involved in several conflicts across Latin America : war with the Dominican Republic , Peru and Chile ( see below ) , slave revolts in Cuba , a bad economic situation in its colonies , among others . It attempted to appease the growing discontent of the citizens of its remaining colonies in the continent by setting up a board of review that would receive complaints from representatives of the colonies and attempt to adjust legislation that affected them . This board , the " Junta Informativa de Reformas de Ultramar " ( Overseas Informative Reform Board ) would be formed by representatives of each colony , in proportion to their collective population , and would meet in Madrid . The Junta would report to the then Minister of Foreign Affairs , Emilio Castelar .
The Puerto Rican delegation was freely elected by those eligible to vote ( male Caucasian property owners ) , in a rare exercise of political openness in the colony . Segundo Ruiz Belvis was elected to the Junta representing Mayagüez , something that horrified the then governor general of the island . To the frustration of the Puerto Rican delegates , including its leader , José Julián Acosta , the Junta had a majority of Spanish @-@ born delegates , which would vote down almost every measure they suggested . However , Acosta could convince the Junta that abolition could be achieved in Puerto Rico without disrupting the local economy ( including its Cuban members , who frowned upon implementing it in Cuba because of its much higher numbers of slave labor ) . Once he became prime minister in 1870 , Castelar did approve an abolition bill , praising the efforts of the Puerto Rico members , sincerely moved by Acosta 's arguments .
However , beyond abolition , proposals for autonomy were voted down , as were other petitions to limit the unlimited power the governor general would have upon virtually all aspects of life in Puerto Rico . Once the Junta members returned to Puerto Rico , they met with local community leaders in a famed meeting at the Hacienda El Cacao in Carolina , Puerto Rico in early 1865 . Betances was invited by Ruiz and did attend . After listening to the Junta members ' list of voted @-@ down measures , Betances stood up and retorted : " Nadie puede dar lo que no tiene " ( No one can give others what they don 't have for themselves ) , a phrase that he would constantly use through the rest of his life when referring to Spain 's unwillingness to grant Puerto Rico or Cuba any reforms . He would then suggest setting up a revolt and proclaim independence as soon as possible . Many of the meeting 's attendants sided with Betances , to the horror of Acosta .
= = = = Organizer of the Grito de Lares = = = =
In late June 1867 Betances and at least 12 more potential " revolutionaries " were exiled from Puerto Rico by then governor Gen. José María Marchessi y Oleaga as a preventive measure , including Goyco and Ruiz . A battalion of local soldiers had revolted in San Juan earlier , protesting about their poor pay , compared to that of their Spanish counterparts living in Puerto Rico . Betances later stated that the revolt ( called the " Motín de Artilleros " by historians ) was unrelated to his revolutionary plans , and that he actually did not mind the troops stationed in Puerto Rico that much , since they would have been ill @-@ prepared for stopping a well @-@ developed pro @-@ independence revolt at the time anyway . Marchesi feared that the United States , which had made an offer to purchase what were then the Danish Virgin Islands , would rather instigate a revolt in Puerto Rico so as to later annex the island — which would make a better military base in the Caribbean — at a lesser economic cost . His fears were not without base , since the then American consul in the island , Alexander Jourdan , suggested precisely this to then Secretary of State William H. Seward , but only after the expulsions ( September 1867 ) .
Some of the expelled ( such as Carlos Elías Lacroix and José Celis Aguilera ) set up camp in Saint Thomas . Betances and Ruiz , on the other hand , left for New York — where Basora had previously gone — soon after . They soon founded the " Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico " , along with other Puerto Ricans living in the city . After signing a letter that could serve as proof of his intentions of becoming a United States citizen ( mainly to prevent his arrest elsewhere ) Betances then returned to the Dominican Republic in September 1867 , where he attempted to organize an armed expedition that was to invade Puerto Rico . However , under threat of arrest by Buenaventura Báez — who saw Betances as siding with his enemies and wanted him executed — Betances took asylum at the United States embassy in Santo Domingo , and headed for Charlotte Amalie soon after .
= = = = The Ten Commandments of Free Men = = = =
Betances was responsible for numerous proclamations that attempted to arouse Puerto Rican nationalistic sentiment , written between 1861 and his death . The most famous of these is " Los Diez Mandamientos de los hombres libres " ( The Ten Commandments of Free Men ) , written in exile in Saint Thomas in November 1867 . It is directly based on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , adopted by France 's National Assembly in 1789 , which contained the principles that inspired the French Revolution .
= = = = The Grito and its aftermath = = = =
Meanwhile , Ruiz Belvis , who headed the Committee , was supposed to gather financial support for the incoming Puerto Rican revolution through a tour of South America . He had received an invitation from Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna , a Chilean diplomat , to coordinate a common front against Spanish interests in all of Latin America ( Spain was still threatening Chile after the Chincha Islands War , and any revolution in the Caribbean would have been a welcome distraction ) . Vicuña promised to gather necessary support in Chile , Peru , Ecuador and Venezuela to help the Puerto Rican independence cause .
However , Ruiz died in Valparaíso , Chile soon after his arrival in the country . He reportedly had uremia and a urethral obstruction , both of which deteriorated into Fournier gangrene , which killed him soon after . Later speculation that Ruiz had been poisoned or killed has been countered by three facts : that Ruiz 's brother , Mariano Ruiz Quiñones ( who was the coordinator of the revolution in Curaçao ) , died of the same condition soon after ( suggesting a genetic predisposition to it ) , that Betances had used a catheter on Ruiz before he left Saint Thomas to bring him some relief from his condition , and that Betances published a medical article in France twenty years later , in 1887 , that discussed the condition , out of what he had described as many years of second @-@ guessing what could have been done to save Ruiz 's life .
Betances was shaken psychologically by news of Ruiz 's death , and also literally soon after : he and his wife also experienced an earthquake and tsunami on November 18 , 1867 , while in Saint Thomas . According to a letter he wrote , he and his wife vacated the building just before it collapsed , and were forced to live in a camp while aftershocks kept shaking the island for close to a month .
Gregorio Luperón met Betances in Saint Thomas , and offered to assist the Puerto Rican revolution , in exchange for help to overthrow Báez once the right circumstances were met . As a consequence , Betances organized revolutionary cells in Puerto Rico from exile , which would be led by leaders such as Manuel Rojas and Mathias Brugman . Betances instructed Mariana Bracetti to knit a flag for the revolution using the colors and basic design similar to that of the Dominican Republic ( which in turn was almost identical to a French military standard ) . Betances was also supposed to send reinforcements to the Puerto Rican rebels through the use of a ship purchased by Puerto Rican and Dominican revolutionaries , " El Telégrafo " ( which was to be shared by both ) , but the ship was confiscated soon after arrival by the government of the then Danish ( later United States ) Virgin Islands .
Eventually all these factors led the way to the abortive insurrection known as the " Grito de Lares " , whose date had to be brought forward to September 23 , 1868 . The Grito found Betances between Curaçao and Saint Thomas , struggling to send reinforcements in time for the revolt .
After the failed insurrection , Betances did not return to Puerto Rico , except for " secret " visits , according to the obituary written about him by the New York Herald after his death . There is no evidence of these , although Betances suggests a visit did occur at some time between 1867 and 1869 , and perhaps again in the 1880s .
= = = = In New York = = = =
Betances fled to New York City in April 1869 , where he again joined Basora in his efforts to organize Puerto Rican revolutionaries into additional activities leading to independence . He joined the Cuban Revolutionary Junta , whose members were more successful at their drive for armed revolution for Cuba , which had started with the " Grito de Yara " , just two weeks after the Grito de Lares . He also lobbied the United States Congress successfully against an annexation of the Dominican Republic by the United States , requested in a vote by a majority of voters in a referendum in 1869 . He also befriended Venezuelan military leader and former president José Antonio Páez in his final days . Betances stayed in New York from April 1869 through February 1870 .
= = = = In Hispaniola = = = =
Somewhat disillusioned by his experience in New York City ( he had philosophical differences with some leaders of the Antillean liberation movements , particularly with Eugenio María de Hostos ) , Betances spent a short interlude in Jacmel , Haiti in 1870 at the request of its then @-@ president , Jean Nissage @-@ Saget , who supported Betances ' efforts to have a liberal government for the Dominican Republic take power . He later spent some time in the Cibao valley ( in both Santiago de los Caballeros and Puerto Plata ) where Luperón and Betances attempted to organize another revolt , this time against conservative elements in the Dominican Republic .
While in New York , Betances wrote and translated numerous political treatises , proclamations and works that were published in the newspaper " La Revolución " , under the pseudonym " El Antillano " ( The Antillean One ) . He was vehement about the need for natives of the Greater Antilles to unite into an Antillean Confederation , a regional entity that would seek to preserve the sovereignty and well @-@ being of Cuba , Haiti , the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico .
Betances also promoted direct intervention of Puerto Ricans in the Cuban independence struggle , which eventually happened in the Cuban War of Independence ( 1895 – 98 ) . Spain had promoted political reform in Puerto Rico , and the local political climate was not conducive to a second revolution at the time . Therefore , Betances and the Puerto Rican revolutionaries ceded their caches of firearms hidden in Saint Thomas , Curaçao and Haiti to the Cuban rebels in October 1871 , since their struggle was deemed as a priority .
Betances admired the United States of America for its ideals of freedom and democracy , but despised Manifest Destiny and the Monroe Doctrine , and sensed that both philosophies were being used as excuses for American interventions on the continent . When Cuban revolutionaries requested help from the United States for reinforcing their armed struggle against Spain , Betances warned them against giving too much away . He feared American interventionism in the affairs of a free Cuba , and vehemently attacked Cuban leaders who suggested the annexation of Cuba by the United States . Some of his fears became reality years later , when the Platt Amendment became a " de facto " part of the Cuban constitution ( 1901 ) .
= = Return to France = =
Expecting to bring some stability to his personal life , Betances had Simplicia Jiménez meet him again in Haiti ( she had been living in St. Croix since he was evicted from Saint Thomas , to ensure her safety ) , and returned with her to Paris where he continued to fight for Puerto Rico 's independence for close to 26 years . He established his medical office at 6 ( bis ) , Rue de Châteaudun ( 48 @.@ 875814 ° N 2 @.@ 341636 ° E / 48 @.@ 875814 ; 2 @.@ 341636 ( Betances medical office ) ) , four streets away from the city 's Palais Garnier .
One of the events that gave Betances great satisfaction was the abolition of slavery in Puerto Rico , which was made official on March 22 , 1873 . He reminded people that abolition would not have happened without the direct intervention of Puerto Ricans in the Spanish political process , and was thus hopeful that the islanders would assume a more proactive role in seeking their freedom from Spain . With time , Betances became essentially the representative of the liberal governments of the Dominican Republic for as long as they lasted , and the representative of the Cuban " government in arms " , or insurrection .
= = = Diplomatic and revolutionary activities = = =
= = = = Diplomat for the Dominican Republic = = = =
Soon after his return to France , Betances became the first secretary to the Dominican Republic 's diplomatic mission to France , but virtually assumed the role of ambassador . He also became the commercial representative of the Dominican government in Paris , Bern and London . At one time Betances attempted to be a venture capital partner on a failed enterprise that attempted to commercialize the use of Samaná Bay to benefit the Dominican Republic , and also to prevent foreign interests ( particularly the United States ) from taking over the bay , which was considered a primary strategic geographical feature of Hispaniola , in both commercial and military terms .
Luperón would eventually arrive in Paris as a named ambassador , but Betances ' connections in the city proved to be key to whatever success Luperón had as a diplomat in France . They would assume this role until political turmoil in the Dominican Republic forced Luperón to return and lead yet another revolt , which had another Puerto Plata native , Ulises Heureaux , installed as president . Betances sought support for Luperón 's efforts , and gave him tactical and financial assistance from France .
Heureaux , however , became a despot once he assumed the presidency . Luperón felt betrayed and went again into exile in Saint Thomas . Eventually he died of cancer , not before visiting Betances in France for a last time and being allowed to return to the Dominican Republic to die , as a gesture of good will from Heureaux . Due to Heureaux 's protracted presidency and blatant acts of corruption , Betances ( who had called Heureaux his " grandson " in letters he had previously written to him ) was forced to cut ties to the Dominican Republic for good ( two plots of land that he owned both there and in Panama were used for agricultural experiments , but were later left unattended ) . Betances writes in his letters that he had spent the equivalent of US $ 20 @,@ 000 ( in 1880 dollars , roughly equivalent to US $ 400 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) on expenditures on behalf of the Dominican diplomatic office . He did not expect the Dominican government to be able to reimburse him .
= = = = Support for Cuba 's independence and José Maceo 's freedom = = = =
Immediately after returning to Paris , Betances became a key contact for the Cuban insurgency in Paris . He made several fund raising efforts , including one that attempted to fund quinine shipments to the Cuban rebels , to ease their pain when infected by malaria in the island battlefields . These efforts outlasted the Pact of Zanjón , which ended the Ten Years ' War in 1878 . Betances also used his diplomatic contacts to guarantee humane treatment ( and eventually freedom from imprisonment ) to José Maceo , the brother of Antonio Maceo , the later military leader of the Cuban War of Independence , when both Antonio and José were arrested by the Spanish government in 1882 . The Maceo brothers both escaped imprisonment , were recaptured in Gibraltar and turned over to the Spanish authorities , but José remained in jail long after Antonio regained his liberty and fled to New York City . Betances even used Lord Gladstone as a mediator , and attempted to convince him of having Jamaica ( where his family had properties ) join an Antillean Federation .
= = = = Betances and Máximo Gómez = = = =
When Puerto Rico experienced a period of severe political repression in 1887 by the Spanish governor of the time , Romualdo Palacio ( which led to the arrest of many local political leaders , including Román Baldorioty de Castro ) , Máximo Gómez , who was living in Panama at the time ( at the time , he supervised a laborers ' brigade during the construction of the Panama Canal ) offered his services to Betances , sold most of his personal belongings to finance a revolt in Puerto Rico , and volunteered to lead any Puerto Rican troops had such revolt occur . The revolt was deemed unnecessary later in the year , when the Spanish government recalled Palacio from office to investigate charges of abuse of power from his part , but Gómez and Betances established a friendship and logistical relationship that lasted until Betances ' death in 1898 .
= = = = Betances and José Martí = = = =
Years later , due to Betances ' experience as a logistics facilitator of armed revolts , a fund raiser for the Cuban independence cause , and as a diplomat , José Martí asked Betances to become the leader of Cuban revolutionaries in France . Betances never met Martí personally , but Martí did know Betances ' younger sister , Eduviges , who lived in New York City and shared her brother 's revolutionary ideals . Martí assisted her financially in her final days , out of admiration for the Betances ' family . Betances accepted the assignment out of gratitude towards Martí . Soon after , Martí died in battle in Cuba in 1895 , an event that brought Tomás Estrada Palma to the leadership of the Cuban insurrection movement .
= = = = Betances and Tomás Estrada Palma = = = =
In April 1896 Betances was granted diplomatic credentials on behalf of the revolutionary government of Cuba . He became an active fund raiser and recruiter on behalf of the Cuban pro @-@ independence movement . He also served as press officer and intelligence contact for the Cuban rebels in exile , and attempted to coordinate support for the pro @-@ independence movement in the Philippines .
Betances openly hated Estrada when he first met him in the late 1870s , but grew more tolerant of him with time , and even defended Estrada 's actions as leader when he assumed control of the Cuban Revolutionary Party . The Puerto Rican affiliates to the Party viewed Estrada 's leadership with great skepticism , since Estrada sympathized with the idea of having the United States intervene in the Cuban independence war to have the Spanish evicted from Cuba . They suspected that his weak leadership allowed opportunists to profit from an invasion and even suggest that the United States keep Puerto Rico in exchange for independence for Cuba . Some written evidence points to the truth of their affirmations , at least to the extent of wanting to have the Puerto Rican section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party shut down , which eventually did happen .
= = = = The Intentona de Yauco = = = =
In 1897 , Antonio Mattei Lluveras , a wealthy coffee plantation owner from Yauco , visited the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee in New York City . There he met with Ramón Emeterio Betances , Juan de Mata Terreforte and Aurelio Méndez Martínez and together they proceeded to plan a major coup . The uprising , which became known as the Intentona de Yauco was to be directed by Betances , organized by Aurelio Mendez Mercado and the armed forces were to be commanded by General Juan Ríus Rivera . The coup , which was the second and last major revolt against Spanish rule in Puerto Rico failed .
Betances was also a government representative for some of the governments of Haiti while in Paris . He was also technically a diplomat for the United States of America once .
= = = = Morales Plan = = = =
Through coordination with Betances and local pro @-@ independence leaders in Puerto Rico , a Dominican military leader , Gen. José Morales , made plans to invade Puerto Rico in the late 1890s , to supply local revolutionaries with supplies and mercenaries , and take advantage of the weak Spanish military presence in Puerto Rico ( there were only 4 @,@ 500 Spanish soldiers in the island at the time , and 1 @,@ 000 of them were later redirected to Cuba to fight the Cuban insurrection ) . However , the Cuban Revolutionary Party rejected the plan as being too expensive .
Betances , who had collected more money in France for the Party than the plan 's potential cost , grew weary of the Cuban revolutionary movement 's diminishing support of the Puerto Rico independence cause . By then , some of the Party 's followers stationed in France wanted Betances to be stripped of his posts and assignments . At least two of them insulted him publicly , and even took advantage of Simplicia Jiménez 's mental health to have her harass her husband systematically .
Given the events happening in Cuba at the time , Betances thought that his diplomatic work was more important than ever . However , his failing health ( he had uremia , and since his lungs could not exchange oxygen properly this put extra burden to his heart and kidneys ) prevented Betances from performing further diplomatic work from France on behalf of Puerto Rico or Cuba . His illness , which lasted more than a year , prevented him from performing medical work , and forced the Party to approve a stipend for Betances during his long illness , until his death .
= = = The Cánovas Affair = = =
There is some speculation that the assassination of Spanish prime minister Antonio Cánovas del Castillo by Italian anarchist Michele Angiolillo in 1897 was at least supported or influenced by Betances , and possibly even planned by him ( although there is no physical link that can be established that might link Betances to the event itself ) .
Betances ' role in the Cánovas assassination is described by Puerto Rican ( born in France ) author Luis Bonafoux in his biography about Betances ( written in 1901 ) , and partially corroborated by later historians . These sources establish that Betances ' circle of friends at the time included various Italian anarchists exiled in Paris , Domenico Tosti being one of them . Tosti and his friends would hold regular social events , during one of which Angiolillo was introduced to Betances .
Impressed by Betances ' credentials , Angiolillo later approached Betances before the incident , and discussed his plans with him , which originally implied killing one or more young members of the Spanish royal family . Betances then dissuaded him from doing this . Angiolillo then apparently suggested Cánovas as a target instead . There is evidence that Betances financed Angiolillo 's travel to Spain , and used his contacts to have Angiolillo reach and enter Spanish territory under a false identity . Further speculation that Angiolillo used a firearm that Betances himself furnished for him appears to be unfounded ( although Betances , who was a fan of firearms himself — he taught a Cuban revolutionary leader on how to use a Remington machine gun once — gave at least one as a gift to one of his acquaintances ) .
Betances sympathized with anarchists like Angiolillo , and hated monarchists like Cánovas , but this alone would not justify direct action from Betances into taking Cánovas ' life . Betances did state at the time , however , that " in Spain theres is only one true retrograde and reactionary leader , and he is precisely the one who confronts Cuba with a policy of ' ( spending in a war up to ) the very last man and the very last peseta , ' the one who tries to suffocate all efforts that her patriots do to free her , and that man is Antonio Cánovas del Castillo . "
Angiolillo , in true solidarity with the European anarchist current , sought to avenge the execution and / or torture of those implicated in a bombing against a Roman Catholic religious procession in Barcelona , which occurred in 1896 , and for which Cánovas sought the maximum penalties allowed by law .
The truth is that Puerto Rican liberal interests benefited directly from the Cánovas assassination , since by Cánovas ' death a pact made ( previous to the event ) between the new Spanish prime minister , Práxedes Mateo Sagasta , and Puerto Rican liberals headed by Luis Muñoz Rivera would come into effect soon after . It allowed the establishment of a new autonomy charter for the island territory , which gave Puerto Rico broader political powers than at any other time before or since .
Before his execution , Angiolillo claimed sole responsibility for the assassination . When asked about his involvement in the Cánovas affair , Betances said : " No aplaudimos pero tampoco lloramos " ( " We don 't applaud it , but we don 't cry over it , either " ) , and added : " Los revolucionarios verdaderos hacen lo que deben hacer " ( " True revolutionaries do what they ought to do " ) . Betances ' ambiguous response blurs the true level of his involvement in the Cánovas assassination .
= = = Legion of Honor award = = =
Betances was awarded the rank of Chévalier ( Knight ) of the Legion of Honor by the French government in July 1887 , for his work as a diplomat for the Dominican Republic , and for his work as a medical doctor in France . He had been offered the award as early as 1882 , but had repeatedly declined the honor out of humility , until friends from Puerto Rico persuaded him to accept it as a tribute to Puerto Rico , and not as a personal award . The French Legion of Honor ( Légion d 'honneur ) is the premier order of France , and its award is one of great distinction .
= = = Efforts to counter the U.S. annexation of Puerto Rico = = =
In 1898 Betances attempted to use his diplomatic contacts to impede a Puerto Rico annexation by the United States , which was deemed imminent by the events following the sinking of the USS Maine . He knew that Puerto Ricans would welcome an American invasion , but was vehement about the possibility of the United States not conceding independence to Puerto Rico .
Betances was willing to accept some political concessions to the American government in exchange for independence , and exchanged some privileged intelligence information ( about the level of debt Spain had attained while fighting the Cuban insurrection ) with the then @-@ ambassador of the United States to France , Horace Porter , so as to show goodwill towards the United States .
Frustrated by what he perceived as the unwillingness of Puerto Ricans to demand their independence from the United States while the island territory was annexed ( the event occurred just days before his death ) , he uttered his final political stance : " No quiero colonia , ni con España , ni con los Estados Unidos " ( " I don 't want a colony status , neither with Spain nor with the United States " ) . When reminded by de Hostos through a letter of what was happening in the island , he responded , highly frustrated , with a phrase that has become famous since : " ¿ Y qué les pasa a los puertorriqueños que no se rebelan ? " ( " And what 's wrong with Puerto Ricans that they haven 't yet rebelled ? " )
Betances ' last days were chaotic , not only because of the events in the Caribbean , but also because of what happening in his own household . Jiménez ' mental state is reported as dubious by then . Some even suggest that she had become an alcoholic ( probably ) or even a morphine addict ( unlikely ) by then , and she even wished for her husband to die in tantrums reported by his doctors . Political foes attempted to gain possession of Betances ' intelligence dossiers , as did Spanish intelligence agents in Paris . Betances asked personal friends to keep personal guard of him , which they did until he died .
= = Death = =
Betances died at 10 : 00 a.m. , local time , in Neuilly @-@ sur @-@ Seine on Friday , September 16 , 1898 . His remains were cremated soon after and entombed at the Père Lachaise Cemetery of Paris on Monday , September 19 . He had requested that no formal ceremony be made for his funeral . His common law @-@ wife Simplicia survived him for over twenty years . A look at his will implies that , besides a life insurance policy payout and two parcels of land in the Dominican Republic , Betances died almost in poverty .
As early as in February 1913 , poet and lawyer Luis Lloréns Torres had publicly requested that Betances ' wishes to have his ashes returned to Puerto Rico be fulfilled . The Nationalist Association ( predecessor of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party ) , under the presidency of José Coll y Cuchí , was able to convince the Puerto Rican Legislative Assembly to approve an act that would allow the transfer of the mortal remains of Puerto Rican patriot Ramón Emeterio Betances from Paris , France to Puerto Rico . Seven years after the act 's approval , the Legislative Assembly commissioned one of its delegates , Alfonso Lastra Charriez , to serve as an emissary and bring Betances ' remains from France .
Betances ' remains arrived in San Juan , Puerto Rico on August 5 , 1920 , and were honored upon arrival by a crowd then estimated at 20 @,@ 000 mourners . The large crowd , which had assembled near the port of San Juan as early as 4 : 00 a.m. ( AST ) that morning , was the largest ever assembled for a funeral in Puerto Rico since the death of Luis Muñoz Rivera three years earlier . Media reporters of the day were surprised by the size of the crowd , given the fact that Betances had not visited Puerto Rico ( at least in the open ) for the 31 years before his death , and had been dead over 21 years afterwards .
A funeral caravan organized by the Nationalist Party transferred the remains from the capital to the town of Cabo Rojo . It took the caravan two days to make the 120 @-@ mile ( 193 km ) route . Once Betances ' remains reached the city of Mayagüez , 8 @,@ 000 mourners paid their respects . Betances ' remains were laid to rest in Cabo Rojo 's municipal cemetery . A few decades later his remains were moved to a monument designed to honor Betances in the town 's plaza . There is a bust created by the Italian sculptor Diego Montano alongside the Grito de Lares revolutionary flag and the Puerto Rican flag in the plaza , which is also named after Betances .
A marble plaque commemorating Betances was unveiled at his Paris house by a delegation of Puerto Rican , Cuban and French historians on the 100th. anniversary of his death , on September 16 , 1998 .
= = Legacy = =
According to Puerto Ricans and French historians in three different fields ( medicine , literature and politics ) , Betances left a legacy that has been considerably understated , and is only being assessed properly in recent times .
= = = Complete Works = = =
Betances ' two primary biographers , Paul Estrade and Félix Ojeda Reyes , have announced the publication of a compilation of Betances ' complete works , comprising 14 volumes . José Carvajal is the collection 's editor . The first two volumes were formally published in Mayagüez on April 8 , 2008 . The first volume features most of Betances ' written works about medicine ; the second features intimate letters and document excerpts Betances wrote to family and friends over a span of 39 years . A third volume , which compiles some of Betances ' literary works , was published in 2009 .
The Voz del Centro Foundation in Puerto Rico released a series of youth @-@ oriented books named " Voces de la Cultura - Edición Juvenil " that same year ; its first title being " Doctor Ramón Emeterio Betances : Luchador por la libertad y los pobres " ( " Doctor R. E. Betances , Fighter for Liberty and the Poor " ) .
= = = Landmarks = = =
= = = = In the United States = = = =
There is an elementary school in Hartford , Connecticut , named in honor of Betances and Hartford 's Puerto Rican community .
= = = = In Puerto Rico = = = =
As mentioned above , the main throroughfare that crosses Mayagüez from north to south is named after Betances . In Ponce there is a thoroughfare linking downtown Ponce and Puerto Rico highway 14 , PR @-@ 14 , which is named " Avenida Betances " .
= = = Political and sociological = = =
= = = = In Puerto Rico = = = =
The political and sociological consequences of Betances ' actions are definite and unequivocal . He was the first openly nationalistic political leader in Puerto Rico , and one of the first pro @-@ independence leaders in the island nation 's history ( Among Puerto Ricans , Antonio Valero de Bernabé and Andrés Vizcarrondo — earlier pro @-@ independence leaders for the Latin American revolutions — could not achieve the success Betances had years later within Puerto Rico ) . The Grito de Lares , using an often @-@ quoted phrase that dates from 1868 , " was the birth of Puerto Rican nationality , with Betances as its obstetrician " . Nationalistic expressions in Puerto Rico — be they public affirmations , newspaper articles , poems , town meetings or outright revolts — were almost nonexistent before the 1810s election of Ramón Power y Giralt to the Spanish Cortes , most of them were defined within the framework of loyalty to Spain as a metropolitan power ( and thus subordinate to Spanish rule over Puerto Rico ) , and many of them were quickly suppressed by the Spanish government , which feared an escalation of nationalistic sentiment that , in other countries , led to the independence movements of Latin America .
Although the seeds of both proactive government repression against the Puerto Rican independence movement had been planted before the Grito de Lares , and its aftermath only guaranteed the surge of autonomism as a political alternative in the island , the level of cultural and social development of a collective Puerto Rican conscience was almost a direct consequence of the event . To put it simply , if there is any nationalistic sentiment in Puerto Rico in the present day , almost all of it can be traced back to Betances and his political work .
Betances is considered a pioneer of Puerto Rican liberalism . His ideas resulted from his exposure to republicanism and social activism in France through the middle part of the 19th. century . These ideas , considered subversive in the severely restricted Puerto Rico of the era , had nevertheless a considerable impact in the island nation 's political and social history . His ideas on race relations alone had a major impact on economics and the social makeup of the island .
= = = = In the Greater Antilles = = = =
Political events in Puerto Rico and Cuba between the late 1860s and 1898 forced a liberalization of Spanish policy towards both territories , and Betances was directly involved as a protagonist in both circumstances . As a firm believer in " Antillanismo " ( the common improvement and unity of the countries that formed the Greater Antilles ) Betances was also a strong supporter of the sovereignty of the Dominican Republic and Haiti . A Dominican historian and political leader , Manuel Rodríguez Objío , likened Betances ' revolutionary work to that performed by Tadeusz Kościuszko for Poland , Lithuania and the United States of America . Paul Estrade , Betances ' French biographer , likens him to Simón Bolívar , Antonio José de Sucre , Bernardo O 'Higgins and José de San Martín .
José Martí considered Betances one of his " teachers " , or sources of political inspiration , and his diplomatic and intelligence work in France on behalf of the Cuban revolutionary junta greatly aided the cause , before it was directly influenced by the intervention of Gen. Valeriano Weyler as governor and commander of the Spanish forces in Cuba , and by the Maine incident later on .
Paul Estrade , Betances ' French biographer , assesses his legacy as an Antillean this way : " The Antilles have developed political , social and scientific ideas that have changed the world , and that Europe has used . Not everything has ( a European ) source . Betances is the maximum expression of this reality . "
= = = Medical = = =
Betances wrote two books and various medical treatises while living in France . His doctoral thesis , " Des Causes de l 'ávortement " ( The Causes for Miscarriage ) examines various possible causes for the spontaneous death of a fetus and / or its mother , was later used as a textbook on gynecology at some European universities . According to at least one medical practitioner who examined it in 1988 , his attempt to explain the theory behind spontaneous contractions leading to childbirth were not very different from modern @-@ day theories on the matter .
Betances ' experiences handling the Mayagüez cholera epidemic led to another book , " El Cólera : Historia , Medidas Profilácticas , Síntomas y Tratamiento " ( Cholera : History , Preventive Measures , Symptoms and Treatments ) , which he authored and published in Paris in 1884 and expanded in 1890 . The book was later used as a public health textbook in dealing with similar cholera epidemics in Latin America .
Betances also wrote several medical articles while in France . One of the articles examines elephantiasis ; another deals with surgical castration , called " oscheotomy " at the time . Both books were also based on personal experience : there is evidence about a surgery he performed in Mayagüez on a Spanish government official with an elephantiasis lesion of the scrotum the size of a grapefruit for which the costs were paid for by the local government ; another patient he operated upon had a lesion that weighed 26 lb ( 12 kg ) He also wrote an article on urethral obstructions in male patients ( see above ) .
= = = Literary = = =
Betances was also one of the first Puerto Rican " writers @-@ in @-@ exile " . In 1851 , a small group of Puerto Rican university students in Europe formed the " Sociedad Recolectora de Documentos Históricos de la Isla de San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico " , a society that attempted to research and catalog historical documents about Puerto Rico from firsthand government sources . Betances became the Society 's researcher in France . The result of the Society 's research was published in an 1854 book , for which Betances contributed . Inspired by Alejandro Tapia y Rivera , the Society 's organizer , who had written a novel inspired in Puerto Rican indigenous themes while studying in Madrid , Betances writes his novel : " Les Deux Indiens : Épisode de la conquéte de Borinquen " ( The Two Indians : an episode of the conquest of Borinquen ) , and publishes it in Toulouse in 1853 , with a second edition published in 1857 under the pseudonym " Louis Raymond " . This novel would be the first of many literary works by Betances ( most of which were written in French ) , and is notable for its indirect praise of Puerto Rican nationhood which , he suggests , was already developed in pre @-@ Columbian Puerto Rico . This type of " indigenist literature " would become commonplace in Latin America in later years . He also wrote poetry in both French and Spanish for literary magazines in Paris , chiefly inspired by Alphonse de Lamartine and Victor Hugo .
= = Major works = =
Toussaint Louverture , Les Deux Indiéns ( 1852 )
Un premio de Luis XIV ( 1853 )
Las cortesanas en París ( 1853 )
La Vierge de Borinquén ( 1859 )
La botijuela ( a.k.a. Aulularia , translation from the Latin original by Plautus , 1863 )
El Partido Liberal , su progreso y porvenir ( translation from the French original by Édouard René de Laboulaye , 1869 )
Washington Haitiano ( essay about Alexandre Pétion , 1871 )
Los viajes de Scaldado ( 1890 )
Betances also wrote one of the two prologues of the book " Les détracteurs de la race noire et de la République d 'Haiti " ( The detractors of the black race and the Republic of Haiti , 1882 )
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= Russian battleship Pobeda =
Pobeda , ( Russian : Победа , translit . Victory ) , was the last of the three Peresvet @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Russian Navy at the end of the nineteenth century . The ship was assigned to the Pacific Squadron upon completion and based at Port Arthur from 1903 . During the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 1905 , she participated in the battles of Port Arthur and the Yellow Sea . Having escaped serious damage in these engagements , Pobeda was sunk by gunfire during the Siege of Port Arthur , and then salvaged by the Japanese and placed into service under the name Suwo ( 周防 ) .
Rearmed and re @-@ boilered by the Japanese , Suwo was reclassified by the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) as a coastal defense ship in 1908 and served as a training ship for several years . She was the flagship of the Japanese squadron that participated in the Battle of Tsingtao at the beginning of World War I and continued in that role until she became a gunnery training ship in 1917 . The ship was disarmed in 1922 to comply with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty and probably scrapped around that time .
= = Design and description = =
The design of the Peresvet class was inspired by the British second @-@ class battleships ( typically faster , but with thinner armor and smaller guns than first @-@ class battleships ) of the Centurion class . The British ships were intended to defeat commerce @-@ raiding armored cruisers like the Russian ships Rossia and Rurik , and the Peresvet class was designed to support the armored cruisers . This role placed a premium on high speed and long range at the expense of heavy armament and armor .
Pobeda was 434 feet 5 inches ( 132 @.@ 4 m ) long overall , had a beam of 71 feet 6 inches ( 21 @.@ 79 m ) and a draft of 26 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) . Designed to displace 12 @,@ 674 long tons ( 12 @,@ 877 t ) , she was almost 600 long tons ( 610 t ) overweight and displaced 13 @,@ 320 long tons ( 13 @,@ 530 t ) . Her crew consisted of 27 officers and 744 enlisted men . The ship was powered by three vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines using steam generated by 30 Belleville boilers . The engines were rated at 14 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 800 kW ) , using forced draught , and designed to reach a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Pobeda , however , reached a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) from 15 @,@ 578 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 617 kW ) during her sea trials in October 1901 . She carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 060 long tons ( 2 @,@ 090 t ) of coal , which allowed her to steam for 6 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 500 km ; 7 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship 's main battery consisted of four 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one forward and one aft of the superstructure . The secondary armament consisted of eleven Canet 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull and in the bow , underneath the forecastle . Several smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats . These included twenty 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) QF guns , twenty 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns and eight 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . She was also armed with five 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , three above water and two submerged . The ship carried 45 mines to be used to protect her anchorage . Pobeda 's waterline armor belt consisted of Krupp cemented armor and was 4 – 9 inches ( 102 – 229 mm ) thick . The armor of her gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 9 in ( 229 mm ) and her deck ranged from 2 to 3 inches ( 51 to 76 mm ) in thickness .
= = Construction and service = =
Pobeda ( Victory ) was ordered on 26 April 1898 from the Baltic Works and construction began on 30 May 1898 at the company 's Saint Petersburg shipyard , well before the formal keel @-@ laying ceremony on 21 February 1899 . The ship was launched on 10 May 1900 and towed to Kronstadt on 31 August 1901 for fitting out . She made her machinery trials in October , well before she was completed the next year . She sailed to Reval ( modern Tallinn ) on 1 August to participate in the naval review held there a few days later to commemorate the visit of the German Kaiser , Wilhelm II , to Russia . Pobeda entered service upon completing her artillery trials on October 1902 , although she was not officially accepted until 10 March 1903 , at a cost of 10 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 rubles . She had already sailed from Libau on 13 November 1902 and arrived at Port Arthur on 13 June 1903 for assignment to the Pacific Squadron .
= = = Battle of Port Arthur = = =
After the Japanese victory in the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 , tensions had arisen between Russia and Japan over their ambitions to control both Manchuria and Korea . A further issue was the Russian failure to withdraw its troops from Manchuria in October 1903 , as it had promised . Japan had begun negotiations to ease the situation in 1901 , but the Russian government was slow and uncertain in its replies because it had not yet decided exactly how to resolve the problems . Japan interpreted these as deliberate prevarications designed to buy time to complete the Russian armament programs . The final straws were news of Russian timber concessions in northern Korea and the Russian refusal to acknowledge Japanese interests in Manchuria while continuing to place conditions on Japanese activities in Korea . These led the Japanese government to decide in December 1903 that war was now inevitable . The Pacific Squadron began mooring in the outer harbor at night as tensions with Japan increased , so as to react more quickly to any Japanese attempt to land troops in Korea .
On the night of 8 / 9 February 1904 , the IJN launched a surprise attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur . Pobeda was not hit in the initial torpedo @-@ boat attack , and sortied the following morning when the Combined Fleet , commanded by Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō , attacked . Tōgō had expected the surprise night attack by his ships to be much more successful than it was , anticipating that the Russians would be badly disorganized and weakened , but they had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack . The Japanese ships were spotted by the protected cruiser Boyarin , which was patrolling offshore and alerted the Russian defenses . Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defenses with his main armament and engage the ships with his secondary guns . Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as the Japanese 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) and six @-@ inch guns inflicted little damage on the Russian ships , which concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect . Pobeda was hit once or twice amidships near the waterline , losing two men killed and four wounded , but the shell ( s ) failed to penetrate the ship 's armor and little damage was done .
On 22 March , Pobeda joined several other battleships firing indirectly at Japanese ships bombarding Port Arthur 's harbor and hit the Japanese battleship Fuji once , killing seven men . She participated in the action of 13 April , when Tōgō successfully lured out a portion of the Pacific Squadron , including Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov 's flagship , the battleship Petropavlovsk . When Makarov spotted the five Japanese battleships , he turned back for Port Arthur , and Petropavlovsk struck a mine laid by the Japanese the previous night . The ship sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded , and Makarov was one of the 677 killed . When Pobeda was returning to port after Petropavlovsk sank , she struck a mine herself , but was able to steam to the harbor under her own power despite an 11 ° list . Her repairs were completed on 9 June although some of her guns were removed during this time to reinforce the defenses of the port . Pobeda lost a total of three 6 @-@ inch , two 75 @-@ millimeter , one 47 @-@ millimeter and four 37 @-@ millimeter guns . She sailed with the rest of the Russian squadron on 23 June in an abortive attempt to reach Vladivostok . The new fleet commander , Vice Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft , ordered the squadron to return to Port Arthur when it encountered the Japanese fleet shortly before sunset as he did not wish to engage the numerically superior Japanese in a night battle . Pobeda bombarded Japanese positions besieging the port on 28 July .
= = = Battle of the Yellow Sea = = =
The Japanese bombardment of 9 August , coupled with a direct order from Tsar Nicholas II , forced Vitgeft to make another attempt to reach Vladivostok . The squadron sortied in an attempt to escape to Vladivostok the next morning . At 12 : 25 , it was spotted by Japanese cruisers and intercepted by the Combined Fleet in what became the Battle of the Yellow Sea . Pobeda was third in line during the battle , and was not seriously damaged during the early long @-@ range stage of the action . Around 18 : 00 , two 12 @-@ inch shells from the battleship Asahi penetrated the conning tower of the Russian flagship Tsesarevich , killing Vitgeft and the helmsman , severely wounding the captain , and causing the ship to come to a dead stop after executing a sharp turn . Thinking that this was a maneuver planned by Vitgeft , the Russian battleline started to execute the same turn , causing all of the ships directly behind Tsesarevich , including Pobeda , to maneuver wildly to avoid hitting the stationary flagship .
As the Japanese ships continued to pound the Tsesarevich , the battleship Retvizan boldly charged Tōgō 's battleline in an attempt to divert the Japanese shellfire , followed shortly afterward by Peresvet , the flagship of the squadron 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Rear Admiral Prince Pavel Ukhtomsky . The Japanese battleline immediately shifted fire to the oncoming ships , badly damaging both and forcing them to turn away . Ukhtomsky signaled the other Russian ships to follow him back to Port Arthur , but the signal was hard to discern because the flags had to be hung from the bridge railings because Peresvet 's topmasts had been shot away and were only gradually recognized . Although Pobeda was struck by eleven large @-@ caliber hits that killed 4 men and wounded 29 , including one below the waterline , they failed to penetrate her armor and she reached Port Arthur without any difficulties . The hits did , however , knock out one 10 @-@ inch gun and three 75 @-@ millimeter guns .
= = = Siege of Port Arthur = = =
Returning to Port Arthur on 11 August , the Russian squadron found the city still under siege by the Japanese Third Army led by Baron Nogi Maresuke . The new commander , Rear Admiral Robert N. Viren , decided to use the men and guns of the Pacific Squadron to reinforce the defenses of Port Arthur and even more guns were stripped from the squadron 's ships . This proved to make little difference and Pobeda was struck by several 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) and 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch shells on 28 September that did no significant damage . The Japanese bombardment with medium guns continued for the next month and a half and the ship was repeatedly struck , without much effect . Japanese troops were able to seize 203 Hill which overlooked the harbor on 5 December . This allowed the Imperial Japanese Army 's 28 @-@ centimeter ( 11 in ) siege guns to fire directly at the Russian ships ; they hit Pobeda approximately 30 times and sank her in shallow water on 7 December 1904 . Russian attempts to destroy the ship before they surrendered were frustrated because her vital parts were already underwater .
= = Japanese career = =
Pobeda was refloated by Japanese engineers on 17 October 1905 and was classified as a 1st @-@ class battleship by the IJN . She was renamed as Suwo on 25 October , after the eponymous ancient province . She steamed under her own power to Sasebo Naval Arsenal , where she arrived on 16 December and began temporary repairs . Her reconstruction at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal began in May 1906 and lasted until 10 October 1908 .
To improve her stability , Suwo 's forward fighting top was removed . The 6 @-@ inch bow gun was also removed and all of her light guns were replaced by 20 QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt guns . Two above @-@ water 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes replaced her original torpedo armament and her crew now numbered 791 officers and enlisted men .
Suwo was re @-@ designated as a 1st class coastal defense ship on 28 August 1912 and became a training ship for cadets and engineers . Initially assigned to the 1st Standing Squadron when World War I began , she shortly afterwards became the flagship of the 2nd Squadron , commanded by Vice Admiral Kato Sadakichi . The squadron was tasked to blockade the German @-@ owned port of Tsingtao , China , and to cooperate with the Imperial Japanese Army in capturing the city . Tango and the other ships of the squadron , reinforced by the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS Triumph , bombarded German fortifications throughout the siege until the Germans surrendered on 7 November . Suwo served as flagship of the Second Squadron of the Second Fleet in 1915 – 16 before becoming a gunnery training ship at Yokosuka for the rest of the war . In April 1922 , in compliance with the Washington Naval Treaty , Suwo was disarmed at the Kure Naval Arsenal . While her armor was being removed , the ship capsized on 13 July . She was probably scrapped in 1922 – 23 , but at least one source suggests she was refloated and hulked , serving until being broken up at Kure in 1946 .
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= Andreacarus voalavo =
Andreacarus voalavo is a parasitic mite found on the Malagasy rodent Voalavo gymnocaudus . First described in 2007 , it is closely related to Andreacarus gymnuromys and Andreacarus eliurus , which are found on other Malagasy rodents . The length of the idiosoma , the main body , is 630 to 670 μm in females and 450 to 480 μm in males . Unlike A. eliurus , this species lacks distinct sternal glands ( secretory organs ) between two lyrifissures ( sensory organs ) on the lower part of the female body . The pilus dentilis , a sensory organ on the chelicera , is serrate , which distinguishes it from A. gymnuromys . Females of A. gymnuromys also have a less ornamented sternal shield ( covering part of the underparts ) and shorter setae ( bristles ) on the upperparts .
= = Taxonomy and ecology = =
Andreacarus voalavo was named in 2007 by Ashley Dowling , Andre Bochkov , and Barry OConnor on the basis of 15 specimens found on an individual of the rodent Voalavo gymnocaudus that was collected in 1994 in the Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Reserve in northern Madagascar . The specific name , voalavo , is taken from the generic name of the type host . Voalavo gymnocaudus , the only known host , is only found in the Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud and Marojejy massifs of the Malagasy Northern Highlands . A. voalavo is closely related to Andreacarus gymnuromys and Andreacarus eliurus , found on other Malagasy rodents . They are members of the genus Andreacarus , which currently includes 11 species found on rodents and other small mammals in Madagascar and mainland Africa .
= = Description = =
In the female , the pilus dentilis , a sensory organ on the chelicera ( mouthpart ) , is serrate , not smooth as in A. gymnuromys . The idiosoma ( main part of the body ) is 630 to 670 μm long and 370 to 435 μm wide and the dorsal shield ( covering the upper side ) is 620 to 655 μm long and 360 to 370 μm wide . The dorsal setae ( bristles ) are long relative to A. gymnuromys . The sternal shield ( on the lower side of the body ) is 115 to 125 μm long and 184 to 200 μm wide and is more ornamented than in A. gymnuromys . Unlike A. eliurus , A. voalavo lacks distinct sternal glands ( secretory organs ) between the lyrifissures ( sensory organs ) iv1 and iv2 on the lower side of the body . The other shields on the lower side of the body are the genitoventral shield ( 232 to 253 by 170 to 182 μm ) , the peritrematic shield ( 140 to 147 by 117 to 127 μm ) , and the anal shield ( 140 to 147 by 117 to 127 μm ) . On the soft part of the cuticle , there are nine pairs of setae . The first segments of the legs , the coxae , lack hooks . On the coxae of the third pair of legs , the setae at the back are spur @-@ like .
The idiosoma of the male is 450 to 480 μm long and 270 to 300 μm wide , the dorsal shield is 440 to 475 by 250 to 270 μm , and the holoventral shield is 360 to 395 μm and 189 to 207 μm wide .
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= The Boat Race 1910 =
The 67th Boat Race took place on 23 March 1910 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford were reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race . In a race umpired by Frederick I. Pitman , Oxford won by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 20 minutes 14 seconds , taking their overall lead in the competition to 36 – 30 .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2015 , broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1909 race by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , and led overall with 35 victories to Cambridge 's 30 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were G. C. Bourne who had rowed for the university in the 1882 and 1883 races , Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president for the 1900 race and four @-@ time Blue ) and W. F. C. Holland who had rowed for Oxford four times between 1887 and 1890 . Cambridge were coached by William Dudley Ward ( who had rowed in 1897 , 1899 and 1900 races ) , Raymond Etherington @-@ Smith ( who had rowed in 1898 and 1900 ) and David Alexander Wauchope ( who had rowed in the 1895 race ) . For the seventh year the umpire was old Etonian Frederick I. Pitman who rowed for Cambridge in the 1884 , 1885 and 1886 races .
According to author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater , the Dark Blues " did not have any very promising new material from which to make up [ their ] crew " but was impressed by a " very stylish " Philip Fleming who had been included as Oxford 's number seven . Cambridge 's coaches worked to re @-@ introduce a more traditional style of rowing but like Oxford , " their material was not very good " . Although they lost Eric Fairbairn late in the build @-@ up to the race , Drinkwater considered them to be " a pretty , lively crew to look at " . As a result of unfavourable tides , the race was scheduled to be held on the Wednesday of Holy Week which , according to Drinkwater , " caused considerable controversy " .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 8 @.@ 875 lb ( 80 @.@ 0 kg ) , 4 @.@ 375 pounds ( 2 @.@ 0 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge 's boat contained three rowers with Boat Race experience , including R. W. M. Arbuthnot , J. B. Rosher and Edward Gordon Williams , the latter making his third consecutive appearance in the event , having won a bronze medal in the men 's eight in the 1908 Summer Olympics . Oxford saw four crew members return , including Duncan Mackinnon , Stanley Garton , Robert Bourne and cox A. W. F. Donkin . Three participants in the race were registered as overseas Blues : Oxford 's bow M. B. Higgins and Cambridge 's number four C. P. Cooke were Australian while Light Blue cox C. A. Skinner was from South Africa .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . In bright sunshine and a light breeze , umpire Pitman started the race at 12 : 30 p.m. Cambridge made the better start and led Oxford until one of the Light Blues " caught a crab " , allowing the Dark Blues to take the lead . Even with a slower stroke rate , Oxford were a quarter of a length ahead by Craven Steps but the lead was short @-@ lived as Cambridge spurted to lead by the Mile Post . Unable to make further gains , the Light Blues began to lose ground around the unfavourable bend in the river , with Oxford spurting and gaining almost one length in ten strokes .
At The Doves pub , another spurt saw Oxford go one length clear , which they gradually extended along the rest of the course to win by three and a half lengths in a time of 20 minutes 14 seconds , the slowest winning time since the 1907 race . It was their second consecutive victory and took the overall record in the event to 36 – 30 in their favour .
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= El Toro ( Six Flags Great Adventure ) =
El Toro , a Spanish term meaning The Bull , is a wooden roller coaster at Six Flags Great Adventure in Jackson , New Jersey . Designed by Intamin of Switzerland , it opened to the public on June 11 , 2006 . Intamin also worked with members of Rocky Mountain Construction to build the ride . When it opened , it had the steepest drop of any wooden roller coaster in the world at 76 degrees , until the record was broken by T Express in 2008 by one degree . Overall , its structure height of 181 feet ( 55 m ) is ranked fourth , its drop height of 176 feet ( 54 m ) is ranked second , and its top speed of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) is ranked fourth among all wooden roller coasters in the world . It was also the first wooden roller coaster to use a cable lift as opposed to the traditional chain lift .
El Toro is the main attraction of the Mexican @-@ themed section , Plaza Del Carnaval . It replaced the Viper roller coaster that closed in 2004 .
= = History = =
El Toro sits on the former site of Viper , which closed in 2004 . Everything was removed in early 2005 except for the station . El Toro was announced on September 28 , 2005 along with Bugs Bunny National Park , a new themed area for children . It was also announced El Toro would be part of a new themed area known as Plaza del Carnaval . The lift hill was topped off on December 20 , 2005 . The ride started testing on Memorial Day weekend in 2006 . The ride had a surprise opening on June 11 then held its grand opening on June 12 .
El Toro has several similarities to Viper , the coaster that it replaced . The most obvious similarity is that El Toro uses Viper 's station , the only part of Viper that was not torn down . The station previously held two Viper trains at once , with a loading platform in the front and an unloading platform in the rear . The ramp that was previously Viper 's main exit is now used only for wheelchair access , as El Toro has a new exit on the other side of the station . During El Toro 's construction , the station was gutted and an entirely new platform built . Like El Toro , Viper turned left out of the station before the lift hill and turned left at the top of the lift before the first drop .
El Toro suffered a malfunction with the lift motor in early August 2013 . The motor was sent to Maryland to be fixed . El Toro reopened on August 30 , after it had been down for several weeks .
= = Ride experience = =
= = = Theme = = =
El Toro means " The bull " in Spanish , which is the theme of the ride . The cars are themed as " bulls " with bull heads on the front . The ride 's queue is surrounded by the Southwestern @-@ style buildings of Plaza del Carnaval , and also has abandoned " wagon wheels " and Spanish posters along a wall separating the queue from the ride .
= = = Layout = = =
After departing from the station , the train makes a turn to the left , passing through the ride 's structure . It then begins to climb the 181 @-@ foot ( 55 m ) tall cable lift hill . Once the entire train is on the lift the cable increases its speed to 13 mph . Once at the top of the lift the speed of the cable gently slows down , but it is barely noticeable on the ride . After cresting the top of the lift , the train briefly travels forward and makes a 180 degree turn to the left . It then drops 176 feet ( 54 m ) at a 76 degree angle , reaching a top speed of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) . As the train reaches the bottom of the drop it comes close to the track above , creating a headchopper @-@ effect . It then travels up a 112 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) camelback hill followed by a second camelback hill at 100 feet ( 30 m ) . It then rises and then travels through a 180 degree downward @-@ banked turn to the right , and up another banked turn to the left . The train goes through a small second hill that speeds past the station and the lakeside . The ride then makes another turn and up a smaller hill where riders experience ejector airtime . After coming down the drop , the ride snakes through twists and turns . After coming out of the twister section , the train slows down as it moves through small S turn hills and into the brake run .
= = = Trains = = =
El Toro operates with two trains with six cars per train . Riders are arranged two across in three rows for a total of 36 riders per train . It has a capacity of 1 @,@ 200 guests per hour . The trains are simply known as " Train A " ( light brown ) and " Train B " ( dark brown ) . The trains have padded " wings " at shoulder level to prevent riders from being thrown too far to the side in the final twister section . El Toro 's lapbars are U @-@ shaped .
In 2010 , one of the trains was re @-@ themed to endorse Stride Gum . The train was wrapped in Stride Gum advertisements , showing a different flavor of Stride gum on each car . The advertisements remained on the train for the entire 2011 season , but were removed before the start of the 2012 season and replaced with Kia Soul advertising .
= = = Track = = =
The wooden track is approximately 4 @,@ 400 feet ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) in length and the height of the lift is approximately 181 feet ( 55 m ) . El Toro is very different from a traditional wooden roller coaster because it uses prefabricated wooden track . It was built and designed by Intamin but they also worked with members of Rocky Mountain Construction to build the ride . Instead of carpenters cutting , shaping , and laying down the track on site by hand , the track is laser cut in a factory . This means that the track is manufactured to a higher degree of precision than could be achieved by hand . The " Plug and Play " aspect of the coaster speeds construction of the coaster since track does not have to be completely manufactured on site . In addition , because of the speed of construction , the costs of building the coaster are lowered due to fewer man @-@ hours spent on the construction . The riders are subject to a coaster that is as smooth as steel . El Toro is the first Intamin " Plug and Play " wooden roller coaster in the United States and one of four in the world . The other three are Colossos at Heide Park in Germany , Balder at Liseberg in Sweden , and T Express at Everland in South Korea .
= = Records = =
When El Toro debuted , it broke records as the second @-@ tallest and fastest with the second @-@ longest drop of a wooden roller coaster in the United States . It also had the steepest drop on any wooden roller coaster in the world . As of 2016 , El Toro has the fourth fastest speed , the fourth @-@ tallest lift , and the second longest drop .
= = Awards and rankings = =
When the ride debuted , it ranked 3rd for " Best New Ride of 2006 " in the Golden Ticket Awards .
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= Glazer ownership of Manchester United =
Manchester United Football Club is an English football club based in Old Trafford , Greater Manchester . The club was formed as Newton Heath LYR Football Club , the works team of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway depot in Newton Heath , in 1878 . The club split from the railway company in 1892 and remained under private ownership for almost 100 years , changing its name to Manchester United after being saved from bankruptcy in 1902 .
The club went public in 1990 and was the subject of takeover bids from property trader Michael Knighton and Rupert Murdoch 's BSkyB corporation before Malcolm Glazer 's stake was announced in September 2003 . By the end of the year , Glazer had increased his shareholding from 3 @.@ 17 % to around 15 % , which he almost doubled in the year up to October 2004 . His acquisition of John Magnier and J. P. McManus 's 28 @.@ 7 % stake in May 2005 pushed his own up to around 57 % , well over the 30 % threshold that would force him to launch a takeover bid . A few days later , he took control of 75 % of the club 's shares , allowing him to delist the company from the stock exchange , and within a month , the Glazers took 98 % ownership of the club via their Red Football parent company , forcing a squeeze out of the remaining 2 % . The final purchase price of the club totalled almost £ 800 million .
Most of the capital used by Glazer to purchase Manchester United came in the form of loans , the majority of which were secured against the club 's assets , incurring interest payments of over £ 60 million per annum . The remainder came in the form of PIK loans ( payment in kind loans ) , which were later sold to hedge funds . Manchester United was not liable for the PIKs , which were held by Red Football Joint Venture and were secured on that company 's shares in Red Football ( and thus the club ) . The interest on the PIKs rolled up at 14 @.@ 25 % per annum . Despite this , the Glazers did not pay down any of the PIK loans in the first five years they owned the club . In January 2010 , the club carried out a successful £ 500 million bond issue , and by March 2010 , the PIKs stood at around £ 207 million . The PIKs were eventually paid off in November 2010 by unspecified means . In August 2012 , as part of further refinancing , the Glazers sold a number of shares in Manchester United in an initial public offering ( IPO ) on the New York Stock Exchange ( NYSE ) .
Some Manchester United fans opposed Glazer 's takeover of the club , particularly once they realised the level of debt that the club would have to take on after having been debt @-@ free for so many years . Since 2005 , the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust has been working on a way of returning ownership of the club to supporters ; in 2010 , they met with a group of wealthy Manchester United fans – dubbed the " Red Knights " – to discuss a billion @-@ pound takeover bid . However , the bid fell through when the Red Knights refused to meet the Glazers ' valuation of the club .
= = Background = =
Manchester United was formed as Newton Heath L & YR F.C. in 1878 by the workers in the Carriage and Wagon Works of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway 's Newton Heath depot . In 1901 , the club was in over £ 2 @,@ 500 of debt and facing a winding @-@ up order ; however , they were saved by local brewer John Henry Davies , who changed their name to Manchester United in 1902 . After Davies ' death in 1927 , the club fell into financial difficulties once again , but James W. Gibson stepped in as a new financial benefactor in 1931 . Gibson himself died in 1951 , but while ownership of the club passed to his widow , Violet , control of the club passed to director and former player Harold Hardman .
Meanwhile , a local businessman named Louis Edwards began accruing shares in Manchester United and was eventually made chairman on Hardman 's death in 1965 . His son , Martin Edwards , purchased a percentage of shares from Alan Gibson – son of former owner James Gibson – and became the majority shareholder and chairman when Louis Edwards died in 1980 . During Martin Edwards ' time as chairman , Manchester United was the subject of several takeover bids ; the first came from media tycoon Robert Maxwell , who bid £ 10 million in February 1984 , but the sale fell through before any serious talks could take place . In 1989 , property magnate Michael Knighton was on the verge of completing a £ 20 million takeover , but his financial backers pulled out at the last minute and he had to be content with merely a seat on the board .
Manchester United was floated on the stock market in 1991 , and they received yet another takeover bid in 1998 , this time from Rupert Murdoch 's BSkyB Corporation . The Manchester United board accepted a £ 623 million offer , but the takeover was blocked by the Monopolies and Mergers Commission at the final hurdle in April 1999 . A few years later , a power struggle emerged between the club 's manager , Sir Alex Ferguson , and his horse @-@ racing partners , John Magnier and J. P. McManus , who had gradually become the largest shareholders via their company , Cubic Expression . In a dispute that stemmed from contested ownership of the horse Rock of Gibraltar , Magnier and McManus attempted to have Ferguson removed from his position as manager , and the board responded by approaching investors to attempt to reduce the Irishmen 's influence .
Meanwhile , Avram Glazer – the son of Malcolm Glazer – was looking into investment in European football . The Glazer family already owned several businesses in the United States and had purchased the Tampa Bay Buccaneers National Football League franchise in 1995 . They convinced the local government to fund a new stadium for the Buccaneers in 1998 and the franchise won its first Super Bowl in January 2003 .
= = Acquisition of shares and gaining control = =
Following the Manchester United board 's search for new investors , the Glazers purchased their first tranche of Manchester United shares on 2 March 2003 , spending around £ 9 million on a 2 @.@ 9 % stake , which they purchased through a holding company called Red Football . On 26 September 2003 , it was reported that they had increased their share to 3 @.@ 17 % , taking their shareholding above the 3 % threshold that required them to inform the club 's management . There had already been considerable speculation about the possibility of a takeover of the club , either by the Glazers or by one of several other interested parties . By 20 October , they had increased their shareholding to 8 @.@ 93 % , and on 29 November it was reported that they owned around 15 % of the club and had met David Gill , its chief executive , to discuss their intentions . On 12 February 2004 , the Glazers increased their stake in the club to 16 @.@ 31 % and the following day 's Financial Times reported that they had instructed Commerzbank to explore a takeover bid . The club 's share price increased by 5 % that day , valuing the club at a total of £ 741 million . The Glazers increased their shareholding to over 19 % the following June , although they were still not the largest shareholders . Their shareholding continued to increase , nearing 30 % by October 2004 . Upon reaching 30 % , they would have to launch a formal takeover bid .
On 12 May 2005 , Red Football announced that it had reached an agreement with shareholders J. P. McManus and John Magnier to purchase Cubic Expression 's 28 @.@ 7 % stake in the club , which gave the Glazers a controlling stake with just under 57 % of the club 's shares . They then managed to secure the stake of the third @-@ largest stakeholder , Scottish mining entrepreneur Harry Dobson , taking their share total to 62 % of the club . By 13 May , the Glazers had bought a further 12 @.@ 8 % stake taking their total ownership to 74 @.@ 81 % , just shy of the 75 % threshold that would allow them to end the club 's public limited company ( PLC ) status and delist it from the London Stock Exchange . On 16 May , the Glazers took their shareholding in Manchester United to 75 @.@ 7 % , and a month later , on 22 June , they removed the club 's shares from the stock exchange for the first time in 14 years .
The Glazers ' shareholding increased gradually to 76 @.@ 2 % by 23 May , when they made their final offer of 300 pence per share , with a deadline of 3 p.m. on 13 June . On 26 May , the Manchester United board wrote to the remaining shareholders indicating their intention to sell their own shares and advising the others to follow suit ; in the same letter , chairman Sir Roy Gardner and non @-@ executive directors Ian Much and Jim O 'Neill offered their resignations . Despite the board 's encouragement , the Glazers ' share in the club had only reached 97 @.@ 3 % by 14 June , short of the 97 @.@ 6 % threshold required for a compulsory buyout of all remaining shareholders , prompting them to extend the deadline on their offer to purchase the remaining shares until 27 June . A statement released on 28 June said that Red Football 's shareholding had reached 98 % ( 259 @,@ 950 @,@ 194 shares ) , prompting a squeeze out of the remaining shareholders . The final valuation of the club was almost £ 790 million ( approximately $ 1 @.@ 5 billion at the exchange rate at the time ) .
= = Aftermath = =
As a result of the Glazer takeover , a small group of disgruntled Manchester United supporters created a new club called F.C. United of Manchester . This so @-@ called " phoenix club " was accepted into the North West Counties Football League second division , six promotions away from The Football League , and secured promotion in each of its first three seasons , twice as league champions .
Following the takeover , Manchester United continued to thrive , with the 2005 – 06 season seeing Old Trafford 's capacity being expanded and a lucrative new shirt sponsorship deal signed in April 2006 with American company AIG ( which had a large stake in a hedge fund company that helped to fund Glazer 's takeover of the club ) . Increased revenue from TV rights to each competition the club participates in , as well as its various sponsorship deals , also boosted the club 's profitability . This came despite fears among many supporters that the debt incurred in buying the club could lead to insolvency .
Contrary to the fears of many fans , the Glazers took action to ensure that Gill and veteran manager Sir Alex Ferguson remained at Manchester United , citing the duo 's success with the club . In 2006 , Malcolm Glazer 's other two sons , Kevin and Edward , and his daughter , Darcie , were appointed to the Manchester United board as non @-@ executive directors .
= = Refinancing = =
The debt taken on by the Glazers to finance the takeover was split between the club and the family ; between £ 265 million and £ 275 million was secured against Manchester United 's assets , putting the club into debt for the first time since James Gibson saved them in 1931 . This loan was provided by three New York hedge funds : Citadel , Och @-@ Ziff Capital Management and Perry Capital . The total amount was £ 660 million , on which interest payments came to £ 62 million a year . The club stated , " The value of Manchester United has increased in the last year , which is why lenders want to invest in the club ... This move represents good housekeeping and it ensures that Sir Alex Ferguson will be provided with sufficient funds to compete in the transfer market . " The Manchester United Supporters Trust responded , " ' The amount of money needed to be repaid overall is huge ... The interest payment is one thing but what about the actual £ 660 million ? It is difficult to see how these sums can be reached without significant increases in ticket prices , which , as we always suspected , means the fans will effectively be paying for someone to borrow money to own their club . " Under the terms of the Glazers ' refinancing , as they were unable to repay bondholders by 16 August 2010 , the overall interest rate on the loans rose from 14 @.@ 25 % to 16 @.@ 25 % , resulting in annual payments of around £ 38 million .
On 11 January 2010 , shortly before an announcement that Red Football 's debt had increased to £ 716 @.@ 5 million ( $ 1 @.@ 17 billion ) , Manchester United announced their intention to refinance the debt through a bond issue worth approximately £ 500 million . They managed to raise £ 504 million in just under two weeks , meaning that they were able to pay off almost all of the £ 509 million owed to international banks . The bonds were issued in two tranches , one with a coupon rate of 8 @.@ 75 % worth £ 250 million , and the other with a coupon rate of 8 @.@ 375 % worth $ 425 million . The annual interest payable on the bond came to approximately £ 45 million per annum , with the bond due to mature on 1 February 2017 . Contained within the bond prospectus were covenants that would allow the Glazers to filter large sums of money out of the club to repay the PIKs by 2015 . These include the carving out of £ 95 million in cash , the sale and lease @-@ back of the Trafford Training Centre at Carrington , and the ability of the Glazers to pay themselves 50 % of the Consolidated Net Income of the club every year .
On 16 November 2010 , it was revealed that the Glazers were to pay off the remaining £ 220 million contained within the PIK loans by 22 November 2010 . The loans were by then accruing interest at a rate of 16 @.@ 25 % , as the club 's overall debt had exceeded its earnings before interest , taxes , depreciation and amortization ( EBITDA ) by more than five times . However , the club claimed that none of its own money had been put towards the repayment , raising questions as to how the Glazer family had raised the funds ; suggested methods include the sale of a minority stake in the club to a third party , the sale of some or all of the family 's other businesses , and – the most likely option – the refinancing of the PIKs with another loan at a lower interest rate .
= = Red Knights takeover plans = =
A fan campaign known as " Love United Hate Glazer " has existed since the origin of the family 's bid to take over the club . The campaign has involved the spreading of the slogan and the acronym " LUHG " around various locations via stickers and graffiti . A number of banners have also been displayed in the stands at Old Trafford .
Despite its restructuring , the announcement about the club 's debt prompted vociferous protests from Manchester United fans on the weekend of 23 January 2010 , both at Old Trafford and at the club 's Carrington training facility . A non @-@ violent protest was organised by the club 's supporters groups , following up on the " Love United Hate Glazer " campaign that had existed since 2005 , and encouraging match @-@ going fans to wear green and gold , the colours of Manchester United 's precursor club , Newton Heath . A few days later , on 30 January , reports emerged that the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust had held meetings with a group of wealthy fans with a view to buying out the Glazers ' controlling interest in the club . The group then met with Keith Harris , a Manchester United fan and the chairman of investment bank Seymour Pierce , to broker a takeover .
On 2 March 2010 , further reports emerged that the group – dubbed the " Red Knights " – had met again to discuss the possibility of a billion @-@ pound takeover of the club . Those present at the meeting included investment bank Goldman Sachs ' chief economist and former Manchester United director Jim O 'Neill and lawyer Mark Rawlinson , a partner at law firm Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer , as well as Duncan Drasdo , the chief executive of the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust , and Keith Harris , Executive Chairman of Seymour Pierce . The initial goal of the group was to increase the Supporters ' Trust 's membership to at least 100 @,@ 000 , to demonstrate the fans ' support for a change in ownership . To better promote themselves , the Trust enlisted the services of Blue State Digital , the Internet strategy firm that worked on Barack Obama 's 2008 presidential election campaign .
Later that day , Manchester United announced that their gross debt for the final three months of 2009 totalled £ 507 @.@ 5 million , a reduction of £ 30 @.@ 6 million compared to the same period in 2008 . They also reported pre @-@ tax profits of £ 6 @.@ 9 million , an increase of £ 9 @.@ 6 million after making a loss of £ 2 @.@ 7 million the previous year . This announcement was accompanied by a statement from the Glazers ' spokesperson that the club was not for sale , as well as public support from David Gill , who claimed that the Glazers were " running the club the right way " .
Meanwhile , membership of the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust passed the 100 @,@ 000 mark on 3 March , before exceeding 125 @,@ 000 a week later . The green @-@ and @-@ gold scarf campaign also grew , with large portions of the Old Trafford crowd showing the colours . Following Manchester United 's 4 – 0 victory over Milan in their Champions League first knockout round tie , former Manchester United player David Beckham was seen wearing a scarf that had been thrown onto the pitch ; however , he later claimed that he was merely showing his support for Manchester United , and that the running of the club is " not [ his ] business " . It was also claimed that United manager Alex Ferguson would be prepared to invest his own money in the Red Knights ' bid , but he dismissed these reports as " absolute rubbish " .
Given the amount of debt on Manchester United 's books at the time , some analysts estimated in 2010 that any takeover bid would have had to total more than £ 2 billion , of which around £ 1 @.@ 6 billion would be needed to match the Glazers ' valuation of the club – double what they paid for the club in 2005 . However , the Red Knights publicly stated that they would only pay " a fair price " when their takeover bid finally came . On 11 March 2010 , the Red Knights appointed Nomura Securities Co. as their advisers for their takeover bid . Nomura previously advised the Manchester United board before the Glazers ' bid to buy the club . The Red Knights later admitted that they would not make a bid for the club before the end of the 2009 – 10 season , but it was believed that their preferred bid option would have involved retaining the £ 500 million bond issued by the Glazers . Two @-@ thirds of a further £ 700 million would be provided by 30 – 40 wealthy Manchester United fans , with the remainder provided by fund @-@ raising from ordinary fans . Once the club was secured , shares would then be offered to fans , allowing them to take ownership of the club . Despite these plans , the Red Knights put their takeover bid " on hold " in June 2010 , citing " inflated valuation aspirations " in the media as the reason . Having already stated that they would only pay a " sensible " amount for the club , the group was thought to have baulked at the suggestion that the Glazers ' valuation of the club was significantly higher than the amount they were willing to pay .
= = New York share issue = =
In 2011 , rumours surfaced that the Glazers intended to list a number of shares in Manchester United on an Asian market such as Hong Kong or Singapore , in an attempt to raise a potential £ 400 – 600 million . The Singapore flotation looked to be gaining traction in August 2011 , when it emerged that the club had applied to list its shares on the Singapore Exchange ; approval for the listing was given in September 2011 .
In June 2012 , after several months with no further developments on the Singapore front , several sources reported that the club was considering moving its share issue to the United States , and in July 2012 , an application was made for the club to sell shares on the New York Stock Exchange ( NYSE ) , with a target of raising $ 100 million ( £ 64 million ) . More details of the sale were released at the end of July , with the club announcing that they intended to sell 16 @.@ 7 million shares ( approximately 10 % of the club ) at between $ 16 and $ 20 each , raising up to $ 330 million ( £ 210 million ) . Shares in the club would be divided into two groups , with Class A shares sold to the public and Class B shares retained by the Glazer family .
Ahead of the opening of the IPO , concerns were raised among both investors and Manchester United supporters regarding the details of the share offering . Although the share prospectus specified that the proceeds from the sale would go towards paying down the club 's debts , it was revealed that much of the money would go directly to the Glazers . Furthermore , holders of class A shares would not be entitled to a regular dividend , and the structure of the share issue meant that the Glazers ' class B shares had 10 times the voting power of class A shares , essentially denying a controlling interest in the club to anyone but the Glazers . These issues drove down interest and forced a drop in the share price from the planned $ 16 – 20 each to $ 14 each , representing a potential total sale value of $ 233 million ( £ 150 million ) .
The shares debuted on the NYSE on 10 August 2012 , and initially showed a slight rise to $ 14 @.@ 05 per share , but closed the day back at the offer price of $ 14 each , valuing the club as a whole at $ 2 @.@ 3 billion , and making it one of the most valuable sports teams in the world . One of the biggest investors in the IPO was American billionaire George Soros , whose investment company purchased about 3 @.@ 1 million class A shares ( 1 @.@ 9 % of the club ) , valued at $ 40 @.@ 7 million ( £ 25 @.@ 8 million ) at the time . Club records announced in November 2012 revealed that gross debt had fallen to £ 359 @.@ 7 million after the share sale paid off £ 62 @.@ 6 million of bonds . The club 's debts were further remedied in May 2013 , after a new loan deal was agreed that would save the club £ 10 million a year in interest payments on debts now totalling around £ 307 million .
In March 2014 , American investment group Baron Capital purchased 24 % of all of the shares available on the NYSE ( equivalent to 5 @.@ 8 % of the entire club , but widely misreported as 2 @.@ 4 % ) . At the closing price on the day of purchase of $ 15 @.@ 84 per share , Baron Capital 's total investment was valued at $ 151 million ( £ 90 million ) . In September 2014 , Baron Capital raised its stake in the club to 9 @.@ 2 % of the entire club ( equivalent to 37 @.@ 8 % of all shares available on the NYSE . )
= = Death of Malcolm Glazer = =
Malcolm Glazer died on 28 May 2014 at the age of 85 . His death was seen as unlikely to mean any significant changes to the running of the club .
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= Caernarfon Castle =
Caernarfon Castle ( Welsh : Castell Caernarfon ) is a medieval fortress in Caernarfon , Gwynedd , north @-@ west Wales cared for by Cadw , the Welsh Government 's historic environment service . There was a motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle in the town of Caernarfon from the late 11th century until 1283 when King Edward I of England began replacing it with the current stone structure . The Edwardian town and castle acted as the administrative centre of north Wales and as a result the defences were built on a grand scale . There was a deliberate link with Caernarfon 's Roman past and the Roman fort of Segontium is nearby .
While the castle was under construction , town walls were built around Caernarfon . The work cost between £ 20 @,@ 000 and £ 25 @,@ 000 from the start until the end of work in 1330 . Despite Caernarfon Castle 's external appearance of being mostly complete , the interior buildings no longer survive and many of the building plans were never finished . The town and castle were sacked in 1294 when Madog ap Llywelyn led a rebellion against the English . Caernarfon was recaptured the following year . During the Glyndŵr Rising of 1400 – 1415 , the castle was besieged . When the Tudor dynasty ascended to the English throne in 1485 , tensions between the Welsh and English began to diminish and castles were considered less important . As a result , Caernarfon Castle was allowed to fall into a state of disrepair .
Despite its dilapidated condition , during the English Civil War Caernarfon Castle was held by Royalists , and was besieged three times by Parliamentarian forces . This was the last time the castle was used in war . Caernarfon Castle was neglected until the 19th century when the state funded repairs . In 1911 , Caernarfon Castle was used for the investiture of the Prince of Wales , and again in 1969 . It is part of the World Heritage Site " Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd " .
= = Background = =
The first fortifications at Caernarfon were built by the Romans . Their fort , which they named Segontium , is on the outskirts of the modern town . The fort sat near the bank of the River Seiont ; it is likely that the fort was positioned here due to the sheltered nature and as traffic up the Seiont would have been able to supply Segontium . Caernarfon derives its name from the Roman fortifications . In Welsh , the place was called " y gaer yn Arfon " , meaning " the stronghold in the land over against Môn " ; Môn is the Welsh name for Anglesey . Little is known about the fate of Segontium and its associated civilian settlement after the Romans departed from Britain in the early 5th century .
= = Early castle = =
Following the Norman Conquest of England , William the Conqueror turned his attention to Wales . According to the Domesday Survey of 1086 , the Norman Robert of Rhuddlan was notionally in charge of the whole of northern Wales . He was killed by the Welsh in 1088 . His cousin the Earl of Chester , Hugh d 'Avranches , reasserted Norman control of north Wales by building three castles : one at an unknown location somewhere in Meirionnydd , one at Aberlleiniog on Anglesey , and another at Caernarfon . This early castle was on a peninsula , bounded by the River Seiont , the Menai Strait ; it would have been a motte and bailey , defended by a timber palisade and earthen banks . While the motte , or mound , was integrated into the later Edwardian Castle , the location of the original bailey is uncertain , although it may have been to the north @-@ east of the motte . Excavations on top of the motte in 1969 revealed no traces of medieval occupation , suggesting any evidence had been removed . It is likely that the motte was surmounted by a wooden tower known as a keep . The Welsh recaptured Gwynedd in 1115 , and Caernarfon Castle came into the possession of the Welsh princes . From contemporary documents written at the castle , it is known that Llywelyn the Great and later Llywelyn ap Gruffudd occasionally stayed at Caernarfon .
= = Edwardian castle = =
War broke out again between England and Wales on 22 March 1282 . The Welsh leader , Llywelyn ap Gruffudd , died later that year on 11 December . His brother Dafydd ap Gruffydd continued to fight against the English , but in 1283 Edward I was victorious . Edward marched through northern Wales , capturing castles such as that at Dolwyddelan , and establishing his own at Conwy . War finally drew to a close in May 1283 when Dolbadarn Castle , Dafydd ap Gruffudd 's last castle , was captured . Shortly after , Edward began building castles at Harlech and Caernarfon . The castles of Caernarfon , Conwy and Harlech were the most impressive of their time in Wales , and their construction – along with other Edwardian castles in the country – helped establish English rule . The master mason responsible for the design and orchestrating the construction of the castle was probably James of Saint George , an experienced architect and military engineer who played an important role in building the Edwardian castles in Wales . According to the Flores Historiarum , during the construction of the castle and planned town , the body of the Roman emperor Magnus Maximus was discovered at Caernarfon and Edward I ordered his reburial in a local church .
The construction of the new stone castle was part of a programme of building which transformed Caernarfon ; town walls were added , connected to the castle , and a new quay was built . The earliest reference to building at Caernarfon dates from 24 June 1283 , when a ditch had been dug separating the site of the castle from the town to the north . A bretagium , a type of stockade , was created around the site to protect it while the permanent defences were under construction . Timber was shipped from as far away as Liverpool . Stone was quarried from nearby places , such as from Anglesey and around the town . A force of hundreds worked on the excavation of the moat and digging the foundations for the castle . As the site expanded , it began to encroach on the town ; houses were cleared to allow the construction . Residents were not paid compensation until three years later . While the foundations for the stone walls were being created , timber @-@ framed apartments were built for Edward I and Eleanor of Castile , his queen . They arrived at Caernarfon on either 11 or 12 July 1283 and stayed for over a month .
Construction at Caernarfon Castle continued over the winter of 1283 / 1284 . The extent of completion is uncertain , although architectural historian Arnold Taylor speculated that when Edward and Eleanor visited again in Easter 1284 the Eagle Tower may have been complete . The Statute of Rhuddlan , enacted on 3 March 1284 , made Caernarfon a borough and the administrative centre of the county of Gwynedd . According to tradition , Edward II was born at Caernarfon on 25 April 1284 . Edward was created Prince of Wales in 1301 , with control over Wales and its incomes . Since then the title has traditionally been held by the eldest son of the monarch . According to a famous legend , the king had promised the Welsh that he would name " a prince born in Wales , who did not speak a word of English " and then produced his infant son to their surprise ; but the story may well be apocryphal , as it can only be traced to the 16th century . In 1284 , Caernarfon was defended by a garrison of forty men , more than the thirty @-@ strong garrisons at Conwy and Harlech . Even in peace time , when most castles would have a guard of only a few men , Caernarfon was defended by between twenty and forty people due to its importance .
By 1285 , Caernarfon 's town walls were mostly complete . At the same time work continued on the castle . Spending on construction was negligible from 1289 and accounts end in 1292 . Edward I 's campaign of castle @-@ building in Wales cost £ 80 @,@ 000 between 1277 and 1304 , and £ 95 @,@ 000 between 1277 and 1329 ; by 1292 £ 12 @,@ 000 had been spent on the construction of Caernarfon 's castle – of which the southern facade was furthest along – and town walls . As the southern wall and town walls completed a defensive circuit around Caernarfon , the plan was to build the castle 's northern facade last .
In 1294 , Wales broke out in rebellion led by Madog ap Llywelyn , prince of Wales . As Caernarfon was the centre of administration in Gwynedd and a symbol of English power , it was targeted by the Welsh . Madog 's forces captured the town in September , and in the process heavily damaged the town walls . The castle was defended by just a ditch and a temporary barricade . It was quickly taken and anything flammable was set alight . Fire raged across Caernarfon , leaving destruction in its wake . In the summer of 1295 , the English moved to retake Caernarfon . By November the same year , the English began refortifying the town . Rebuilding the town walls was a high priority , and £ 1 @,@ 195 ( nearly half the sum initially spent on the walls ) was spent on completing the job two months ahead of schedule . Attention then shifted to the castle and on finishing the work that had halted in 1292 . Once the rebellion was put down , Edward began building Beaumaris Castle on the Isle of Anglesey . The work was overseen by James of Saint George ; as a result , Walter of Hereford took over as master mason for the new phase of construction . By the end of 1301 , a further £ 4 @,@ 500 had been spent on the work with the focus of work on the northern wall and towers . The accounts between November 1301 and September 1304 are missing , possibly because there was a hiatus in work while labour moved north to help out with England 's war against Scotland . Records show that Walter of Hereford had left Caernarfon and was in Carlisle in October 1300 ; he remained occupied with the Scottish wars until the autumn of 1304 when building at Caernarfon resumed . Walter died in 1309 and his immediate subordinate , Henry of Ellerton , took over the position of master mason . Construction continued at a steady rate until 1330 .
From 1284 to 1330 , when accounts end , between £ 20 @,@ 000 and £ 25 @,@ 000 was spent on Caernarfon 's castle and town walls . Such a sum was enormous and dwarfed the spending on castles such as Dover and Château Gaillard , which were amongst the most expensive and impressive fortifications of the later 12th and early 13th centuries . Subsequent additions to Caernarfon were not major , and what remains of the castle is substantially from the Edwardian period . Despite the expense , much of what was planned for the castle was never carried out . The rears of the King 's Gate ( the entrance from the town ) and the Queen 's Gate ( the entrance from the south @-@ east ) were left unfinished , and foundations in the castle 's interior mark where buildings would have stood had work continued .
= = Later history = =
For around two centuries after the conquest of Wales , the arrangements established by Edward I for the governance of the country remained in place . During this time the castle was constantly garrisoned , and Caernarfon was effectively the capital of north Wales . There was a degree of discrimination , with the most important administrative jobs in Wales usually closed to Welsh people . Tension between the Welsh and their English conquerors spilled over at the start of the 15th century with the outbreak of the Glyndŵr Rising ( 1400 – 1415 ) . During the revolt , Caernarfon was one of the targets of Owain Glyndŵr 's army . The town and castle were besieged in 1401 , and in November that year the Battle of Tuthill took place nearby between Caernarfon 's defenders and the besieging force . In 1403 and 1404 , Caernarfon was besieged by Welsh troops with support from French forces ; the garrison at the time was around thirty . The ascension of the Tudor dynasty to the English throne in 1485 heralded a change in the way Wales was administered . The Tudors were Welsh in origin , and their rule eased hostilities between the Welsh and English . As a result , castles such as Caernarfon , which provided secure centres from which the country could be administered , became less important . They were neglected , and in 1538 it was reported that many castles in Wales were " moche ruynous and ferre in decaye for lakke of tymely reparations " .
In Caernarfon 's case the walls of the town and castle remained in good condition , while features which required maintenance – such as roofs – were in a state of decay and much timber was rotten . Conditions were so poor that of the castles seven towers and two gatehouses , only the Eagle Tower and the King 's Gate had roofs by 1620 . The domestic buildings inside the castle had been stripped of anything valuable , such as glass and iron . Despite the disrepair of the domestic buildings , the castle 's defences were in a good enough state that during the English Civil War in the mid @-@ 17th century it was garrisoned by Royalists . Caernarfon Castle was besieged three times during the war . The constable was John Byron , 1st Baron Byron , who surrendered Caernarfon to Parliamentarian forces in 1646 . It was the last time Caernarfon Castle saw fighting . Although it was ordered in 1660 that the castle and town walls should be dismantled , the work was aborted early on and may never have started .
Despite avoiding slighting , the castle was neglected until the late 19th century . From the 1870s onwards , the government funded repairs to Caernarfon Castle . The deputy @-@ constable , Llewellyn Turner oversaw the work , in many cases controversially restoring and rebuilding the castle , rather than simply conserving the existing stonework . Steps , battlements , and roofs were repaired , and the moat to the north of the castle was cleared of post @-@ medieval buildings that were considered to spoil the view , despite the protest of locals . Under the auspices of the Office of Works and its successors since 1908 , the castle was preserved due to its historic significance . In 1911 , Caernarfon was used for the investiture of the Prince of Wales for the first time when Prince Edward ( later Edward VIII ) , eldest son of the newly crowned King George V ; the ceremony was held there at the insistence of then @-@ Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George , a Welshman raised in Caernarfonshire . In 1969 , the precedent was repeated with the investiture of Charles , Prince of Wales . Although Caernarfon Castle has been the property of the Crown since it was built , it is currently cared for by Cadw ( English : to keep ) , the Welsh Government 's historic environment division , responsible for the maintenance and care of Wales ' historic buildings . In 1986 , Caernarfon was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites as part of the " Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd " in recognition of its global importance and to help conserve and protect the site . The castle houses the Royal Welch Fusiliers Museum . During 2015 a new " entrance pavilion " was built , designed by architects Donald Insall Associates .
= = Architecture = =
Caernarfon Castle 's design was partly influenced by a desire to make the structure impressive as a symbol of the new English rule in Wales . This was particularly acute as Caernarfon was made the centre of government in the northern part of the country . The Edwardian castle 's layout was mostly dictated by the lay of the land , although the inclusion of the previous castle 's motte played a part . It is a narrow enclosure , roughly in the shape of a figure eight . It was divided into two enclosures , upper and lower " wards " in the east and west respectively , with the eastern containing royal accommodation , although this was never completed . The divide was supposed to be established by a range of fortified buildings , however these too were never built .
Studded along the curtain wall are several polygonal towers from which flanking fire could be deployed . There were battlements on the tops of walls and towers , and along the southern face were firing galleries ; it was intended to include galleries along the northern face but they were never built . In the opinion of military historian Allen Brown , this combined to make Caernarfon Castle " one of the most formidable concentrations of fire @-@ power to be found in the Middle Ages " . Most of the northern towers stand had four @-@ storeys including a basements . The Eagle Tower at the western corner of the castle was the grandest . It has three turrets which were once surmounted by statues of eagles . The tower contained grand lodgings , and was probably built for Sir Otton de Grandson , the first justiciar of Wales . A basement level contained a water gate , through which visitors travelling up the River Seiont could enter the castle . Water was drawn from a well in the eponymous Well Tower .
Caernarfon 's appearance differs from that of other Edwardian castles through the use of banded coloured stone in the walls and in its polygonal , rather than round , towers . There has been extensive academic debate over the interpretation of these features . Historian Arnold Taylor argued that the design of the castle was a representation of the Walls of Constantinople . The conscious use of imagery from the Byzantine Roman Empire was therefore an assertion of authority by Edward I , and influenced by the legendary dream of Magnus Maximus , a Roman emperor . In his dream Maximus had seen a fort , " the fairest that man ever saw " , within a city at the mouth of a river in a mountainous country and opposite an island . Edward interpreted this to mean Segontium was the city of Maximus ' dream and drew on the imperial link when building Caernarfon Castle . Recent work by historian Abigail Wheatley suggests that the design of Caernarfon was indeed an assertion of Edward 's authority , but that it drew on imagery from Roman sites in Britain with the intent of creating an allusion of Arthurian legitimacy for the king .
There were two main entrances , one leading from the town ( the King 's Gate ) and one allowing direct access to the castle without having to proceed through the town ( the Queen 's Gate ) . Their form was typical of the time – a passage between two flanking towers . If the King 's Gate had been completed , a visitor would have crossed two drawbridges , passed through five doors , under six portcullises , and negotiated a right @-@ angle turn before emerging into the lower enclosure . The route was overlooked by numerous arrow loops and murder holes . A statue of Edward II was erected in a niche overlooking the town , above the entrance to the King 's Gate . In the opinion of architectural historian Arnold Taylor , " No building in Britain demonstrates more strikingly the immense strength of medieval fortifications than the great twin @-@ towered gateway to Caernarfon Castle . " The Queen 's Gate is unusual in that its entrance is above ground level ; this was due to the integration of the earlier motte , raising the ground level of the interior . Externally , the gate would have been approached by a stone ramp which is no longer present .
While the curtain wall and its towers survive largely intact , all that remains of the buildings contained within the castle are the foundations . While royal lodgings were in the upper ward , the lower contained buildings such as the kitchens . The kitchens were located immediately west of the King 's Gate . On the basis of their insubstantial foundations , Taylor suggests that the kitchens were not strongly built . The other key feature of the castle 's domestic side , was the Great Hall . Caernarfon 's abutted the south side of the lower ward and was 30 @.@ 5 metres ( 100 ft ) . Though only the foundations survive , in its heyday the Great Hall would have been an impressive building , featuring fine architecture , and used to host royal entertainment . Had Caernarfon been completed as intended , it would have been able to contain a royal household of several hundred people .
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= Battle of Wanat =
The Battle of Wanat occurred on July 13 , 2008 , when about 200 Taliban guerrillas attacked NATO troops near Quam , in the Waygal district in Afghanistan 's far eastern province of Nuristan . The position was defended primarily by United States Army soldiers of the 2nd Platoon , Chosen Company , 2nd Battalion , 503rd Infantry Regiment ( Airborne ) , 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team .
The Taliban surrounded the remote base and its observation post , attacking it from Quam and surrounding farmland . They destroyed much of the U.S. heavy munitions , broke through American lines , and entered the main base before being repelled by artillery and aircraft . The United States claimed to have killed at least 21 Taliban fighters for the loss of nine U.S. soldiers killed and 27 wounded , and four Afghan National Army ( ANA ) soldiers wounded . The U.S. deaths were the most in a single battle since the start of U.S. operations in 2001 .
The Battle of Wanat has been described as one of the bloodiest Taliban attacks of the war and one of several attacks on remote outposts . In contrast to previous roadside bombings and haphazard attacks and ambushes , this attack was well @-@ coordinated with fighters from many insurgent groups with an effort that was disciplined and sustained which was able to precisely target key equipment such as a wire @-@ guided missile launcher .
The battle became the focus of debate in the United States , generating " a great deal of interest and scrutiny among military professionals and from outside observers " mainly due to the relatively " significant number of coalition casualties " . Several investigations were launched into events leading up to the battle . The initial investigation was completed in August 2008 . In July 2009 , Senator James Webb requested that the U.S. Army formally investigate the battle and previous investigation . Lieutenant General Richard F. Natonski conducted another investigation in late 2009 which led to orders of reprimand for the chain of command . In June 2010 , the U.S. Army revoked the reprimands . They stated that no negligence was involved and said of the soldiers that " by their valor and their skill , they successfully defended their positions and defeated a determined , skillful , and adaptable enemy " .
= = Background = =
In 2008 , NATO forces in southeastern Afghanistan deployed sub @-@ company @-@ sized patrols to the Pakistan border to disrupt supplies flowing to the Taliban from the Federally Administered Tribal Regions of Pakistan . They established small patrol bases , which came under regular attack by Taliban forces .
In June , a small contingent of 48 American and 24 Afghan troops , 72 in total , were operating in and around Wanat , a mountain Quam that was the center of the Waygal District government and about five miles from the coalition military base Camp Blessing . On July 4 , a U.S. Army helicopter attacked vehicles they claimed were firing on them and killed 17 people . Locals claimed those killed were civilians , including doctors and nurses from a local clinic . Both sides reported Forward Observation Base Bella was under attack by indirect fire . Intel reports said that the FOB was going to be overrun from within the base as well . The helicopter attack was in response to the indirect fire received from a mortar tube that was being fired from the bed of a Toyota Hilux pick @-@ up . The initial Taliban radio transmissions that were intercepted reported that the " Big Gun had been hit " ( mortar tube ) and the Taliban commander had been killed . A few hours after the helicopter attacked , with the Chosen Company commander and the troops in contact confirming the targets , the Taliban radio reports changed to " they killed the shop keeper ( that had the same name as the Taliban commander ) , the big gun was not damaged and all the enemy wounded and KIA were civilians . " Five days before the battle , on July 8 , a platoon from the Second Battalion , 503rd Infantry Regiment , 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team established Vehicle Patrol Base ( VPB ) Kahler and a separate observation post called " OP Top Side " near Wanat . 8 July , 2nd Platoon , Chosen Company , departed from Camp Blessing after sunset in a ground assault convoy for the 90 @-@ minute @-@ long drive to Wanat . The convoy contained five M1114 armored Humvees . There was one for each of the three rifle squads , a vehicle for platoon headquarters , and the last vehicle containing the TOW missile squad . The Humvees mounted heavy weapons , two with 50 @-@ cal machine guns , and two with MK @-@ 19 40mm automatic grenade launchers in protected cupolas to provide extra firepower and protection . Their goal was to create a Combat Outpost ( COP ) to connect with and provide security for the local populace , coordinate $ 1 @.@ 4 million in reconstruction projects , and disrupt Taliban activity . The brigade was to be relieved by a newly arriving U.S. Army unit in two weeks .
The patrol base was situated on an open field about 300 meters long by 100 meters wide surrounded on two sides by buildings which composed the Quam . July 9 , a six @-@ man engineer squad arrived by Chinook helicopter . They brought a Bobcat loader and a shipping container with engineer equipment . The soldiers reinforced the base with existing terrain , sandbags , barbed wire , and used the Bobcat to fill a number of HESCO barriers ( essentially wall @-@ sized sandbags ) around the three squad positions and to create a firing pit for the big 120 @-@ mm mortar . However , the Bobcat broke down for one day , and could not lift high enough to place barriers to a 7 @-@ foot height , but were placed to just a 4 @-@ foot level , which would make it vulnerable to direct fire from guns or rockets which the attackers would exploit . The troops dug many of the fortifications and trenches with hand shovels . Still in preparation at the time of the attack , some areas were only protected by a barrier of concertina wire , but with no posts or stakes , the wire was just placed on the ground .
The Afghan company contracted to bring heavy construction equipment delayed its arrival to until 13 July . It was decided that soldier labor with the aid of an engineer squad and a Bobcat front end loader already at Bella would be good enough to prepare an initial defense in the six days until heavier equipment arrived . The number of men at the base was judged enough to defend against intelligence estimates that placed the insurgent forces in the local area at only about 150 experienced fighters , though they did not know that attackers would be backed up by other guerrilla groups from neighboring regions as far away as Pakistan and Kashmir . While they thought it was possible the base might be attacked while the camp was being prepared , they thought it unlikely . Platoon Sergeant Dzwik later remarked " I was expecting harassing fire from any one of the high ground in every direction . I did not think the village itself would let the AAF [ Anti @-@ Afghan Force ] turn their village into a battle zone .
Soldiers at the base noticed warning signs , including groups of men watching the construction from the nearby village , which was set at a higher elevation than the outpost , and other groups of men moving through nearby mountains . At a dinner meeting in the village , a villager told the Americans that they should shoot any men seen in the mountains , and asked them if U.S. UAVs were keeping watch nearby . The day before the attack , the militants began flowing water through an irrigation ditch feeding an unused field , creating background noise that masked the sounds of the advancing fighters .
Although the Americans believed that 100 or 200 attacked the base , a senior Afghan defense ministry official who did not reveal his name told Al Jazeera that he had information it was between 400 and 500 fighters . Tamim Nuristani , former governor of Nuristan , believed that numerous Taliban and Pakistani militant and terrorist groups banded together from surrounding regions including Kunar and the Bajaur tribal agency in neighboring Pakistan . According to U.S. intelligence groups operating in the region included Taliban , al @-@ Qaeda , Kashmir @-@ based Lashkar @-@ e @-@ Taiba and Pakistan @-@ based , ( as of 2013 still located in 1 of many strongholds in the Bajaur agency of F.A.T.A.-Federally administered Tribal areas in Kunar and Nuristan of Afghanistan ) , Hezb @-@ i @-@ Islami . According to the Long War Journal , Al Qaeda 's senior leadership including Ayman al Zawahiri and Osama Bin Laden were thought to shelter in the region ( Bin Laden was then in Pakistan ) . Taliban spokesman stated " The fighting in Afghanistan is getting heavier . When the Americans drop bombs on civilians ordinary people want revenge – that 's why they are joining the Taliban , strengthening us " pointing out their " ability to enter the bases and kill Americans . " A NATO spokesman believed that the Taliban had moved into and expelled a nearby Khel ( small village @-@ tribe subdivision ) for the attack . On the evening of July 12 , Taliban soldiers moved into Wanat and ordered the villagers to leave . Undetected by the I.S.A.F. / A.N.S.F. soldiers , they set up firing positions inside Kors and a mosque next to and overlooking the perimeter .
= = Battle = =
About 4 : 20 a.m. on July 13 , Taliban forces opened fire on the base with machine guns , rocket @-@ propelled grenades , and mortars . Another 100 militants attacked the observation post from farmland to the east .
The initial attack hit the forward operating base 's mortar pit , knocking out the 120mm mortar and detonating the stockpile of mortar ammunition . The insurgents next destroyed the Humvee @-@ mounted TOW missile launcher inside the combat outpost with coordinated fire from unguided RPG rockets . The mortars and TOW launcher which were to provide the heaviest and most accurate firepower had been quickly taken out by the attackers . The explosion of the mortar shells hurled the anti @-@ tank missiles into the command post .
From the American perspective , the most serious situation was the attack concentrated on a small team situated at the small observation post " TOPSIDE " nestled among rocks under a tree 50m to 70m outside the main base . The first round hit accurately , wounding or stunning every soldier . Pfc. Tyler Stafford was blown out of his machine @-@ gun position next to Spc . Matthew Phillips who threw a grenade before he was mortally wounded . Cpl. Jason Bogar fired hundreds of rounds from his automatic weapon until the barrel became white @-@ hot and jammed and then tended to Stafford 's wounds . A rocket grenade wounded Sgt. Ryan M. Pitts , who was also tended by Bogar with a tourniquet around Pitts ' leg before switching to another gun . Bogar then jumped from the outpost bunker to get close enough to kill insurgents who were firing down upon the men from the village hotel . Once outside the bunker , he was shot through the chest and killed . The surviving soldiers then ran from the outpost to the main post , leaving Pitts behind . Alone , Pitts was able to hold @-@ off the Taliban from overrunning his position until his comrades returned two hours later and he was evacuated to receive medical care .
Four U.S. soldiers were killed within the first 20 minutes of the battle , another died later , and at least three others were wounded . Three times teams of soldiers from the main base ran through Taliban fire to resupply the observation post and carry back the dead and wounded .
The U.S. troops responded with machine guns , grenades , and claymore mines . Artillery guns at Camp Blessing fired 96 155mm artillery rounds . The Taliban briefly breached the wire of the observation post before being driven back . After almost half an hour of intense fighting at the observation post , only one soldier remained . He was seriously wounded and fought alone until reinforcements arrived . Some militants also managed to get past the main base 's eastern barriers . Two American soldiers , platoon leader First Lieutenant Jonathan P. Brostrom , 24 , of Hawaii and Corporal Jason Hovater , were killed trying to deliver ammunition to the observation post . American soldiers were at times flushed out of their fortifications by what they thought were grenades , but which were actually rocks thrown by the attackers . Brostrom , Hovater , and another soldier may have been killed by an insurgent who penetrated the wire perimeter .
AH @-@ 64 Apache attack helicopters and a Predator unmanned aircraft drone armed with Hellfire missiles arrived over the base about 30 minutes after the battle began . During the battle , U.S. soldiers were resupplied by UH @-@ 60 Blackhawk helicopter with fire support from the AH @-@ 64 Apache Helicopters . Injured troops were evacuated to nearby Camp Wright , where members of E Troop , 2nd – 17th Cavalry , 101st Airborne Division would wait to rearm and refuel the UH @-@ 60 's and AH @-@ 64 's . Later , a B @-@ 1B Lancer bomber , A @-@ 10 , and F @-@ 15E Strike Eagle aircraft were called in . The militants withdrew about four hours later . After the militants retreated , mop up operations followed , and the Taliban withdrew from the town .
Nine U.S. soldiers were killed in the attack , mainly in the observation post . Between 21 and 52 militants were reported killed with another 20 to 40 wounded , but coalition forces found only two Taliban bodies after the battle . The attack was the highest death toll for American troops in the country since Operation Red Wings three years earlier .
= = Operational issues = =
Civilian deaths caused by allied operations had increased sympathy among Waygal residents for the Taliban , who were allowed to move into the Quam . The residents may have been further dismayed by the failure of the Afghan president , Hamid Karzai , to address the concerns of a delegation of elders and maliks in Kabul two days previously .
Coalition troops had noticed other warning signs . The day before the attack , the " Spin Giris " ( Pashto for " White Beards " – influential tribal elders ) of Wanat conducted a Jirga , ( elder community council @-@ experienced male members of the Quam have a right to attend ) , without the post 's Officer @-@ in @-@ Charge . As well , the villagers began pouring waste water into an area of dead space near the post more frequently , which may have concealed the movement of militants within the village .
A 2009 U.S. Army report criticized the brigade commander , Colonel Chip Preysler , and the battalion commander , Lieutenant Colonel William Ostlund , citing the lack of supplies , equipment , and drinking water for troops stationed in Wanat . At the same time , the report praised the performance of its soldiers under fire .
The same report criticized the actions of the involved commanding officers as being counterproductive to military goals , stating that " The highly kinetic approach favored by TF Rock ... rapidly and inevitably degraded the relationships between the U.S. Army and the Waigal population . "
This statement , portraying the operational approaches of the 173rd Airborne Brigade ( TF Bayonet ) and 2 @-@ 503 PIR ( TF Rock ) in a negative light , is contradicted by David Kilcullen in his book , The Accidental Guerrilla . Kilcullen stated that in March 2008 @,@
The fact that Kunar has bucked the general trend [ downward trend in security across the country ] seems largely to be the result of a consistent U.S. strategy of partnering with local communities to separate the insurgents from the people , bring tangible benefits of governance and development to the population , and help the population choose their own local Khan 's ( Protectors , usually military ) , through elections .
Kilcullen also noted a statement by a previous U.S. commander in Kunar regarding LTC William Ostlund , the 2 @-@ 503 commander : " Bill O. understood deeply that the effect of Coalition operations on the people was the key question . "
= = Aftermath = =
= = = U.S. withdrawal = = =
After the battle , Major General Jeffrey J. Schloesser , U.S. Army commander of coalition troops in Regional Command East , Afghanistan , decided to abandon the patrol base and sent additional U.S. troops to assist the base evacuation . Three days after the engagement the United States and Afghan armies withdrew from Wanat . An ISAF statement says ISAF and Afghan security forces " will continue to perform regular patrols near the village of Wanat . " The coalition forces continued to maintain a larger patrol base about four miles away from Wanat and concentrated on protecting the larger Pech River Valley .
The district police force for the area was disarmed by the Americans and the district chief and police chief were briefly detained and questioned . Both were released within 24 hours according to a spokesperson for the district chief .
Speaking at a Pentagon news conference after the attack , U.S. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , Navy Admiral Mike Mullen said the incident indicated that " all involved with operations on the ( Pakistan @-@ Afghanistan , especially the pourous Kunar , Kashmir , and Nuristan ) , border must do a better job of policing the region and eliminating the extremists ' safe havens in Pakistan 's federally administered tribal areas that are launching pads for attacks on coalition forces . " The Associated Press reported that the attack underscored a general gain in strength of Afghan militants .
However , the 173rd Brigade Commander , Colonel Charles Preysler , specifically rebutted that conclusion in an interview on July 20 , 2008 . He stated that previous media accounts of the engagement mischaracterized the level of development of the platoon 's defences . He also said that the withdrawal of the platoon did not constitute " abandoning " the position because no permanent defensive infrastructure was developed or left behind . He further stated that the position was " not overrun in any shape , manner , or form " , adding that , " It was close combat to be sure — hand grenade range . "
= = = U.S. Army investigation = = =
An investigation by the U.S. Army , completed on August 13 and released to the public the first week of November 2008 , found that the Taliban attackers had been assisted by the Afghan local police ( ALP ) , forces and a district leader . The evidence included large stocks of weapons and ammunition discovered in the police barracks in Wanat after the battle . The stocks were much more than could be used by the villages ' 20 @-@ man police force and included dirty weapons which appeared to have been used recently . In response to the report , Schloesser concluded that the governor and local police chief " had probably been acting under duress and had been cooperative with American troops . " The governor was absolved of blame in the attack but it was unclear about what was done with the local police chief .
The investigation also examined whether the Army had intelligence about a possible assault and whether the troops had access to it . The report found that despite reports earlier in July that 200 to 300 militants had been massing to attack another remote outpost in the vicinity , including numerous reports from local villagers that an attack was imminent , the commanders at Wanat had no reason to expect such a large frontal assault . The report , however , criticized the " incredible amount of time " — 10 months — it took NATO military leaders to negotiate arrangements over the site of the outpost , giving the Taliban plenty of time to coordinate and plan an attack on the base .
= = = Further actions = = =
In July 2009 , U.S. Senator James Webb asked the U.S. DoD Inspector General to formally examine the battle and the U.S. Army 's investigation into the event . In his request , Webb cited an unreleased report from the Army 's Combat Studies Institute by a contractor , Douglas Cubbison , that criticized how senior Army leaders in Afghanistan , especially Ostlund and Preyser , acted before the assault at Wanat . According to that report , soldiers at the Wanat base were critically short of basic necessities such as water and sandbags and had complained repeatedly , to no avail , that their base was in a precarious position . Cubbison had written the report at the request of Lieutenant General William B. Caldwell IV , commander of the United States Army Combined Arms Center . Cubbison wrote that a few days before the battle , on July 4 , a U.S. Army helicopter mistakenly attacked and killed 17 civilians , including all of the doctors and nurses at a local clinic , infuriating local Afghans . Platoon leader Brostrom and company commander Captain Matthew Myer told their commanders that they expected a retaliatory attack and asked for extra surveillance . Brostrom 's father , retired Army Colonel David . P. Brostrom , alerted Webb 's office to the Army historian 's report . Said Brostrom , " After I read the report , I was sick to my stomach . "
Letters of reprimand were issued to Colonel Charles Preysler , Lieutenant Colonel William Ostlund and Captain Myer for " failing to properly prepare defenses " at Wanat , Pentagon officials said March 12 . That same month , Myer was awarded the Silver Star for his actions during the battle of Wanat .
On September 30 , 2009 , U.S. Central Command commander General David H. Petraeus appointed U.S. Marine Corps Lieutenant General Richard F. Natonski to lead a new inquiry into the battle and which would look into related issues " beyond the tactical level . " A later review was conducted by General Charles C. Campbell which " focused on the totality of circumstances that included and affected actions at Wanat " , including interviews of the officers involved , and reviews of previous investigations with the exception of the Fort Leavenworth Combat Studies Institute ( CSI ) narrative — stating that it had " not undergone pre @-@ publication vetting and academic review in accordance with standing CSI research protocols " . Campbell concluded that the officers involved were not at fault :
[ The officers ] were neither negligent nor derelict in the performance of their duties , exercising a degree of care that a reasonably prudent person would have exercised under the same or similar circumstance . To criminalize command decisions in a theater of complex combat operations is a grave step indeed . It is also unnecessary , particularly in this case . It is possible for officers to err in judgment — and to thereby incur censure — without violating a criminal statute . This is particularly true where the errors are those of omission , where the standards come from multiple non @-@ punitive doctrinal publications , where there is less than complete and certain knowledge of enemy capabilities and intent , and where commanders enjoy wide discretion in their exercise of their command prerogatives and responsibilities .
In June 2010 , General Campbell revoked the officers ' reprimands , citing that they would have a " chilling effect " on ground operations . The Army said that the second look at the incident proved that the officers were " neither negligent nor derelict " and " by their valor and their skill , they successfully defended their positions and defeated a determined , skillful , and adaptable enemy who masses and attacks at times , ways and places of his choosing " Secretary of the Army John McHugh was also humbled by their courage , stating " We remain grateful for and humbled by their extraordinary courage and valor . " Gen. George W. Casey Jr . , Army chief of staff further commended the performance of the soldiers :
In every review and study conducted to date , the courage , valor , and discipline of the soldiers who fought at Wanat have been universally praised . These soldiers were well @-@ trained , well @-@ led , and fought bravely to defeat a determined and intense enemy action to overrun their base in Wanat . They persevered in a fashion that deserves broad recognition of their bravery and tenacity . Our hearts go out to the families of the fallen soldiers .
Upset over Campbell 's decision , family members of those killed in action wrote a letter to the Secretary of the Army asking that the findings of Natonski 's investigation be upheld and the reprimands reinstated . In addition to the family members , the letter was signed by Senators Daniel Akaka , Jim Webb , Saxby Chambliss , Patty Murray , and Claire McCaskill .
In November 2010 , the U.S. Army 's Combat Studies Institute published a historical account of the Battle of Wanat . The official U.S. Army history of the battle , published in December 2010 , places little blame on the senior officers involved , instead blaming the uncertain nature of war , mistakes by junior officers , lack of knowledge by Army officers on the Wanat region 's complex political situation , and lack of intelligence that the attack forces would be drawn from the entire region , not just the local area .
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= Banff National Park =
Banff National Park / ˈbæmf / is Canada 's oldest national park , established in 1885 in the Rocky Mountains . The park , located 110 – 180 kilometres ( 68 – 112 mi ) west of Calgary in the province of Alberta , encompasses 6 @,@ 641 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 564 sq mi ) of mountainous terrain , with numerous glaciers and ice fields , dense coniferous forest , and alpine landscapes . The Icefields Parkway extends from Lake Louise , connecting to Jasper National Park in the north . Provincial forests and Yoho National Park are neighbours to the west , while Kootenay National Park is located to the south and Kananaskis Country to the southeast . The main commercial centre of the park is the town of Banff , in the Bow River valley .
The Canadian Pacific Railway was instrumental in Banff 's early years , building the Banff Springs Hotel and Lake Louise Chalet , and attracting tourists through extensive advertising . In the early 20th century , roads were built in Banff , at times by war internees from World War I , and through Great Depression @-@ era public works projects . Since the 1960s , park accommodations have been open all year , with annual tourism visits to Banff increasing to over 5 million in the 1990s . Millions more pass through the park on the Trans @-@ Canada Highway . As Banff has over three million visitors annually , the health of its ecosystem has been threatened . In the mid @-@ 1990s , Parks Canada responded by initiating a two @-@ year study , which resulted in management recommendations , and new policies that aim to preserve ecological integrity .
Banff National Park has a subarctic climate with three ecoregions , including montane , subalpine , and alpine . The forests are dominated by Lodgepole pine at lower elevations and Engelmann spruce in higher ones below the treeline , above which is primarily rocks and ice . Mammal species such as the grizzly , cougar , wolverine , elk , bighorn sheep and moose are found , along with hundreds of bird species . Reptiles and amphibians are also found but only a limited number of species have been recorded . The mountains are formed from sedimentary rocks which were pushed east and over newer rock strata between 80 and 55 million years ago . Over the past few million years , glaciers have at times covered most of the park , but today are found only on the mountain slopes though they include the Columbia Icefield , the largest uninterrupted glacial mass in the Rockies . Erosion from water and ice have carved the mountains into their current shapes .
= = History = =
Throughout its history , Banff National Park has been shaped by tension between conservationist and land exploitation interests . The park was established on 25 November 1885 as Banff Hot Springs Reserve , in response to conflicting claims over who discovered hot springs there , and who had the right to develop the hot springs for commercial interests . The conservationists prevailed when Prime Minister John A. Macdonald set aside the hot springs as a small protected reserve , which was later expanded to include Lake Louise and other areas extending north to the Columbia Icefield .
= = = Early history = = =
Archaeological evidence found at Vermilion Lakes indicates the first human activity in Banff to 10 @,@ 300 B.P. Prior to European contact , aboriginals , including the Stoneys , Kootenay , Tsuu T 'ina , Kainai , Peigans , and Siksika , resided in the region where they hunted bison and other game .
With the admission of British Columbia to Canada on 20 July 1871 , Canada agreed to build a transcontinental railroad . Construction of the railroad began in 1875 , with Kicking Horse Pass chosen , over the more northerly Yellowhead Pass , as the route through the Canadian Rockies . Ten years later , on 7 November 1885 , the last spike was driven in Craigellachie , British Columbia .
= = = Rocky Mountains Park established = = =
With conflicting claims over discovery of hot springs in Banff , Prime Minister John A. Macdonald decided to set aside a small reserve of 26 square kilometres ( 10 sq mi ) around the hot springs at Cave and Basin as a public park known as the Banff Hot Springs Reserve in 1885 . Under the Rocky Mountains Park Act , enacted on 23 June 1887 , the park was expanded to 674 km2 ( 260 sq mi ) and named Rocky Mountains Park . This was Canada 's first national park , and the third established in North America , after Yellowstone and Mackinac National Parks . The Canadian Pacific Railway built the Banff Springs Hotel and Lake Louise Chalet to attract tourists and increase the number of rail passengers .
The Stoney ( Assiniboine ) First Nations were removed from Banff National Park between the years 1890 and 1920 . The park was designed to appeal to sportsmen , and tourists . The exclusionary policy met the goals of sports hunting , tourism , and game conservation , as well as of those attempting to " civilize " the Indians .
Early on , Banff was popular with wealthy European and American tourists , the former of which arrived in Canada via trans @-@ Atlantic luxury liner and continued westward on the railroad . Some visitors participated in mountaineering activities , often hiring local guides . Guides Jim and Bill Brewster founded one of the first outfitters in Banff . From 1906 , the Alpine Club of Canada organized climbs , hikes and camps in the park .
By 1911 , Banff was accessible by automobile from Calgary . Beginning in 1916 , the Brewsters offered motorcoach tours of Banff . In 1920 , access to Lake Louise by road was available , and the Banff @-@ Windermere Road opened in 1923 to connect Banff with British Columbia .
In 1902 , the park was expanded to cover 11 @,@ 400 km2 ( 4 @,@ 400 sq mi ) , encompassing areas around Lake Louise , and the Bow , Red Deer , Kananaskis , and Spray rivers . Bowing to pressure from grazing and logging interests , the size of the park was reduced in 1911 to 4 @,@ 663 km2 ( 1 @,@ 800 sq mi ) , eliminating many eastern foothills areas from the park . Park boundaries changed several more times up until 1930 , when the area of Banff was fixed at 6 @,@ 697 km2 ( 2 @,@ 586 sq mi ) , with the passage of the National Parks Act . The Act , which took effect May 30 , 1930 , also renamed the park Banff National Park , named for the Canadian Pacific Railway station , which in turn was named after the Banffshire region in Scotland . With the construction of a new east gate in 1933 , Alberta transferred 0 @.@ 84 km2 ( 0 @.@ 32 sq mi ) to the park . This , along with other minor changes in the park boundaries in 1949 , set the area of the park at 6 @,@ 641 km2 ( 2 @,@ 564 sq mi ) .
= = = Coal mining = = =
In 1887 , local aboriginal tribes signed Treaty 7 , which gave Canada rights to explore the land for resources . At the beginning of the 20th century , coal was mined near Lake Minnewanka in Banff . For a brief period , a mine operated at Anthracite but was shut down in 1904 . The Bankhead mine , at Cascade Mountain , was operated by the Canadian Pacific Railway from 1903 to 1922 . In 1926 , the town was dismantled , with many buildings moved to the town of Banff and elsewhere .
= = = Internment camps = = =
During World War I , immigrants from Austria , Hungary , Germany and Ukraine were sent to Banff to work in internment camps . The main camp was located at Castle Mountain , and was moved to Cave and Basin during winter . Much early infrastructure and road construction was done by men of various Slavic origins although Ukrainians constituted a majority of those held in Banff . Historical plaques and a statue erected by the Ukrainian Canadian Civil Liberties Association commemorate those interned at Castle Mountain , and at Cave and Basin National Historic Site where an interpretive pavilion dealing with Canada 's first national internment operations opened in September 2013 .
In 1931 , the Government of Canada enacted the Unemployment and Farm Relief Act which provided public works projects in the national parks during the Great Depression . In Banff , workers constructed a new bathhouse and pool at Upper Hot Springs , to supplement Cave and Basin . Other projects involved road building in the park , tasks around the Banff townsite and construction of a highway connecting Banff and Jasper . In 1934 , the Public Works Construction Act was passed , providing continued funding for the public works projects . New projects included construction of a new registration facility at Banff 's east gate and construction of an administrative building in Banff . By 1940 , the Icefields Parkway reached the Columbia Icefield area of Banff and connected Banff and Jasper . Most of the infrastructure present in the national park dates from public work projects enacted during the Great Depression .
Internment camps were once again set up in Banff during World War II , with camps located at Lake Louise , Stoney Creek , and Healy Creek . Prison camps were largely composed of Mennonites from Saskatchewan .
= = = Winter tourism = = =
Winter tourism in Banff began in February 1917 , with the first Banff Winter Carnival . It was marketed to a regional middle class audience , and became the centerpiece of local boosters aiming to attract visitors , which in wintertime were a low priority for the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) . The carnival featured a large ice palace , which in 1917 was built by World War I internees . Carnival events included cross @-@ country skiing , ski jumping , curling , snowshoe , and skijoring . In the 1930s , the first downhill ski resort , Sunshine Village , was developed by the Brewsters . Mount Norquay ski area was also developed during the 1930s , with the first chair lift installed there in 1948 .
Since 1968 , when the Banff Springs Hotel was winterized , Banff has been a year @-@ round destination . In the 1950s , the Trans @-@ Canada Highway was constructed , providing another transportation corridor through the Bow Valley , making the park more accessible .
Canada launched several bids to host the Winter Olympics in Banff , with the first bid for the 1964 Winter Olympics , which were eventually awarded to Innsbruck , Austria . Canada narrowly lost a second bid , for the 1968 Winter Olympics , which were awarded to Grenoble , France . Once again , Banff launched a bid to host the 1972 Winter Olympics , with plans to hold the Olympics at Lake Louise . The 1972 bid was controversial , as environmental lobby groups strongly opposed the bid , which had sponsorship from Imperial Oil . Bowing to pressure , Jean Chrétien , then the Minister of Environment , the government department responsible for Parks Canada , withdrew support for the bid , which was eventually lost to Sapporo , Japan . When nearby Calgary hosted the 1988 Winter Olympics , the cross @-@ country ski events were held at the Canmore Nordic Centre Provincial Park at Canmore , Alberta , located just outside the eastern gates of Banff National Park on the Trans @-@ Canada Highway .
= = = Conservation = = =
Since the original Rocky Mountains Park Act , subsequent acts and policies placed greater emphasis on conservation . With public sentiment tending towards environmentalism , Parks Canada issued major new policy in 1979 , which emphasized conservation . The National Parks Act was amended in 1988 , which made preserving ecological integrity the first priority in all park management decisions . The act also required each park to produce a management plan , with greater public participation .
In 1984 , Banff was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site , together with the other national and provincial parks that form the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks , for the mountain landscapes containing mountain peaks , glaciers , lakes , waterfalls , canyons and limestone caves as well as fossil beds . With this designation came added obligations for conservation .
During the 1980s , Parks Canada moved to privatize many park services such as golf courses , and added user fees for use of other facilities and services to help deal with budget cuts . In 1990 , the town of Banff was incorporated , giving local residents more say regarding any proposed developments .
In the 1990s , development plans for the park , including expansion at Sunshine Village , were under fire with lawsuits filed by Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society ( CPAWS ) . In the mid @-@ 1990s , the Banff @-@ Bow Valley Study was initiated to find ways to better address environmental concerns , and issues relating to development in the park .
= = Geography = =
Banff National Park is located in the Rocky Mountains on Alberta 's western border with British Columbia in the Alberta Mountain forests ecoregion . By road , the town of Banff is 128 kilometres ( 80 mi ) west of Calgary and 401 km ( 249 mi ) southwest of Edmonton . Jasper National Park borders Banff National Park to the north , while Yoho National Park is to the west and Kootenay National Park is to the south . Kananaskis Country , which includes Bow Valley Wildland Provincial Park , Spray Valley Provincial Park , and Peter Lougheed Provincial Park , is located to the south and east of Banff .
The Trans @-@ Canada Highway passes through Banff National Park , from the eastern boundary near Canmore , through the towns of Banff and Lake Louise , and into Yoho National Park in British Columbia . The Banff townsite is the main commercial centre in the national park . The village of Lake Louise is located at the junction of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway and the Icefields Parkway , which extends north to the Jasper townsite .
= = = Banff = = =
Banff , established in 1885 , is the main commercial centre in Banff National Park , as well as a centre for cultural activities . Banff is home to several cultural institutions , including the Banff Centre , the Whyte Museum , the Buffalo Nations Luxton Museum , Cave and Basin National Historic Site , and several art galleries . Throughout its history , Banff has hosted many annual events , including Banff Indian Days which began in 1889 , and the Banff Winter Carnival . Since 1976 , The Banff Centre has organized the Banff Mountain Film Festival . In 1990 , Banff incorporated as a town of Alberta , though still subject to the National Parks Act and federal authority in regards to planning and development . In its 2014 census , the town of Banff had a permanent population of 8 @,@ 421 as well as 965 non @-@ permanent residents for a total population of 9 @,@ 386 . The Bow River flows through the town of Banff , with the Bow Falls located on the outskirts of town .
= = = Lake Louise = = =
Lake Louise , a hamlet located 54 km ( 34 mi ) northwest of the town of Banff , is home to the landmark Chateau Lake Louise at the edge of Lake Louise . Located 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from Lake Louise , Moraine Lake provides a scenic vista of the Valley of the Ten Peaks . This scene was pictured on the back of the $ 20 Canadian banknote , in the 1969 – 1979 ( " Scenes of Canada " ) series . The Lake Louise Mountain Resort is also located near the village . Lake Louise is one of the most visited lakes in the world and is framed to the south @-@ west by the Mount Victoria Glacier .
= = = Icefields Parkway = = =
The Icefields Parkway is a 230 kilometres ( 140 mi ) , long road connecting Lake Louise to Jasper , Alberta . The Parkway originates at Lake Louise , and extends north up the Bow Valley , past Hector Lake , which is the largest natural lake in the park . Other scenic lakes near the parkway include Bow Lake , and Peyto Lakes , both north of Hector Lake . The Parkway then crosses Bow Summit ( 2 @,@ 088 m ( 6 @,@ 850 ft ) ) , and follows the Mistaya River to Saskatchewan Crossing , where it converges with the Howse and North Saskatchewan River . Bow Summit is the highest elevation crossed by a public road in Canada .
The North Saskatchewan River flows east from Saskatchewan Crossing , out of Banff , into what is known as David Thompson Country , and onto Edmonton . The David Thompson Highway follows the North Saskatchewan River , past the man @-@ made Abraham Lake , and through David Thompson Country . At Saskatchewan Crossing , basic services are available , including gasoline , cafeteria , gift shop , and small motel .
North of Saskatchewan Crossing , the Icefields Parkway follows the North Saskatchewan River up to the Columbia Icefield . The Parkway crosses into Jasper National Park at Sunwapta Pass at 2 @,@ 035 metres ( 6 @,@ 677 ft ) in elevation , and continues on from there to the Jasper townsite .
= = Geology = =
The Canadian Rockies consist of several northwest @-@ southeast trending ranges . Two main mountain ranges are within the park , each consisting of numerous subranges . The western border of the park follows the crest of the Main Ranges ( also known as the Park Ranges ) , which is also the continental divide . The Main Ranges in Banff National Park include from north to south , the Waputik , Bow and Blue Ranges . The high peaks west of Lake Louise are part of the Bow Range . The eastern border of the park includes all of the Front Ranges consisting of from north to south , the Palliser , Sawback and Sundance Ranges . The Banff townsite is located in the Front Ranges . Just outside of the park to the east lie the foothills that extend from Canmore at the eastern entrance of the park eastward into the Great Plains . Well west of the park , the Western Ranges of the Rockies pass through Yoho and Kootenay National Parks . Though the tallest peak entirely within the park is Mount Forbes at 3 @,@ 612 metres ( 11 @,@ 850 ft ) , Mount Assiniboine on the Banff @-@ Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park border is slightly higher at 3 @,@ 618 m ( 11 @,@ 870 ft ) .
The Canadian Rockies are composed of sedimentary rock , including shale , sandstone , dolomite and limestone . The vast majority of geologic formations in Banff range in age from Precambrian to the Jurassic periods ( 600 – 145 m.y.a. ) . However , rocks as young as the lower Cretaceous ( 145 – 66 m.y.a. ) can be found near the east entrance and on Cascade Mountain above the Banff townsite . These sedimentary rocks were laid down in shallow seas between 600 and 175 m.y.a. and were pushed east and over top younger rocks during the Laramide orogeny . Mountain building in Banff National Park ended approximately 55 m.y.a.
The Canadian Rockies may have towered up to 8 @,@ 000 metres ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) approximately 70 m.y.a. Once mountain formation ceased , erosion from water and greatly augmented later from glacier ice beginning with the Quaternary glaciation 2 @.@ 5 m.y.a. carved the mountains into their present shapes . Glacial landforms dominate Banff 's geomorphology , with examples of all classic glacial forms , including cirques , arêtes , hanging valleys , moraines , and U @-@ shaped valleys . The pre @-@ existing structure left over from mountain @-@ building strongly guided glacial erosion : mountains in Banff include complex , irregular , anticlinal , synclinal , castellate , dogtooth , and sawback mountains . Many of the mountain ranges trend northwest to southeast , with sedimentary layering dipping down to the west at 40 – 60 degrees . This leads to dip slope landforms , with generally steeper east and north faces , and trellis drainage , where rivers and old glacial valleys followed the weaker layers in the rocks as they were relatively easily weathered and eroded .
Classic examples are found at the Banff townsite proper : Mount Rundle is a classic dip slope mountain . Just to the north of the Banff townsite , Castle Mountain is composed of numerous Cambrian age rock formations . The uppermost section of the peak consists of relatively harder dolomite from the Eldon Formation . Below that lies the less dense shales of the Stephen Formation and the lowest exposed cliffs are limestones of the Cathedral Formation . Dogtooth mountains , such as Mount Louis , exhibit sharp , jagged slopes . The Sawback Range , which consists of nearly vertical dipping sedimentary layers , has been eroded by cross gullies . The erosion of these almost vertical layers of rock strata in the Sawback Range has resulted in formations that appear like the teeth on a saw blade . Erosion and deposition of higher elevation rock layers has resulted in scree deposits at the lowest elevations of many of the mountains .
= = = Glaciers and icefields = = =
Banff National Park has numerous large glaciers and icefields , 100 of which can be observed from the Icefields Parkway . Small cirque glaciers are fairly common in the Main Ranges , situated in depressions on the side of many mountains . As with the majority of mountain glaciers around the world , the glaciers in Banff are retreating . While Peyto Glacier is one of the longest continuously studied glaciers in the world , with research extending back to the 1970s , most of the glaciers of the Canadian Rockies have only been scientifically evaluated since the late 1990s . Glaciologists are now researching the glaciers in the park more thoroughly , and have been analyzing the impact that reduced glacier ice may have on water supplies to streams and rivers . Estimates are that 150 glaciers disappeared in the Canadian Rockies ( areas both inside and outside Banff National Park ) between the years 1920 and 1985 . Another 150 glaciers disappeared between 1985 and 2005 , indicating that the retreat and disappearance of glaciers is accelerating . In Banff National Park alone , in 1985 there were 365 glaciers but by 2005 , 29 glaciers had disappeared . The total glaciated area dropped from 625 to 500 square kilometres ( 241 to 193 sq mi ) in that time period .
The largest glaciated areas include the Waputik and Wapta Icefields , which both lie on the Banff @-@ Yoho National Park border . Wapta Icefield covers approximately 80 km2 ( 31 sq mi ) in area . Outlets of Wapta Icefield on the Banff side of the continental divide include Peyto , Bow , and Vulture Glaciers . Bow Glacier retreated an estimated 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) between the years 1850 and 1953 , and since that period , there has been further retreat which has left a newly formed lake at the terminal moraine . Peyto Glacier has lost 70 percent of its volume since record keeping began and has retreated approximately 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) since 1880 ; the glacier is at risk of disappearing entirely within the next 30 to 40 years .
The Columbia Icefield , at the northern end of Banff , straddles the Banff and Jasper National Park border and extends into British Columbia . Snow Dome , in the Columbia Icefield is a hydrological apex of North America , with water flowing via outlet glaciers to the Atlantic , Pacific and Arctic Oceans . Saskatchewan Glacier , which is approximately 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) in length and 30 km2 ( 12 sq mi ) in area , is the major outlet of the Columbia Icefield that flows into Banff National Park . Between the years 1893 and 1953 , Saskatchewan Glacier had retreated a distance of 1 @,@ 364 m ( 4 @,@ 475 ft ) , with the rate of retreat between the years 1948 and 1953 averaging 55 m ( 180 ft ) per year . Overall , the glaciers of the Canadian Rockies lost 25 percent of their mass during the 20th century .
= = Climate = =
Under the Köppen climate classification , the park has a subarctic climate ( Dfc ) with cold , snowy winters , and mild summers . The climate is influenced by altitude with lower temperatures generally found at higher elevations . Located on the eastern side of the Continental Divide , Banff National Park receives 472 millimetres ( 18 @.@ 6 in ) of precipitation annually . This is considerably less than in Yoho National Park on the western side of the divide in British Columbia , where 884 mm ( 34 @.@ 8 in ) is received at Wapta Lake and 616 mm ( 24 @.@ 3 in ) at Boulder Creek annually . Being influenced by altitude , snowfall is also greater at higher elevations . As such , 234 cm ( 92 in ) of snow falls on average each year in the Banff townsite , while 304 cm ( 120 in ) falls in Lake Louise , which is located at a higher altitude .
During winter months , temperatures in Banff are moderated , compared to other areas of central and northern Alberta , due to Chinook winds and other influences from British Columbia . The mean low temperature during January is − 15 ° C ( 5 ° F ) , and the mean high temperature is − 5 ° C ( 23 ° F ) for the town of Banff . However , temperatures can drop below − 20 ° C ( − 4 @.@ 0 ° F ) with wind chill values dropping below − 30 ° C ( − 22 @.@ 0 ° F ) . Weather conditions during summer months are warm , with high temperatures during July averaging 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) , and daily low temperatures averaging 7 ° C ( 45 ° F ) , leading to a large diurnal range owing to the relative dryness of the air .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Ecoregions = = =
Banff National Park spans three ecoregions , including montane , subalpine , and alpine . The subalpine ecoregion , which consists mainly of dense forest , comprises 53 percent of Banff 's area . 27 percent of the park is located above the tree line , in the alpine ecoregion . The tree line in Banff lies approximately at 2 @,@ 300 m ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) , with open meadows at alpine regions and some areas covered by glaciers . A small portion ( 3 percent ) of the park , located at lower elevations , is in the montane ecoregion . Lodgepole pine forests dominate the montane region of Banff , with Engelmann spruce , willow , aspen , occasional Douglas @-@ fir and a few Douglas maple interspersed . Engelmann spruce are more common in the subalpine regions of Banff , with some areas of lodgepole pine , and subalpine fir . The montane areas in the Bow Valley , which tend to be the preferred habitat for wildlife , have been subjected to significant human development over the years .
= = = Wildlife = = =
The park has 56 recorded mammal species . Grizzly and black bear inhabit the forested regions . Cougar , Canada lynx , wolverine , red fox , weasel , river otter , coyote , and timber wolf are the primary predatory mammals . Elk , mule deer , and white @-@ tailed deer are common in the valleys of the park , including around ( and sometimes in ) the Banff townsite , while moose tend to be more elusive , sticking primarily to wetland areas and near streams . In the alpine regions , mountain goat , bighorn sheep , marmot and pika are widespread . Other mammals such as beaver , porcupine , squirrel , chipmunk , snowshoe hare , and Columbian ground squirrel are the more commonly observed smaller mammals.Caribou were the rarest large mammals in the park , but an avalanche in 2009 may have killed the last five remaining within park boundaries .
Due to the harsh winters , the park has few reptile and amphibian species with only one species of toad , three species of frog , one salamander species and two species of snakes that have been identified . At least 280 species of birds can be found in Banff including bald and golden eagles , red @-@ tailed hawk , osprey , and merlin , all of which are predatory species . Additionally , commonly seen species such as the gray jay , American three @-@ toed woodpecker , mountain bluebird , Clark 's nutcracker , mountain chickadee and pipit are frequently found in the lower elevations . The white @-@ tailed ptarmigan is a ground bird that is often seen in the alpine zones . Rivers and lakes are frequented by over a hundred different species including loon , heron and mallard which spend their summers in the park .
Endangered species in Banff include the Banff Springs snail ( Physella johnsoni ) which is found in the hot springs of Banff . Woodland caribou , found in Banff , are listed as a threatened species .
= = = Mountain pine beetles = = =
Mountain pine beetles have caused a number of large @-@ scale infestations in Banff National Park , feeding on the phloem of mature lodgepole pines . Alberta 's first known outbreak occurred in 1940 , infecting 43 km2 ( 17 sq mi ) of forest in Banff . A second major outbreak occurred in the late 1970s and early 1980s in Banff and the surrounding Rocky Mountains region .
= = Tourism = =
Banff National Park is the most visited Alberta tourist destination and one of the most visited national parks in North America , with more than three million tourists annually . During summer , 51 percent of park visitors are from Canada ( 30 percent from Alberta ) , while 31 percent are from the United States and 14 percent from Europe . Tourism in Banff contributes an estimated C $ 6 billion annually to the economy .
A park pass is required for stopping in the park and permit checks are common during the summer months , especially at Lake Louise and the start of the Icefields Parkway . A permit is not required if travelling straight through the park without stopping . Approximately 5 million people pass through Banff annually on the Trans @-@ Canada Highway without stopping .
Attractions in Banff include Upper Hot Springs , and a 27 @-@ hole golf course at Fairmont Banff Springs Hotel , and three ski resorts including Sunshine Village , Lake Louise Mountain Resort , and Mount Norquay ski resort . The Banff Lodging Co is a hospitality company in the park . Day hikes , such as the Cory Pass Loop , are popular with visitors . Other activities include alpine and Nordic skiing , and horseback riding .
Backcountry activities in Banff include hiking , camping , climbing , and skiing . Parks Canada requires those using backcountry campgrounds , Alpine Club of Canada huts , or other backcountry facilities to purchase a wilderness pass . Reservations for using the campgrounds are also required .
In 2009 , Banff Lake Louise Tourism hoped the appearance of the " Crasher Squirrel " internet meme would stimulate interest in the park . The meme is based a photograph of a Minnesotan couple visiting the park on the shore of Lake Minnewanka that was " crashed " by a Columbian ground squirrel ; the photograph was published in major news sources around the world and the image of the squirrel was digitally manipulated into humorous photos .
= = General management = =
Banff National Park is managed by Parks Canada , under the National Parks Act which was passed in 1930 . Over time , park management policies have increasingly emphasized environmental protection over development . In 1964 , a policy statement was issued that reiterated ideals of conservation laid out in the 1930 act . With the controversial bid for the 1972 Winter Olympics , environmental groups became more influential , leading Parks Canada to withdraw its support for the bid . The 1979 Beaver Book was a major new policy , which emphasized conservation . In 1988 , the National Parks Act was amended , making the maintenance of ecological integrity the top priority . The amendment also paved the way for non @-@ governmental organizations to challenge Parks Canada in court , for breaches in adhering to the act . In 1994 , Parks Canada established revised " Guiding Principles and Operating Policies " , which included a mandate for the Banff @-@ Bow Valley Study to draft management recommendations . As with other national parks , Banff is required to have a Park Management Plan . On a provincial level , the park area and the included communities ( other than the town of Banff which is an incorporated municipality ) are administered by Alberta Municipal Affairs as Improvement District No. 9 ( Banff ) .
= = Wildlife management = =
= = = Previous management = = =
The park was originally considered as a recreational area for visitors offering multiple leisure activities – the original wildlife policy viewed wildlife in Banff only as game or pests up until the 1960s and 1970s . As ecological awareness increased , management procedures expanded with the inclusion of public participation in many management decisions . Simultaneously , the increase in human construction ( such as new highways ) on the natural landscape increased the frequency of human – animal conflicts . In 1988 wildlife began to be considered an integral part of the ecosystem .
The park now has a number of wildlife management strategies that aim to conserve certain species . Parks Canada uses an ecosystem based management approach that aims to preserve the ecology of the park while still providing for visitors . Management decisions are based on modern scientific ecological information as well as traditional knowledge .
= = = Large species management = = =
Elk are a very important species in Banff National Park , partly because they represent a source of food for declining wolves . However they also have harsh impacts on the environment . Large elk populations cause vegetation degradation , human – animal conflicts and destabilization of biological interactions . In 1999 , the implementation of the Banff National Park Elk Management Strategy by Parks Canada and the Elk Advisory Committee aimed to monitor and control the population to decrease conflicts and aid ecological process recovery .
Elk handling facilities are areas of pens with loading and unloading ramps where water and food are provided to the elk . They were created to help reduce herd numbers by increasing wariness and encouraging migratory behaviour , deterring the elk from the town of Banff . These measures allowed more predator – prey interactions thanks to the creation of corridors . It also increased elk migration , restored the willow and aspen communities and highlighted the primary role of wolves in elk population management .
The state of grizzly bear populations in Banff is seen as a proxy for ecological integrity . To keep bears away from humans , an electric fence was put up around the summer gondola and parking lot at Lake Louise in 2001 . Bear @-@ proof garbage cans , which do not allow bears to access their contents , help to deter them from human sites . The fruit of Buffaloberry bushes is eaten by bears , so the bushes have been removed in some areas where the risk of a bear – human encounter is high .
Aversive conditioning deters bears by modifying their behaviour . Deterrents such as noise makers and rubber bullets are used each time the bear performs an undesirable action . Advice is also given to people to avoid an eventual habituation of bears to human presence . If this conditioning is continual the bear will be less likely to continue the undesirable behaviour ( crossing into campsites and roads etc . ) .
Southern mountain caribou management previously aimed to identify what was threatening caribou populations and find solutions to mitigate the threats , but the last caribou in the park was found dead in an avalanche in 2009 . There was concern over why more had not been done to save the caribou population . The primary reason for their decline is thought to have been habitat loss and altered predator – prey dynamics . Park management began monitoring the last five caribou in the park in 2002 and taking actions such as reducing impacts of humans , conducting studies of the population , and investigating the possibility of translocating caribou to increase the Banff population .
In the mid @-@ 1980s gray wolves recolonized the Bow Valley in Banff National Park . They had been absent for 30 years due to systematic predator control hunting which began in 1850 . Wolves filtered back to Banff and recolonized one zone of the Bow Valley in 1985 and another in 1991 . A high level of human use surrounding a third zone at Banff townsite has deterred the wolves from that area . The wolves are important in controlling elk populations and improve the balance of the ecosystem . A routine park study to monitor the wolves in Banff has now grown into the Southern Rockies Canine Project – the largest wolf research project in North America . The estimated wolf population in Banff National Park and the surrounding areas is now 60 – 70 animals .
= = = Strategies = = =
Wildlife crossings have been successful in Banff National Park at reducing the number of animals killed on the roads . There is also 82 km of fencing at the edge of the highway in the park to prevent animals from getting onto the roads . Since it was put up , this has reduced collisions between wildlife and vehicles by over 80 per cent .
Train tracks still pose challenges to conservationists . Many bears have been killed by trains , often because they are attracted to grain spills along the tracks . Transportation corridors provide openings for plants which are also utilised by bears . A partnership between Parks Canada and Canadian Pacific Railway allowed the creation of the first Railway @-@ Bear Conflict Mitigation Symposium in 2010 . Initiatives included building wooden pegboards to fence off the sides of tracks and chemically treating grains to deter the bears . After a complete review of the research projects , the development of some of them has been authorized , including grain alteration and the use of cameras to study the behavioural response of bears to trains .
Electromats , that give a small electric shock to animals that step on them , are also being used and one has been put near the Trans @-@ Canada Highway on a section of Highway 93 North . ( They have no effect on vehicles . ) Their purpose is to deter animals from roads to prevent them being hit by vehicles . A trial installment of electromats in Banff is designed to see how effective they are at keeping animals like bears from gaining access to the fenced Trans @-@ Canada Highway from human overpasses and road junctions .
General prohibitions implemented to ensure wildlife respect include the prohibition of feeding , touching , or holding animals in captivity , and the disturbance or destruction of bird nests .
= = Human impact = =
= = = Environment = = =
Since the 19th century , humans have impacted Banff 's environment through introduction of non @-@ native species , controls on other species , and development in the Bow Valley , among other human activities . Bison once lived in the valleys of Banff , but were hunted by indigenous people and the last bison was killed off in 1858 . Elk are not indigenous to Banff , and were introduced in 1917 with 57 elk brought in from Yellowstone National Park . The introduction of elk to Banff , combined with controls on coyote and wolves by Parks Canada beginning in the 1930s , has caused imbalance of the ecosystem . Other species that have been displaced from the Bow Valley include grizzly bears , cougars , lynx , wolverine , otter , and moose . Beginning in 1985 , gray wolves were recolonizing areas in the Bow Valley . However , the wolf population has struggled , with 32 wolf deaths along the Trans @-@ Canada Highway between 1987 and 2000 , leaving only 31 wolves in the area .
The population of bull trout and other native species of fish in Banff 's lakes has also dwindled , with the introduction of non @-@ native species including brook trout , and rainbow trout . Lake trout , westslope cutthroat trout , and Chiselmouth are rare native species , while chinook salmon , White sturgeon , Pacific lamprey , and Banff longnose dace are likely extirpated locally . The Banff longnose dace , once only found in Banff , is now an extinct species .
The Trans @-@ Canada Highway , passing through Banff , has been problematic , posing hazards for wildlife due to vehicle traffic and as an impediment to wildlife migration . Grizzly bears are among the species impacted by the highway , which together with other developments in Banff , has caused fragmentation of the landscape . Grizzly bears prefer the montane habitat , which has been most impacted by development . Wildlife crossings , including a series of underpasses , and six wildlife overpasses , have been constructed at a number of points along the Trans @-@ Canada Highway to help alleviate this problem .
= = = Fire management = = =
Parks Canada management practices , notably fire suppression , since Banff National Park was established have impacted the park 's ecosystem . Since 1983 , Parks Canada has adopted a strategy that employed prescribed burns , which helps to mimic effects of natural fires .
= = = Transportation = = =
Banff National Park is bisected by two highways that cross the Alberta / British Columbia border while another provides a third access within Alberta . The Trans @-@ Canada Highway ( Highway 1 ) bisects the park in an east @-@ west direction , connecting it to Vancouver to the west and Calgary to the east . Highway 93 bisects the park in a north @-@ south direction , connecting it to Cranbrook to the south and Jasper to the north . The portion of Highway 93 north of Lake Louise is known as the Icefields Parkway whereas the portion southwest of Castle Junction is known as the Banff @-@ Windermere Parkway . Highway 11 ( the David Thompson Highway ) connects the Icefields Parkway at Saskatchewan River Crossing to Rocky Mountain House to the northeast . Within the park , Highway 1A , also known as the Bow Valley Parkway , loosely parallels Highway 1 between Banff and Lake Louise .
Other transportation facilities within Banff National Park include a Canadian Pacific rail line that generally parallels Highway 1 and an airport known as the Banff Park Compound Heliport .
= = = Development = = =
In 1978 , expansion of Sunshine Village ski resort was approved , with added parking , hotel expansion , and development of Goat 's Eye Mountain . Implementation of this development proposal was delayed through the 1980s , while environmental assessments were conducted . In 1989 , Sunshine Village withdrew its development proposal , in light of government reservations , and submitted a revised proposal in 1992 . This plan was approved by the government , pending environmental review . Subsequently , Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society ( CPAWS ) filed a court injunction , which halted the development . CPAWS also put pressure on UNESCO to revoke Banff 's World Heritage Site status , over concerns that developments were harming the park 's ecological health .
= = = Banff @-@ Bow Valley Study = = =
While the National Parks Act and the 1988 amendment emphasize ecological integrity , in practice Banff has suffered from inconsistent application of the policies . In 1994 , the Banff @-@ Bow Valley Study was mandated by Sheila Copps , the minister responsible for Parks Canada , to provide recommendations on how to better manage human use and development , and maintain ecological integrity . While the two @-@ year Banff @-@ Bow Valley Study was underway , development projects were halted , including the expansion of Sunshine Village , and the twinning of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway between Castle Junction and Sunshine .
The panel issued over 500 recommendations , including limiting the growth of the Banff townsite , capping the town 's population at 10 @,@ 000 , placing quotas for popular hiking trails , and curtailing development in the park . Another recommendation was to fence off the townsite to reduce confrontations between people and elk . The proposed fencing was also intended to reduce access to this refuge for elk from predators , such as wolves that tended to avoid the townsite . Upon release of the report , Copps immediately moved to accept the proposal to cap the town population . She also ordered a small airstrip to be removed , along with a buffalo paddock , and cadet camp , that inhibited wildlife movement .
In response to concerns and recommendations raised by the Banff @-@ Bow Valley Study , a number of development plans were curtailed in the 1990s . Plans to add nine holes at the Banff Springs Golf Resort were withdrawn in 1996 .
= = = Canmore = = =
With the cap on growth in the town of Banff , Canmore , located just outside the Banff boundary , has been growing rapidly to serve increasing demands of tourists . Major development proposals for Canmore have included the Three Sisters Golf Resorts , proposed in 1992 , which has been the subject of contentious debate , with environmental groups arguing that the development would fragment important wildlife corridors in the Bow Valley .
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= Hemmema =
A hemmema ( from Finnish " Hämeenmaa " , Tavastia ) was a type of warship built for the Swedish archipelago fleet and the Russian Baltic navy in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . The hemmema was initially developed for use against the Russian Navy in the Archipelago Sea and along the coasts of Svealand and Finland . It was designed by the prolific and innovative Swedish naval architect Fredrik Henrik af Chapman ( 1721 – 1808 ) in collaboration with Augustin Ehrensvärd ( 1710 – 1772 ) , an artillery officer and later commander of the Swedish archipelago fleet . The hemmema was a specialized vessel for use in the shallow waters and narrow passages that surround the thousands of islands and islets extending from the Swedish capital of Stockholm into the Gulf of Finland .
The hemmema replaced the galleys that had made up the core of the Swedish archipelago fleets until the mid @-@ 18th century . Compared to galleys , the hemmema had a deeper draft and was slower under oars , but offered superior accommodation for the crew , carried more stores , was more seaworthy and had roughly ten times as many heavy guns . It could be propelled by either sails or oars but was still smaller and more maneuverable than most sailing warships , which made it suitable for operations in confined waters .
Between 1764 and 1809 , Sweden built six hemmemas . The hemmema became the largest and most heavily armed vessel in the archipelago fleet and served in the Russo @-@ Swedish War of 1788 – 90 . Oden , the first hemmema , was relatively small and very similar to a turuma , a different type of " archipelago frigate " . Russia built six hemmemas based on the Swedish design between 1808 and 1823 after capturing three of the Swedish vessels at the surrender of Sveaborg in 1808 . The later versions , both Swedish and Russian , were much larger and much more heavily armed than Oden .
= = Background = =
Russian Tsar Peter the Great had established a new capital and powerful naval base in Saint Petersburg in 1703 . Russian naval power in the Baltic grew to challenge the interests of Sweden , the other leading power in the Baltic . Swedish holdings at that time included territory in Northern Germany , all of modern Finland and most of the Baltic states , a dominion depending on , and connected by , the Baltic Sea trade routes . During the Great Northern War ( 1700 – 1721 ) , Sweden lost all its territories in the Baltic states and suffered Russian raids in Finland and along the chain of islands and archipelagos stretching from the Gulf of Finland to Stockholm . The Swedes began to deploy inshore flotillas of shallow @-@ draft vessels , beginning with smaller versions of the traditional Mediterranean galleys . Most of these new vessels were more akin to galiots and were complemented with gun prams . The disastrous war with Russia ( 1741 – 43 ) and the minor involvement against Prussia in the Seven Years ' War ( 1757 – 62 ) showed the need for further expansion and development of the inshore flotillas with more specialized vessels .
Galleys were effective as troop transports for amphibious operations , but were severely under @-@ gunned , especially in relation to their large crews ; a galley with a 250 @-@ man crew , most of whom were rowers , would typically carry only one 24 @-@ pounder cannon and two 6 @-@ pounders , all in the bow . The galleys also lacked decks and adequate shelter for the rower @-@ soldiers , many of whom succumbed to illness as a result of exposure during the war of 1741 – 43 .
= = = Archipelago fleet = = =
After the Russian victory against Sweden in 1743 , the Swedes established a commission to identify weaknesses in the eastern defenses . In 1747 , the commission concluded that the fortifications in southeastern Finland needed to be improved and expanded , and that Sweden needed to build a strong coastal navy . Augustin Ehrensvärd ( 1710 – 72 ) , an artillery officer , was the driving force behind these changes . The committee based many of its conclusions and decisions on his ideas . In 1756 , Sweden established the archipelago fleet with the official name arméns flotta ( " fleet of the army " ) under the command of the army department , Krigskollegium , with Ehrensvärd as supreme commander . For two decades , the struggle for power between the Hats and the Caps , the dominant political factions at the time , and rivalries between army and navy brought about changes to the archipelago fleet . The parliamentary victory of the Hats in the Riksdag in 1769 – 70 and the coup d 'ètat by King Gustav III in 1772 secured the archipelago fleet 's status as an independent branch of the army . Starting in 1770 , the archipelago fleet merged with the Finnish Squadron ( Finska eskadern ) based at Sveaborg . In 1777 , it incorporated the Swedish Squadron ( Svenska eskadern ) , the galley fleet based at Stockholm . The Swedish armed forces invested considerable resources in the new army branch and made it a professional , independent organization . The archipelago fleet attracted members of the social and cultural elite who enjoyed the protection and patronage of King Gustav III , who had established himself as an absolute monarch in the 1772 coup .
After the poor performance of galleys in Russo – Swedish war of 1741 – 43 and the Pomeranian War ( 1757 – 62 ) , development of replacements became prioritized . During the Pomeranian War , trials had been made with " gun prams " ( skottpråmar ) , heavily armed , oar @-@ driven , flat @-@ bottomed barges with a shallow draft that carried guns in broadside arrangements . The prams carried more guns than the galleys , but proved far too slow to be effective . Augustin Ehrensvärd argued for new archipelago vessels that combined firepower , maneuverability , seaworthiness , and decent crew accommodations . He began a successful collaboration with shipwright Fredrik Henrik Chapman ( ennobled " af Chapman " in 1772 ) , and together they developed five new vessels : a gunboat with a 12 @-@ pounder gun and a schooner rigging , as well as four types of " archipelago frigates " ( skärgårdsfregatter ) : the smaller udema and pojama , and the larger turuma and hemmema . All four types have been called skärgårdsfregatter ( archipelago frigates ) in Swedish and English historical literature , though some authors have called the udema and pojama " archipelago corvettes " . Chapman specifically designed the archipelago frigates for service off the south coast of Finland and named them after the Finnish provinces of Uusimaa , Pohjanmaa ( Österbotten ) , Turunmaa ( Åboland ) , and Hämeenmaa ( Tavastia ) .
= = Development = =
The concept of small sailing frigates with a complementary set of oars ( or " sweeps " ) was not new . The English Tudor navy had used small " galleasses " in the mid @-@ 16th century . In the 1660s its successor , the Royal Navy , equipped the equivalent of sixth @-@ rates with oar ports on or below the gundeck . During the 18th century the Russian Navy introduced " shebecks " , Baltic variants on the Mediterranean xebecs , for inshore duties . The xebecs were good sailers , could be rowed if necessary and had more guns and greater stores than galleys ; they were also less expensive to maintain . The Russian designs influenced Chapman and the Swedish naval commanders . Consequently , Chapman 's designs for new ships were elaborations on those principles , but with adaptations to archipelago warfare .
Chapman 's archipelago frigates provided better protection for their crew than the galleys they replaced , and up to three times the capacity for stores and provisions . They could operate in the narrow , shallow waters around skerries in all weathers and in open water in all but the worst storms . They had a deeper draft than galleys , but considerably shallower draft than traditional sailing warships . The new ship types also increased the archipelago fleet 's firepower , provided it with better defensive capabilities , and made possible more efficient fire support in amphibious operations .
= = Design and construction = =
Of the new designs , turumas and hemmemas best fit the description of " archipelago frigate " because of their similarities to small ocean @-@ going frigates . The first hemmema , the Oden , was completed in 1764 . It was c . 33 m ( 108 @.@ 2 ft ) long and 8 @.@ 2 m ( 26 @.@ 8 ft ) wide with a draft of 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 @.@ 25 ft ) . It had a low hull with no forecastle , only a low quarterdeck , and no poop deck . It had three masts that were initially rigged with lateen sails , like a galley . The navy later replaced the lateen rigs with a more conventional square @-@ sail frigate rig . The early design provided for 14 pairs of oars with four men per oar . The rowers plied their oars from the gun deck through oar ports positioned between the gunports , close to the waterline , which gave the rowers better leverage . The oars were also placed on a rectangular outrigger , designed to further improve the leverage . Even so , hemmemas performed poorly when rowed and were difficult in contrary winds . They were slower than ordinary sailing ships , but sailed better than galleys .
During the Russian war of 1788 – 1790 , Sweden built three hemmemas of a new design . They were considerably larger , 44 @.@ 5 by 11 m ( 146 by 36 ft ) , and the number of oars were increased to 20 pairs . They also had some of the heaviest broadsides , even when compared with the much larger frigates of the high seas navy . The artillery officer Carl Fredrik Aschling had cooperated with Chapman to increase the main armament to twenty @-@ two 36 @-@ pounders and two 12 @-@ pounders , which increased the draft by about 30 cm ( 1 ft ) . The addition of diagonal bracers to reinforce the hull allowed the later hemmemas to carry guns more powerful even than those on the largest sailing frigates of the high seas navy . Due to their considerable firepower and relative size , naval historian Jan Glete has described the hemmemas as " super archipelago frigates " .
The hemmema 's design was very similar to that of the turuma . The primary difference was that the turuma 's oarsmen sat on the weather deck above the guns , whereas the hemmema 's oarsmen sat on the gundeck . The later hemmemas were considerably larger , more heavily armed , and of a more robust construction . Glete has described them as variations on the same type , especially when considering the pre @-@ war designs .
= = Service = =
Hemmemas served in the Finnish squadrons during the war of 1788 – 1790 . They supported amphibious operations and conducted raids on the Russian archipelago fleet , while at the same time acting as sea @-@ borne flank support for the Swedish army on the Finnish mainland . Hemmemas fought in the first and second battles of Svensksund . During the first battle in 1789 , one hemmema complemented the similar turumas , and in the second battle in July 1790 , two hemmemas made up the defensive center and provided a considerable percentage of the firepower .
The Swedes were building three additional hemmemas at the shipyards within the fortress of Sveaborg when it was surrendered to the Russians in 1808 , and all three were incorporated in the Russian Navy . Shortly afterward , the Russian Navy built its own 32 @-@ gun versions , with the final vessel launched as late as 1823 . Two more were built in Sweden in 1809 , Birger Jarl and Erik Segersäll . Birger Jarl sank in an accident in 1813 and Erik Segersäll was planned for conversion as a paddlewheel steam battery for coastal defense , though the idea was eventually abandoned and the ship scrapped in 1826 .
Like the other specialized archipelago vessels , the hemmema had specific strengths and weaknesses . Although it had superior firepower relative to galleys , its sailing qualities were somewhat mediocre and while highly manoeuvrable under oars , it was still difficult to propel while rowed . A hemmema had the potential to be an effective weapon against galleys , matching their forward firepower and severely outgunning them with its broadside armament . Inside an enemy galley formation , it could wreak considerable havoc , but such a maneuver was never achieved in an actual battle , leaving that tactical role untested .
= = Ships = =
A total of twelve hemmemas were built , six of them for the Swedish archipelago fleet and six for the Russian Navy . Details of individual vessels are listed below . The Swedish hemmemas were all built to the same specifications , except for the early design Oden , and Birger Jarl and Erik Segersäll carried heavier armament than the others . Tredrea and Sozaev list Oden as a turuma rebuilt as a hemmema in 1784 , though Oscar Nikula and Lars @-@ Otto Berg do not . The Russian vessels were built between 1808 and 1823 and have been described by Tredea and Sozaev as Bodryi @-@ class " rowing frigates " .
Under the Finnish form " Hämeenmaa " , the name of the ship type was later carried on to several vessels of the 20th century Finnish Navy .
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= Hurricane Donna =
Hurricane Donna brought severe damage to the Lesser Antilles , the Greater Antilles , and the East Coast of the United States , especially Florida in August – September 1960 . The fifth tropical cyclone , third hurricane , and first major hurricane of the season , Donna developed south of Cape Verde on August 29 , spawned by a tropical wave to which 63 deaths from a plane crash in Senegal were attributed . The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Donna by the following day . Donna moved west @-@ northwestward at roughly 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) and by September 1 , it reached hurricane status . Significant deepening occurred during the next 30 hours , with Donna being a moderate Category 4 hurricane by late on September 2 . Intensification continued and it briefly became a Category 5 hurricane early on September 4 . Thereafter , it weakened to a Category 4 and brushed the Lesser Antilles later that day . On Sint Maarten , the storm left a quarter of the island homeless and killed seven people . An additional five deaths were reported in Anguilla and there were seven other fatalities throughout the Virgin Islands . In Puerto Rico , severe flash flooding led to 107 fatalities , 85 of them in Humacao alone . Donna further weakened to a Category 3 hurricane late on September 5 , but eventually became a Category 4 hurricane again . While passing through The Bahamas , several small island communities in the central regions of the country were leveled , but no damage total or fatalities were reported .
Early on September 10 , Donna made landfall near Marathon , Florida with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) , hours before another landfall south of Naples at the same intensity . Florida bore the brunt of Hurricane Donna . In the Florida Keys , coastal flooding severely damaged 75 % of buildings , destroyed several subdivisions in Marathon . On the mainland , 5 @,@ 200 houses were impacted , which does not include the 75 % of homes damaged at Fort Myers Beach ; 50 % of buildings were also destroyed in the city of Everglades . Crop losses were also extensive . A total of 50 % of grapefruit crop was lost , 10 % of the orange and tangerine crop was lost , and the avocado crop was almost destroyed . In the state of Florida alone , there were 13 deaths and $ 300 million in losses . Donna weakened over Florida and was a Category 2 hurricane when it re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic from North Florida . By early on September 12 , the storm made landfall near Topsail Beach , North Carolina as a strong Category 2 hurricane . Donna brought tornadoes and wind gusts up to 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) , damaging or destroying several buildings in Eastern North Carolina , while crops were impacted as far as 50 miles ( 80 km ) inland . Additionally , storm surge caused significant beach erosion and structural damage at Wilmington and Nags Head . Eight people were killed and there were over 100 injuries . Later on September 12 , Donna reemerged into the Atlantic Ocean and continued to move northeastward . The storm struck Long Island , New York late on September 12 and rapidly weakened inland . On the following day , Donna became extratropical over Maine .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 29 , a tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa near Dakar . That day , it is estimated a tropical depression developed along the wave southeast of Cape Verde . There was a lack of data for several days , but it is estimated that the system gradually intensified . On September 2 , ships in the region suggested there was a tropical storm after reporting winds of over 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . That day , the Hurricane Hunters flew into the system and observed a well @-@ defined eye , along with winds of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) . Based on the data , the United States Weather Bureau office in San Juan , Puerto Rico initiated advisories on Hurricane Donna at 2200 UTC on September 2 , about 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . It is estimated that the storm attained hurricane status a day prior . The Azores High to the north was unusually powerful , which caused Donna to move to the west @-@ northwest . When advisories began , Donna was a major hurricane , which is the equivalent of a Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale ; it would ultimately maintain this status for nine days .
Continuing to the west @-@ northwest , Donna strengthened further , and on September 4 , the Hurricane Hunters estimated peak maximum sustained winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) ; this made Donna a Category 5 hurricane . After maintaining peak winds for about 12 hours , the hurricane weakened slightly as it approached the Lesser Antilles . Late on September 4 , the eye of Donna moved over Barbuda , Saint Barthélemy , Saint Martin , and Anguilla , and passed just south of Anegada . Despite having weakened , Donna remained well @-@ organized , described in the Monthly Weather Review as akin to " an intense , idealized hurricane . " A weakening trough to the north turned the hurricane more northwesterly , bringing it within 85 mi ( 137 km ) of the north coast of Puerto Rico . By September 7 , Donna had turned more to the west after the ridge built to the north . Over the next few days , the intense hurricane moved slowly through the southern Bahamas without defined steering currents , and the eye passed near or over Mayaguana , Acklins , Fortune Island , and Ragged Island .
While passing through the Straits of Florida , Donna brushed the northern coast of Cuba on September 9 with gale force winds . Subsequently , a cold front moved eastward through the United States and weakened the ridge , causing the hurricane to turn more to the northwest . It re @-@ intensified over warm sea surface temperatures , and the hurricane 's minimum barometric pressure dropped to 932 mbar ( 27 @.@ 5 inHg ) on September 10 . Between 0200 and 0300 UTC that day , the 21 mi ( 34 km ) wide eye of Donna crossed through the Florida Keys just northeast of Marathon , with sustained winds of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) and gusts to 178 mph ( 286 km / h ) . The hurricane continued to the northwest along the southwest coast of Florida , passing over Naples and Fort Myers before turning inland to the northeast . At 0800 UTC on September 11 , Donna exited Daytona Beach into the western Atlantic with winds of about 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , still as an organized hurricane . Accelerating to the northeast due to an approaching trough , the hurricane re @-@ intensified slightly before making landfall near Wilmington , North Carolina , early on September 12 . At 0900 UTC that day , Donna again emerged over open waters near Virginia , although it had weakened and the eye expanded to over 50 mi ( 80 km ) in diameter . Late on September 12 , the hurricane crossed Long Island and later moved through New England . On September 13 , Donna became extratropical over northern Maine before entering eastern Canada , having become associated with the approaching cold front . After moving across Quebec and Labrador , Donna reached the Labrador Sea and dissipated early on September 14 .
= = Preparations = =
At noon on September 3 , a hurricane watch was issued for the Leeward Islands , which at 6 p.m was upgraded to a warning . Also at 6 p.m. , hurricane watches were raised for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands , which at 6 a.m. on September 4 , were upgraded to warnings . By 6 a.m. on September 5 , hurricane warnings were dropped for the Leeward Islands , and at 9 a.m. , southwest Puerto Rico and the Virgin Island 's hurricane warnings were downgraded to gale warnings . By noon , all remaining hurricane warnings for Puerto Rico were changed to gale warnings . In Puerto Rico , flood warnings were issued on September 5 , although some residents in the region did not heed the notice ; many returned to their homes after the hurricane passed to the north . On Vieques Island , about 1 @,@ 700 United States Marines evacuated to naval ships . Officials advised small boats to remain at port , and thousands of residents evacuated to schools set up as Red Cross shelters . Along the Cuban coast , about 3 @,@ 000 people evacuated inland or to churches and schools , while in the Bahamas , stores closed and boats were sent to port .
Beginning on September 7 , hurricane watches were put in place for the Florida coast from Key West to Melbourne . The next day , the watches were upgraded to hurricane warnings from Key West to Key Largo , with hurricane watches raised on the west coast northward to Fort Myers , and gale warnings issued from Key Largo to Vero Beach . By September 11 , hurricane warnings were in effect for southern Florida from Daytona Beach on the east coast to Cedar Key on the west coast , including Lake Okeechobee . Gale warnings were in place northward from Cedar Key to St. Marks , as well as from Daytona Beach northward to Savannah , Georgia . Evacuations in the Florida Keys disrupted traffic along the Overseas Highway . The Air Force evacuated 90 Boeing B @-@ 47 Stratojets from Homestead Air Reserve Base . At Kennedy Space Center , the threat of the storm caused the launching of two missiles to be postponed . Most flights out of Miami International Airport were canceled during the storm 's approach . Officials closed schools in Miami and the Florida Keys , and recommended residents in low @-@ lying areas of the Florida Keys and southwestern Florida to evacuate . Ultimately , about 12 @,@ 000 people in southern Florida sought refuge in storm shelters , two of which were damaged during the storm . In Miami @-@ Dade County alone , there were 77 storm shelters housing 10 @,@ 000 people .
At 5 p.m. on September 10 , gale warnings were extended northward to Myrtle Beach . At 11 p.m. , hurricane warnings were lowered in the Florida Keys but extended northward from Daytona Beach to Savannah , Georgia . At 11 a.m. on September 11 , all warnings were lowered south of Vero Beach and along the Florida west coast , while hurricane warnings were extended northward from Savannah to Myrtle Beach . At 5 p.m. , hurricane warnings were lowered south of Fernandina Beach , while they were extended northward to include the entire North Carolina coast . Gale warnings were issued northward to Cape May . At 9 p.m. , hurricane warnings were extended northward to Portsmouth , New Hampshire , while gale warnings and a hurricane watch were issued northward to Eastport , Maine . Ships at dock in Newport , Rhode Island were towed out into the bay to weather the storm . On September 12 at 5 a.m. , hurricane warnings were extended northward to Eastport , and dropped south of Cape Hatteras . At 7 a.m. , hurricane warnings were lowered south of Cape Charles . At 2 p.m. , hurricane warnings were dropped south of Cape May . At 5 p.m. , hurricane warnings were discontinued south of Manasquan , New Jersey . At 8 p.m. , hurricane warnings expired south of Block Island . By 11 p.m. on September 12 , all hurricane warnings had been lowered .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Donna was a very destructive hurricane that caused extensive damage from the Lesser Antilles to New England . At least 364 people were killed by the hurricane and property damage was estimated at $ 900 million ( 1960 USD ) .
= = = West Africa and Caribbean = = =
The precursor to Hurricane Donna brought severe weather to the Dakar area of Senegal . Air France Flight AF343 , which was flying from Paris , France to Abidjan , Ivory Coast , attempted to land at the Léopold Sédar Senghor International Airport as a layover . However , due to squally weather , the plane instead crashed into the Atlantic Ocean , killing all 63 people on board . Heavy rainfall was also reported in Cape Verde on August 30 .
A weather station in Sint Maarten reported sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a 952 mbar ( 28 @.@ 1 inHg ) pressure reading in the main airport . Donna killed two people on Antigua and five on Anguilla .
Hurricane Donna caused very extensive damage on the island , killed 7 and left at least a quarter of the island 's population homeless . During the passing of hurricane Donna Anguilla recorded five deaths , including a woman who died when the roof of her house collapsed .
Despite passing only 35 mi ( 56 km ) north of the island , Donna caused only minor damage on St. Thomas in the United States Virgin Islands . A station there reported a wind gust of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) . Some fences were toppled , while several houses were reported to have been damaged or destroyed . Electrical and telephone services were also disrupted . The highest daily rainfall total on the island was 8 @.@ 78 inches ( 223 mm ) , causing minor local flooding . On Saint John , several small boats capsized .
While passing to the north of Puerto Rico , Donna produced winds of 38 mph ( 61 km / h ) in San Juan . Along the north coast of the island , high tides of around 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) and strong waves caused coastal flooding . The hurricane dropped torrential rainfall , peaking at 16 @.@ 23 in ( 412 mm ) at Naguabo in the central portion of the island . Large areas of eastern Puerto Rico received over 10 in ( 250 mm ) of precipitation . The hurricane left about 2 @,@ 500 people homeless on the island . Despite advanced warning of the floods , the hurricane killed 107 people on the island , of which 84 were in Humacao .
In Haiti , the southern periphery of the hurricane killed three people in Port au Prince . Later , Donna brushed the north coast of Cuba with strong winds and heavy rainfall , causing damage along much of the coast . In Gibara , the storm wrecked 80 houses .
= = = Turks and Caicos and Bahamas = = =
On Grand Turk in what is now the Turks and Caicos , Donna produced winds of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) , as the strongest winds remained north of the island . However , the storm dropped heavy rainfall of over 20 in ( 510 mm ) , much of which fell in a 12 ‑ hour period . Despite the rains , damage there was minor .
In the Bahamas , the anemometer at Ragged Island blew away after registering a 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) wind gust . At Mayaguana , where residents evacuated to a missile tracking base , hurricane @-@ force winds raged for 13 hours . The winds largely destroyed the village of Abraham 's Bay on the island . Andros experienced hurricane @-@ force winds for a few hours , and winds on Fortune Island were estimated at 173 mph ( 278 km / h ) before the anemometer blew away . The strongest winds remained south of the northwestern Bahamas , which limited damage there . Donna cut communications between several islands .
Several small island communities in the central Bahamas were leveled . North Caicos reported 20 inches ( 510 mm ) of rainfall in 24 hours .
= = = United States = = =
Fifty people were reported dead in the United States , with damages totaling to $ 3 @.@ 35 billion . Donna crossed directly over Texas Tower 4 , causing severe damage to the structure and leading to its eventual loss in January 1961 .
Donna was the only hurricane to affect every state along the East Coast with hurricane @-@ force winds .
= = = = Florida = = = =
The U.S. state of Florida received the most damage from Hurricane Donna . Portions of southern and western Florida received over 10 in ( 250 mm ) of rainfall from the hurricane , peaking at 13 @.@ 24 in ( 336 mm ) . Strong winds were observed in the state , with a sustained wind speed of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) in Tavernier and a gusts up to 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) at Sombrero Key Light . In Miami , winds reached 97 mph ( 156 km / h ) . Southeast of the city , high waves washed a 104 ft ( 32 m ) freighter onshore an island . The highest observed storm surge of 13 ft ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) was reported at Marathon . The hurricane also lashed Southwest Florida , where tides were 4 to 7 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 1 m ) above normal .
In Miami @-@ Dade County , thousands of low @-@ lying homes in the Homestead area were flooded . Overall , 857 houses in the country were destroyed , while about 2 @,@ 317 others suffered damage . Significant agricultural losses were also reported . Donna was the first hurricane to affect Miami , Florida since Hurricane King in October 1950 .
In the Florida Keys , some areas experienced " almost complete destruction " . Further north between Marathon and Tavernier , an estimated 75 % of buildings were extensively damaged . In the former , tides inundated the city and destroyed several subdivisions . In Key West , one death was confirmed and 71 people were injured . About 564 homes were demolished and an additional 1 @,@ 382 were damaged , 583 of them severely . Storm surge inundated parts of the Overseas Highway and washed out several portions near bridges . Many boats and docks were severely damaged or destroyed . Additionally , the pipeline supplying water to the Florida Keys was wrecked in three places .
Large tracts of mangrove forest were lost in the western portion of Everglades National Park , while at least 35 % of the white heron population in the park were killed . In Everglades , about 50 % of buildings were destroyed due to strong winds and coastal flooding . Late on September 11 , 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water was reported throughout the area . The city briefly became inaccessible due to inundated roads . Many small building were destroyed , and roofs were blown off or damaged . Thousands of trees were toppled , blocking portions of the Tamiami Trail . Throughout Collier County , strong winds and coastal flooding combined destroyed 153 homes , inflicted major impact on an additional 409 , and 1 @,@ 049 others suffered minor damage . The turn into southern Florida lessened damage in the Tampa area .
Throughout the state , the storm destroyed 2 @,@ 156 homes and trailers , severely damaged 3 @,@ 903 , and inflicted minor impact on 30 @,@ 524 others . Approximately 391 farm buildings were destroyed , an additional 989 suffered extensive impact , and 2 @,@ 499 others received minor damage . Roughly 174 buildings were demolished , 1 @,@ 029 received major impact , and 4 @,@ 254 suffered minor damage . Additionally , 281 boats were destroyed or severely damaged . A total of 50 % of grapefruit crop was lost , 10 % of the orange and tangerine crops were ruined , and the avocado crop was almost destroyed . With at least $ 350 million in damage in Florida alone , Donna was the costliest hurricane to impact the state , at the time . Additionally , there were 13 confirmed fatalities , six from drowning , four from heart attacks , two from automobile accidents , and two from electrocution . About 1 @,@ 188 others were injured .
= = = = Southeastern United States and Mid @-@ Atlantic = = = =
The storm brought minor impact to Georgia . Wind gusts of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) along the coast felled trees and tree limbs , resulting in electrical and telephone service outages . In Brunswick , a power outage at the power plant caused a minor explosion . Heavy rainfall temporarily flooded some streets in the city . Further north in South Carolina , gale force winds were reported along the coast , but caused little damage . A tornado spawned in the Charleston area destroyed several houses and severely damaged a number of others , and injured a few people by flying glass . Damage from this tornado was over $ 500 @,@ 000 . Another tornado touched down in Garden City and destroyed and extensively damaged six buildings . In Beaufort County , many trees were uprooted , power lines were downed , homes were unroofed , piers were destroyed , and there was significant damage to corn and soybean crops .
In North Carolina , Donna brought two tornadoes to the state . The first of which damaged several small buildings in Bladen County . The second tornado was spawned in Sampson County , where it destroyed a dwelling with eight occupants , all of whom were hospitalized . Along the coast , wind gusts as high as 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) damaged or destroyed several buildings . Additionally crops were impacted as far as 50 miles ( 80 km ) inland . Storm tides ranging from 4 to 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal caused significant beach erosion and structural damage Wilmington and Nags Head . Additionally , Topsail Beach was reported to have been 50 % destroyed . In Southport , the town docks were almost completely demolished . There were eight deaths , including three from drowning , two from falling trees , two from weather @-@ related traffic accidents , and one from electrocution . At least 100 people were injured enough to require hospitalization . Damage in North Carolina exceeded $ 5 million , with the worst impact occurring in New Hanover County .
In Virginia , the east coast of the state reported hurricane @-@ force winds , while gusts reached up to 89 mph ( 143 km / h ) in Virginia Beach . Strong winds toppled trees and electrical wires , which blocked streets . Additionally , buildings suffered roof damage and broken windows ; some structures were completely destroyed . Offshore , rough seas sunk or destroyed numerous small crafts , while a 12 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 lb ) vessel was driven aground . The storm killed three people in Virginia ; two of the deaths occurred when barge collided when a freighter and later sank , and another after a man attempted to safeguard his boat . Strong winds and heavy rains were observed in eastern Maryland . Ocean City suffered the worst impact , with over $ 300 @,@ 000 in property damage . The storm also impacted crops in the area , especially corn and apples . Effects from the storm in Delaware were similar , with property damage and considerable losses to corn and apple crops . In Pennsylvania , wind gusts up to 59 mph ( 95 km / h ) in the southeastern portions of the state toppled many trees and utility wires . Heavy rains and poor drainage in some areas flooded basements , lawns , and streets . Low @-@ lying areas in Bucks and Montgomery counties were inundated with up to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water after many streams and creeks nearby overflowed . One death in the state was reported after a boy was swept into a swollen creek behind his home in Sharon Hill .
Winds as strong as 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) were observed along the coast of New Jersey . Rainfall in the state was generally between 5 and 6 inches ( 130 and 150 mm ) , with a peak of 8 @.@ 99 inches ( 228 mm ) near Hammonton . Damage from the storm was most severe in Atlantic , Cape May , Monmouth , and Ocean counties , where numerous boats , docks , boardwalks , and cottages were damaged or destroyed . A resort area in Cliffwood Beach , New Jersey saw its boardwalk and tourist attractions destroyed by the hurricane , and the area has never recovered . Losses to agriculture were significant , with damage to apple and peach trees " considerable " , the former of which lost about one @-@ third of its crops . Wind damage to corn , Sudan grass , and sorgham resulted in a delay in their harvest . Nine deaths were reported in the state of New Jersey . In southeastern New York , heavy rains , hurricane @-@ force winds , and " unprecedented " high tides were observed . Severe small stream flooding caused significant damage , especially on Long Island , the waterfront of New York City , and further north in Greene County . The storm caused three fatalities in the state , two from drowning and another from a person crushed by a falling tree .
= = = Elsewhere in North America = = =
In Connecticut , strong winds left 15 @,@ 000 people without telephone service , while 88 @,@ 000 homes lost electricity . Along the coast , tides caused beach erosion , inundated streets , and weakened foundations . Four seaside cottages were destroyed . Crop damage was isolated and mainly limited to apples and corn . In Rhode Island , the storm brought a wind gust as strong as 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) to Block Island . Telephone and electrical services were severely disrupted . Along the coast , high tides significantly impacted or destroyed about 200 homes at Narragansett Bay and Warwick cove . Damage to these vessels collectively totaled to over $ 2 million . Agriculture also suffered impact , particularly to fruit , timber , and poultry , especially in Newport and Portsmouth .
Strong winds were also observed in Massachusetts , with a wind gust of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) at the Blue Hill Observatory . Extensive losses to apple orchards occurred , as the fruit was blown out of trees . Widespread telephone and power outages were reported . The strong southwest winds associated with Donna , in combination with very little rainfall , led to a significant deposit of salt spray , which whitewashed southwest @-@ facing windows . Many trees and shrubs saw their leaves brown due to the salt . However , in other areas , 4 to 6 in ( 100 to 150 mm ) of precipitation fell , causing some washouts and local flooding . Waves along the coast ripped of small boats and pleasure craft from their moorings and subsequently smashed them against rocks or seawalls .
In Vermont , winds damaged trees , tree branches , and power lines , causing telephone and electrical service outages in a few communities . Rainfall totals ranged from 2 to 5 in ( 51 to 127 mm ) , resulted in washouts in some areas . Damage to apple orchards totaled $ 50 @,@ 000 . Along the coast of New Hampshire , many boats were smashed or damage in some way . Strong winds felled trees and power lines , causing residents in the southern portions of the state to lose telephone service and electricity . Additionally , apple orchard suffered $ 200 @,@ 000 in damage . Rainfall in the state peaked at 7 @.@ 25 in ( 184 mm ) near Peterborough , resulting in local flooding and washouts .
Along the coast , large waves damaged 15 to 20 boats in Falmouth harbor . Total boat damage was estimated at $ 250 @,@ 000 . Coastal residents in low @-@ lying beach areas of Cumberland and York counties were evacuated . Several counties lost power during the storm . In Southwest Harbor , lightning struck the Dirigo Hotel , causing a fire that resulted in $ 100 @,@ 000 in damages . Winds caused a lost of telephone and electrical services in Auburn @-@ Lewiston area due to falling trees and tree branches . Television antennas were damaged , as were several signs including a Sears sign . In addition , 25 % to 40 % of the apple crop was destroyed .
After becoming extratropical , the remnants of Donna continued northeastward into New Brunswick , Quebec , and then Labrador . Wind gusts of 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) in Quebec snapped electrical poles and trees . One death occurred when a man suffered a heart attack when his home was threatened by a fire . Additionally , weather @-@ related traffic accidents in the province resulted in two injuries .
= = Depictions in popular culture = =
Nobel Prize @-@ winner John Steinbeck wrote about Hurricane Donna in his 1962 non @-@ fiction memoir Travels with Charley : In Search of America . Steinbeck had had a truck fitted with a custom camper @-@ shell for a journey he intended to take across the United States , accompanied by his poodle Charley . He planned on leaving after Labor Day from his home in Sag Harbor , Long Island , New York . Steinbeck delayed his trip slightly due to Donna , which made a direct hit on Long Island . Steinbeck wrote of saving his boat during the middle of the hurricane , during which he jumped into the water and was blown to shore clinging to a fallen branch driven by the high winds . It was an exploit which foreshadowed his fearless , or even reckless , state of mind to dive into the unknown .
The winds of Donna can be seen in the feature film Blast of Silence ( 1961 ) ; a fist fight scene on Long Island had been previously scheduled , and the filmmakers decided to go ahead and shoot the exterior scene despite the hurricane .
= = Aftermath , records and retirement = =
Following the storm , President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower issued a disaster declaration for Florida and North Carolina , allowing residents of those states to be eligible for public assistance .
The United States military sent a plane carrying doctors and food from Patrick Air Force Base to Mayaguana in the Bahamas . Crews of doctors and workers with food and supplies left from Key West and Miami to traverse the Florida Keys , bringing aid to impacted residents . In Marathon , a large reconstruction program rehabilitated the key by Christmas .
Coral reefs were damaged in the Key Largo National Marine Sanctuary by the hurricane . Donna caused a significant negative impact on aquatic life in north Florida Bay . Marine life was either stranded by retreating salt water which had been driven inland or killed by muddied waters in its wake . Oxygen depletion due to animals perishing in the hurricane caused additional mortality . Although salinity levels returned to normal within six weeks , dissolved oxygen concentrations remained quite low for a longer time frame . Marine life was scarce for several months in areas of greatest oxygen depletion . Sports fishing in the area took a few months to recover . Juvenile pink shrimp moved from their estuarine nursery grounds into deeper water about 60 mi ( 97 km ) offshore , where they were subsequently captured by fishermen . A Caspian tern was swept up the North American coast well to the north of its traditional breeding grounds , to Nova Scotia , which was witnessed four hours after the storm went by Digby Neck .
Because of its devastating impacts and the high mortality associated with the hurricane , the name Donna was retired , and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane ; the name was replaced by Dora in 1964 .
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= Dumbbell Indemnity =
" Dumbbell Indemnity " is the sixteenth episode in the ninth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 1 , 1998 . It was written by Ron Hauge and directed by Dominic Polcino . The episode sees Moe trying to keep his new girlfriend by using a large amount of money , but when it runs out , he decides to commit insurance fraud . Homer helps him , but is caught and sent to jail , and attempts to take revenge on Moe when he does not bail him out . Helen Hunt makes a guest appearance as Moe 's girlfriend , Renee . The episode contains several cultural references and was generally well received .
= = Plot = =
At Moe 's Tavern , Homer notices that Moe is depressed because he cannot get a date . Homer decides to take Moe out to meet a woman . The trip to a disco proves to be unsuccessful , but on their way home , a flower vendor named Renee starts a conversation with Moe , and he ends up asking her out .
Moe and Renee seem to form a strong relationship , but Moe is insecure about his hold on her and he feels he must spend large amounts of money so she will stay with him . Upon maxing out his credit card , Moe comes up with a scheme to commit insurance fraud by having Homer steal his car and park it on train tracks so it would be destroyed . The night the scheme is supposed to take place , Moe and Renee attend a police charity event aboard a yacht ; the event 's attendance by all the officers in town ensures Homer will not get caught perpetrating the scheme , and gives Moe an alibi so that no one will suspect he was behind the act . Homer botches the plan by stopping to watch a drive @-@ in movie , while the train they were counting on to destroy Moe 's car passes by . Deciding all is not lost , Homer drives the car over a cliff — but his attempt to exit the car before it sinks into the water below fails . The car ends up sinking just near the yacht where the police charity event is taking place , and when Homer swims to the surface , he is arrested .
Moe speaks to Homer through the bars of his jail cell window and promises to bail him out , but changes his mind when Renee talks about wanting to vacation in Hawaii . While packing for the trip , Moe is confronted by his own conscience , in the form of Homer , who makes him feel bad for his betrayal . Moe ends up telling Renee the truth about the insurance fraud scheme , and she is at first happy he was honest . However , when Moe starts scheming again for a way to get Homer out of jail without paying the bail , Renee is disgusted and leaves him .
Moe 's idea involved setting his bar on fire , which he ends up doing by accident as he realizes Renee has left . Meanwhile , Homer escapes jail by attacking Hans Moleman , who was delivering books to the inmates . He enters the burning bar to confront Moe , and the two start fighting . They are both soon rendered unconscious from smoke inhalation , but Barney appears and rescues them . The bar is completely destroyed , and during their reconciliation Homer promises to help Moe get back on his feet . In the final scene , Homer has allowed Moe to relocate his bar to the Simpsons ' home .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Ron Hauge , who has said he thought of the episode while attempting to create a story involving general illegal activity . Originally , Hauge had a different title for the episode , " Mutual of Moemaha " , parodying the name of the Mutual of Omaha insurance company . The episode was going to add to the development of Moe 's character in the show , though the staff did not think they were able to develop him more until later episodes .
Director Dominic Polcino and the animators of the episode were praised for their efforts by the other staff members , especially during the scene where Homer is driving down the cliff and attempts to escape Moe 's car . Polcino and his animators went to great lengths to correctly time Homer 's rolling and create a vivid and detailed lake , as well as animate Homer sinking to the bottom of the lake . Show runner Mike Scully commented that , " It 's hard enough for us to come up with the ideas , but when Dominic and the animators can make it , it 's really fantastic . "
The episode guest starred Helen Hunt as Renee , Moe 's girlfriend . Hunt has said she liked the design of her character , who was named after Hauge 's wife . During the making of the episode , Hunt and Hank Azaria , who voices Moe , were dating . In an interview with People Magazine in 1998 , Scully stated : " Hank and Helen got along so well it 's hard to believe they are a real couple . " In July 1999 , the couple married , but divorced in December 2000 , after a long separation .
= = Cultural references = =
The title of the episode is a reference to the film Double Indemnity , which also had a plot involving an insurance scam . In the scenes where Moe and Renee are seen dating , the song " I 'm a Believer " by The Monkees is playing . Other songs include " One Bourbon , One Scotch , One Beer " by George Thorogood & The Destroyers and " Brick House " by the Commodores .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Dumbbell Indemnity " finished 25th in ratings for the week of February 23 - March 1 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 5 , equivalent to approximately 10 @.@ 3 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files and King of the Hill .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , enjoyed the episode , commenting : " A case perhaps of life reflecting art as guest star Helen Hunt is now married to Hank Azaria , who is , of course , Moe , which is rather nice as you can 't help but feel sad that , by the end of this rather clever and charming episode , Moe has been unlucky in love once more . " In a 2006 article in USA Today , " Dumbbell Indemnity " was highlighted among the six best episodes of The Simpsons season 9 , along with " Trash of the Titans " , " The Last Temptation of Krust " , " The Cartridge Family " , " The Joy of Sect " , and " Das Bus " . IGN ranked Hail to the Chimp , the film Homer goes to see in the episode , as the seventh best fictional film within another work . Show runner Mike Scully greatly enjoyed the scene where Homer attempts to escape Moe 's car when it is going down the cliff , and has said that it is one of his favorite scenes from the show .
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= SMS Kaiserin Augusta =
SMS Kaiserin Augusta was a unique protected cruiser , built for the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) in the early 1890s . Named for Empress Augusta , who died in January 1890 , she was laid down in 1890 , launched in January 1892 , and completed in November of that year . Owing to budgetary restrictions , Kaiserin Augusta was designed to fill both fleet scout and colonial cruiser roles . The ship was initially armed with a main battery of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and eight 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns , which by 1896 was replaced with twelve new model 15 cm guns . She was the first ship in the German Navy to feature a three @-@ shaft propeller arrangement .
Kaiserin Augusta served abroad between 1897 and 1902 , primarily in the East Asia Squadron under the command of Admiral Otto von Diederichs . During this time , the ship 's crew assisted in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 . In 1902 , she returned to Germany for an extensive overhaul that lasted until 1907 , after which she went into reserve . Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , Kaiserin Augusta was mobilized to serve as a gunnery training ship . She served in this role throughout the war ; the ship was ultimately sold for scrapping in October 1919 and broken up the following year .
= = Design = =
Design work on Kaiserin Augusta began in 1887 ; budgetary restrictions forced the German Navy to design a ship that could serve in both colonial and fleet scout roles . During the design process , it was determined a three @-@ shaft arrangement of the machinery would be necessary to attain the high speed requirement . This resulted in the first warship of the German Navy to use three screws . This was a relatively novel development ; at the time of Kaiserin Augusta 's construction , only a handful of French and American ships had experimented with the arrangement , and had not yet been to sea for a thorough evaluation of the design . Kaiserin Augusta was laid down at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel in 1890 . She was launched on 15 January 1892 and commissioned into the fleet less than a year later on 17 November 1892 .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
Kaiserin Augusta was 122 @.@ 2 meters ( 400 ft 11 in ) long at the waterline and 123 @.@ 2 m ( 404 ft 2 in ) overall . She had a beam of 15 @.@ 6 m ( 51 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 48 m ( 21 ft 3 in ) forward and 7 @.@ 4 m ( 24 ft 3 in ) aft . She was designed to displace 6 @,@ 056 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 960 long tons ) , and at full combat load the displacement increased to 6 @,@ 318 t ( 6 @,@ 218 long tons ) . Her hull was constructed with transverse and longitudinal steel frames ; the outer wall consisted of a single layer of timber planks covered with Muntz metal sheathing to protect the hull from fouling . The hull contained 10 watertight compartments and a double bottom . A double bottom ran for 55 percent of the length of the hull . The ship 's armor consisted of Krupp steel ; the deck was 50 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick with 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick sloping sides . The conning tower had 50 mm thick sides and a 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick roof .
Kaiserin Augusta 's crew consisted of 13 officers and 417 enlisted men . She carried several smaller boats , including two picket boats , one launch , one pinnace , two cutters , two yawls , and two dinghies . The ship suffered from severe pitch and roll , though these effects were reduced in heavy winds and a beam sea . The forecastle shipped excessive amounts of water in a head sea . The ship maneuvered poorly , though this was improved at high speed . The transverse metacentric height was .78 m ( 2 ft 7 in ) .
The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines built by AG Germania ; each drove a screw that was 4 @.@ 5 m ( 14 ft 9 in ) in diameter . Each engine had its own separate engine room . The engines were supplied with steam by eight cylindrical double boilers split into three boiler rooms . The engines were rated at 12 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 8 @,@ 900 kW ) and a top speed of 21 kn ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , though on trials they reached a half knot better at 14 @,@ 015 ihp ( 10 @,@ 451 kW ) . This rendered her one of the fastest cruisers in the world at the time . Kaiserin Augusta was equipped with four electrical generators providing 48 kilowatts at 67 volts . Steering was controlled by a single rudder .
= = = Armament = = =
As built , Kaiserin Augusta was armed with four 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) K L / 30 guns with a total of 292 rounds of ammunition , eight 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) SK L / 35 guns with 777 rounds of ammunition , eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 30 guns with 1 @,@ 361 rounds of ammunition , and four machine guns . The ship was also equipped with five 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes with thirteen torpedoes ; four were placed in swivel mounts on the broadside and one was placed in the bow , below the waterline . In 1896 , her armament was updated ; the old 15 cm and 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were replaced with twelve 15 cm SK L / 35 guns that had a maximum range of 12 @,@ 600 m ( 41 @,@ 300 ft ) . The guns were supplied with a total of 1 @,@ 064 shells . After 1907 , the swivel @-@ mounted torpedo tubes were removed , leaving only the tube in the bow with three torpedoes .
= = Service history = =
In early 1893 , Kaiserin Augusta and Seeadler conducted a good @-@ will visit to the United States , a belated celebration of the 400th anniversary of Columbus 's first voyage across the Atlantic . On 21 June 1895 , the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal , connecting the North and Baltic Seas , was opened ; Kaiserin Augusta was present during the opening ceremonies . She led a group of twenty @-@ one unarmored ships , in company with the four Brandenburg @-@ class battleships , the four Sachsen @-@ class ironclads , and four of the Siegfried @-@ class coastal defense ships . Later that year , the ship took part in an expedition to Morocco along with the coastal defense ship Hagen and the frigates Marie and Stosch to secure an indemnity demanded in the aftermath of the murder of two Germans . The operation was heavily criticized , especially in Britain , where anti @-@ German sentiment was beginning to rise .
In February 1897 , an international naval demonstration took place off Crete , to protest Greece 's annexation of the island . Kaiserin Augusta was the sole German contribution to the force , until she was ordered to the Far East , at which point she was replaced by the old ironclad Oldenburg . Immediately following the seizure of the Kiautschou Bay concession in China , Admiral Otto von Diederichs , the commander of the East Asia Squadron , requested reinforcements to secure the new colonial territory . In mid @-@ November , he specifically requested Kaiserin Augusta and additional ground troops to garrison the port . The ship was joined by the cruisers Deutschland and Gefion , which carried the III Seebataillon , and Cormoran . As Kaiserin Augusta had been stationed in the Mediterranean , she arrived first , on 30 December .
Following the outbreak of the Spanish – American War in 1898 , Diederichs was ordered to proceed to the Philippines , where Commodore George Dewey had defeated a Spanish squadron commanded by Rear Admiral Patricio Montojo . Diederichs was instructed to protect local German interests , and if possible , seize another colonial concession in the Philippines . With his ships dispersed on various colonial missions or under repair , Diederichs initially concentrated his forces slowly ; he recalled Kaiserin Augusta to serve as his flagship while the rest of the force assembled . After the end of the Battle of Manila , Kaiserin Augusta steamed to Hong Kong where the ship notified Berlin of the defeat of the Spanish garrison . She also carried the former Governor General of the Philippines , Basilio Augustín , out of Manila . The ship left Filipino waters on 13 August and arrived two days later .
Kaiserin Augusta remained stationed in Asia and participated in the international effort to suppress the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 . She contributed landing parties to Admiral Edward Seymour 's relief force , based in Tientsin . In 1902 , the ship returned to Germany for an extensive overhaul , which began in 1903 , and lasted until 1907 . During the refit , the ship 's generators were replaced with more powerful units that more than doubled electrical output , at 124 kW at 110 V. Her bridge was significantly expanded , with a second deck and extended aft of the foremast . The three funnels were lengthened by 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) and one searchlight was installed on each of the mast tops . The four swivel @-@ mounted torpedo tubes were also removed during this period . After emerging from the modernization , the ship was placed in reserve .
Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , Kaiserin Augusta was reactivated for use as a gunnery training ship , to replace more modern ships that joined the High Seas Fleet . To facilitate the training of gunners , the ship 's armament was diversified . She carried one 15 cm SK L / 45 gun , four 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns , four 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) SK L / 45 guns , four 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 35 guns , five 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 guns , and one 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 gun in a U @-@ boat mounting . She served in this capacity for the duration of the war , until she was decommissioned 14 December 1918 . The ship was formally stricken from the naval register on 1 October 1919 and sold to Norddeutsche Tiefbauges in Berlin , and broken up the next year in Kiel @-@ Nordmole .
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= Holly Lincoln @-@ Smith =
Holly Jane Lincoln @-@ Smith ( born 26 March 1988 ) is an Australian water polo centre forward . Her sister is skeleton competitor Emma Lincoln @-@ Smith . They are the first set of Australian siblings where one competed at the Summer Olympics and the other at the Winter Olympics .
She started playing water polo when she was thirteen years old while attending school . She went on to represent New South Wales on the national level . She plays club water polo for the Cronulla Water Polo Club in the National Water Polo League . In 2005 , she was called up to represent Australia on the junior national team . In 2006 , she was made her first appearance on Australia 's senior team , with her first major international tournament representing Australia being the 2009 FINA World League Super Finals . As a member of Australian national sides , she has earned gold medals at the 2007 FINA Junior World Championships and 2011 Canada Cup , and a silver medal at the 2010 FINA Women 's Water Polo World Cup . She is one of 17 players competing to earn 13 spots on the Australia women 's national water polo team in order to represent the country at the 2012 Summer Olympics .
= = Personal = =
Lincoln @-@ Smith was born on 26 March 1988 in Sydney . She has two sisters and is her parents 's youngest child . She currently lives in Mona Vale , New South Wales . In 2004 , she was living in Warriewood , New South Wales . In 2005 , her father had open @-@ heart surgery in order to remove a tumour and her mother was diagnosed with breast cancer . In 2009 her oldest sister died " after a long battle with anorexia and depression " . In 2010 , her sister Emma Lincoln @-@ Smith represented Australia at the 2010 Winter Olympics in skeleton . The sisters are hoping to become the first set of sibling Olympians where one competed at the Summer Games and the other at the Winter Games . She is currently involved in a long term relationship .
In 2001 at the age of 12 , Lincoln @-@ Smith competed in the U13 finals of the NSW Junior Surf Life Saving Championships . During the event , she saved the life of fellow competitor Tom Fabian after he was in distress . She left the course to rescue him and , after helping , got the attention of the safety crew on a boat , resumed her swim and finished 27th in the field of 40 swimmers .
Lincoln @-@ Smith attended Mackellar Girls School , where Debbie Watson was her physical education teacher . In 2005 , she completed her Higher School Certificate while a student at Queenwood School for Girls . She went on to attend Macquarie University where she is doing a course on Human Resource Management . As of 2011 , she was in her third year of the programme . In 2008 , she earned a scholarship from Macquarie Sports to help her focus on water polo . As part of the scholarship , the Macquarie Group required her to spend a week in their offices where she received some " work experience as a trader in foreign exchange " .
Lincoln @-@ Smith is 183 cm ( 6 ft 0 in ) tall , weighs 83 kilograms ( 13 st 1 lb ) , is right handed and has a tattoo on her left ankle of a cherry blossom , which represents her family .
= = Water polo = =
Lincoln @-@ Smith is a centre forward and prefers to wear cap number two or four . She started playing the sport as a 13 @-@ year @-@ old at Mackellar Girls Campus where Debbie Watson , an Olympic gold medalist and the school 's water polo coach , nagged her to try the sport . She has held a scholarship for water polo from the New South Wales Institute of Sport and the Australian Institute of Sport .
In 2004 she represented New South Wales at the U17 national championships where the team came out on top , and she was the leading goal scorer and named the player of the tournament . This victory was one of the contributing factors to her getting a call up to the junior national team . In 2008 , she represented New South Wales as a member of the U20 team at the national championships . Her team took home gold after a 9 – 6 victory over Western Australia where she scored three goals in the match . The 2008 win was her fourth and final U20 national championship win . In 2009 , shortly after her eldest sister 's death , she seriously injured her shoulder when she dislocated it while at the gym and required reconstruction surgery on it . As a result , she was unable to compete in water polo for nine months .
= = = Club water polo = = =
Lincoln @-@ Smith plays her club water polo for the Cronulla Water Polo Club in the National Water Polo League . She was a member of the team in 2009 and 2011 . She was with the club for the 2012 season that started in February . As a member of the team , she helped them win the first two games of the season 8 – 4 and 7 – 4 . She took a break from the team following their 18 February 2012 game in order to attend the national team training camp . Her last game before the break was against the Balmain Tigers . She did not play in the National Water Polo League in 2010 because of an injury .
= = = Junior national team = = =
Lincoln @-@ Smith has represented Australia on the junior national level . Her first call up to the team was in 2005 when the U17 and U20 teams toured the United States and Europe . She was a member of the junior national side at the 2007 FINA U20 World Championships in Porto , Portugal that took home gold .
= = = Senior national team = = =
Lincoln @-@ Smith is a member of the Australia women 's national water polo team . She competed in a tournament in the United States for the senior side in 2006 because Melissa Rippon and Taniele Gofers were injured . In 2009 , she was part of the Australian side that finished third at the FINA World League Super Finals in Kirishi , Russia . This was her first major tournament on the senior side . In 2009 , at the FINA World Championships where Australia finished sixth , she was named by her team as the Australian Player of the Tournament . This was her first major international tournament with the team .
In 2010 , Lincoln @-@ Smith was a member of the Stingers squad that competed at the FINA World Cup in Christchurch , New Zealand that took home a silver medal . She was part of the Australian side that won a silver medal at the 2011 Kirishi Cup in June . In the game for the medal , they played Kazakhstan women 's national water polo team . In that match , she scored three goals . At the 2011 Canada Cup , she scored a goal in the first period in the gold medal match against China that the Australian team ended up winning . She represented Australia at the 2011 FINA World Championships . She competed in the Pan Pacific Championships in January 2012 for the Australian Barbarians . In early 2012 , she survived the first cut of players for the team that would compete at the Olympics when the selection was narrowed down to nineteen players . In February 2012 , she was named to the final training squad for the 2012 Summer Olympics . She attended training camp that started on 20 February 2012 at the Australian Institute of Sport . The team of seventeen players will be cut to thirteen before the team departs for the Olympic games , with the announcement being made on 13 June . She was part of the Stingers squad that competed in a five @-@ game test against Great Britain at the AIS in late February 2012 . This was the team 's first matches against Great Britain 's national team in six years . In the first game of the test series on 21 February 2012 that Australia won 13 – 5 , she scored one goal .
= = Awards = =
In 2005 , the New South Wales Institute of Sport awarded Lincoln @-@ Smith the Ian Thorpe Grand Slam International outstanding achievement award , and she had an opportunity to meet Ian Thorpe .
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= USS Tucker ( DD @-@ 57 ) =
USS Tucker ( Destroyer No. 57 / DD @-@ 57 ) was the lead ship of her class of destroyers built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the first U.S. Navy vessel named for Samuel Tucker .
Tucker was laid down by the Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy , Massachusetts , in November 1914 and launched in May 1915 . The ship was a little more than 315 feet ( 96 m ) in length , nearly 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) abeam , and had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 090 long tons ( 1 @,@ 110 t ) . She was armed with four 4 in ( 100 mm ) / 50 caliber guns and had eight 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes . Tucker was powered by a pair of steam turbines that propelled her at up to 29 @.@ 5 knots ( 54 @.@ 6 km / h ) .
After her April 1916 commissioning , Tucker sailed in the Atlantic and the Caribbean . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Tucker was part of the second U.S. destroyer squadron sent overseas . Patrolling the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland , Tucker made several rescues of passengers and crew from ships sunk by U @-@ boats . For her part in rescuing crewmen from the Dupetit @-@ Thouars in August 1918 , Tucker received a commendation from the Préfet Maritime . In June , Tucker was transferred to Brest , France , and spent the remainder of the war there .
Upon returning to the United State near the end of 1918 , Tucker underwent repairs at the Boston Navy Yard . After a New England recruiting tour through October 1919 , she was placed in reduced commission and then decommissioned in May 1921 . In March 1926 , Tucker was transferred to the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the " Rum Patrol " . She operated under the name USCGC Tucker ( CG @-@ 23 ) until 1933 ; during her Coast Guard service , she was the first American ship to arrive at the crash site of Navy airship Akron . After her transfer back to the Navy later in 1933 , the ship was renamed DD @-@ 57 to free the name Tucker for another destroyer . She was sold for scrap and hulked in December 1936 .
= = Design and construction = =
Tucker was authorized in 1913 as the lead ship of her class which , like the related O 'Brien class , was an improved version of the Cassin @-@ class destroyers authorized in 1911 . Construction of the vessel was awarded to Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy , Massachusetts , which laid down her keel on 9 November 1914 . Six months later , on 4 May 1915 , Tucker was launched by sponsor Mrs. William Garty , the great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter of the ship 's namesake , Samuel Tucker ( 1747 – 1833 ) , a Continental Navy officer . As built , Tucker was 315 feet 3 inches ( 96 @.@ 09 m ) in length and 29 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 07 m ) abeam and drew 9 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 84 m ) . The ship had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 090 long tons ( 1 @,@ 110 t ) and displaced 1 @,@ 205 long tons ( 1 @,@ 224 t ) when fully loaded .
Tucker had two Curtis steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers , and an additional steam turbine geared to one of the propeller shafts for cruising purposes . The power plant could generate 17 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) and move the ship at speeds of up to 29 @.@ 5 knots ( 54 @.@ 6 km / h ) , though Tucker reached a top speed of 30 @.@ 03 knots ( 55 @.@ 62 km / h ) during her trials .
Tucker 's main battery consisted of four 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) / 50 Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 pounds ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 @-@ pound ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 feet per second ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yards ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) .
Tucker was also equipped with eight 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . The General Board of the United States Navy had called for two anti @-@ aircraft guns for the Tucker @-@ class ships , as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines . From sources , it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for Tucker or any of the other ships of the class .
= = Early career = =
USS Tucker was commissioned into the United States Navy on 11 April 1916 under the temporary command of Lieutenant , junior grade , Frank Slingluff , Jr . ; Lieutenant Commander Benyaurd B. Wygant assumed permanent command 13 days later . Following her commissioning , Tucker commenced trials off the east coast before reporting to Division 8 , Destroyer Force , United States Atlantic Fleet . With World War I ongoing in Europe , Tucker and units of the Fleet conducted exercises and maneuvers in southern and Cuban waters into the spring of 1917 .
Steaming independently in the West Indies , she received word of the United States ' declaration of war on 6 April 1917 . Tucker joined the fleet at its anchorage in the York River before being ordered to proceed to the Boston Navy Yard , for fitting @-@ out for war .
= = World War I = =
The immediate and pressing need for escort ships led to the deployment of American destroyers to Queenstown , Ireland ; Tucker , Rowan , Cassin , Ericsson , Winslow , and Jacob Jones set out from Boston on 7 May 1917 as the second contingent of United States ships designated to operate in conjunction with British surface forces patrolling off the Irish coast . Arriving ten days later , Tucker and her sister ships soon commenced wartime operations . On 12 June , she rescued 47 survivors from the stricken merchantman SS Poluxena ; on 1 August , she saved 39 men from SS Karina , which had been torpedoed by German submarine UC @-@ 75 . For the remainder of 1917 and into the late spring of 1918 , Tucker operated out of Queenstown , hunting German submarines , escorting and convoying ships through the submarine @-@ infested war zones , and providing assistance to ships in distress .
In June 1918 , Tucker joined the escorts working out of Brest , France . On 1 August , while steaming out to meet an inbound convoy , she received word that the group 's escort , the French cruiser Dupetit @-@ Thuoars , had been torpedoed and sunk by a German submarine . The American destroyer soon arrived on the scene and helped to save the survivors of the stricken French warship from the waters of the Bay of Biscay . Tucker 's efforts , and those of the five other American destroyers who were also present , were rewarded by a commendation from the Préfet Maritime , on behalf of the French Ministry of Marine .
Tucker obtained her share of the submarine hunting the day after assisting in the rescue of Dupetit @-@ Thuoars ' crew , on 8 August . Sighting a U @-@ boat , Tucker sped to the attack , dropping depth bombs on the vessel . The British Admiralty gave credit to Tucker for a " possibly sunk " as a result of the attack . As antisubmarine warfare was in its infancy , however , attempts to verify the " kill " proved to be inconclusive . On 11 November 1918 , the armistice was signed , and hostilities ceased along the war @-@ torn Western Front .
= = Post @-@ war = =
While American forces withdrew from Europe and headed home to the United States , Tucker carried passengers and mail between French and British ports . Departing from Brest for the last time on 16 December 1918 , she headed for Boston , where she entered the navy yard for extended repairs .
In July 1919 , she departed Boston and cruised along the coastlines of Massachusetts and Maine , engaged in recruiting duty . In October 1919 , she was placed in reserve in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , where she remained until placed out of commission on 16 May 1921 . On 17 July 1920 , Tucker was designated DD @-@ 57 under the Navy 's new hull classification system .
= = United States Coast Guard career = =
On 17 January 1920 , Prohibition was instituted by law in the United States . Soon , the smuggling of alcoholic beverages along the coastlines of the United States became widespread and blatant . The Treasury Department eventually determined that the United States Coast Guard simply did not have the ships to constitute a successful patrol . To cope with the problem , President Calvin Coolidge in 1924 authorized the transfer from the Navy to the Coast Guard of twenty old destroyers that were in reserve and out of commission . Tucker was activated and acquired by the Coast Guard on 25 March 1926 , as part of a second group of five to augment the original twenty .
Designated CG @-@ 23 , Tucker was commissioned on 29 September , and joined the " Rum Patrol " to aid in the attempt to enforce prohibition laws . She served as the flagship of Division 4 of the Destroyer Force through October 1927 , when she was transferred to Division 1 . On 4 April 1933 , the greatest disaster which aeronautics had experienced up to that time occurred off the New Jersey coast . The Navy airship Akron crashed in a storm killing 73 men , including Rear Admiral William A. Moffett , Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics . Tucker received word of the crash and sped to the scene . Upon arrival , she found that the German motorship Phoebus had rescued four men from the sea — one of whom died shortly after being rescued . The survivors were transferred to Tucker and were disembarked at the New York Navy Yard .
After the United States Congress proposed the Twenty @-@ first Amendment to end prohibition in February 1933 , plans were made for Tucker to be returned to the Navy . On 26 May , Tucker arrived at the Philadelphia Navy Yard , and was decommissioned ten days later , on 5 June . Tucker was transferred back to the Navy on 30 June . On 1 November , Tucker was renamed DD @-@ 57 in order to free the name Tucker for a new destroyer of the same name . For a time , DD @-@ 57 served as a Sea Scout training ship at Sandy Hook , New Jersey . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 24 October 1936 . DD @-@ 57 was sold on 10 December and reduced to a hulk on 23 December .
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= Mycena stylobates =
Mycena stylobates , commonly known as the bulbous bonnet , is a species of inedible mushroom in the family Mycenaceae . Found in North America and Europe , it produces small whitish to gray fruit bodies with bell @-@ shaped caps that are up to 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter . The distinguishing characteristic of the mushroom is the fragile stipe , which is seated on a flat disk marked with distinct grooves , and fringed with a row of bristles . The mushrooms grow in small troops on leaves and other debris of deciduous and coniferous trees . The mushroom 's spores are white in deposit , smooth , and ellipsoid @-@ shaped with dimensions of 6 – 10 by 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 μm . In the development of the fruit body , the preliminary stipe and cap structures appear at the same time within the primordium , and hyphae originating from the stipe form a cover over the developing structures . The mycelia of the mushroom is believed to have bioluminescent properties .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first named Agaricus stylobates by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1801 , and sanctioned under this name by Elias Magnus Fries . It was later transferred to the genus Mycena in 1871 by Paul Kummer when he raised many of Fries ' " tribes " to the rank of genus . The species has also been placed in the genera Basidopus by Franklin Sumner Earle in 1909 , and Pseudomycena by Karel Cejp in 1930 ; both of those genera have since been subsumed into Mycena .
The Greek word stylobates means " column foundation or base " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " bulbous bonnet " . British mycologist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke called it the " discoid Mycena " in his 1871 Handbook of British Fungi .
= = Description = =
The cap of M. stylobates is 3 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter , and depending on its age may range in shape from obtusely conic to convex to bell @-@ shaped to flattened . The structure of the cap margin also depends on the age of the mushroom , progressing from straight or curved inward slightly , to margin flaring or curved backward . The cap surface is smooth , although if viewed with a magnifying glass , minute spines can be seen . As it ages , the surface becomes smooth , moist and somewhat glistening , and it shows grooves corresponding to the position of the gills underneath the cap . The cap color is evenly pale watery gray . The flesh is thin , pallid , and has no distinguishable odor or taste .
The gills appear closely spaced in unexpanded caps , but usually more distant in old individuals . Between 8 and 16 gills extend from the margin to the stipe ; there are additionally one or two tiers of small gills ( lamellulae ) that do not reach fully from the margin to the stipe . The gills are narrow but become ventricose ( swelling in the middle ) and sometimes very broad in age , and are attached by a line or are very narrowly adnate . Sometimes the gills split away from the stipe while remaining attached to each other ; in this way they form a collar around the stipe . Gills are pale gray but soon become whitish , with even edges . The stipe is 10 – 60 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) long , 0 @.@ 5 – 1 mm thick , and , above the level of the flat circular disc at the base , is equal in width throughout . The stipe is covered with fine white scattered fibrils , or is delicately pruinose ( as if covered with a fine white powder ) , but it later becomes smooth . Its color is bluish @-@ gray when fresh but soon it fades to gray . The basal disc is grooved ( from gill impressions ) and pruinose or covered with fine minute hairs , but soon becomes smooth . The insubstantial fruit bodies are considered inedible .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are 6 – 10 by 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 μm , narrowly ellipsoid , and faintly amyloid . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , rarely two @-@ spored . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are not differentiated . The cheilocystidium ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are abundant and variable in structure , usually club @-@ shaped with between two and five thick obtuse projections that arise from near the apex , sometimes more or less covered with numerous protuberances over the enlarged portion and the neck more or less contorted . They measure 26 – 38 by 8 – 13 μm , and are hyaline . The gill flesh is made of greatly enlarged cells , and stains pale vinaceous ( red wine color ) in iodine . The flesh of the cap has a pellicle which usually gelatinizes in potassium hydroxide or water mounts prepared for microscopy . The surface hyphae are covered with short rodlike projections . Sometimes some of the hyphae become aggregated into peglike structures that project from the surface , and cause the appearance of scattered coarse spines on the cap when viewed under a 10X magnifying lens . The tissue beneath the pellicle is made entirely of greatly enlarged cells , which appear pale vinaceous in iodine stain .
The mycelia of M. stylobates , when grown in pure culture , is bioluminescent , a phenomenon first reported in 1931 . The fruit bodies are not known to be bioluminescent .
= = = Similar species = = =
There are several species of Mycena that have a basal disc similar to M. stylobates . Mycena mucor is usually smaller than M. stylobates , and grows on fallen , decaying leaves of oak . It has different cheilocystidia , with very slender excrescences . Also , the margin of the basal disc is not ciliate like M. stylobates . M. bulbosa , a species that grows on woody stalks in wet habitats , has nonamyloid spores , and gill edges that contain a tough @-@ elastic , gelatinous thread . M. pseudoseta , described as a new species from Thailand in 2003 forms smaller fruit bodies with differently shaped cheilocystidia and cap hyphae .
= = Fruit body development = =
The ontogeny , or development , of Mycena stylobates fruit bodies has been investigated in detail using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy . According to Volker Walther and colleagues , the development can be divided into two phases : in the first , the primordium is established that contains all the structures of the mature fruit body ; in the second stage , the primordial stipe elongates rapidly , and the newly exposed hymenium immediately begins spore production . The first detected stage of fruit body formation was an irregularly arranged hyphal structure within the colonized substrate . After rupturing the surface of the substrate and establishing itself there , the structure develops a layer of wrapping hyphae that covers the entire primordium . The structures of the stipe and the cap develop simultaneously . The developing stipe , cap , and basal disc together form a secondary ring @-@ like cavity , in which the gills develop . Gill development initiates with a number of small alveolae on the lower side of the cap , which are covered with a hymenophoral palisade ( a group of tightly packed , roughly parallel cells ) . The margins of these alveolae form the primary gills . The hymenophoral palisade spreads from the developing alveolae to the gill edge ; the edge of the primary gills is forked in the early stages of its development . The secondary gills ( lamellulae ) are formed by the ridges folding down from the lower side of the cap . In contrast to the primary gills , they are covered with hymenophoral palisade from the beginning . Spore production begins immediately after the stipe elongates .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Mycena stylobates grow scattered or in groups on oak leaves or coniferous needles , in the spring and summer or early autumn . It is common during warm , wet seasons . Mycena specialist Alexander H. Smith has collected it in Tennessee , Michigan , Idaho , and Washington in the United States , and in Nova Scotia and Ontario in Canada . It is also found in Europe , including Britain , Denmark , Germany , Norway , Poland , Romania , Scotland , Serbia , Sweden , and Turkey . Although it has been reported several times from Australia , mycologist Cheryl Grgurinovic concluded in a 2003 publication that the records " are best regarded as erroneous " .
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= History of macroeconomic thought =
Macroeconomic theory has its origins in the study of business cycles and monetary theory . In general , early theorists believed monetary factors could not affect real factors such as real output . John Maynard Keynes attacked some of these " classical " theories and produced a general theory that described the whole economy in terms of aggregates rather than individual , microeconomic parts . Attempting to explain unemployment and recessions , he noticed the tendency for people and businesses to hoard cash and avoid investment during a recession . He argued that this invalidated the assumptions of classical economists who thought that markets always clear , leaving no surplus of goods and no willing labor left idle .
The generation of economists that followed Keynes synthesized his theory with neoclassical microeconomics to form the neoclassical synthesis . Although Keynesian theory originally omitted an explanation of price levels and inflation , later Keynesians adopted the Phillips curve to model price @-@ level changes . Some Keynesians opposed the synthesis method of combining Keynes 's theory with an equilibrium system and advocated disequilibrium models instead . Monetarists , led by Milton Friedman , adopted some Keynesian ideas , such as the importance of the demand for money , but argued that Keynesians ignored the role of money supply in inflation . Robert Lucas and other new classical macroeconomists criticized Keynesian models that did not work under rational expectations . Lucas also argued that Keynesian empirical models would not be as stable as models based on microeconomic foundations .
The new classical school culminated in real business cycle theory ( RBC ) . Like early classical economic models , RBC models assumed that markets clear and that business cycles are driven by changes in technology and supply , not demand . New Keynesians tried to address many of the criticisms leveled by Lucas and other new classical economists against Neo @-@ Keynesians . New Keynesians adopted rational expectations and built models with microfoundations of sticky prices that suggested recessions could still be explained by demand factors because rigidities stop prices from falling to a market @-@ clearing level , leaving a surplus of goods and labor . The new neoclassical synthesis combined elements of both new classical and new Keynesian macroeconomics into a consensus . Other economists avoided the new classical and new Keynesian debate on short @-@ term dynamics and developed the new growth theories of long @-@ run economic growth . The Great Recession led to a retrospective on the state of the field and some popular attention turned toward heterodox economics .
= = Origins = =
Macroeconomics descends from two areas of research : business cycle theory and monetary theory . Monetary theory dates back to the 16th century and the work of Martín de Azpilcueta , while business cycle analysis dates from the mid 19th .
= = = Business cycle theory = = =
Beginning with William Stanley Jevons and Clément Juglar in the 1860s , economists attempted to explain the cycles of frequent , violent shifts in economic activity . A key milestone in this endeavor was the foundation of the U.S. National Bureau of Economic Research by Wesley Mitchell in 1920 . This marked the beginning of a boom in atheoretical , statistical models of economic fluctuation ( models based on cycles and trends instead of economic theory ) that led to the discovery of apparently regular economic patterns like the Kuznets wave .
Other economists focused more on theory in their business cycle analysis . Most business cycle theories focused on a single factor , such as monetary policy or the impact of weather on the largely agricultural economies of the time . Although business cycle theory was well established by the 1920s , work by theorists such as Dennis Robertson and Ralph Hawtrey had little impact on public policy . Their partial equilibrium theories could not capture general equilibrium , where markets interact with each other ; in particular , early business cycle theories treated goods markets and financial markets separately . Research in these areas used microeconomic methods to explain employment , price level , and interest rates .
= = = Monetary theory = = =
Initially , the relationship between price level and output was explained by the quantity theory of money ; David Hume had presented such a theory in his 1752 work Of Money ( Essays , Moral , Political , and Literary , Part II , Essay III ) . Quantity theory viewed the entire economy through Say 's law , which stated that whatever is supplied to the market will be sold — in short , that markets always clear . In this view , money is neutral and cannot impact the real factors in an economy like output levels . This was consistent with the classical dichotomy view that real aspects of the economy and nominal factors , such as price levels and money supply , can be considered independent from one another . For example , adding more money to an economy would be expected only to raise prices , not to create more goods .
The quantity theory of money dominated macroeconomic theory until the 1930s . Two versions were particularly influential , one developed by Irving Fisher in works that included his 1911 The Purchasing Power of Money and another by Cambridge economists over the course of the early 20th century . Fisher 's version of the quantity theory can be expressed by holding money velocity ( the frequency with which a given piece of currency is used in transactions ) ( V ) and real income ( Q ) constant and allowing money supply ( M ) and the price level ( P ) to vary in the equation of exchange :
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Most classical theories , including Fisher 's , held that velocity was stable and independent of economic activity . Cambridge economists , such as John Maynard Keynes , began to challenge this assumption . They developed the Cambridge cash @-@ balance theory , which looked at money demand and how it impacted the economy . The Cambridge theory did not assume that money demand and supply were always at equilibrium , and it accounted for people holding more cash when the economy sagged . By factoring in the value of holding cash , the Cambridge economists took significant steps toward the concept of liquidity preference that Keynes would later develop . Cambridge theory argued that people hold money for two reasons : to facilitate transactions and to maintain liquidity . In later work , Keynes added a third motive , speculation , to his liquidity preference theory and built on it to create his general theory .
In 1898 , Knut Wicksell proposed a monetary theory centered on interest rates . His analysis used two rates : the market interest rate , determined by the banking system , and the real or " natural " interest rate , determined by the rate of return on capital . In Wicksell 's theory , cumulative inflation will occur when technical innovation causes the natural rate to rise or when the banking system allows the market rate to fall . Cumulative deflation occurs under the opposite conditions causing the market rate to rise above the natural . Wicksell 's theory did not produce a direct relationship between the quantity of money and price level . According to Wicksell , money would be created endogenously , without an increase in quantity of hard currency , as long as the natural exceeded the market interest rate . In these conditions , borrowers turn a profit and deposit cash into bank reserves , which expands money supply . This can lead to a cumulative process where inflation increases continuously without an expansion in the monetary base . Wicksell 's work influenced Keynes and the Swedish economists of the Stockholm School .
= = Keynes 's General Theory = =
Modern macroeconomics can be said to have begun with Keynes and the publication of his book The General Theory of Employment , Interest and Money in 1936 . Keynes expanded on the concept of liquidity preferences and built a general theory of how the economy worked . Keynes 's theory was brought together both monetary and real economic factors for the first time , explained unemployment , and suggested policy achieving economic stability .
Keynes contended that economic output is positively correlated with money velocity . He explained the relationship via changing liquidity preferences : people increase their money holdings during times of economic difficulty by reducing their spending , which further slows the economy . This paradox of thrift claimed that individual attempts to survive a downturn only worsen it . When the demand for money increases , money velocity slows . A slowdown in economic activities means markets might not clear , leaving excess goods to waste and capacity to idle . Turning the quantity theory on its head , Keynes argued that market changes shift quantities rather than prices . Keynes replaced the assumption of stable velocity with one of a fixed price @-@ level . If spending falls and prices do not , the surplus of goods reduces the need for workers and increases unemployment .
Classical economists had difficulty explaining involuntary unemployment and recessions because they applied Say 's Law to the labor market and expected that all those willing to work at the prevailing wage would be employed . In Keynes 's model , employment and output are driven by aggregate demand , the sum of consumption and investment . Since consumption remains stable , most fluctuations in aggregate demand stem from investment , which is driven by many factors including expectations , " animal spirits " , and interest rates . Keynes argued that fiscal policy could compensate for this volatility . During downturns , government could increase spending to purchase excess goods and employ idle labor . Moreover , a multiplier effect increases the effect of this direct spending since newly employed workers would spend their income , which would percolate through the economy , while firms would invest to respond to this increase in demand .
Keynes 's prescription for strong public investment had ties to his interest in uncertainty . Keynes had given a unique perspective on statistical inference in A Treatise on Probability , written in 1921 , years before his major economic works . Keynes thought strong public investment and fiscal policy would counter the negative impacts the uncertainty of economic fluctuations can have on the economy . While Keynes 's successors paid little attention to the probabilistic parts of his work , uncertainty may have played a central part in the investment and liquidity @-@ preference aspects of General Theory .
The exact meaning of Keynes 's work has been long debated . Even the interpretation of Keynes 's policy prescription for unemployment , one of the more explicit parts of General Theory , has been the subject of debates . Economists and scholars debate whether Keynes intended his advice to be a major policy shift to address a serious problem or a moderately conservative solution to deal with a minor issue .
= = Keynes 's successors = =
Keynes 's successors debated the exact formulations , mechanisms , and consequences of the Keynesian model . One group emerged representing the " orthodox " interpretation of Keynes ; They combined classical microeconomics with Keynesian thought to produce the " neoclassical synthesis " that dominated economics from the 1940s until the early 1970s . Two camps of Keynesians were critical of this synthesis interpretation of Keynes . One group focused on the disequilibrium aspects of Keynes 's work , while the other took a fundamentalist stance on Keynes and began the heterodox post @-@ Keynesian tradition .
= = = Neoclassical synthesis = = =
The generation of economists that followed Keynes , the neo @-@ Keynesians , created the " neoclassical synthesis " by combining Keynes 's macroeconomics with neoclassical microeconomics . Neo @-@ Keynesians dealt with two microeconomic issues : first , providing foundations for aspects of Keynesian theory such as consumption and investment , and , second , combining Keynesian macroeconomics with general equilibrium theory . ( In general equilibrium theory , individual markets interact with one another and an equilibrium price exists if there is perfect competition , no externalities , and perfect information . ) Paul Samuelson 's Foundations of Economic Analysis ( 1947 ) provided much of the microeconomic basis for the synthesis . Samuelson 's work set the pattern for the methodology used by neo @-@ Keynesians : economic theories expressed in formal , mathematical models . While Keynes 's theories prevailed in this period , his successors largely abandoned his informal methodology in favor of Samuelson 's .
By the mid 1950s , the vast majority of economists had ceased debating Keynesianism and accepted the synthesis view ; however , room for disagreement remained . The synthesis attributed problems with market clearing to sticky prices that failed to adjust to changes in supply and demand . Another group of Keynesians focused on disequilibrium economics and tried to reconcile the concept of equilibrium with the absence of market clearing .
= = = Neo @-@ Keynesian models = = =
In 1937 John Hicks published an article that incorporated Keynes 's thought into a general equilibrium framework where the markets for goods and money met in an overall equilibrium . Hick 's IS / LM ( Investment @-@ Savings / Liquidity preference @-@ Money supply ) model became the basis for decades of theorizing and policy analysis into the 1960s . The model represents the goods market with the IS curve , a set of points representing equilibrium in investment and savings . The money market equilibrium is represented with the LM curve , a set of points representing the equilibrium in supply and demand for money . The intersection of the curves identifies an aggregate equilibrium in the economy where there are unique equilibrium values for interest rates and economic output . The IS / LM model focused on interest rates as the " monetary transmission mechanism , " the channel through which money supply affects real variables like aggregate demand and employment . A decrease in money supply would lead to higher interest rates , which reduce investment and thereby lower output throughout the economy . Other economists built on the IS / LM framework . Notably , in 1944 , Franco Modigliani added a labor market . Modigliani 's model represented the economy as a system with general equilibrium across the interconnected markets for labor , finance , and goods , and it explained unemployment with rigid nominal wages .
Growth had been of interest to 18th @-@ century classical economists like Adam Smith , but work tapered off during the 19th and early 20th century marginalist revolution when researchers focused on microeconomics . The study of growth revived when neo @-@ Keynesians Roy Harrod and Evsey Domar independently developed the Harrod – Domar model , an extension of Keynes 's theory to the long @-@ run , an area Keynes had not looked at himself . Their models combined Keynes 's multiplier with an accelerator model of investment , and produced the simple result that growth equaled the savings rate divided by the capital output ratio ( the amount of capital divided by the amount of output ) . The Harrod – Domar model dominated growth theory until Robert Solow and Trevor Swan independently developed neoclassical growth models in 1956 . Solow and Swan produced a more empirically appealing model with " balanced growth " based on the substitution of labor and capital in production . Solow and Swan suggested that increased savings could only temporarily increase growth , and only technological improvements could increase growth in the long @-@ run . After Solow and Swan , growth research tapered off with little or no research on growth from 1970 until 1985 .
Economists incorporated the theoretical work from the synthesis into large @-@ scale macroeconometric models that combined individual equations for factors such as consumption , investment , and money demand with empirically observed data . This line of research reached its height with the MIT @-@ Penn @-@ Social Science Research Council ( MPS ) model developed by Modigliani and his collaborators . MPS combined IS / LM with other aspects of the synthesis including the neoclassical growth model and the Phillips curve relation between inflation and output . Both large @-@ scale models and the Phillips curve became targets for critics of the synthesis .
= = = Phillips curve = = =
Keynes did not lay out an explicit theory of price level . Early Keynesian models assumed wage and other price levels were fixed . These assumptions caused little concern in the 1950s when inflation was stable , but by the mid @-@ 1960s inflation increased and became an issue for macroeconomic models . In 1958 A.W. Phillips set the basis for a price level theory when he made the empirical observation that inflation and unemployment seemed to be inversely related . In 1960 Richard Lipsey provided the first theoretical explanation of this correlation . Generally Keynesian explanations of the curve held that excess demand drove high inflation and low unemployment while an output gap raised unemployment and depressed prices . In the late 1960s and early 1970s , the Phillips curve faced attacks on both empirical and theoretical fronts . The presumed trade @-@ off between output and inflation represented by the curve was the weakest part of the Keynesian system .
= = = Disequilibrium macroeconomics = = =
Despite its prevalence , the neoclassical synthesis had its Keynesian critics . A strain of disequilibrium or " non @-@ Walrasian " theory developed that criticized the synthesis for apparent contradictions in allowing disequilibrium phenomena , especially involuntary unemployment , to be modeled in equilibrium models . Moreover , they argued , the presence of disequilibrium in one market must be associated with disequilibrium in another , so involuntary unemployment had to be tied to an excess supply in the goods market . Many see Don Patinkin 's work as the first in the disequilibrium vein . Robert W. Clower ( 1965 ) introduced his " dual @-@ decision hypothesis " that a person in a market may determine what he wants to buy , but is ultimately limited in how much he can buy based on how much he can sell . Clower and Axel Leijonhufvud ( 1968 ) argued that disequilibrium formed a fundamental part of Keynes 's theory and deserved greater attention . Robert Barro and Herschel Grossman formulated general disequilibrium models in which individual markets were locked into prices before there was a general equilibrium . These markets produced " false prices " resulting in disequilibrium . Soon after the work of Barro and Grossman , disequilibrium models fell out of favor in the United States , and Barro abandoned Keynesianism and adopted new classical , market clearing hypotheses .
While American economists quickly abandoned disequilibrium models , European economists were more open to models without market clearing . Europeans such as Edmond Malinvaud and Jacques Drèze expanded on the disequilibrium tradition and worked to explain price rigidity instead of simply assuming it . Malinvaud ( 1977 ) used disequilibrium analysis to develop a theory of unemployment . He argued that disequilibrium in the labor and goods markets could lead to rationing of goods and labor , leading to unemployment . Malinvaud adopted a fixprice framework and argued that pricing would be rigid in modern , industrial prices compared to the relatively flexible pricing systems of raw goods that dominate agricultural economies . Prices are fixed and only quantities adjust . Malinvaud considers an equilibrium state in classical and Keynesian unemployment as most likely . Work in the neoclassical tradition is confined as a special case of Malinvaud 's typology , the Walrasian equilibrium . In Malinvaud 's theory , reaching the Walrasian equilibrium case is almost impossible to achieve given the nature of industrial pricing .
= = Monetarism = =
Milton Friedman developed an alternative to Keynesian macroeconomics eventually labeled monetarism . Generally monetarism is the idea that the supply of money matters for the macroeconomy . When monetarism emerged in the 1950s and 1960s , Keynesians neglected the role money played in inflation and the business cycle , and monetarism directly challenged those points .
= = = Criticizing and augmenting the Phillips curve = = =
The Phillips curve appeared to reflect a clear , inverse relationship between inflation and output . The curve broke down in the 1970s as economies suffered simultaneous economic stagnation and inflation known as stagflation . The empirical implosion of the Phillips curve followed attacks mounted on theoretical grounds by Friedman and Edmund Phelps . Phelps , although not a monetarist , argued that only unexpected inflation or deflation impacted employment . Variations of Phelps 's " expectations @-@ augmented Phillips curve " became standard tools . Friedman and Phelps used models with no long @-@ run trade @-@ off between inflation and unemployment . Instead of the Phillips curve they used models based on the natural rate of unemployment where expansionary monetary policy can only temporarily shift unemployment below the natural rate . Eventually , firms will adjust their prices and wages for inflation based on real factors , ignoring nominal changes from monetary policy . The expansionary boost will be wiped out .
= = = Importance of money = = =
Anna Schwartz collaborated with Friedman to produce one of monetarism 's major works , A Monetary History of the United States ( 1963 ) , which linked money supply to the business cycle . The Keynesians of the 1950s and 60s had adopted the view that monetary policy does not impact aggregate output or the business cycle based on evidence that , during the Great Depression , interest rates had been extremely low but output remained depressed . Friedman and Schwartz argued that Keynesians only looked at nominal rates and neglected the role inflation plays in real interest rates , which had been high during much of the Depression . In real terms , monetary policy had effectively been contractionary , putting downward pressure on output and employment , even though economists looking only at nominal rates thought monetary policy had been stimulative .
Friedman developed his own quantity theory of money that referred to Irving Fisher 's but inherited much from Keynes . Friedman 's 1956 " The Quantity Theory of Money : A Restatement " incorporated Keynes 's demand for money and liquidity preference into an equation similar to the classical equation of exchange . Friedman 's updated quantity theory also allowed for the possibility of using monetary or fiscal policy to remedy a major downturn . Friedman broke with Keynes by arguing that money demand is relatively stable — even during a downturn . Monetarists argued that " fine @-@ tuning " through fiscal and monetary policy is counterproductive . They found money demand to be stable even during fiscal policy shifts , and both fiscal and monetary policies suffer from lags that made them too slow to prevent mild downturns .
= = = Prominence and decline = = =
Monetarism attracted the attention of policy makers in the late @-@ 1970s and 1980s . Friedman and Phelps 's version of the Phillips curve performed better during stagflation and gave monetarism a boost in credibility . By the mid @-@ 1970s monetarism had become the new orthodoxy in macroeconomics , and by the late @-@ 1970s central banks in the United Kingdom and United States had largely adopted a monetarist policy of targeting money supply instead of interest rates when setting policy . However , targeting monetary aggregates proved difficult for central banks because of measurement difficulties . Monetarism faced a major test when Paul Volcker took over the Federal Reserve Chairmanship in 1979 . Volcker tightened the money supply and brought inflation down , creating a severe recession in the process . The recession lessened monetarism 's popularity but clearly demonstrated the importance of money supply in the economy . Monetarism became less credible when once @-@ stable money velocity defied monetarist predictions and began to move erratically in the United States during the early 1980s . Monetarist methods of single @-@ equation models and non @-@ statistical analysis of plotted data also lost out to the simultaneous @-@ equation modeling favored by Keynesians . Monetarism 's policies and method of analysis lost influence among central bankers and academics , but its core tenets of the long @-@ run neutrality of money ( increases in money supply cannot have long @-@ term effects on real variables , such as output ) and use of monetary policy for stabilization became a part of the macroeconomic mainstream even among Keynesians .
= = New classical economics = =
" New classical economics " evolved from monetarism and presented other challenges to Keynesianism . Early new classicals considered themselves monetarists , but the new classical school evolved . New classicals abandoned the monetarist belief that monetary policy could systematically impact the economy , and eventually embraced real business cycle models that ignored monetary factors entirely .
New classicals broke with Keynesian economic theory completely while monetarists had built on Keynesian ideas . Despite discarding Keynesian theory , new classical economists did share the Keynesian focus on explaining short @-@ run fluctuations . New classicals replaced monetarists as the primary opponents to Keynesianism and changed the primary debate in macroeconomics from whether to look at short @-@ run fluctuations to whether macroeconomic models should be grounded in microeconomic theories . Like monetarism , new classical economics was rooted at the University of Chicago , principally with Robert Lucas . Other leaders in the development of new classical economics include Edward Prescott at University of Minnesota and Robert Barro at University of Rochester .
New classical economists wrote that earlier macroeconomic theory was based only tenuously on microeconomic theory and described its efforts as providing " microeconomic foundations for macroeconomics . " New classicals also introduced rational expectations and argued that governments had little ability to stabilize the economy given the rational expectations of economic agents . Most controversially , new classical economists revived the market clearing assumption , assuming both that prices are flexible and that the market should be modeled at equilibrium .
= = = Rational expectations and policy irrelevance = = =
Keynesians and monetarists recognized that people based their economic decisions on expectations about the future . However , until the 1970s , most models relied on adaptive expectations , which assumed that expectations were based on an average of past trends . For example , if inflation averaged 4 % over a period , economic agents were assumed to expect 4 % inflation the following year . In 1972 Lucas , influenced by a 1961 agricultural economics paper by John Muth , introduced rational expectations to macroeconomics . Essentially , adaptive expectations modeled behavior as if it were backward @-@ looking while rational expectations modeled economic agents ( consumers , producers and investors ) who were forward @-@ looking . New classical economists also claimed that an economic model would be internally inconsistent if it assumed that the agents it models behave as if they were unaware of the model . Under the assumption of rational expectations , models assume agents make predictions based on the optimal forecasts of the model itself . This did not imply that people have perfect foresight , but that they act with an informed understanding of economic theory and policy .
Thomas Sargent and Neil Wallace ( 1975 ) applied rational expectations to models with Phillips curve trade @-@ offs between inflation and output and found that monetary policy could not be used to systematically stabilize the economy . Sargent and Wallace 's policy ineffectiveness proposition found that economic agents would anticipate inflation and adjust to higher price levels before the influx of monetary stimulus could boost employment and output . Only unanticipated monetary policy could increase employment , and no central bank could systematically use monetary policy for expansion without economic agents catching on and anticipating price changes before they could have a stimulative impact .
Robert E. Hall applied rational expectations to Friedman 's permanent income hypothesis that people base the level of their current spending on their wealth and lifetime income rather than current income . Hall found that people will smooth their consumption over time and only alter their consumption patterns when their expectations about future income change . Both Hall 's and Friedman 's versions of the permanent income hypothesis challenged the Keynesian view that short @-@ term stabilization policies like tax cuts can stimulate the economy . The permanent income view suggests that consumers base their spending on wealth , so a temporary boost in income would only produce a moderate increase in consumption . Empirical tests of Hall 's hypothesis suggest it may understate boosts in consumption due to income increases ; however , Hall 's work helped to popularize Euler equation models of consumption .
= = = The Lucas critique and microfoundations = = =
In 1976 Lucas wrote a paper criticizing large @-@ scale Keynesian models used for forecasting and policy evaluation . Lucas argued that economic models based on empirical relationships between variables are unstable as policies change : a relationship under one policy regime may be invalid after the regime changes . The Lucas 's critique went further and argued that a policy 's impact is determined by how the policy alters the expectations of economic agents . No model is stable unless it accounts for expectations and how expectations relate to policy . New classical economists argued that abandoning the disequilibrium models of Keynesianism and focusing on structure- and behavior @-@ based equilibrium models would remedy these faults . Keynesian economists responded by building models with microfoundations grounded in stable theoretical relationships .
= = = Lucas supply theory and business cycle models = = =
Lucas and Leonard Rapping laid out the first new classical approach to aggregate supply in 1969 . Under their model , changes in employment are based on worker preferences for leisure time . Lucas and Rapping modeled decreases in employment as voluntary choices of workers to reduce their work effort in response to the prevailing wage .
Lucas ( 1973 ) proposed a business cycle theory based on rational expectations , imperfect information , and market clearing . While building this model , Lucas attempted to incorporate the empirical fact that there had been a trade @-@ off between inflation and output without ceding that money was non @-@ neutral in the short @-@ run . This model included the idea of money surprise : monetary policy only matters when it causes people to be surprised or confused by the price of goods changing relative to one another . Lucas hypothesized that producers become aware of changes in their own industries before they recognize changes in other industries . Given this assumption , a producer might perceive an increase in general price level as an increase in the demand for his goods . The producer responds by increasing production only to find the " surprise " that prices had increased across the economy generally rather than specifically for his goods . This " Lucas supply curve " models output as a function of the " price " or " money surprise , " the difference between expected and actual inflation . Lucas 's " surprise " business cycle theory fell out of favor after the 1970s when empirical evidence failed to support this model .
= = = Real business cycle theory = = =
While " money surprise " models floundered , efforts continued to develop a new classical model of the business cycle . A 1982 paper by Kydland and Prescott introduced real business cycle theory ( RBC ) . Under this theory business cycles could be explained entirely by the supply side , and models represented the economy with systems at constant equilibrium . RBC dismissed the need to explain business cycles with price surprise , market failure , price stickiness , uncertainty , and instability . Instead , Kydland and Prescott built parsimonious models that explained business cycles with changes in technology and productivity . Employment levels changed because these technological and productivity changes altered the desire of people to work . RBC rejected the idea of high involuntary unemployment in recessions and not only dismissed the idea that money could stabilize the economy but also the monetarist idea that money could destabilize it .
Real business cycle modelers sought to build macroeconomic models based on microfoundations of Arrow – Debreu general equilibrium . RBC models were one of the inspirations for dynamic stochastic general equilibrium ( DSGE ) models . DSGE models have become a common methodological tool for macroeconomists — even those who disagree with new classical theory .
= = New Keynesian economics = =
New classical economics had pointed out the inherent contradiction of the neoclassical synthesis : Walrasian microeconomics with market clearing and general equilibrium could not lead to Keynesian macroeconomics where markets failed to clear . New Keynesians recognized this paradox , but , while the new classicals abandoned Keynes , new Keynesians abandoned Walras and market clearing . During the late 1970s and 1980s , new Keynesian researchers investigated how market imperfections like monopolistic competition , nominal frictions like sticky prices , and other frictions made microeconomics consistent with Keynesian macroeconomics . New Keynesians often formulated models with rational expectations , which had been proposed by Lucas and adopted by new classical economists .
= = = Nominal and real rigidities = = =
Stanley Fischer ( 1977 ) responded to Thomas J. Sargent and Neil Wallace 's monetary ineffectiveness proposition and showed how monetary policy could stabilize an economy even in a model with rational expectations . Fischer 's model showed how monetary policy could have an impact in a model with long @-@ term nominal wage contracts . John B. Taylor expanded on Fischer 's work and found that monetary policy could have long @-@ lasting effects — even after wages and prices had adjusted . Taylor arrived at this result by building on Fischer 's model with the assumptions of staggered contract negotiations and contracts that fixed nominal prices and wage rates for extended periods . These early new Keynesian theories were based on the basic idea that , given fixed nominal wages , a monetary authority ( central bank ) can control the employment rate . Since wages are fixed at a nominal rate , the monetary authority can control the real wage ( wage values adjusted for inflation ) by changing the money supply and thus impact the employment rate .
By the 1980s new Keynesian economists became dissatisfied with these early nominal wage contract models since they predicted that real wages would be countercyclical ( real wages would rise when the economy fell ) , while empirical evidence showed that real wages tended to be independent of economic cycles or even slightly procyclical . These contract models also did not make sense from a microeconomic standpoint since it was unclear why firms would use long @-@ term contracts if they led to inefficiencies . Instead of looking for rigidities in the labor market , new Keynesians shifted their attention to the goods market and the sticky prices that resulted from " menu cost " models of price change . The term refers to the literal cost to a restaurant of printing new menus when it wants to change prices ; however , economists also use it to refer to more general costs associated with changing prices , including the expense of evaluating whether to make the change . Since firms must spend money to change prices , they do not always adjust them to the point where markets clear , and this lack of price adjustments can explain why the economy may be in disequilibrium . Studies using data from the United States Consumer Price Index confirmed that prices do tend to be sticky . A good 's price typically changes about every four to six months or , if sales are excluded , every eight to eleven months .
While some studies suggested that menu costs are too small to have much of an aggregate impact , Laurence Ball and David Romer ( 1990 ) showed that real rigidities could interact with nominal rigidities to create significant disequilibrium . Real rigidities occur whenever a firm is slow to adjust its real prices in response to a changing economic environment . For example , a firm can face real rigidities if it has market power or if its costs for inputs and wages are locked @-@ in by a contract . Ball and Romer argued that real rigidities in the labor market keep a firm 's costs high , which makes firms hesitant to cut prices and lose revenue . The expense created by real rigidities combined with the menu cost of changing prices makes it less likely that firm will cut prices to a market clearing level .
= = = Coordination failure = = =
Coordination failure is another potential explanation for recessions and unemployment . In recessions a factory can go idle even though there are people willing to work in it , and people willing to buy its production if they had jobs . In such a scenario , economic downturns appear to be the result of coordination failure : The invisible hand fails to coordinate the usual , optimal , flow of production and consumption . Russell Cooper and Andrew John ( 1988 ) expressed a general form of coordination as models with multiple equilibria where agents could coordinate to improve ( or at least not harm ) each of their respective situations . Cooper and John based their work on earlier models including Peter Diamond 's ( 1982 ) coconut model , which demonstrated a case of coordination failure involving search and matching theory . In Diamond 's model producers are more likely to produce if they see others producing . The increase in possible trading partners increases the likelihood of a given producer finding someone to trade with . As in other cases of coordination failure , Diamond 's model has multiple equilibria , and the welfare of one agent is dependent on the decisions of others . Diamond 's model is an example of a " thick @-@ market externality " that causes markets to function better when more people and firms participate in them . Other potential sources of coordination failure include self @-@ fulfilling prophecies . If a firm anticipates a fall in demand , they might cut back on hiring . A lack of job vacancies might worry workers who then cut back on their consumption . This fall in demand meets the firm 's expectations , but it is entirely due to the firm 's own actions .
= = = Labor market failures = = =
New Keynesians offered explanations for the failure of the labor market to clear . In a Walrasian market , unemployed workers bid down wages until the demand for workers meets the supply . If markets are Walrasian , the ranks of the unemployed would be limited to workers transitioning between jobs and workers who choose not to work because wages are too low to attract them . They developed several theories explaining why markets might leave willing workers unemployed . Of these theories , new Keynesians were especially associated with efficiency wages and the insider @-@ outsider model used to explain long @-@ term effects of previous unemployment , where short @-@ term increases in unemployment become permanent and lead to higher levels of unemployment in the long @-@ run .
= = = = Insider @-@ outsider model = = = =
Economists became interested in hysteresis when unemployment levels spiked with the 1979 oil shock and early 1980s recessions but did not return to the lower levels that had been considered the natural rate . Olivier Blanchard and Lawrence Summers ( 1986 ) explained hysteresis in unemployment with insider @-@ outsider models , which were also proposed by of Assar Lindbeck and Dennis Snower in a series of papers and then a book . Insiders , employees already working at a firm , are only concerned about their own welfare . They would rather keep their wages high than cut pay and expand employment . The unemployed , outsiders , do not have any voice in the wage bargaining process , so their interests are not represented . When unemployment increases , the number of outsiders increases as well . Even after the economy has recovered , outsiders continue to be disenfranchised from the bargaining process . The larger pool of outsiders created by periods of economic retraction can lead to persistently higher levels of unemployment . The presence of hysteresis in the labor market also raises the importance of monetary and fiscal policy . If temporary downturns in the economy can create long term increases in unemployment , stabilization policies do more than provide temporary relief ; they prevent short term shocks from becoming long term increases in unemployment .
= = = = Efficiency wages = = = =
In efficiency wage models , workers are paid at levels that maximize productivity instead of clearing the market . For example , in developing countries , firms might pay more than a market rate to ensure their workers can afford enough nutrition to be productive . Firms might also pay higher wages to increase loyalty and morale , possibly leading to better productivity . Firms can also pay higher than market wages to forestall shirking . Shirking models were particularly influential . Carl Shapiro and Joseph Stiglitz ( 1984 ) created a model where employees tend to avoid work unless firms can monitor worker effort and threaten slacking employees with unemployment . If the economy is at full employment , a fired shirker simply moves to a new job . Individual firms pay their workers a premium over the market rate to ensure their workers would rather work and keep their current job instead of shirking and risk having to move to a new job . Since each firm pays more than market clearing wages , the aggregated labor market fails to clear . This creates a pool of unemployed laborers and adds to the expense of getting fired . Workers not only risk a lower wage , they risk being stuck in the pool of unemployed . Keeping wages above market clearing levels creates a serious disincentive to shirk that makes workers more efficient even though it leaves some willing workers unemployed .
= = New growth theory = =
Following research on the neoclassical growth model in the 1950s and 1960s , little work on economic growth occurred until 1985 . Papers by Paul Romer were particularly influential in igniting the revival of growth research . Beginning in the mid @-@ 1980s and booming in the early 1990s many macroeconomists shifted their focus to the long @-@ run and started " new growth " theories , including endogenous growth . Growth economists sought to explain empirical facts including the failure of sub @-@ Saharan Africa to catch up in growth , the booming East Asian Tigers , and the slowdown in productivity growth in the United States prior to the technology boom of the 1990s . Convergence in growth rates had been predicted under the neoclassical growth model , and this apparent predictive failure inspired research into endogenous growth .
Three families of new growth models challenged neoclassical models . The first challenged the assumption of previous models that the economic benefits of capital would decrease over time . These early new growth models incorporated positive externalities to capital accumulation where one firm 's investment in technology generates spillover benefits to other firms because knowledge spreads . The second focused on the role of innovation in growth . These models focused on the need to encourage innovation through patents and other incentives . A third set , referred to as the " neoclassical revival " , expanded the definition of capital in exogenous growth theory to include human capital . This strain of research began with Mankiw , Romer , and Weil ( 1992 ) , which showed that 78 % of the cross @-@ country variance in growth could be explained by a Solow model augmented with human capital .
Endogenous growth theories implied that countries could experience rapid " catch @-@ up " growth through an open society that encouraged the inflow of technology and ideas from other nations . Endogenous growth theory also suggested that governments should intervene to encourage investment in research and development because the private sector might not invest at optimal levels .
= = New synthesis = =
A " new synthesis " or " new neoclassical synthesis " emerged in the 1990s drawing ideas from both the new Keynesian and new classical schools . From the new classical school , it adapted RBC hypotheses , including rational expectations , and methods ; from the new Keynesian school , it took nominal rigidities ( price stickiness ) and other market imperfections . New synthesis theory developed RBC models called dynamic stochastic general equilibrium ( DSGE ) models . DSGE models formulate hypotheses about the behaviors and preferences of firms and households ; numerical solutions of the resulting DSGE models are computed . These models also included a " stochastic " element created by shocks to the economy . In the original RBC models these shocks were limited to technological change , but more recent models have incorporated other real changes . DSGE models have a theoretical advantage , avoiding the Lucas critique . The new synthesis was adopted by academic economists and soon by policy makers , such as central bankers .
Econometric analysis of DSGE models suggested that real factors sometimes affect the economy . A paper by Frank Smets and Rafael Woulters ( 2007 ) stated that monetary policy explained only a small part of the fluctuations in economic output . In new synthesis models , shocks can affect both demand and supply . The new synthesis implies that monetary policy can have a stabilizing effect on the economy , contrary to new classical theory .
Under the synthesis , debates have become less ideological and more methodological . Business cycle modelers can be broken into two camps : those in favor of calibration and those in favor of estimation . When models are calibrated , the modeler selects parameter values based on other studies or casual empirical observation . Instead of using statistical diagnostics to evaluate models , the model 's operating characteristics determine the quality of the model . Kydland and Prescott ( 1982 ) offered no formal evaluation of their model , but noted how variables like hours worked did not match real data well while the variances of other elements of the model did . When estimation methods are used , models are evaluated based on standard statistical goodness of fit criteria . Calibration is generally associated with real business cycle modelers of the new classical school , but methodological differences cut across ideology . While Lucas , Prescott , and Kydland are calibration advocates , another prominent new classical , Sargent , favors estimation .
= = 2008 financial crisis , Great Recession , and the breakdown of consensus = =
The 2007 – 2008 financial crisis and subsequent Great Recession challenged macroeconomic theory . Few economists predicted the crisis , and , even afterwards , there was great disagreement on how to address it . The new synthesis consensus broke down as economists debated policy responses to deal with the deep recession . The new synthesis formed during the Great Moderation and had not been tested in a severe economic environment . Many economists agree that the crisis stemmed from an economic bubble , but neither of the major macroeconomic schools had paid much attention to finance or a theory of asset bubbles : how they form , how they can be recognized , and how they can be prevented . The failures of current economic theory to deal with the crisis spurred economists to reevaluate their thinking . Commentary ridiculed the mainstream and proposed a major reassessment .
Elements of modern macroeconomic consensus were criticized following the financial crisis . Robert Solow testified before the U.S. Congress that DSGE modeling " has nothing useful to say about anti @-@ recession policy because it has built into its essentially implausible assumptions the ' conclusion ' that there is nothing for macroeconomic policy to do . " Solow also criticized DSGE models for frequently assuming that a single , " representative agent " can represent the complex interaction of the many diverse agents that make up the real world . Robert Gordon criticized much of macroeconomics after 1978 . Gordon called for a renewal of disequilibrium theorizing and disequilibrium modeling . He disparaged both new classical and new Keynesian economists who assumed that markets clear ; he called for a renewal of economic models that could included both market clearing and sticky @-@ priced goods , such as oil and housing respectively . While criticizing DSGE models , Ricardo J. Caballero argues that recent work in finance shows progress and suggests that modern macroeconomics needed to be re @-@ centered but not scrapped in the wake of the financial crisis .
= = Heterodox theories = =
Heterodox economists adhere to theories sufficiently outside the mainstream to be marginalized and treated as irrelevant by the establishment . Initially , heterodox economists including Joan Robinson , worked alongside mainstream economists , but heterodox groups isolated themselves and created insular groups in the late 1960s and 1970s . Present day heterodox economists often publish in their own journals rather than those of the mainstream and eschew formal modeling in favor of more abstract theoretical work .
The 2008 financial crisis and subsequent recession highlighted limitations of existing macroeconomic theories , models , and econometrics . The popular press discussed post @-@ Keynesian economics and Austrian economics , two heterodox traditions that have little influence on mainstream economics .
= = = Post Keynesian economics = = =
While neo @-@ Keynesians integrated Keynes 's ideas with neoclassical theory , post @-@ Keynesians went in other directions . Post @-@ Keynesians opposed the neoclassical synthesis and shared a fundamentalist interpretation of Keynes that sought to develop economic theories without classical elements . The core of post @-@ Keynesian belief is the rejection of three axioms that are central to classical and mainstream Keynesian views : the neutrality of money , gross substitution , and the ergodic axiom . Post @-@ Keynesians not only reject the neutrality of money in the short @-@ run , they also see money as an important factor in the long @-@ run , a view other Keynesians dropped in the 1970s . Gross substitution implies that goods are interchangeable . Relative price changes cause people to shift their consumption in proportion to the change . The ergodic axiom asserts that the future of the economy can be predicted based on the past and present market conditions . Without the ergodic assumption , agents are unable to form rational expectations , undermining new classical theory . In a non @-@ ergodic economy , predictions are very hard to make and decision @-@ making is hampered by uncertainty . Partly because of uncertainty , post @-@ Keynesians take a different stance on sticky prices and wages than new Keynesians . They do not see nominal rigidities as an explanation for the failure of markets to clear . They instead think sticky prices and long @-@ term contracts anchor expectations and alleviate uncertainty that hinders efficient markets . Post Keynesian economic policies emphasize the need to reduce uncertainty in the economy including safety nets and price stability . Hyman Minsky applied post @-@ Keynesian notions of uncertainty and instability to a theory of financial crisis where investors increasingly take on debt until their returns can no longer pay the interest on leveraged assets , resulting in a financial crisis . The financial crisis of 2007 – 2008 brought mainstream attention to Minsky 's work .
= = = Austrian business cycle theory = = =
The Austrian School of economics began with Carl Menger 's 1871 Principles of Economics . Menger 's followers formed a distinct group of economists until around the World War II when the distinction between Austrian economics and other schools of thought had largely broken down . The Austrian tradition survived as a distinct school , however , through the works of Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek . Present @-@ day Austrians are distinguished by their interest in earlier Austrian works and abstention from standard empirical methodology including econometrics . Austrians also focus on market processes instead of equilibrium . Mainstream economists are generally critical of its methodology .
Hayek created the Austrian business cycle theory , which synthesizes Menger 's capital theory and Mises 's theory of money and credit . The theory proposes a model of inter @-@ temporal investment in which production plans precede the manufacture of the finished product . The producers revise production plans to adapt to changes in consumer preferences . Producers respond to " derived demand , " which is estimated demand for the future , instead of current demand . If consumers reduce their spending , producers believe that consumers are saving for additional spending later , so that production remains constant . Combined with a market of loanable funds ( which relates savings and investment through the interest rate ) , this theory of capital production leads to a model of the macroeconomy where markets reflect inter @-@ temporal preferences . Hayek 's model suggests that an economic bubble begins when cheap credit initiates a boom where resources are misallocated , so that early stages of production receive more resources than they should and overproduction begins ; the later stages of capital are not funded for maintenance to prevent depreciation . Overproduction in the early stages cannot be processed by poorly maintained later stage capital . The boom becomes a bust when a lack of finished goods leads to " forced saving " since fewer finished goods can be produced for sale .
= = = Articles = = =
de Vroey , Michel ( 2004 ) . " The History of Macroeconomics Viewed against the Background of the Marshall @-@ Walras Divide " . History of Political Economy 36 : 57 – 91 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1215 / 00182702 @-@ 36 @-@ suppl _ 1 @-@ 57 .
= = = Books = = =
Handbooks in Economics
Taylor , John B. ; Woodford , Michael , eds . ( 1999 ) . Handbook of macroeconomics . Handbooks in Economics 1 – 3 . North @-@ Holland . ISBN 0 @-@ 444 @-@ 50156 @-@ 8 .
Handbook of Monetary Economics , Elsevier .
Friedman , Benjamin M. , and Frank H. Hahn , ed . , 1990 @.@ v. 1 links for description & contents and chapter @-@ outline previews
_ _ _ _ _ , 1990 @.@ v. 2 links for description & contents and chapter @-@ outline previews .
Friedman , Benjamin , and Michael Woodford , 2010 @.@ v. 3A & 3B links for description & and chapter abstracts .
Leijonhufvud , Axel ( 1981 ) . Information and coordination : essays in macroeconomic theory . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 502815 @-@ 7 .
Woodford , Michael ( 2003 ) . Interest and prices : Foundations of a theory of monetary policy . Princeton , New Jersey : Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 01049 @-@ 8 .
= = = Podcasts and videos = = =
Related Nobel Prize lecture videos and other material
Thomas Sargent and Chris Sims ( 2011 ) " Empirical research on cause and effect in the macroeconomy "
Peter Diamond , Dale Mortensen , and Christopher Pissarides ( 2010 ) " Analysis of markets with search frictions "
Edmund Phelps ( 2006 ) " Analysis of intertemporal tradeoffs in macroeconomic policy "
Finn E. Kydland and Edward C. Prescott ( 2004 ) " Dynamic macroeconomics : the time consistency of economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles "
George Akerlof , Michael Spence , and Joseph Stiglitz ( 2001 ) " Analyses of markets with asymmetric information " .
Institute for New Economic Thinking Conference Proceedings videos
Robert Skidelsky on " 1930 and the Challenge of the Depression for Economic Thinking : Friedrich Hayek versus John Maynard Keynes " – Keynes 's biographer on Keynesian theory and the economic crisis
Christopher Sims on " How empirical evidence does or does not influence economic thinking " – Sims defends DSGE models
EconTalk podcasts
Don Boudreaux on Macroeconomics and Austrian Business Cycle Theory
Ricardo Reis on Keynes , Macroeconomics , and Monetary Policy
Allan Meltzer on Inflation
Paul Romer on Growth
Milton Friedman on Money
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= Hurricane Able ( 1951 ) =
Hurricane Able was a rare hurricane that formed outside of the typical North Atlantic hurricane season . The first tropical cyclone in 1951 , Able developed from a trough of low pressure on May 15 about 300 miles ( 480 km ) south of Bermuda . Initially subtropical in nature , Able acquired tropical characteristics as it moved over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream and attained hurricane status on May 17 off the coast of Florida . This made Able one of only four May Atlantic hurricanes on record . On May 22 Able reached peak winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) about 70 miles ( 115 km ) off of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . The hurricane weakened as it turned eastward , and became an extratropical cyclone on May 23 .
Hurricane Able did not affect land significantly . In Florida , the storm dropped light precipitation , while in the Bahamas it produced winds of up to 95 mph ( 152 km / h ) . From North Carolina through New England , Able produced higher than normal tides . No casualties were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
An active trough of low pressure exited the East Coast of the United States on May 12 , and by the following day it passed near Bermuda . Initially the trough was located only near the surface , though as cold air from behind it advanced eastward , the trough extended into the mid- to upper @-@ levels of the atmosphere . By May 14 a closed low pressure area developed in seclusion from the westerlies . Continued cold air from behind the trough , about 12 ° F ( 7 ° C ) colder than usual for the time of year , extended across the low in conjunction with warm upper levels and warm sea surface temperatures , resulting in large amounts of instability . The polar trough gradually weakened as the low organized , and on May 15 it developed into a subtropical depression while located about 300 miles ( 480 km ) south of Bermuda .
Located under an upper @-@ level low , the depression initially tracked briskly to the northwest , followed by a turn to the west @-@ southwest on May 16 as the upper @-@ level low turned southwestward . Later on the 16th , the depression approached the warmest waters of the Gulf Stream . Strong divergence from the upper @-@ level low and a high pressure system to its northeast provided favorable conditions towards transitioning into a tropical cyclone , and late on the 16th the depression attained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . The storm continued to intensify as it turned to the southwest , and early on May 17 a ship near the center reported about 55 mph ( 88 km / h ) winds and up to 30 foot ( 9 m ) waves while located about 125 miles ( 200 km ) east of Daytona Beach , Florida , indicating the system transitioned into a tropical storm . The Navy reconnaissance squadron flew into the system later that day , and reported a storm of full hurricane strength moving southward .
Receiving the name Able , the small hurricane turned to the southeast and to the east while passing near or over the Bahama Banks . Able subsequently turned to the northeast and later to the north , and finished executing its cyclonic loop on May 20 . The hurricane continued to intensify with an eye 20 miles ( 32 km ) in diameter , and on May 21 Reconnaissance Aircraft estimated the hurricane attained peak winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . Shortly thereafter Able passed about 70 miles ( 110 km ) east of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina , and early on May 22 Able weakened from its peak intensity after turning to the east . On May 23 it deteriorated into a tropical storm while passing over cooler waters , and that night Able became an extratropical cyclone while located about 520 miles ( 840 km ) south of Halifax , Nova Scotia . The extratropical remnant turned to the northeast before losing its identity late on May 24 .
= = Impact and records = =
Storm warnings were issued from Savannah , Georgia to Fort Pierce , Florida subsequent to the discovery of the hurricane . The National Weather Bureau advised all small craft to remain at port and recommended residents in the northern Bahamas to take immediate precautions . On Grand Bahama , the threat of Hurricane Able resulted in a construction crew to evacuate further inland ; the crew was constructing an observation post for guiding long @-@ range missiles from Cape Canaveral . Fishermen on dozens of boats left the open ocean for safety on two Bahamian islands , while two airplanes safely rode out the hurricane . Small craft warnings and storm warnings were later issued from North Carolina through New England .
The outer rainbands of Able produced light rainfall and high seas along the Florida coastline . While moving slowly near the Bahamas , Able produced strong winds reaching 90 to 95 mph ( 145 to 152 km / h ) at Walker Cay , and minimal hurricane force on Grand Bahama and Little Abaco Island . The hurricane produced high surf in Wilmington , North Carolina and abnormally high tides northward through New England , though no damage was reported . A ship called " City of Eastbourne " sailed through the storm and reported hurricane @-@ force winds , along with " mountainous , confused seas and driving rain . "
Able is one of only four North Atlantic hurricanes on record to exist during the month of May , the others occurring in 1889 , 1908 , and 1970 . None of the others reached winds of more than 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . It was described as " wrong way , wrong time " , referring to its unusual motion to the southwest near the Bahamas , as well as its presence outside of the normal hurricane season . Additionally , the Weather Bureau described it as a " freak of freaks " .
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= 1974 – 75 Buffalo Braves season =
The 1974 – 75 Buffalo Braves season was the fifth season for the expansion Buffalo Braves franchise in the National Basketball Association and its Atlantic Division . It was the team 's third season under head coach Jack Ramsay . The team 's official home arena was Buffalo Memorial Auditorium .
Despite losing three key players in Gar Heard , Jim McMillian and Ernie DiGregorio for long stretches , the Braves continued to improve . The Braves finished in 2nd place with a 49 – 33 record , as Bob McAdoo captured the NBA MVP Award . McAdoo led the league with 34 @.@ 5 points per game , while adding 14 @.@ 1 rebounds per game , which was 4th best in the league .
In the 1975 NBA Playoffs , the Braves earned the franchise 's second playoff berth , this time against the Washington Bullets . The series went to seven games . However , the Braves lost game seven 115 – 96 on the road . After the season , the team was occupied with legal wrangling surrounding the departure of minority owner and general manager Eddie Donovan .
= = Transactions = =
On August 29 , 1974 , the Braves purchased Dale Schlueter from the Atlanta Hawks . On September 4 , 1974 , Matt Guokas was traded along with a 1977 NBA Draft second round pick and a future second round draft pick to the Chicago Bulls for Bob Weiss . Bernie Harris was waived on January 20 , 1975 . Mike Macaluso did not return to play for the Braves and never played in the NBA again .
On March 21 , Braves general manager Eddie Donovan announced that he would resign effective April 1 . The resignation was controversial because there were rumors that he would return to work for his prior team , New York Knicks , but there were simultaneous rumors that the Knicks had unfairly tampered with Donovan while under contract with the Braves . Upon the announced resignation , NBA Commissioner Walter Kennedy announced that the league would conduct a hearing on the matter . The transition was complicated by Donovan 's 5 % ownership of the Braves . Incoming commissioner , Larry O 'Brien announced an amicable settlement as one of his first orders of business .
= = Offseason = =
Prior to the season the team lost Bob Kauffman to the New Orleans Jazz in the May 20 , 1974 NBA Expansion Draft .
= = = NBA Draft = = =
The following members of the 1974 – 75 Buffalo Braves were drafted during the 1974 NBA Draft . McMillen played for a year in Europe before joining the 1975 – 76 Buffalo Braves . He played for a team in Bologna , Italy .
= = Roster = =
= = Regular season = =
Overview
An early eleven @-@ game winning streak helped the Braves achieve a 16 – 4 record to start the season and a later seven @-@ game streak took them to 31 – 16 . Buffalo supplanted the New York Knicks as Boston 's closest competitor in the Atlantic foursome with 49 wins and 33 losses . Buffalo boasted high @-@ scoring super star Bob McAdoo , who posted a 34 @.@ 5 scoring average to lead the NBA , while making more field goals than any other player . He also led in minutes played , while also ranking among the best rebounders and shot blockers in the league . McAdoo also earned 798 free throw tries , another league high , converting 81 % of his attempts . The Braves lost reigning NBA Rookie of the Year Ernie DiGregorio to a knee injury that limited him to 31 games , watched former Laker Jim McMillian battle illness that caused him to miss 20 games , and also lost Gar Heard for 15 games , which dropped the team from the elite and put more of the load on their star . The Braves attendance increased by 40 @,@ 000 to 467 @,@ 267 in their 41 home games , but the team fell to 5th of 18 teams . The team defense improved sufficiently to create an average 2 @.@ 2 @-@ point scoring margin after a slight average deficit the year before .
McMillian ranked tenth in the league in field goal percentage . Heard ranked 9th in blocks per game ( 1 @.@ 8 ) . Jack Marin , who played in 81 games , ranked seventh in free throw percentage ( 86 @.@ 9 % ) . Randy Smith , who played in all 82 regular @-@ season games for the third consecutive season , finished fourth in assists per game ( 6 @.@ 5 ) . McAdoo , who also played all 82 games , led the NBA in minutes played , field goals , rebounds ( ranked fourth per game ) , points , and points per game . Meanwhile , he ranked sixth in blocks per game , second in total free throws , and fifth in field goal percentage . This performance earned him the league MVP and first team All @-@ NBA honors .
= = = October – November = = =
As he had the season before , DiGregorio had a tremendous opening night with 33 points . The Braves defeated the defending champion Boston Celtics 126 – 119 , giving them their first win in nine games against Boston as a visitor . The Celtics had eliminated the Braves from the 1975 NBA Playoffs . DiGregorio was sidelined after six games due to knee surgery . After a 4 – 3 start , the Braves won eleven in a row starting with a November 3 , 1974 , victory over the Los Angeles Lakers at the Los Angeles Forum and culminating with a November 23 victory over the Phoenix Suns at home . In order to win the eighth game of the streak , the Braves had to overcome a seventeen @-@ point deficit to earn a 111 – 106 victory against the Golden State Warriors . Even after losing to the Chicago Bulls on November 24 , their 15 – 4 record was the best in the NBA .
= = = December – January = = =
During December , the Braves dealt with injuries to McMillan , who required an emergency appendectomy , and DiGregorio . After their great start , the Braves compiled a 6 – 7 month of December . On December 19 , despite 49 points by McAdoo , the Braves lost to the Cleveland Cavaliers . On December 28 , the NBA 's smallest player , Calvin Murphy scored a career @-@ high 45 points to lead the Houston Rockets to a 125 – 117 victory over Buffalo . By January , Heard was suffering from a knee injury . As a result , in some games , the Braves only played seven players . In a January 3 game against the Detroit Pistons , Dale Schlueter was involved in two altercations that resulted in bench @-@ clearing brawls . In January 1975 , the Braves recorded a seven @-@ game winning streak starting with a January 10 win over the Cavaliers and ending with a January 24 victory over the New York Knicks . In the fifth game of the streak , McAdoo outscored Pete Maravich 43 – 40 at New Orleans .
= = = February – April = = =
Following an 11 – 4 January , the Braves struggled to a 7 – 7 record in February . On January 24 , DiGregorio returned to the active roster following his October 29 knee cartilage injury . The March 13 victory against the Golden State Warriors established the franchise record for most wins in a season at 43 , surpassing the prior season 's total of 42 . From March 14 to March 21 , the Braves posted their season @-@ worst four @-@ game losing streak . Donovan announced his April 1 resignation in late March . In late March , DiGregorio was sidelined for the rest of the season . The Braves then went on a five @-@ game winning streak from March 22 to March 29 , but the team lost three of four April regular @-@ season games .
= = = Season standings = = =
= = = Record vs. opponents = = =
= = = Season schedule = = =
Source : www.basketball @-@ reference.com
= = Playoffs = =
During the playoffs , the Braves captured home court advantage with a victory over the Washington Bullets in game 1 of the Eastern Conference Semifinals , but the Bullets returned the favor in game two . The home teams won the remaining games as Buffalo lost the series in seven games . DiGregorio missed the playoffs . McAdoo played 46 @.@ 7 minutes per game during the playoffs and averaged 37 @.@ 4 points , which both led the league . Heard averaged 11 @.@ 7 points and 10 @.@ 9 rebounds .
During the regular season the Bullets had been 36 – 5 ( which was an NBA single @-@ season record for home victories ) at home , but lost both games to the Braves . The Braves then opened the series at the Capital Centre with a 113 – 102 victory in game 1 . McAdoo was the game @-@ high scorer with 35 and game @-@ high rebounder with 14 . The Bullets rebounded for a 120 – 106 victory in game 2 in Buffalo . Wes Unseld totaled 25 rebounds and Elvin Hayes added 16 as well as 34 points . Meanwhile , McAdoo , who had averaged 14 @.@ 1 rebounds during the regular season only had 6 . In game 3 , Phil Chenier scored 18 points in the third quarter as the Bullets expanded a 53 – 52 lead to 81 – 70 . Unseld had 18 rebounds and Hayes had 16 to go along with his 30 points . McAdoo had a game @-@ high 34 and Smith added 26 in a losing effort . Before game 4 , McAdoo received his hardware for his league MVP and league scoring title and responded that night with a 50 @-@ point performance as the Braves evened the series 2 – 2 with a 108 – 102 victory . Two nights later Hayes responded with 46 points , including 16 in the fourth quarter , as the Bullets completed a 97 – 93 comeback victory to regain the series lead 3 – 2 . In the game , the score was tied at 89 with two minutes left when Nick Weatherspoon hit a 17 @-@ foot jumper to give the Bullets the lead for good . Chenier and Hayes built the lead up to 94 – 89 before McMillian made two short shots to bring the Braves back within 1 point in the final minute . An Unseld offensive rebound and putback of a Hayes miss gave the Bullets crucial points in the final seconds . On the night Hayes shot 19 @-@ for 26 and McAdoo countered with 34 points . In game 6 , the Braves earned a 102 – 96 victory as McAdoo scored 9 of his 37 points in the final five minutes . The game had 19 tie scores , with the last being at 89 . In game 7 , Washington jumped to a 28 – 13 lead after one quarter behind 14 points by Chenier . Washington expanded the lead to 42 – 19 before closing the first half with a 56 – 38 lead . On the night , Chenier had a career @-@ high 39 points in the 115 – 96 victory . McAdoo had 36 for Buffalo .
= = = Playoff schedule = = =
Source : www.basketball @-@ reference.com
= = Player stats = =
= = Awards and honors = =
Bob McAdoo , NBA Most Valuable Player
Bob McAdoo , NBA Scoring Champion
Bob McAdoo All @-@ NBA Team ( 1st team )
Bob McAdoo 1975 NBA All @-@ Star Game
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= A Streetcar Named Marge =
" A Streetcar Named Marge " is the second episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 1 , 1992 . In the episode , Marge wins the role of Blanche DuBois in a musical version of Tennessee Williams ' A Streetcar Named Desire . Homer offers little support for his wife 's acting pursuits , and Marge begins to see parallels between him and Stanley Kowalski , the play 's boorish lead male character . The episode contains a subplot in which Maggie Simpson attempts to retrieve her pacifier from a strict daycare owner .
Jeff Martin wrote the episode , and Rich Moore served as director . Jon Lovitz made his fourth guest appearance on The Simpsons , this time as musical director Llewellyn Sinclair , as well as Llewellyn 's sister , who runs the daycare . The episode generated controversy for its original song about New Orleans , which contains several unflattering lyrics about the city . One New Orleans newspaper published the lyrics before the episode aired , prompting numerous complaints to the local Fox affiliate . In response , the president of Fox Broadcasting issued an apology to anyone who was offended . Despite the controversial song , the episode was well received by many fans , and show creator Matt Groening has named it one of his favorite episodes .
= = Plot = =
While Homer , Bart and Lisa are watching television , Marge announces that she is going to audition for a local musical production of A Streetcar Named Desire , and she wants to meet new people because she usually spends all day caring for Maggie . The rest of the family pay no attention and continue to watch television .
The musical is called " Oh , Streetcar ! " , which is directed by Llewellyn Sinclair . After Ned Flanders is cast as Stanley Kowalski , Marge auditions for Blanche DuBois . Llewellyn immediately rejects Marge , explaining that Blanche is supposed to be a " delicate flower being trampled by an uncouth lout " . However , as a dejected Marge calls home and takes Homer 's dinner order , Llewellyn realizes that she is perfect for the role .
The next day , Maggie causes distractions when Marge brings her to rehearsal , so Llewellyn tells Marge to enroll the baby at the daycare center called Ayn Rand School for Tots which is run by his sister Ms. Sinclair , who immediately confiscates Maggie 's pacifier . Maggie and the other babies later engage in an attempt to retrieve their pacifiers , but Ms. Sinclair thwarts their efforts and sends Maggie to a playpen .
During rehearsal , Marge struggles with a scene in which Blanche is supposed to break a glass bottle and attack Stanley , but she cannot muster enough anger towards the Stanley character to break the bottle . After coming home , Marge asks Homer to help her learn her lines , but Homer is disinterested . The day before the performance , Marge and Ned are again practising the bottle scene as Homer arrives to drive Marge home . Homer repeatedly interrupts the rehearsal . Imagining that Stanley is Homer , Marge finally smashes the bottle and lunges at Ned .
The next day at the Ayn Rand School for Tots , Maggie again attempts to regain the pacifiers and this time succeeds . Homer arrives to pick her up and he and his children go to watch the musical . Homer immediately falls into boredom , but he perks up when Marge appears on stage and becomes saddened over the way Stanley treats Blanche . All the while Homer slowly picks up the plot and Marge 's feelings along with it . At the end of the musical , Marge receives a warm reaction from the crowd , but she misinterprets Homer 's sadness for boredom . Afterwards , she confronts him with hostility , but Homer is able to explain that he was genuinely moved by Blanche 's situation . Thus , he reacted with sadness because he wanted to be the husband that she deserves to have in her life who loved her , not like Stanley who neglects and mistreats her . Marge realizes that Homer really did watch the musical , and the two happily leave the theater .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and music = = =
" A Streetcar Named Marge " was conceived about two years before it aired on television . Jeff Martin first pitched the idea of Homer being in a theatrical production of 1776 . Producer James L. Brooks then suggested that Marge could play Blanche DuBois in A Streetcar Named Desire . Brooks saw that Marge 's relationship with Homer was similar to Blanche 's relationship with Stanley , and he wanted to use that fact to build the emotional arc for an episode . The estate of Tennessee Williams would not let the show use large excerpts from the actual play , since the work was copyrighted . However , Fox lawyer Anatole Klebanow said that original songs based on the play were acceptable . According to producer Mike Reiss , Klebanow even promised to " take [ their ] case to the Supreme Court to get [ the ] episode aired . " Martin later explained that while the songs made the episode funnier , they also made it harder to write .
The Maggie subplot was present in Jeff Martin 's episode pitch . The music in the sequence is Elmer Bernstein 's march theme from The Great Escape . Simpsons composer Alf Clausen secured the rights to the score , along with the original orchestra charts . The Great Escape had been Martin 's favorite film as child , and he said " it was so exciting and so stirring " to hear the music being performed by the Simpsons ' studio orchestra .
= = = Animation = = =
" A Streetcar Named Marge " posed a challenge to the show 's animation directors . The episode contains many long setpieces , especially during the third and final act , which includes the end of the Maggie subplot and the performance of the musical . Several scenes required the animators to draw dozens of background characters . Rich Moore , the head director , initially feared the episode would not be completed in time . David Silverman , the supervising director , also had doubts ; according to Jeff Martin , Moore sent back a cartoon of himself reading the script with his eyes popping out and his jaw dropped . Producer Al Jean said that Moore " worked himself to death " to produce the episode 's most elaborate sequences .
A number of scenes that appeared in the storyboard and animatic were reordered or dropped altogether in the final version of the episode . Much of the Maggie subplot , for example , was modified before the episode aired . A scene in which the babies lock Ms. Sinclair in her office is missing from the final version of the episode .
= = = Voice acting = = =
All the main Simpsons cast members lent their voices to the episode , along with semi @-@ regulars Maggie Roswell and Phil Hartman . Assistant producer Lona Williams also had a minor speaking role . Comedian Jon Lovitz , who played Llewellyn Sinclair and Ms. Sinclair , made his fourth guest appearance on The Simpsons . He had previously voiced characters in " The Way We Was " , " Brush with Greatness " , and " Homer Defined " . Lovitz later worked with Al Jean and Mike Reiss in the short @-@ lived animated sitcom The Critic , and returned to The Simpsons for the episodes " A Star Is Burns " , " Hurricane Neddy " , " Half @-@ Decent Proposal " , " The Ziff Who Came to Dinner " , and " Homerazzi " . In 2006 , Lovitz was named the eighth best Simpsons guest star by IGN .
= = Cultural references = =
Though " Oh , Streetcar ! " is based on A Streetcar Named Desire , the title of the musical alludes to the theatrical revue Oh ! Calcutta ! . Besides Blanche and Stanley , characters from A Streetcar Named Desire who appear in " Oh , Streetcar ! " include Stella ( played by Helen Lovejoy ) , the Young Collector ( played by Apu Nahasapeemapetilon ) , Mitch ( played by Lionel Hutz ) , the Doctor ( played by Chief Wiggum ) , Steve ( played by Jasper Beardley , although Apu originally said he was playing Steve ) , and Pablo ( originally played by Otto Mann but taken over by Llewellyn prior to curtain ) . The musical 's closing song , " Kindness of Strangers " , is a reference to Blanche 's last line in the original play : " I have always depended on the kindness of strangers . " However , the song is very cheery in tone , intentionally missing the point of Blanche 's line , which is meant to be ironic .
The episode contains multiple references to Ayn Rand 's novels and Objectivist philosophy . Maggie 's daycare center is called the " Ayn Rand School for Tots " , and Ms. Sinclair can be seen reading a book called The Fountainhead Diet , a reference to Rand 's novel The Fountainhead . On the wall of the daycare is a poster that reads " Helping is Futile " , an allusion to Rand 's rejection of the ethical doctrine of altruism . Another wall sign reads " A is A " , the law of identity , which plays a central role in Rand 's novel Atlas Shrugged . The Ayn Rand School for Tots is seen again in the 2012 short film The Longest Daycare .
The Maggie subplot uses the musical score of The Great Escape and contains several other allusions to the film . At one point , Ms. Sinclair punishes Maggie by sending her to a playpen called " The Box " , a play on " The Cooler " from the 1963 film . Maggie even bounces a ball against the wall of the playpen , as Steve McQueen 's character Virgil Hilts does throughout the film while he is in confinement .
In the scene when Homer , Bart and Lisa pick up Maggie from the daycare center , babies are perched all over the building , staring at the family and quietly sucking on pacifiers . This is a spoof of the final shot of Alfred Hitchcock 's The Birds . Indeed , a cartoon @-@ version of Hitchcock can be seen walking his dogs past the daycare , a reference to his own cameo appearance in the film . The episode also contains an allusion to the opera scene in Citizen Kane , in which Homer plays with a shredded playbill while he watches his wife in the musical .
= = Merchandise = =
All the songs from " A Streetcar Named Marge " were released on Walt Disney Records ' 2000 album Songs in the Key of Springfield . The episode was included in the 2005 VHS set The Simpsons Go Hollywood and released on DVD in 2004 as part of The Simpsons Complete Fourth Season . Jon Lovitz participated in the DVD 's audio commentary , alongside Matt Groening , Al Jean , Mike Reiss , Jeff Martin , and Hank Azaria .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " A Streetcar Named Marge " finished 32nd in ratings for the week of September 27 – October 4 , 1992 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 11 @.@ 0 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Married ... with Children . Since airing , it has received many positive reviews from fans and television critics . Michael Moran of The Times ranked the episode as the seventh best in the show 's history . Entertainment Weekly 's Dalton Ross lauded it as " the show 's best ever musical episode " , while Dave Kehr of The New York Times called it a " brilliant ... parody of Broadway musicals that should be required viewing for every Tony viewer . " In a list of his favorite episodes , Kevin Williamson of Canadian Online Explorer added , " As pitch @-@ perfect eviscerations of community theatre go , this tops Waiting for Guffman . " Series creator Matt Groening has listed it as one of his own favorites , calling the subplot " Maggie 's finest moment " , and future Simpsons guest star Trey Anastasio said the episode " may have been the best TV show ever " . Executive producer James L. Brooks also listed it as one of his favorites , saying it " showed we could go into areas no one thought we could go into " . Following the episode , the Ayn Rand Society called Groening to say they were amazed at the references to Rand . They also asked him if the show was making fun of them .
In 1993 , " A Streetcar Named Marge " and " Mr. Plow " were submitted for the Primetime Emmy Award for " Outstanding Comedy Series " . Before this season , the series had only been allowed to compete in the " Outstanding Animated Program " category , winning twice , but in early 1993 the rules were changed so that animated television shows would be able to submit nominations for " Outstanding Comedy Series " . However , the Emmy voters were hesitant to pit cartoons against live action programs , and The Simpsons did not receive a nomination . The Simpsons ' crew submitted episodes for Outstanding Comedy Series the next season , but again these were not nominated . Since then , the show has submitted episodes in the animation category and has won seven times .
= = = Controversy = = =
The musical within the episode contains a controversial song about New Orleans , which describes the city as a " home of pirates , drunks and whores " , among other things . Jeff Martin , the writer of the episode , had meant the song to be a parody of a song in Sweeney Todd , which speaks of London in unflattering terms ( " There 's No Place Like London " ) . Al Jean later explained that two Cajun characters were supposed to walk out of the theater in disgust , but none of the voice actors could provide a convincing Cajun accent . An early version of the scene can be seen in an animatic included in the DVD boxset .
Before the premiere of the fourth season , the producers sent two episodes to critics : " Kamp Krusty " and " A Streetcar Named Marge " . A New Orleans critic viewed " A Streetcar Named Marge " and published the song lyrics in his newspaper before the episode aired . Many readers took the lyrics out of context , and New Orleans ' then @-@ Fox affiliate , WNOL @-@ TV ( then @-@ owned by musician Quincy Jones ; the Fox affiliation for the area later moved to WVUE ) , received about one hundred complaints on the day the episode aired . Several local radio stations also held on @-@ air protests in response to the song .
At the urging of WNOL , Fox president Jamie Kellner released a statement on October 1 , 1992 :
The Simpsons ' producers rushed out a chalkboard gag for " Homer the Heretic " , which aired a week after " A Streetcar Named Marge " . It read , " I will not defame New Orleans . " The gag was their attempt to apologize for the song and hopefully bring the controversy to an end . " We didn 't realize people would get so mad , " said Al Jean . " It was the best apology we could come up with in eight words or less . " The issue passed quickly , and a person in a Bart Simpson costume even served as Krewe of Tucks Grand Marshal at the 1993 New Orleans Mardi Gras .
The episode generated further controversy in September 2005 , when Channel 4 in the United Kingdom decided to air the episode a week after Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans . Arguing that the episode was an insensitive choice , given recent events , several viewers filed complaints with Ofcom . Two days later , Channel 4 apologized on @-@ air and directly contacted all those who had complained . Channel 4 had screened the episode for offensive content , but the reviews focused on the main content of the episode , and the song was not considered a key part of the plot . Channel 4 promised to update their review process to ensure that similar incidents would not occur .
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= Cortana ( Halo ) =
Cortana is a fictional synthetic intelligence character in the Halo video game series . Voiced by Jen Taylor , she appears in Halo : Combat Evolved and its sequels , Halo 2 , Halo 3 , Halo 4 and Halo 5 : Guardians . She also appears in a cutscene and the epilogue of the prequel Halo : Reach , as well as in several of the franchise 's novels and comics . During gameplay , Cortana provides backstory and tactical information to the player , who assumes the role of Master Chief Petty Officer John @-@ 117 . In the story , she is instrumental in preventing the activation of the Halo installations , which would have destroyed all sentient life in the galaxy .
Cortana 's original design was based on the Egyptian queen Nefertiti ; the character 's holographic representation always takes the form of a woman . Bungie first introduced Cortana — and Halo — through the Cortana Letters , emails sent during Combat Evolved 's production in 1999 . Since then , the character has been used extensively to advertise the series . Cortana has been recognized for her sex appeal , believability , and character depth . The character was the inspiration for Microsoft 's intelligent personal assistant .
= = Character design = =
The first Cortana was designed and modelled by Bungie artist Chris Hughes . Cortana 's original Halo model 's face was based on the sculpture of Egyptian Queen Nefertiti .
Voice actress Jen Taylor said that she remained somewhat distanced from the character , and she attended only one fan convention in six years after the release of Halo : Combat Evolved . Despite her role in voicing other video game characters , including Princess Peach , she is not a gamer . She felt that portraying Cortana was occasionally challenging because the character lacks a physical form and is " a computer . " Interviewed about Cortana in Halo 3 , Taylor said that " There 's a lot more drama and a lot less technical jargon this time around . I actually just finished a couple of lines that nearly had me in tears . " When choosing a voice actor for the character , Bungie originally wanted Cortana to have a British accent . Although this idea was later discarded , Cortana still uses British colloquialisms in Halo : Combat Evolved .
Halo Effect : An Unauthorized Look at the Most Successful Video Game of All Time , an essay on references to mythology in Halo and previous Bungie games , analyzed the significance of Cortana 's name , stating is a variant of Curtana , the sword used by the legendary Ogier the Dane , just as the titular AI character of Marathon 2 : Durandal is apparently named after another legendary sword , Durendal . Curtana 's inscription reveals that the sword has the same " temper as Joyeuse and Durendal . " Accordingly , some speculated before the release of Halo 3 whether the " smart " Cortana would follow Marathon 's Durandal in succumbing to rampancy , a concept invented by Bungie in which an AI character becomes insane by gaining too much knowledge .
= = = Attributes = = =
Cortana is constructed from the cloned brain of Dr. Catherine Elizabeth Halsey , the creator of the SPARTAN Project ; Halsey 's synaptic networks became the basis for Cortana 's processors . According to the Halo novels , Cortana is classified as a " smart " AI , meaning that her creative matrix is allowed to expand , in contrast to the limited matrix of other " dumb " AI characters in the stories . This ability allows Cortana to learn and adapt beyond her basic parameters , but at the cost of a limited " lifespan " of only seven years ; eventually , she will fall to rampancy , a terminal state of being for Artificial intelligence constructs , in which the AI " develops delusions of godlike power " , as well as utter contempt for its mentally inferior makers . Rampant AI normally cannot return to their previous state and must be destroyed before they harm themselves and others around them , but Cortana could be saved if she and the Master Chief can get back to Dr. Halsey on Earth ; because she was created using the living tissue of Dr. Halsey .
Cortana is highly skilled and capable of hacking alien computer systems and decoding transmissions and occasionally smug about her abilities . In Halo : The Fall of Reach she hacks into Top Secret Office of Naval Intelligence ( ONI ) documents out of boredom . Her intellect occasionally causes her to be loquacious to a fault ; in The Fall of Reach , Halsey notes that if she were to let Cortana continue with her hypothesis , then the AI would talk all day . The Doctor also sees Cortana as a teenage version of herself : smarter than her parents , always " talking , learning , and eager to share her knowledge . " Cortana is also described as having a sardonic sense of humor ; she often cracks jokes or wryly comments , even during combat . Her high spirits and lack of programming restrictions give her a set of behavioral " quirks " unique among most AI characters in the Halo universe . For example , she becomes irate and impatient when the Master Chief doubts her judgment in Halo : First Strike .
As an artificial construct , Cortana has no physical form or being . Cortana always speaks with a smooth female voice , and she can communicate through comm systems and project a holographic image of herself from appropriate projectors , such as Holotanks , and appears holographically as a woman . Cortana is said to resemble her creator , Dr. Catherine Halsey , with a similar attitude " only unchecked by military and social protocol . " In Halo : The Fall of Reach , Cortana is described as slender , with close @-@ cropped hair and a skin hue that varies from navy blue to lavender , depending on her mood . Numbers and symbols flash across her form when she is thinking . In Halo 4 Cortana has become more human in appearance with more subtle additions being added to her character model such as a gap being visible between her front teeth . Cortana was played by actress Mackenzie Mason using advanced facial rendering technology to capture movements in her face while speaking to add a more human look .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
Cortana first appears during the introductory cutscene of Halo : Combat Evolved . In the 2003 novelization of the game , Halo : The Flood , Cortana likewise plays an important role . Controlling the Pillar of Autumn 's defenses , Cortana destroys four Covenant targets before the ship 's weapons are disabled . Under the Cole Protocol , Captain Keyes , the Autumn 's commanding officer , prepares to abandon ship : the protocol mandates the evacuation of any AI constructs , thereby charging the Master Chief with safeguarding Cortana from the Covenant . When the Master Chief arrives on Halo , Cortana monitors the communications channels , helps direct human survivors scattered across the ring , and assists the Master Chief in the rescue of Captain Keyes from the Covenant ship Truth and Reconciliation . Inserted into Halo 's Control Room , Cortana looks for a way to activate Halo to use as a weapon against the Covenant but becomes visibly agitated and sends the Master Chief to find Captain Keyes . Cortana stays in Halo 's computer core as the Master Chief encounters the parasitic Flood and is conscripted by the Forerunner construct 343 Guilty Spark to activate Halo 's defenses . The Master Chief and Guilty Spark return to the Control Room intent on using the Index , the key to Halo , to eliminate the Flood , but Cortana reveals the truth that she has learned : Halo does not kill Flood , but their food . Activating Halo would destroy all sentient life in the galaxy . She takes the Index — thus becoming a target for 343 Guilty Spark — and plans with Master Chief to destroy Halo . They succeed after Cortana helps the Chief to detonate the Pillar of Autumn 's fusion reactors , causing an explosion powerful enough to destabilize the ringworld . The two escape in a fighter and witness the ring 's destruction .
Cortana appears next in Halo 2 at an awards ceremony for the heroes of Halo : Combat Evolved on the Earth defense platform Cairo Station . A Covenant fleet arrives , and Cortana takes control of the Cairo 's coilgun , the Magnetic Accelerator Cannon , to repel the invaders ; she successfully deactivates a bomb that would have destroyed the station with the help of the Master Chief . Following the Master Chief 's decision to leave the station to " give the Covenant back their bomb " , Cortana chooses to accompany him despite thinking his plan crazy and guides him through New Mombasa in his attempt to capture the Prophet of Regret . Later , upon discovering Delta Halo , Cortana gives Commander Miranda Keyes access to all information on the original Halo and provides intelligence to the Chief and United Nations Space Command ( UNSC ) Marines on the surface of the ring . When sent by the Flood leader , Gravemind , to the Covenant city @-@ ship of High Charity , Cortana stays put as the Master Chief follows the Prophet of Truth . She promises to detonate the crashed In Amber Clad 's reactors to destroy the city and Halo if the ring is activated . The Arbiter , and Sergeant Major Avery Johnson avert the firing of Halo , but Cortana is left with Gravemind , who has by then overrun High Charity .
Cortana returns in the third installment in the Halo series , the 2007 Xbox 360 game Halo 3 . During gameplay , Cortana appears to the player in broken transmissions , often reciting lines from Fall of Reach and earlier games . Cortana manages to send a message to the Master Chief on Earth through a Flood @-@ infected ship . In her message , she states that Gravemind is unaware of the portal opened by a Forerunner artifact on Earth . Cortana continues to appear to the Chief , who later recovers her from Flood @-@ controlled High Charity . Surprised that the Chief has against all odds rescued her ( as promised ) Cortana produces the Index from Installation 04 , which she has kept as a souvenir . With it , Cortana activates a new ringworld being constructed . While the Flood are destroyed as planned , the slipspace portal through which Master Chief , the Arbiter , and Cortana attempt to escape collapses , thus stranding the Chief and Cortana . Cortana activates a distress beacon , but she knows that years could pass before rescue comes . As the Master Chief prepares to go into cryonic sleep to await rescue , Cortana confides to him that she will miss him . He replies to wake him when she needs him .
Cortana makes an appearance in the last levels of 2010 's Halo : Reach , which in the game 's universe takes place before Combat Evolved . When the Spartan group Noble Team receives orders to destroy important intelligence inside the military installation Sword Base , Cortana contacts Noble Team and sends them to an excavation site under the base . There , Halsey contacts the team and shows them a massive Forerunner structure buried beneath the surface . Halsey downloads Cortana and gives her to the soldier Noble 6 , instructing the team to bring the AI to the UNSC ship Pillar of Autumn . While most of Noble Team 's six soldiers were killed , Noble 6 hands Cortana over to Captain Keyes and elects to stay behind and protect the ship while it makes its escape .
In the fourth game , the Xbox exclusive Halo 4 , Cortana wakes the Chief when Covenant forces attack the remains of the UNSC Forward Unto Dawn , then crashes with him on Requiem . Over the course of the game , Cortana begins showing strange signs and behavior : vocal and graphic glitches , irrational behavior and a tendency to become irritable or angered . Their cause is soon revealed : Cortana 's operation beyond her seven @-@ year lifespan and her interaction with the Halo installations and the Flood have caused her to become Rampant , a state of over @-@ knowledge that makes AIs ' think ' themselves to death . Helped by the Master Chief and kept safe from the captain of the Infinity , who wishes to delete her , she helps in the battle against the Didact , a rogue Forerunner who hates humanity , and stops his scheme to convert the Earth and its people into his army using the Composer . In doing so , she has to fragment her various rampant personalities and upload them into the system , which first brings down the shields around the central core , then enables her to save Master Chief from the Didact . In a final act of love , she shields the Master Chief when he destroys the Composer , then , using the last of her energy to manifest as a solid hologram , she bids a final farewell to the Chief , managing to touch him for the first time .
Halo 5 shows Halsey explaining that Cortana has recovered from Rampancy and attained meta @-@ stability by gaining access to The Domain , a Forerunner database thought to have been destroyed after the firing of the Halo Array . How the UNSC and Halsey are aware that Cortana gained access to The Domain is unknown . She explains to Master Chief on Genesis that she survived by falling through slipspace , and likens the Domain to the " Water Of Life for AI 's " . Her goal now is to preserve an ever lasting peace by subjugating all biological life . Whether this is a direct reaction to her link with The Domain , influence from The Didact ( as their goals are now extremely similar ) or some other external influence is yet to be known . With all Promethean troops and most Forerunner tech now under her command , and believing she cannot trust the Chief , who tries to reason with her , she converts most , if not all of the UNSC 's AI constructs to her cause and begins her assault by plunging Humanity into a new Dark Age , using the Guardian 's EMP abilities to shut off most UNSC technology , except The Infinity which barely escapes with Roland , the ship 's AI , still intact and seemingly loyal . In the Legendary Ending , a Halo ring can be seen activating accompanied by Cortana humming . Whether she found it or built it is unknown although , considering she has access to the Domain , the Guardians , Forerunner tech and a multitude of different AI constructs at her disposal , building her own ring is not out of the realms of possibility .
= = = In novels = = =
The origin of Cortana is not explained in the video games , but in the Halo novels . Her first chronological appearance in the story is in Halo : The Fall of Reach , a 2001 prequel to the first Halo game . Dr. Halsey allows Cortana to choose which SPARTAN @-@ II soldier to accompany on an upcoming mission ; Cortana picks the Master Chief , whom she believes is her best match . Cortana makes a reference to this event via voiceover in Halo 3 during a cinematic before gameplay begins . Cortana and the Spartans are assigned a near @-@ suicidal mission : to take the cruiser Pillar of Autumn to the home world of the Covenant , an alliance of alien races , and capture one of their Prophets to force a truce . Cortana 's role is to act as a mission specialist , hacking the Covenant systems and piloting the captured Covenant ship . Before the mission , Cortana helps the Master Chief to survive the near @-@ lethal exercises designed to test the Chief 's MJOLNIR battle armor . Afterward , she plants incriminating evidence in the files of Colonel Ackerson , the ONI operative who nearly killed both of them , as revenge . When the Covenant attacks the planet Reach , one of the largest planetary military bases besides Earth , Cortana guides the Pillar of Autumn based on star charts on a Forerunner tablet , thus bringing them to Halo . During Halo : The Flood , Cortana serves the same role she did in Halo : Combat Evolved , but her role is expanded such as showing her saving the Master Chief 's life from a Flood Infection Form at one point .
Eric Nylund 's 2003 novel Halo : First Strike takes place immediately after the events of Halo : Combat Evolved . Cortana and the Master Chief , seemingly the sole survivors of the events of Halo , discover a small number of other UNSC personnel have in fact escaped the ring . Cortana helps to take control of a Covenant cruiser , Ascendant Justice , and later returns to Earth with the remaining survivors after destroying the Covenant space station Unyielding Hierophant . In this novel , Cortana gains the ability to create imperfect clones of her program . A clone that the Master Chief and his Spartan Blue Team bring to Unyielding Hierophant eventually re @-@ clones itself hundreds of times to aid the Spartans in completing their mission .
= = = In promotion = = =
Bungie first introduced the Halo series publicly in 1999 by sending the Cortana Letters , a series of cryptic email messages , to the maintainer of marathon.bungie.org , a fan site for one of Bungie 's previous series , the Marathon Trilogy . The strategic use of cryptic messages in a publicity campaign was repeated in I Love Bees , a promotion for Halo 2 . Although Bungie does not consider most of the letters to be canon , Cortana speaks many of the same lines in Halo 3 . According to C. J. Cowan , Bungie 's director of cinematics , the studio used the character here to give story clues without actually revealing the story .
Cortana has been turned into an action figure twice to promote Halo . The first was released as a seven @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) miniature as part of the Halo : Combat Evolved series of action figures . The character is also featured in the first series of Halo 3 action figures , distributed by McFarlane Toys . In an interview , McLees noted that the first action figure was supposed to convey an older appearance than was depicted in the games . This was accomplished by making the figure look a little buxom , despite McLees ' direct request to reduce the mass of the figure . She explains that the sculptor appeared reluctant to make the change and that time constraints ultimately left the design intact .
= = = Windows Digital Assistant = = =
Microsoft developed its virtual assistant for the Windows Phone operating system under the codename Cortana , but retained the name for the final product following a strong response in the developer community . The voice actor of Cortana in the games , Jen Taylor , provides the voice for the virtual assistant . Microsoft released a beta for Cortana in April 2014 with the developer release of Windows Phone 8 @.@ 1 . Microsoft also released Cortana virtual assistant on the Xbox One , Windows Phone 8 @.@ 1 , and Windows 10 .
= = Reception = =
When Cortana 's role greatly expanded in Halo 3 , Fairfax New Zealand noted that the character " has inexplicably had a sexy makeover . " According to Cinema Blend , the " love story " between Master Chief and Cortana in this game provides " a focus to the game that an epic war between species can not accomplish . As Chief , the player needs something to anchor them into the story , and that happens to be Cortana . "
Part of Cortana 's appeal has lain in her good looks . In 2007 , the character was ranked as ninth on the list of top " Xbox babes " by Team Xbox , featured by GameDaily 's " Babe of the Week " , and listed as the sixth most " disturbingly sexual game character " by Games.net. In 2008 , GameDaily ranked her as the 38th " hottest game babe . " In 2009 , 1UP.com ranked the character as the fifth best video game computer , noting that as Cortana 's sanity waned in the video games , her clothing appeared to decrease as well . In 2010 , GameTrailers included her on their countdown of the top 10 " babes who are out of your league " at number two . In 2011 , UGO.com included her on the list of the 50 " video game hotties " , calling her " a certified hottie " in spite of being " just ... a big pile of ones and zeroes . " In the " battle of the beauties " feature , Complex chose her over GLaDOS for her more human @-@ like voice . In 2012 , MSN included her among the 20 " hottest women in video game history " while Revision3 ranked her the third sexiest " video game girl . " Thanh Niên ranked her as the fourth most sexy female video game character in 2015 .
Aside from appearance , the media found other aspects to praise . In 2007 , Cortana was named one of the 50 greatest female characters by Tom 's Hardware for the character 's determination and fearlessness , which meshed perfectly with the game 's protagonist . In 2010 , Cracked.com ranked her as first on the list of the supporting characters in video games . In 2011 , UGO.com ranked her as the second best video game companion , while Maximum PC included her in the list of the 25 of gaming 's greatest sidekicks .
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= SM UB @-@ 3 =
SM UB @-@ 3 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. She disappeared on her first patrol in May 1915 , and was the first of her class to be lost .
UB @-@ 3 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel in November . UB @-@ 3 was a little more than 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 142 metric tons ( 125 and 140 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . She was launched and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 3 in March 1915 .
UB @-@ 3 was broken into sections and shipped by rail to the Austro @-@ Hungarian port of Pola in April for reassembly . She officially joined the Pola Flotilla on 1 May and departed on her first patrol for temporary duty in Turkey on 23 May , and was never seen again . A postwar German study concluded that UB @-@ 3 was likely the victim of an unexplained technical problem in the absence of any minefields or enemy action .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow environment off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 metric tons ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes . UB @-@ 3 was part of the initial allotment of eight submarines — numbered UB @-@ 1 to UB @-@ 8 — ordered on 15 October from Germaniawerft of Kiel , just shy of two months after planning for the class began .
UB @-@ 3 was laid down by Germaniawerft on 3 November and was launched on 5 March 1915 . As built , UB @-@ 3 was 92 feet 2 inches ( 28 @.@ 09 m ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Daimler 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 6 @.@ 47 knots ( 11 @.@ 98 km / h ; 7 @.@ 45 mph ) , surfaced , and 5 @.@ 51 knots ( 10 @.@ 20 km / h ; 6 @.@ 34 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 650 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 060 km ; 1 @,@ 900 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 3 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 3 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 3 's complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men .
= = Service career = =
The submarine was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 3 on 14 March under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Siegfried Schmidt , a 27 @-@ year @-@ old , first @-@ time U @-@ boat skipper , and underwent trials in German home waters .
As one of the UB I boats selected for Mediterranean duty , UB @-@ 3 was readied for rail shipment . The process of shipping a UB I boat involved breaking the submarine down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . UB @-@ 3 was shipped to the port of Pola , site of ally Austria – Hungary 's main naval base , on 15 April . After UB @-@ 3 's parts arrived at Pola , it took about two weeks to assemble them . UB @-@ 3 joined the Pola Flotilla ( German : Deutsche U @-@ Halbflotille Pola ) on 1 May .
By late May , UB @-@ 3 had made her way down the Adriatic to the Austro – Hungarian port of Cattaro , the base from which most boats of the Pola Flotilla actually operated . For her first patrol , UB @-@ 3 was loaded with ammunition for Turkish forces at İzmir , Turkey . Because of her limited range , UB @-@ 3 was towed by the light cruiser SMS Novara of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy through the Straits of Otranto and cast off near the island of Kérkira . UB @-@ 3 's planned route was south of the Ionian Islands , around the Peloponnese , through the Cyclades , north around Khios and Karaburun , and into the Gulf of İzmir . If all went well , UB @-@ 3 would have arrived at İzmir on 28 or 29 May with about half her fuel left . The Germans received a garbled radio message from UB @-@ 3 when she was about 80 nautical miles ( 150 km ; 92 mi ) from İzmir , but were unable to completely understand it . No trace of UB @-@ 3 has ever been found . UB @-@ 3 was the first of the UB I boats to be lost during the war .
A postwar German study concluded that UB @-@ 3 's loss was probably the result of some unexplained technical problem , because there were no minefields along UB @-@ 3 's route and no record of any attacks against U @-@ boats in the area . British records , and some sources based on them , give the particulars of UB @-@ 3 's demise as being in the North Sea on 24 April 1916 , which authors R. H. Gibson and Maurice Prendergast assert was actually the fate of UB @-@ 13 . They also point out that UB @-@ 3 had gone missing nearly a year before UB @-@ 3 's supposed sinking in the North Sea .
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= London =
London / ˈlʌndən / is the capital and most populous city of England , Great Britain , and the United Kingdom . On the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain , London has been a major settlement for two millennia . It was founded by the Romans , who named it Londinium . London 's ancient core , the City of London , largely retains its 1 @.@ 12 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 9 km2 ) medieval boundaries . Since at least the 19th century , " London " has also referred to the metropolis around this core , which now forms the county of Greater London governed by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly , historically split between Middlesex , Essex , Surrey , Kent , and Hertfordshire .
London is a leading global city , in the arts , commerce , education , entertainment , fashion , finance , healthcare , media , professional services , research and development , tourism , and transport . It is one of the world 's leading financial centres and has the fifth @-@ or sixth @-@ largest metropolitan area GDP in the world . London is a world cultural capital . It is the world 's most @-@ visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the world 's largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic . London is one of the world 's leading investment destinations , hosting more international retailers and ultra high @-@ net @-@ worth individuals than any other city . London 's universities form the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe , and a 2014 report placed it first in the world university rankings . According to the report London also ranks first in the world in software , multimedia development and design , and shares first position in technology readiness . In 2012 , London became the first city to host the modern Summer Olympic Games three times .
London has a diverse range of peoples and cultures , and more than 300 languages are spoken within Greater London . Its estimated mid @-@ 2015 population was 8 @,@ 673 @,@ 713 , the largest of any city in the European Union , and accounting for 12 @.@ 5 per cent of the UK population . London 's urban area is the second most populous in the EU , after Paris , with 9 @,@ 787 @,@ 426 inhabitants at the 2011 census . The city 's metropolitan area is one of the most populous in Europe with 13 @,@ 879 @,@ 757 inhabitants , while the Greater London Authority states the population of the city @-@ region ( covering a large part of the south east ) as 22 @.@ 7 million . London was the world 's most populous city from around 1831 to 1925 .
London contains four World Heritage Sites : the Tower of London ; Kew Gardens ; the site comprising the Palace of Westminster , Westminster Abbey , and St Margaret 's Church ; and the historic settlement of Greenwich ( in which the Royal Observatory , Greenwich marks the Prime Meridian , 0 ° longitude , and GMT ) . Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace , the London Eye , Piccadilly Circus , St Paul 's Cathedral , Tower Bridge , Trafalgar Square , and The Shard . London is home to numerous museums , galleries , libraries , sporting events and other cultural institutions , including the British Museum , National Gallery , Natural History Museum , Tate Modern , British Library and West End theatres . The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The etymology of London is uncertain . It is an ancient name , found in sources from the 2nd century . It is recorded c.121 as Londinium , which points to Romano @-@ British origin , and hand @-@ written Roman tablets recovered in the city from AD65 / 70 @-@ 80 include the word Londinio ( " in London " ) . The earliest attempted explanation , now disregarded , is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae . This had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud , who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud .
From 1898 , it was commonly accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called * Londinos ; this explanation has since been rejected . Richard Coates put forward an explanation in 1998 that it is derived from the pre @-@ Celtic Old European * ( p ) lowonida , meaning ' river too wide to ford ' , and suggested that this was a name given to the part of the River Thames which flows through London ; from this , the settlement gained the Celtic form of its name , * Lowonidonjon ; this requires quite a serious amendment however . The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain , which should demand a form * ( h ) lōndinion ( as opposed to * londīnion ) , from earlier * loundiniom . The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date , and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name .
Until 1889 , the name " London " officially applied only to the City of London , but since then it has also referred to the County of London and now Greater London .
= = = Prehistory = = =
Two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area . In 1999 , the remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found on the foreshore north of Vauxhall Bridge . This bridge either crossed the Thames , or went to a now lost island in the river . Dendrology dated the timbers to 1500 BC . In 2010 the foundations of a large timber structure , dated to 4500 BC , were found on the Thames foreshore , south of Vauxhall Bridge . The function of the mesolithic structure is not known . Both structures are on South Bank , at a natural crossing point where the River Effra flows into the River Thames .
= = = Roman London = = =
Although there is evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area , the first major settlement was founded by the Romans after the invasion of 43 AD . This lasted only until around 61 , when the Iceni tribe led by Queen Boudica stormed it , burning it to the ground . The next , heavily planned , incarnation of Londinium prospered , and it superseded Colchester as the capital of the Roman province of Britannia in 100 . At its height in the 2nd century , Roman London had a population of around 60 @,@ 000 .
= = = Anglo @-@ Saxon London ( and Viking period ) = = =
With the collapse of Roman rule in the early 5th century , London ceased to be a capital and the walled city of Londinium was effectively abandoned , although Roman civilisation continued in the St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields area until around 450 . From around 500 , an Anglo @-@ Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed in the same area , slightly to the west of the old Roman city . By about 680 , it had revived sufficiently to become a major port , although there is little evidence of large @-@ scale production of goods . From the 820s the town declined because of repeated Viking invasions . There are three recorded Viking assaults on London ; two of which were successful in 851 and 886 AD , although they were defeated during the attack of 994 AD .
The Vikings established Danelaw over much of the eastern and northern part of England with its boundary roughly stretching from London to Chester . It was an area of political and geographical control imposed by the Viking incursions which was formally agreed to by the Danish warlord , Guthrum and west @-@ Saxon king , Alfred the Great in 886 AD . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle recorded that London was " refounded " by Alfred the Great in 886 . Archaeological research shows that this involved abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life and trade within the old Roman walls . London then grew slowly until about 950 , after which activity increased dramatically .
By the 11th century , London was beyond all comparison the largest town in England . Westminster Abbey , rebuilt in the Romanesque style by King Edward the Confessor , was one of the grandest churches in Europe . Winchester had previously been the capital of Anglo @-@ Saxon England , but from this time on , London became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war . In the view of Frank Stenton : " It had the resources , and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self @-@ consciousness appropriate to a national capital . "
= = = Middle Ages = = =
Following his victory in the Battle of Hastings , William , Duke of Normandy , was crowned King of England in the newly finished Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066 . William constructed the Tower of London , the first of the many Norman castles in England to be rebuilt in stone , in the southeastern corner of the city , to intimidate the native inhabitants . In 1097 , William II began the building of Westminster Hall , close by the abbey of the same name . The hall became the basis of a new Palace of Westminster .
In the 12th century , the institutions of central government , which had hitherto accompanied the royal English court as it moved around the country , grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed in one place . In most cases this was Westminster , although the royal treasury , having been moved from Winchester , came to rest in the Tower . While the City of Westminster developed into a true capital in governmental terms , its distinct neighbour , the City of London , remained England 's largest city and principal commercial centre , and it flourished under its own unique administration , the Corporation of London . In 1100 , its population was around 18 @,@ 000 ; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100 @,@ 000 . Disaster struck during the Black Death in the mid @-@ 14th century , when London lost nearly a third of its population . London was the focus of the Peasants ' Revolt in 1381 .
= = = Early modern = = =
During the Tudor period the Reformation produced a gradual shift to Protestantism , much of London passing from church to private ownership . The traffic in woollen cloths shipped undyed and undressed from London to the nearby shores of the Low Countries , where it was considered indispensable . But the tentacles of English maritime enterprise hardly extended beyond the seas of north @-@ west Europe . The commercial route to Italy and the Mediterranean Sea normally lay through Antwerp and over the Alps ; any ships passing through the Strait of Gibraltar to or from England were likely to be Italian or Ragusan . Upon the re @-@ opening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565 , there ensued a strong outburst of commercial activity . The Royal Exchange was founded . Mercantilism grew , and monopoly trading companies such as the East India Company were established , with trade expanding to the New World . London became the principal North Sea port , with migrants arriving from England and abroad . The population rose from an estimated 50 @,@ 000 in 1530 to about 225 @,@ 000 in 1605 .
In the 16th century William Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived in London at a time of hostility to the development of the theatre . By the end of the Tudor period in 1603 , London was still very compact . There was an assassination attempt on James I in Westminster , through the Gunpowder Plot on 5 November 1605 .
During the English Civil War the majority of Londoners supported the Parliamentary cause . After an initial advance by the Royalists in 1642 culminating in the battles of Brentford and Turnham Green , London was surrounded by defensive perimeter wall known as the Lines of Communication . The lines were built by an up to 20 @,@ 000 people , and were completed in under two months . The fortifications failed their only test when the New Model Army entered London in 1647 , and they were levelled by Parliament the same year .
London was plagued by disease in the early 17th century , culminating in the Great Plague of 1665 – 1666 , which killed up to 100 @,@ 000 people , or a fifth of the population .
The Great Fire of London broke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings . Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by Robert Hooke as Surveyor of London . In 1708 Christopher Wren 's masterpiece , St Paul 's Cathedral was completed . During the Georgian era , new districts such as Mayfair were formed in the west ; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development in South London . In the east , the Port of London expanded downstream .
In 1762 , George III acquired Buckingham House and it was enlarged over the next 75 years . During the 18th century , London was dogged by crime , and the Bow Street Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force . In total , more than 200 offences were punishable by death , including petty theft . Most children born in the city died before reaching their third birthday . The coffeehouse became a popular place to debate ideas , with growing literacy and the development of the printing press making news widely available ; and Fleet Street became the centre of the British press .
According to Samuel Johnson :
You find no man , at all intellectual , who is willing to leave London . No , Sir , when a man is tired of London , he is tired of life ; for there is in London all that life can afford .
= = = Late modern and contemporary = = =
London was the world 's largest city from about 1831 to 1925 . London 's overcrowded conditions led to cholera epidemics , claiming 14 @,@ 000 lives in 1848 , and 6 @,@ 000 in 1866 . Rising traffic congestion led to the creation of the world 's first local urban rail network . The Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some of the surrounding counties ; it was abolished in 1889 when the London County Council was created out of those areas of the counties surrounding the capital . London was bombed by the Germans during the First World War , and during the Second World War , the Blitz and other bombings by the German Luftwaffe killed over 30 @,@ 000 Londoners , destroying large tracts of housing and other buildings across the city . Immediately after the war , the 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium , at a time when London had barely recovered from the war .
In 1951 , the Festival of Britain was held on the South Bank . The Great Smog of 1952 led to the Clean Air Act 1956 , which ended the " pea soup fogs " for which London had been notorious . From the 1940s onwards , London became home to a large number of immigrants , largely from Commonwealth countries such as Jamaica , India , Bangladesh and Pakistan , making London one of the most diverse cities in Europe .
Primarily starting in the mid @-@ 1960s , London became a centre for the worldwide youth culture , exemplified by the Swinging London subculture associated with the King 's Road , Chelsea and Carnaby Street . The role of trendsetter was revived during the punk era . In 1965 London 's political boundaries were expanded to take into account the growth of the urban area and a new Greater London Council was created . During The Troubles in Northern Ireland , London was subjected to bombing attacks by the Provisional IRA . Racial inequality was highlighted by the 1981 Brixton riot .
Greater London 's population declined steadily in the decades after the Second World War , from an estimated peak of 8 @.@ 6 million in 1939 to around 6 @.@ 8 million in the 1980s . The principal ports for London moved downstream to Felixstowe and Tilbury , with the London Docklands area becoming a focus for regeneration , including the Canary Wharf development . This was borne out of London 's ever @-@ increasing role as a major international financial centre during the 1980s . The Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the North Sea .
The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986 , which left London as the only large metropolis in the world without a central administration . In 2000 , London @-@ wide government was restored , with the creation of the Greater London Authority . To celebrate the start of the 21st century , the Millennium Dome , London Eye and Millennium Bridge were constructed . On 6 July 2005 London was awarded the 2012 Summer Olympics , making London the first city to stage the Olympic Games three times . On 7 July 2005 , three London Underground trains and a double @-@ decker bus were bombed in a series of terrorist attacks . In January 2015 , Greater London 's population was estimated to be 8 @.@ 63 million , the highest level since 1939 .
During the Brexit referendum in 2016 , UK as a whole decided to leave the European Union , but London voted to remain in the EU . This led to over a hundred thousands of Londoners petitioning Mayor Sadiq Khan to declare London 's independence from the UK and rejoin the EU . Supporters cite London 's status as a " world city " and its demographic and economic differences from the rest of the United Kingdom , and argue that it should become a city @-@ state based on the model of Singapore , while remaining an EU member state .
= = Government = =
= = = Local government = = =
The administration of London is formed of two tiers — a city @-@ wide , strategic tier and a local tier . City @-@ wide administration is coordinated by the Greater London Authority ( GLA ) , while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities . The GLA consists of two elected components ; the Mayor of London , who has executive powers , and the London Assembly , which scrutinises the mayor 's decisions and can accept or reject the mayor 's budget proposals each year . The headquarters of the GLA is City Hall , Southwark ; the mayor is Sadiq Khan . The mayor 's statutory planning strategy is published as the London Plan , which was most recently revised in 2011 . The local authorities are the councils of the 32 London boroughs and the City of London Corporation . They are responsible for most local services , such as local planning , schools , social services , local roads and refuse collection . Certain functions , such as waste management , are provided through joint arrangements . In 2009 – 2010 the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over £ 22 billion ( £ 14 @.@ 7 billion for the boroughs and £ 7 @.@ 4 billion for the GLA ) .
The London Fire Brigade is the statutory fire and rescue service for Greater London . It is run by the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority and is the third largest fire service in the world . National Health Service ambulance services are provided by the London Ambulance Service ( LAS ) NHS Trust , the largest free @-@ at @-@ the @-@ point @-@ of @-@ use emergency ambulance service in the world . The London Air Ambulance charity operates in conjunction with the LAS where required . Her Majesty 's Coastguard and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution operate on the River Thames , which is under the jurisdiction of the Port of London Authority from Teddington Lock to the sea .
= = = National government = = =
London is the seat of the Government of the United Kingdom . Many government departments are based close to the Palace of Westminster , particularly along Whitehall , including the Prime Minister 's residence at 10 Downing Street . The British Parliament is often referred to as the " Mother of Parliaments " ( although this sobriquet was first applied to England itself by John Bright ) because it has been the model for most other parliamentary systems . There are 73 Members of Parliament ( MPs ) from London , who correspond to local parliamentary constituencies in the national Parliament . As of May 2015 , 45 are from the Labour Party , 27 are Conservatives , and one is a Liberal Democrat .
= = = Policing and crime = = =
Policing in Greater London , with the exception of the City of London , is provided by the Metropolitan Police Service , overseen by the Mayor through the Mayor 's Office for Policing and Crime ( MOPAC ) . The City of London has its own police force – the City of London Police . The British Transport Police are responsible for police services on National Rail , London Underground , Docklands Light Railway and Tramlink services . A fourth police force in London , the Ministry of Defence Police , do not generally become involved with policing the general public .
Crime rates vary widely by area , ranging from parts with serious issues to parts considered very safe . Today crime figures are made available nationally at Local Authority and Ward level . In 2015 there were 118 homicides , a 25 @.@ 5 % increase over 2014 . The Metropolitan Police have made detailed crime figures , broken down by category at borough and ward level , available on their website since 2000 .
= = Geography = =
= = = Scope = = =
London , also referred to as Greater London , is one of 9 regions of England and the top @-@ level subdivision covering most of the city 's metropolis . The small ancient City of London at its core once comprised the whole settlement , but as its urban area grew , the Corporation of London resisted attempts to amalgamate the city with its suburbs , causing " London " to be defined in a number ways for different purposes .
Forty per cent of Greater London is covered by the London post town , within which ' LONDON ' forms part of postal addresses . The London telephone area code ( 020 ) covers a larger area , similar in size to Greater London , although some outer districts are omitted and some places just outside are included . The Greater London boundary has been aligned to the M25 motorway in places .
Outward urban expansion is now prevented by the Metropolitan Green Belt , although the built @-@ up area extends beyond the boundary in places , resulting in a separately defined Greater London Urban Area . Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt . Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer London . The city is split by the River Thames into North and South , with an informal central London area in its interior . The coordinates of the nominal centre of London , traditionally considered to be the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall , are approximately 51 ° 30 ′ 26 ″ N 00 ° 07 ′ 39 ″ W. However the actual Geographical centre of London is in the London Borough of Lambeth , just 0 @.@ 1 miles to the northeast of Lambeth North tube station .
= = = Status = = =
Within London , both the City of London and the City of Westminster have city status and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are counties for the purposes of lieutenancies . The area of Greater London has incorporated areas that were once part of the historic counties of Middlesex , Kent , Surrey , Essex and Hertfordshire . London 's status as the capital of England , and later the United Kingdom , has never been granted or confirmed officially — by statute or in written form .
Its position was formed through constitutional convention , making its status as de facto capital a part of the UK 's unwritten constitution . The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the royal court , and thus the political capital of the nation . More recently , Greater London has been defined as a region of England and in this context is known as London .
= = = Topography = = =
Greater London encompasses a total area of 1 @,@ 583 square kilometres ( 611 sq mi ) , an area which had a population of 7 @,@ 172 @,@ 036 in 2001 and a population density of 4 @,@ 542 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 11 @,@ 760 / sq mi ) . The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration , comprises a total area of 8 @,@ 382 square kilometres ( 3 @,@ 236 sq mi ) has a population of 13 @,@ 709 @,@ 000 and a population density of 1 @,@ 510 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 3 @,@ 900 / sq mi ) . Modern London stands on the Thames , its primary geographical feature , a navigable river which crosses the city from the south @-@ west to the east . The Thames Valley is a floodplain surrounded by gently rolling hills including Parliament Hill , Addington Hills , and Primrose Hill . The Thames was once a much broader , shallower river with extensive marshlands ; at high tide , its shores reached five times their present width .
Since the Victorian era the Thames has been extensively embanked , and many of its London tributaries now flow underground . The Thames is a tidal river , and London is vulnerable to flooding . The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise in high water level by the slow ' tilting ' of Britain ( up in the north and down in the south ) caused by post @-@ glacial rebound .
In 1974 , a decade of work began on the construction of the Thames Barrier across the Thames at Woolwich to deal with this threat . While the barrier is expected to function as designed until roughly 2070 , concepts for its future enlargement or redesign are already being discussed .
= = = Climate = = =
London has a temperate oceanic climate ( Köppen : Cfb ) , similar to all of southern Britain . Despite its reputation as being a rainy city , London receives less precipitation ( 601 mm ( 24 in ) in a year ) , than Rome , Bordeaux , Toulouse , Naples , Sydney and New York . Temperature extremes for all sites in the London area range from 38 @.@ 1 ° C ( 100 @.@ 6 ° F ) at Kew during August 2003 down to − 16 @.@ 1 ° C ( 3 @.@ 0 ° F ) at Northolt during January 1962 .
Summers are generally warm and sometimes hot . London 's average July high is 24 ° C ( 75 @.@ 2 ° F ) . On average London will see 31 days above 25 ° C ( 77 @.@ 0 ° F ) each year , and 4 @.@ 2 days above 30 @.@ 0 ° C ( 86 @.@ 0 ° F ) every year . During the 2003 European heat wave there were 14 consecutive days above 30 ° C ( 86 @.@ 0 ° F ) and 2 consecutive days where temperatures reached 38 ° C ( 100 @.@ 4 ° F ) , leading to hundreds of heat related deaths .
Winters are generally cool and damp with little temperature variation . Snowfall occurs occasionally and can cause travel disruption when this happens . Snowfall is more common in Outer London . Spring and autumn are mixed seasons and can be pleasant . As a large city , London has a considerable urban heat island effect , making the centre of London at times 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) warmer than the suburbs and outskirts . The effect of this can be seen below when comparing London Heathrow , 15 miles west of London , with the London Weather Centre , in the city centre .
= = = Districts = = =
London 's vast urban area is often described using a set of district names , such as Bloomsbury , Mayfair , Wembley and Whitechapel . These are either informal designations , reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl , or are superseded administrative units such as parishes or former boroughs .
Such names have remained in use through tradition , each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character , but without official boundaries . Since 1965 Greater London has been divided into 32 London boroughs in addition to the ancient City of London . The City of London is the main financial district , and Canary Wharf has recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub in the Docklands to the east .
The West End is London 's main entertainment and shopping district , attracting tourists . West London includes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds . The average price for properties in Kensington and Chelsea is over £ 2 million with a similarly high outlay in most of central London .
The East End is the area closest to the original Port of London , known for its high immigrant population , as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London . The surrounding East London area saw much of London 's early industrial development ; now , brownfield sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway including the London Riverside and Lower Lea Valley , which was developed into the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics .
= = = Architecture = = =
London 's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style , partly because of their varying ages . Many grand houses and public buildings , such as the National Gallery , are constructed from Portland stone . Some areas of the city , particularly those just west of the centre , are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings . Few structures in central London pre @-@ date the Great Fire of 1666 , these being a few trace Roman remains , the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the City . Further out is , for example , the Tudor period Hampton Court Palace , England 's oldest surviving Tudor palace , built by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey c.1515.
Wren 's late 17th @-@ century churches and the financial institutions of the 18th and 19th centuries such as the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England , to the early 20th century Old Bailey and the 1960s Barbican Estate form part of the varied architectural heritage .
The disused , but soon to be rejuvenated , 1939 Battersea Power Station by the river in the south @-@ west is a local landmark , while some railway termini are excellent examples of Victorian architecture , most notably St. Pancras and Paddington . The density of London varies , with high employment density in the central area , high residential densities in inner London and lower densities in Outer London .
The Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating the Great Fire of London , which originated nearby . Marble Arch and Wellington Arch , at the north and south ends of Park Lane respectively , have royal connections , as do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington . Nelson 's Column is a nationally recognised monument in Trafalgar Square , one of the focal points of central London . Older buildings are mainly brick built , most commonly the yellow London stock brick or a warm orange @-@ red variety , often decorated with carvings and white plaster mouldings .
In the dense areas , most of the concentration is via medium- and high @-@ rise buildings . London 's skyscrapers such as 30 St Mary Axe , Tower 42 , the Broadgate Tower and One Canada Square are mostly in the two financial districts , the City of London and Canary Wharf . High @-@ rise development is restricted at certain sites if it would obstruct protected views of St Paul 's Cathedral and other historic buildings . Nevertheless , there are a number of very tall skyscrapers in central London ( see Tall buildings in London ) , including the 95 @-@ storey Shard London Bridge , the tallest building in the European Union .
Other notable modern buildings include City Hall in Southwark with its distinctive oval shape , and the British Library in Somers Town / Kings Cross . What was formerly the Millennium Dome , by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf , is now an entertainment venue called The O2 Arena .
= = = Natural history = = =
The London Natural History Society suggest that London is " one of the World 's Greenest Cities " with more than 40 percent green space or open water . They indicate that 2000 species of flowering plant have been found growing there and that the tidal Thames supports 120 species of fish . They also state that over 60 species of bird nest in central London and that their members have recorded 47 species of butterfly , 1173 moths and more than 270 kinds of spider around London . London 's wetland areas support nationally important populations of many water birds . London has 38 Sites of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSIs ) , two National Nature Reserves and 76 Local Nature Reserves .
Amphibians are common in the capital , including smooth newts living by the Tate Modern , and common frogs , common toads , palmate newts and great crested newts . On the other hand , native reptiles such as slow @-@ worms , common lizards , grass snakes and adders , are mostly only seen in Outer London .
Among other inhabitants of London are 10 @,@ 000 foxes , so that there are now 16 foxes for every square mile ( 2 @.@ 6 square kilometres ) of London . These urban foxes are noticeably bolder than their country cousins , sharing the pavement with pedestrians and raising cubs in people 's backyards . Foxes have even sneaked into the Houses of Parliament , where one was found asleep on a filing cabinet . Another broke into the grounds of Buckingham Palace , reportedly killing some of Queen Elizabeth II 's prized pink flamingos . Generally , however , foxes and city folk appear to get along . A survey in 2001 by the London @-@ based Mammal Society found that 80 percent of 3 @,@ 779 respondents who volunteered to keep a diary of garden mammal visits liked having them around . This sample cannot be taken to represent Londoners as a whole .
Other mammals found in Greater London are hedgehogs , rats , mice , rabbit , shrew , vole , and squirrels , In wilder areas of Outer London , such as Epping Forest , a wide variety of mammals are found including hare , badger , field , bank and water vole , wood mouse , yellow @-@ necked mouse , mole , shrew , and weasel , in addition to fox , squirrel and hedgehog . A dead otter was found at The Highway , in Wapping , about a mile from the Tower Bridge , which would suggest that they have begun to move back after being absent a hundred years from the city . Ten of England 's eighteen species of bats have been recorded in Epping Forest : soprano , nathusius and common pipistrelles , noctule , serotine , barbastelle , daubenton 's , brown Long @-@ eared , natterer 's and leisler 's .
Among the strange sights seen in London have been a whale in the Thames , while the BBC Two programme " Natural World : Unnatural History of London " shows pigeons using the London Underground to get around the city , a seal that takes fish from fishmongers outside Billingsgate Fish Market , and foxes that will " sit " if given sausages .
Herds of red and fallow deer also roam freely within much of Richmond and Bushy Park . A cull takes place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained . Epping Forest is also known for its fallow deer , which can frequently be seen in herds to the north of the Forest . A rare population of melanistic , black fallow deer is also maintained at the Deer Sanctuary near Theydon Bois . Muntjac deer , which escaped from deer parks at the turn of the twentieth century , are also found in the forest . While Londoners are accustomed to wildlife such as birds and foxes sharing the city , more recently urban deer have started becoming a regular feature , and whole herds of fallow and white @-@ tailed deer come into residential areas at night to take advantage of the London 's green spaces .
= = Demography = =
The 2011 census recorded that 2 @,@ 998 @,@ 264 people or 36 @.@ 7 % of London 's population are foreign @-@ born making London the city with the second largest immigrant population , behind New York City , in terms of absolute numbers . The table to the right shows the most common countries of birth of London residents . Note that some of the German @-@ born population , in 18th position , are British citizens from birth born to parents serving in the British Armed Forces in Germany . With increasing industrialisation , London 's population grew rapidly throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries , and it was for some time in the late 19th and early 20th centuries the most populous city in the world . Its population peaked at 8 @,@ 615 @,@ 245 in 1939 immediately before the outbreak of the Second World War , but had declined to 7 @,@ 192 @,@ 091 at the 2001 Census . However , the population then grew by just over a million between the 2001 and 2011 Censuses , to reach 8 @,@ 173 @,@ 941 in the latter enumeration .
However , London 's continuous urban area extends beyond the borders of Greater London and was home to 9 @,@ 787 @,@ 426 people in 2011 , while its wider metropolitan area has a population of between 12 and 14 million depending on the definition used . According to Eurostat , London is the most populous city and metropolitan area of the European Union and the second most populous in Europe ( or third if Istanbul is included ) . During the period 1991 – 2001 a net 726 @,@ 000 immigrants arrived in London .
The region covers an area of 1 @,@ 579 square kilometres ( 610 sq mi ) . The population density is 5 @,@ 177 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 13 @,@ 410 / sq mi ) , more than ten times that of any other British region . In terms of population , London is the 19th largest city and the 18th largest metropolitan region in the world . As of 2014 , London has the largest number of billionaires ( British Pound Sterling ) in the world , with 72 residing in the city . London ranks as one of the most expensive cities in the world , alongside Tokyo and Moscow .
= = = Ethnic groups = = =
According to the Office for National Statistics , based on the 2011 Census estimates , 59 @.@ 8 per cent of the 8 @,@ 173 @,@ 941 inhabitants of London were White , with 44 @.@ 9 per cent White British , 2 @.@ 2 per cent White Irish , 0 @.@ 1 per cent gypsy / Irish traveller and 12 @.@ 1 per cent classified as Other White .
20 @.@ 9 per cent of Londoners are of Asian and mixed @-@ Asian descent . 19 @.@ 7 per cent are of full Asian descent , with those of mixed @-@ Asian heritage comprising 1 @.@ 2 of the population . Indians account for 6 @.@ 6 per cent of the population , followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis at 2 @.@ 7 per cent each . Chinese peoples account for 1 @.@ 5 per cent of the population , with Arabs comprising 1 @.@ 3 per cent . A further 4 @.@ 9 per cent are classified as " Other Asian " .
15 @.@ 6 per cent of London 's population are of Black and mixed @-@ Black descent . 13 @.@ 3 per cent are of full Black descent , with those of mixed @-@ Black heritage comprising 2 @.@ 3 per cent . Black Africans account for 7 @.@ 0 per cent of London 's population , with 4 @.@ 2 per cent as Black Caribbean and 2 @.@ 1 per cent as " Other Black " . 5 @.@ 0 per cent are of mixed race .
Across London , Black and Asian children outnumber White British children by about six to four in state schools . Altogether at the 2011 census , of London 's 1 @,@ 624 @,@ 768 population aged 0 to 15 , 46 @.@ 4 per cent were White , 19 @.@ 8 per cent were Asian , 19 per cent were Black , 10 @.@ 8 per cent were Mixed and 4 per cent represented another ethnic group . In January 2005 , a survey of London 's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that there were more than 300 languages spoken in London and more than 50 non @-@ indigenous communities with a population of more than 10 @,@ 000 . Figures from the Office for National Statistics show that , in 2010 , London 's foreign @-@ born population was 2 @,@ 650 @,@ 000 ( 33 per cent ) , up from 1 @,@ 630 @,@ 000 in 1997 .
The 2011 census showed that 36 @.@ 7 per cent of Greater London 's population were born outside the UK . A portion of the German @-@ born population are likely to be British nationals born to parents serving in the British Armed Forces in Germany . Estimates produced by the Office for National Statistics indicate that the five largest foreign @-@ born groups living in London in the period July 2009 to June 2010 were those born in India , Poland , the Republic of Ireland , Bangladesh and Nigeria .
= = = Religion = = =
According to the 2011 Census , the largest religious groupings are Christians ( 48 @.@ 4 per cent ) , followed by those of no religion ( 20 @.@ 7 per cent ) , Muslims ( 12 @.@ 4 per cent ) , no response ( 8 @.@ 5 per cent ) , Hindus ( 5 @.@ 0 per cent ) , Jews ( 1 @.@ 8 per cent ) , Sikhs ( 1 @.@ 5 per cent ) , Buddhists ( 1 @.@ 0 per cent ) and other ( 0 @.@ 6 per cent ) .
London has traditionally been Christian , and has a large number of churches , particularly in the City of London . The well @-@ known St Paul 's Cathedral in the City and Southwark Cathedral south of the river are Anglican administrative centres , while the Archbishop of Canterbury , principal bishop of the Church of England and worldwide Anglican Communion , has his main residence at Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth .
Important national and royal ceremonies are shared between St Paul 's and Westminster Abbey . The Abbey is not to be confused with nearby Westminster Cathedral , which is the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in England and Wales . Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches , observance is very low within the Anglican denomination . Church attendance continues on a long , slow , steady decline , according to Church of England statistics .
London is also home to sizeable Muslim , Hindu , Sikh , and Jewish communities . Notable mosques include the East London Mosque in Tower Hamlets , London Central Mosque on the edge of Regent 's Park and the Baitul Futuh Mosque of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community . Following the oil boom , increasing numbers of wealthy Hindus and Middle @-@ Eastern Muslims have based themselves around Mayfair and Knightsbridge in West London . There are large Muslim communities in the eastern boroughs of Tower Hamlets and Newham . Large Hindu communities are in the north @-@ western boroughs of Harrow and Brent , the latter of which is home to Europe 's largest Hindu temple , Neasden Temple . London is also home to 42 Hindu temples . There are Sikh communities in East and West London , particularly in Southall , home to one of the largest Sikh populations and the largest Sikh temple outside India .
The majority of British Jews live in London , with significant Jewish communities in Stamford Hill , Stanmore , Golders Green , Finchley , Hampstead , Hendon and Edgware in North London . Bevis Marks Synagogue in the City of London is affiliated to London 's historic Sephardic Jewish community . It is the only synagogue in Europe which has held regular services continuously for over 300 years . Stanmore and Canons Park Synagogue has the largest membership of any single Orthodox synagogue in the whole of Europe , overtaking Ilford synagogue ( also in London ) in 1998 . The community set up the London Jewish Forum in 2006 in response to the growing significance of devolved London Government .
= = = Accent = = =
There are many accents that are traditionally thought of as London accents . The most well known of the London accents long ago acquired the Cockney label , which is heard both in London itself , and across the wider South East England region more generally . The accent of a 21st @-@ century Londoner varies widely ; what is becoming more and more common amongst the under @-@ 30s however is some fusion of Cockney with a whole array of ethnic accents , in particular Caribbean , which form an accent labelled Multicultural London English ( MLE ) . The other widely heard and spoken accent is RP ( Received Pronunciation ) in various forms , which can often be heard in the media and many of other traditional professions and beyond , although this accent is not limited to London and South East England , and can also be heard selectively throughout the whole UK amongst certain social groupings .
= = Economy = =
London generates about 20 per cent of the UK 's GDP ( or $ 446 billion in 2005 ) ; while the economy of the London metropolitan area — the largest in Europe — generates about 30 per cent of the UK 's GDP ( or an estimated $ 669 billion in 2005 ) . London is one of the pre @-@ eminent financial centres of the world as the most important location for international finance . As of 2015 London tops the world rankings on the global financial centres index .
London 's largest industry is finance , and its financial exports make it a large contributor to the UK 's balance of payments . Around 325 @,@ 000 people were employed in financial services in London until mid @-@ 2007 . London has over 480 overseas banks , more than any other city in the world . Over 85 percent ( 3 @.@ 2 million ) of the employed population of greater London works in the services industries . Because of its prominent global role , London 's economy had been affected by the Late @-@ 2000s financial crisis . However , by 2010 the City has recovered ; put in place new regulatory powers , proceeded to regain lost ground and re @-@ established London 's economic dominance . The City of London is home to the Bank of England , London Stock Exchange , and Lloyd 's of London insurance market .
Over half of the UK 's top 100 listed companies ( the FTSE 100 ) and over 100 of Europe 's 500 largest companies have their headquarters in central London . Over 70 per cent of the FTSE 100 are within London 's metropolitan area , and 75 per cent of Fortune 500 companies have offices in London .
Along with professional services , media companies are concentrated in London and the media distribution industry is London 's second most competitive sector . The BBC is a significant employer , while other broadcasters also have headquarters around the City . Many national newspapers are edited in London . London is a major retail centre and in 2010 had the highest non @-@ food retail sales of any city in the world , with a total spend of around £ 64 @.@ 2 billion . The Port of London is the second @-@ largest in the United Kingdom , handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year .
London has five major business districts : the City , Westminster , Canary Wharf , Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark . One way to get an idea of their relative importance is to look at relative amounts of office space : Greater London had 27 million m2 of office space in 2001 , and the City contains the most space , with 8 million m2 of office space . London has some of the highest real estate prices in the world .
A growing number of technology companies are based in London notably in East London Tech City , also known as Silicon Roundabout . In April 2014 , the city was among the first to receive a geoTLD . In 2014 Forbes magazine ranked London as the most influential city in the world . In February 2014 London was ranked as the European City of the Future in the 2014 / 15 list by FDi Magazine .
London is the world 's most expensive office market for the last three years according to world property journal ( 2015 ) report . As of 2015 the residential property in London is worth $ 2 @.@ 2 trillion - same value as that of Brazil annual GDP . The city has the highest property prices of any European city according to the Office for National Statistics and the European Office of Statistics . On average the price per square metre in central London is € 24 @,@ 252 ( April 2014 ) . This is higher than the property prices in other G8 European capital cities ; Berlin € 3 @,@ 306 , Rome € 6 @,@ 188 and Paris € 11 @,@ 229 .
The gas and electricity distribution networks that manage and operate the towers , cables and pressure systems that deliver energy to consumers across the city are managed by National Grid plc , SGN and UK Power Networks .
= = = Tourism = = =
London is one of the leading tourist destinations in the world and in 2015 was ranked as the most visited city in the world with over 65 million visits . It is also the top city in the world by visitor cross @-@ border spending , estimated at US $ 20 @.@ 23 billion in 2015 Tourism is one of London 's prime industries , employing the equivalent of 350 @,@ 000 full @-@ time workers in 2003 , and the city accounts for 54 % of all inbound visitor spend in UK . As of 2016 London is rated as the world top ranked city destination by TripAdvisor users .
In 2010 the ten most @-@ visited attractions in London were :
British Museum
Tate Modern
National Gallery
Natural History Museum
Imperial War Museum
Science Museum
Victoria and Albert Museum
Madame Tussauds
National Maritime Museum
Tower of London
The number of hotel rooms in London in 2015 stands at 138 @,@ 769 which is expected to grow over the years .
= = = Housing crisis = = =
Thousands of homeless families find themselves stuck in emergency accommodation for at least two years . A growth in the number of UK households has led to the homeless charity Shelter stating : " This growth is a result of people living longer , more people living alone or in smaller households , and net migration . "
= = Transport = =
Transport is one of the four main areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London , however the mayor 's financial control does not extend to the longer distance rail network that enters London . In 2007 he assumed responsibility for some local lines , which now form the London Overground network , adding to the existing responsibility for the London Underground , trams and buses . The public transport network is administered by Transport for London ( TfL ) and is one of the most extensive in the world .
The lines that formed the London Underground , as well as trams and buses , became part of an integrated transport system in 1933 when the London Passenger Transport Board or London Transport was created . Transport for London is now the statutory corporation responsible for most aspects of the transport system in Greater London , and is run by a board and a commissioner appointed by the Mayor of London .
= = = Aviation = = =
London is a major international air transport hub with the busiest city airspace in the world . Eight airports use the word London in their name , but most traffic passes through six of these . London Heathrow Airport , in Hillingdon , West London , is the busiest airport in the world for international traffic , and is the major hub of the nation 's flag carrier , British Airways . In March 2008 its fifth terminal was opened . There were plans for a third runway and a sixth terminal ; however , these were cancelled by the Coalition Government on 12 May 2010 .
Similar traffic , with some cheap short @-@ haul flights , is also handled at Gatwick Airport , south of London in West Sussex .
Stansted Airport , north east of London in Essex , is a local UK hub and Luton Airport to the north of London in Bedfordshire , caters mostly for cheap short @-@ haul flights . London City Airport , the smallest and most central airport , in Newham , East London , is focused on business travellers , with a mixture of full service short @-@ haul scheduled flights and considerable business jet traffic . London Southend Airport , east of London in Essex , is a smaller , regional airport that mainly caters for cheap short @-@ haul flights .
= = = Rail = = =
= = = = Underground and DLR = = = =
The London Underground , commonly referred to as the Tube , is the oldest and second longest metro system in the world . The system serves 270 stations and was formed from several private companies , including the world 's first underground electric line , the City and South London Railway . It dates from 1863 .
Over three million journeys are made every day on the Underground network , over 1 billion each year . An investment programme is attempting to reduce congestion and improve reliability , including £ 6 @.@ 5 billion ( € 7 @.@ 7 billion ) spent before the 2012 Summer Olympics . The Docklands Light Railway ( DLR ) , which opened in 1987 , is a second , more local metro system using smaller and lighter tram @-@ type vehicles that serve the Docklands , Greenwich and Lewisham .
= = = = Suburban = = = =
There are 366 railway stations in the London Travelcard Zones on an extensive above @-@ ground suburban railway network . South London , particularly , has a high concentration of railways as it has fewer Underground lines . Most rail lines terminate around the centre of London , running into eighteen terminal stations , with the exception of the Thameslink trains connecting Bedford in the north and Brighton in the south via Luton and Gatwick airports . London has Britain 's busiest station by number of passengers – Waterloo , with over 184 million people using the interchange station complex ( which includes Waterloo East station ) each year . Clapham Junction is the busiest station in Europe by the number of trains passing .
With the need for more rail capacity in London , Crossrail is due to open in 2018 . It will be a new railway line running east to west through London and into the Home Counties with a branch to Heathrow Airport . It is Europe 's biggest construction project , with a £ 15 billion projected cost .
= = = = Inter @-@ city and international = = = =
London is the centre of the National Rail network , with 70 percent of rail journeys starting or ending in London . Like suburban rail services , regional and inter @-@ city trains depart from several termini around the city centre , linking London with the rest of Britain including Birmingham , Brighton , Reading , Bristol , Cardiff , Derby , Exeter , Sheffield , Southampton , Leeds , Manchester , Cambridge , Newcastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne , Edinburgh and Glasgow .
Some international railway services to Continental Europe were operated during the 20th century as boat trains , such as the Admiraal de Ruijter to Amsterdam and the Night Ferry to Paris and Brussels . The opening of the Channel Tunnel in 1994 connected London directly to the continental rail network , allowing Eurostar services to begin . Since 2007 , high @-@ speed trains link St. Pancras International with Lille , Paris , Brussels and European tourist destinations via the High Speed 1 rail link and the Channel Tunnel . The first high @-@ speed domestic trains started in June 2009 linking Kent to London . There are plans for a second high speed line linking London to the Midlands , North West England , and Yorkshire .
= = = = Freight = = = =
Although rail freight levels are far down compared to their height , significant quantities of cargo are also carried into and out of London by rail ; chiefly building materials and landfill waste . As a major hub of the British railway network , London 's tracks also carry large amounts of freight for the other regions , such as container freight from the Channel Tunnel and English Channel ports , and nuclear waste for reprocessing at Sellafield .
= = = Buses and trams = = =
London 's bus network is one of the largest in the world , running 24 hours a day , with about 8 @,@ 500 buses , more than 700 bus routes and around 19 @,@ 500 bus stops . In 2013 , the network had more than 2 billion commuter trips per annum , more than the Underground . Around £ 850 million is taken in revenue each year . London has the largest wheelchair accessible network in the world and , from the 3rd quarter of 2007 , became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired passengers as audio @-@ visual announcements were introduced . The distinctive red double @-@ decker buses are an internationally recognised trademark of London transport along with black cabs and the Tube .
London has a modern tram network , known as Tramlink , centred on Croydon in South London . The network has 39 stops and four routes , and carried 28 million people in 2013 . Since June 2008 Transport for London has completely owned Tramlink , and it plans to spend £ 54m by 2015 on maintenance , renewals , upgrades and capacity enhancements .
= = = Cable car = = =
London 's first and only cable car , known as the Emirates Air Line , opened in June 2012 . Crossing the River Thames , linking Greenwich Peninsula and the Royal Docks in the east of the city , the cable car is integrated with London 's Oyster Card ticketing system , although special fares are charged . Costing £ 60 million to build , it carries over 3 @,@ 500 passengers every day , although this is very much lower than its capacity . Similar to the Santander Cycles bike hire scheme , the cable car is sponsored in a 10 @-@ year deal by the airline Emirates .
= = = Cycling = = =
Cycling is an increasingly popular way to get around London . The launch of a cycle hire scheme in July 2010 has been successful and generally well received . The London Cycling Campaign lobbies for better provision .
= = = Port and river boats = = =
From being the largest port in the world , the Port of London is now only the second @-@ largest in the United Kingdom , handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year . Most of this actually passes through the Port of Tilbury , outside the boundary of Greater London .
London has frequent river boat services on the Thames known as Thames Clippers . These run up to every 20 minutes between Embankment Pier and North Greenwich Pier . The Woolwich Ferry , with 2 @.@ 5 million passengers every year , is a frequent service linking the North and South Circular Roads . Other operators run both commuter and tourist boat services in London .
= = = Roads = = =
Although the majority of journeys involving central London are made by public transport , car travel is common in the suburbs . The inner ring road ( around the city centre ) , the North and South Circular roads ( in the suburbs ) , and the outer orbital motorway ( the M25 , outside the built @-@ up area ) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes — but very few motorways penetrate into inner London . A plan for a comprehensive network of motorways throughout the city ( the Ringways Plan ) was prepared in the 1960s but was mostly cancelled in the early 1970s . The M25 is the longest ring @-@ road motorway in the world at 121 @.@ 5 mi ( 195 @.@ 5 km ) long . The A1 and M1 connect London to Leeds , and Newcastle and Edinburgh .
London is notorious for its traffic congestion , with the M25 motorway the busiest stretch in the country . The average speed of a car in the rush hour is 10 @.@ 6 mph ( 17 @.@ 1 km / h ) .
In 2003 , a congestion charge was introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre . With a few exceptions , motorists are required to pay £ 10 per day to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of central London . Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced season pass . London government initially expected the Congestion Charge Zone to increase daily peak period Underground and bus users by 20 @,@ 000 people , reduce road traffic by 10 to 15 per cent , increase traffic speeds by 10 to 15 per cent , and reduce queues by 20 to 30 per cent . Over the course of several years , the average number of cars entering the centre of London on a weekday was reduced from 195 @,@ 000 to 125 @,@ 000 cars – a 35 @-@ per @-@ cent reduction of vehicles driven per day .
= = Education = =
= = = Tertiary education = = =
London is a major global centre of higher education teaching and research and its 43 universities form the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe . According to the QS World University Rankings 2015 / 16 , London has the greatest concentration of top class universities in the world and the international student population around 110 @,@ 000 which is also more than any other city in the world . A 2014 PricewaterhouseCoopers report termed London as the global capital of higher education
A number of world @-@ leading education institutions are based in London . In the 2014 / 15 QS World University Rankings , Imperial College London is ranked joint 2nd in the world ( alongside The University of Cambridge ) , University College London ( UCL ) is ranked 5th , and King 's College London ( KCL ) is ranked 16th . The London School of Economics has been described as the world 's leading social science institution for both teaching and research . The London Business School is considered one of the world 's leading business schools and in 2015 its MBA programme was ranked second best in the world by the Financial Times .
With 120 @,@ 000 students in London , the federal University of London is the largest contact teaching university in the UK . It includes four large multi @-@ faculty universities – King 's College London , Queen Mary , Royal Holloway and UCL – and a number of smaller and more specialised institutions including Birkbeck , the Courtauld Institute of Art , Goldsmiths , Guildhall School of Music and Drama , the Institute of Education , the London Business School , the London School of Economics , the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine , the Royal Academy of Music , the Central School of Speech and Drama , the Royal Veterinary College and the School of Oriental and African Studies . Members of the University of London have their own admissions procedures , and some award their own degrees .
A number of universities in London are outside the University of London system , including Brunel University , City University London , Imperial College London , Kingston University , London Metropolitan University ( with over 34 @,@ 000 students , the largest unitary university in London ) , University of East London , University of West London , University of Westminster , London South Bank University , Middlesex University , and University of the Arts London ( the largest university of art , design , fashion , communication and the performing arts in Europe ) . In addition there are three international universities in London – Regent 's University London , Richmond , The American International University in London and Schiller International University .
London is home to five major medical schools – Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry ( part of Queen Mary ) , King 's College London School of Medicine ( the largest medical school in Europe ) , Imperial College School of Medicine , UCL Medical School and St George 's , University of London – and has a large number of affiliated teaching hospitals . It is also a major centre for biomedical research , and three of the UK 's five academic health science centres are based in the city – Imperial College Healthcare , King 's Health Partners and UCL Partners ( the largest such centre in Europe ) .
There are a number of business schools in London , including the London School of Business and Finance , Cass Business School ( part of City University London ) , Hult International Business School , ESCP Europe , European Business School London , Imperial College Business School and the London Business School . London is also home to many specialist arts education institutions , including the Academy of Live and Recorded Arts , Central School of Ballet , LAMDA , London College of Contemporary Arts ( LCCA ) , London Contemporary Dance School , National Centre for Circus Arts , RADA , Rambert School of Ballet and Contemporary Dance , the Royal College of Art , the Royal College of Music and Trinity Laban .
= = = Primary and secondary education = = =
The majority of primary and secondary schools and further @-@ education colleges in London are controlled by the London boroughs or otherwise state @-@ funded ; leading examples include City and Islington College , Ealing , Hammersmith and West London College , Leyton Sixth Form College , Tower Hamlets College and Bethnal Green Academy . There are also a number of private schools and colleges in London , some old and famous , such as City of London School , Harrow , St Paul 's School , Haberdashers ' Aske 's Boys ' School , University College School , The John Lyon School , Highgate School and Westminster School .
= = Culture = =
= = = Leisure and entertainment = = =
Leisure is major part of London economy with a 2003 report contributing a quarter of entire UK leisure economy to London . Globally , the city is amongst the big four fashion capital of the world and according to official statistics London is the world 's third busiest film production centre , presents more live comedy than any other city and has the biggest theatre audience of any city in the world .
Within the City of Westminster in London the entertainment district of the West End has its focus around Leicester Square , where London and world film premieres are held , and Piccadilly Circus , with its giant electronic advertisements . London 's theatre district is here , as are many cinemas , bars , clubs and restaurants , including the city 's Chinatown district ( in Soho ) , and just to the east is Covent Garden , an area housing speciality shops . The city is the home of Andrew Lloyd Webber , whose musicals have dominated the West End theatre since the late 20th century . The United Kingdom 's Royal Ballet , English National Ballet , Royal Opera and English National Opera are based in London and perform at the Royal Opera House , the London Coliseum , Sadler 's Wells Theatre and the Royal Albert Hall as well as touring the country .
Islington 's 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long Upper Street , extending northwards from Angel , has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the United Kingdom . Europe 's busiest shopping area is Oxford Street , a shopping street nearly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long , making it the longest shopping street in the United Kingdom . Oxford Street is home to vast numbers of retailers and department stores , including the world @-@ famous Selfridges flagship store . Knightsbridge , home to the equally renowned Harrods department store , lies to the south @-@ west .
London is home to designers Vivienne Westwood , Galliano , Stella McCartney , Manolo Blahnik , and Jimmy Choo among others ; its renowned art and fashion schools make it an international centre of fashion alongside Paris , Milan , and New York City . London offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnically diverse population . Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants of Brick Lane and the Chinese food restaurants of Chinatown .
There is a variety of annual events , beginning with the relatively new New Year 's Day Parade , fireworks display at the London Eye , the world 's second largest street party , the Notting Hill Carnival is held during the late August Bank Holiday each year . Traditional parades include November 's Lord Mayor 's Show , a centuries @-@ old event celebrating the annual appointment of a new Lord Mayor of the City of London with a procession along the streets of the City , and June 's Trooping the Colour , a formal military pageant performed by regiments of the Commonwealth and British armies to celebrate the Queen 's Official Birthday .
= = = Literature , film and television = = =
London has been the setting for many works of literature . The literary centres of London have traditionally been hilly Hampstead and ( since the early 20th century ) Bloomsbury . Writers closely associated with the city are the diarist Samuel Pepys , noted for his eyewitness account of the Great Fire , Charles Dickens , whose representation of a foggy , snowy , grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has been a major influence on people 's vision of early Victorian London , and Virginia Woolf , regarded as one of the foremost modernist literary figures of the 20th century .
The pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer 's late 14th @-@ century Canterbury Tales set out for Canterbury from London – specifically , from the Tabard inn , Southwark . William Shakespeare spent a large part of his life living and working in London ; his contemporary Ben Jonson was also based there , and some of his work — most notably his play The Alchemist — was set in the city . A Journal of the Plague Year ( 1722 ) by Daniel Defoe is a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665 Great Plague . Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries are Dickens ' novels , and Arthur Conan Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes stories . Modern writers pervasively influenced by the city include Peter Ackroyd , author of a " biography " of London , and Iain Sinclair , who writes in the genre of psychogeography .
London has played a significant role in the film industry , and has major studios at Ealing and a special effects and post @-@ production community centred in Soho . Working Title Films has its headquarters in London . London has been the setting for films including Oliver Twist ( 1948 ) , Scrooge ( 1951 ) , Peter Pan ( 1953 ) , The 101 Dalmatians ( 1961 ) , My Fair Lady ( 1964 ) , Mary Poppins ( 1964 ) , Blowup ( 1966 ) , The Long Good Friday ( 1980 ) , Notting Hill ( 1999 ) , Love Actually ( 2003 ) , V For Vendetta ( 2005 ) , Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber Of Fleet Street ( 2008 ) and The King 's Speech ( 2010 ) . Notable actors and filmmakers from London include ; Charlie Chaplin , Alfred Hitchcock , Michael Caine , Helen Mirren , Gary Oldman , Christopher Nolan , Jude Law , Tom Hardy , Keira Knightley and Daniel Day @-@ Lewis . As of 2008 , the British Academy Film Awards have taken place at the Royal Opera House . London is a major centre for television production , with studios including BBC Television Centre , The Fountain Studios and The London Studios . Many television programmes have been set in London , including the popular television soap opera EastEnders , broadcast by the BBC since 1985 .
= = = Museums and art galleries = = =
London is home to many museums , galleries , and other institutions , many of which are free of admission charges and are major tourist attractions as well as playing a research role . The first of these to be established was the British Museum in Bloomsbury , in 1753 . Originally containing antiquities , natural history specimens and the national library , the museum now has 7 million artefacts from around the globe . In 1824 the National Gallery was founded to house the British national collection of Western paintings ; this now occupies a prominent position in Trafalgar Square .
In the latter half of the 19th century the locale of South Kensington was developed as " Albertopolis " , a cultural and scientific quarter . Three major national museums are there : the Victoria and Albert Museum ( for the applied arts ) , the Natural History Museum and the Science Museum . The National Portrait Gallery was founded in 1856 to house depictions of figures from British history ; its holdings now comprise the world 's most extensive collection of portraits . The national gallery of British art is at Tate Britain , originally established as an annexe of the National Gallery in 1897 . The Tate Gallery , as it was formerly known , also became a major centre for modern art ; in 2000 this collection moved to Tate Modern , a new gallery housed in the former Bankside Power Station .
= = = Music = = =
London is one of the major classical and popular music capitals of the world and is home to major music corporations , such as Warner Music Group as well as countless bands , musicians and industry professionals . The city is also home to many orchestras and concert halls , such as the Barbican Arts Centre ( principal base of the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Symphony Chorus ) , Cadogan Hall ( Royal Philharmonic Orchestra ) and the Royal Albert Hall ( The Proms ) . London 's two main opera houses are the Royal Opera House and the London Coliseum . The UK 's largest pipe organ is at the Royal Albert Hall . Other significant instruments are at the cathedrals and major churches . Several conservatoires are within the city : Royal Academy of Music , Royal College of Music , Guildhall School of Music and Drama and Trinity Laban .
London has numerous venues for rock and pop concerts , including the world 's busiest arena the o2 arena and other large arenas such as Earls Court , Wembley Arena , as well as many mid @-@ sized venues , such as Brixton Academy , the Hammersmith Apollo and the Shepherd 's Bush Empire . Several music festivals , including the Wireless Festival , South West Four , Lovebox , and Hyde Park 's British Summer Time are all held in London . The city is home to the first and original Hard Rock Cafe and the Abbey Road Studios where The Beatles recorded many of their hits . In the 1960s , 1970s and 1980s , musicians and groups like Elton John , Pink Floyd , David Bowie , Queen , The Kinks , The Rolling Stones , The Who , Eric Clapton , Led Zeppelin , The Small Faces , Iron Maiden , Fleetwood Mac , Elvis Costello , Cat Stevens , The Police , The Cure , Madness , The Jam , Dusty Springfield , Phil Collins , Rod Stewart and Sade , derived their sound from the streets and rhythms vibrating through London .
London was instrumental in the development of punk music , with figures such as the Sex Pistols , The Clash , and Vivienne Westwood all based in the city . More recent artists to emerge from the London music scene include George Michael , Kate Bush , Seal , Siouxsie and the Banshees , Bush , the Spice Girls , Jamiroquai , Blur , The Prodigy , Gorillaz , Mumford & Sons , Coldplay , Amy Winehouse , Adele , Ed Sheeran and One Direction . London is also a centre for urban music . In particular the genres UK garage , drum and bass , dubstep and grime evolved in the city from the foreign genres of hip hop and reggae , alongside local drum and bass . Black music station BBC Radio 1Xtra was set up to support the rise of home @-@ grown urban music both in London and in the rest of the UK .
= = Notable people = =
= = Recreation = =
= = = Parks and open spaces = = =
The largest parks in the central area of London are three of the eight Royal Parks , namely Hyde Park and its neighbour Kensington Gardens in the west , and Regent 's Park to the north . Hyde Park in particular is popular for sports and sometimes hosts open @-@ air concerts . Regent 's Park contains London Zoo , the world 's oldest scientific zoo , and is near the tourist attraction of Madame Tussauds Wax Museum . Primrose Hill in the northern part of Regent 's Park at 256 feet ( 78 m ) is a popular spot to view the city skyline .
Close to Hyde Park are smaller Royal Parks , Green Park and St. James 's Park . A number of large parks lie outside the city centre , including the remaining Royal Parks of Greenwich Park to the south @-@ east and Bushy Park and Richmond Park ( the largest ) to the south @-@ west , Hampton Court Park is also a royal park , but , because it contains a palace , it is administered by the Historic Royal Palaces , unlike the eight Royal Parks .
Close to Richmond Park is Kew Gardens which has the world 's largest collection of living plants . In 2003 , the gardens were put on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites . There are also numerous parks administered by London 's borough Councils , including Victoria Park in the East End and Battersea Park in the centre . Some more informal , semi @-@ natural open spaces also exist , including the 320 @-@ hectare ( 790 @-@ acre ) Hampstead Heath of North London , and Epping Forest , which covers 2 @,@ 476 hectares ( 6 @,@ 118 @.@ 32 acres ) in the east . Both are controlled by the City of London Corporation . Hampstead Heath incorporates Kenwood House , the former stately home and a popular location in the summer months where classical musical concerts are held by the lake , attracting thousands of people every weekend to enjoy the music , scenery and fireworks .
Epping Forest is a popular venue for various outdoor activities , including mountain biking , walking , horse riding , golf , angling , and orienteering .
= = = Walking = = =
Walking is a popular recreational activity in London . Areas that provide for walks include Wimbledon Common , Epping Forest , Hampton Court Park , Hampstead Heath , the eight Royal Parks , canals and disused railway tracks . Access to canals and rivers has improved recently , including the creation of the Thames Path , some 28 miles ( 45 km ) of which is within Greater London , and The Wandle Trail ; this runs 12 miles ( 19 km ) through South London along the River Wandle , a tributary of the River Thames . Other long distance paths , linking green spaces , have also been created , including the Capital Ring , the Green Chain Walk , London Outer Orbital Path ( " Loop " ) , Jubilee Walkway , Lea Valley Walk , and the Diana , Princess of Wales Memorial Walk .
= = Sport = =
London has hosted the Summer Olympics three times : in 1908 , 1948 , and 2012 . It was chosen in July 2005 to host the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics , making it the first city to host the modern Games three times . The city was also the host of the British Empire Games in 1934 . In 2017 London will host the World Championships in Athletics .
London 's most popular sport is football and it has fourteen Football League clubs , including five in the Premier League : Arsenal , Chelsea , Crystal Palace , Tottenham Hotspur , and West Ham United . Other professional teams in London are Fulham , Queens Park Rangers , Brentford , Millwall , Charlton Athletic , AFC Wimbledon , Barnet and Leyton Orient . In 2012 , Chelsea became the first London club to win the UEFA Champions League . Arsenal , Chelsea and Tottenham are the only London clubs to have won the League .
From 1924 , the original Wembley Stadium was the home of the English national football team . It hosted the 1966 FIFA World Cup Final , with England defeating West Germany , and served as the venue for the FA Cup Final as well as rugby league 's Challenge Cup final . The new Wembley Stadium serves exactly the same purposes and has a capacity of 90 @,@ 000 .
Three Aviva Premiership rugby union teams are based in London , ( London Irish , Saracens , and Harlequins ) , although currently only Harlequins and Saracens play their home games within Greater London . London Scottish and London Welsh play in the RFU Championship club and other rugby union clubs in the city include Richmond F.C. , Rosslyn Park F.C. , Westcombe Park R.F.C. and Blackheath F.C .. Twickenham Stadium in south @-@ west London is the national rugby union stadium , and has a capacity of 82 @,@ 000 now that the new south stand has been completed .
While rugby league is more popular in the north of England , there are two professional rugby league clubs in London – the second tier Championship One team , the London Broncos , who play at the Trailfinders Sports Ground in West Ealing , and the third tier League 1 team , the London Skolars from Wood Green , Haringey ; in addition , Hemel Stags from Hemel Hempstead north of London also play in League 1 .
One of London 's best @-@ known annual sports competitions is the Wimbledon Tennis Championships , held at the All England Club in the south @-@ western suburb of Wimbledon . Played in late June to early July , it is the oldest tennis tournament in the world , and widely considered the most prestigious .
London has two Test cricket grounds , Lord 's ( home of Middlesex C.C.C. ) in St John 's Wood and the Oval ( home of Surrey C.C.C. ) in Kennington . Lord 's has hosted four finals of the Cricket World Cup . Other key events are the annual mass @-@ participation London Marathon , in which some 35 @,@ 000 runners attempt a 26 @.@ 2 miles ( 42 @.@ 2 km ) course around the city , and the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race on the River Thames between Putney and Mortlake .
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= Fullmetal Alchemist the Movie : Conqueror of Shamballa =
Fullmetal Alchemist the Movie : Conqueror of Shamballa ( Japanese : 劇場版 鋼の錬金術師 シャンバラを征く者 , Hepburn : Gekijōban Hagane no Renkinjutsushi : Shanbara o Yuku Mono ) is a 2005 Japanese animated film directed by Seiji Mizushima and written by Sho Aikawa . A sequel to the first Fullmetal Alchemist television series , the film follows the story of alchemist Edward Elric as he attempts to return to his homeworld , having lived for two years on a parallel universe Earth , while his younger brother Alphonse is also trying to reunite with him by any means necessary . Edward 's search attracts the attention of the Thule Society , which seeks to enter his homeworld , believing it to be Shamballa , to obtain new weapons to help them in World War II .
Conqueror of Shamballa premiered in Japan on July 23 , 2005 . A CD soundtrack has also been published featuring music from the film developed by Michiru Oshima and L 'Arc @-@ en @-@ Ciel . In Japan , it has been edited in a standard DVD , as well as in a limited edition . It was later licensed in North America by Funimation that featured the film in cinemas for a short time , and also released it on DVD and Blu @-@ ray .
Most of the staff from the first Fullmetal Alchemist anime started development on Conqueror of Shamballa shortly after the anime 's ending . The original script had to be shortened to fit the film 's length of 105 minutes . During its premiere in Japan , Conqueror of Shamballa remained as one of the most popular films in the year . Critical reaction to the film has commonly been positive , with reviews praising the film 's story and graphics used .
On February 1 , 2016 , it was announced from the official Funimation blog mentioning that Fullmetal Alchemist the Movie : Conqueror of Shamballa along with Fullmetal Alchemist : Brotherhood that Funimation loses the Home Videos and Streaming rights by March 31 , 2016 and will be not be reprinting anymore copies from Funimation after March 31 , 2016 .
= = Plot = =
After Edward Elric recovers his arm and leg and his brother Alphonse 's body , Edward is dragged from his homeworld through the Gate of Alchemy — the source of alchemical energy — to a parallel world of Earth in 1923 . The world is fundamentally governed by the laws of modern science instead of alchemy . When Edward arrives there , he discovers that he has been stripped of his alchemical powers and his newly restored arm and leg .
Two years later , in Munich , Germany , Edward researches rocketry with his friend Alfons Heiderich , a young man who resembles Alphonse , in the hopes of returning to his world . Edward rescues a troubled , persecuted Romani woman named Noah from being sold . Noah is taken in by Edward to live with him and Alfons , and begins having visions concerning Edward 's life in his world . The next day , Edward meets Fritz Lang , a Jewish film director resembling King Bradley , who persuades Edward into helping him hunt down a dragon he has been seeking for inspiration for his next film . The dragon , which turns out to be homunculus Envy , attacks Edward , but is then weakened and captured by members of the Thule Society .
The Thule Society , led by Karl Haushofer and Dietlinde Eckhart , use Envy and Edward 's kidnapped father Hohenheim as catalysts to open a portal to Edward 's world , believing it to be the utopia Shamballa after learning about it from Hohenheim . A number of armored soldiers are sent through the portal , only to emerge on the other side in the city of Liore as mutated zombie @-@ like creatures . Alphonse , who had come to visit Liore , fights off the armored soldiers and merges parts of his soul to three of their suits to aid him in combat . Meanwhile , Edward breaks into the Thule Society headquarters and accidentally reopens the portal , returning the dead armored soldiers to Earth and allowing Alphonse 's armored form to briefly reunite with his brother before his soul returns to his body , increasing Edward 's determination to return to his world .
Alphonse is guided by the homunculus Wrath to the underground city beneath Amestris ' Central City to reopen the Gate of Alchemy . There , they are attacked by the homunculus Gluttony , who fights and mortally wounds Wrath . At Wrath 's insistence , Alphonse transmutes and sacrifices the two homunculi to use as material to open the Gate . Meanwhile , in Munich , the Thule Society persuades Noah into guiding them on how to correctly open the Gate based on what she had learned from reading Edward 's mind . Edward learns from Lang that the Thule Society plans to use the weapons from his world to help Adolf Hitler in his attempt to start a revolution , and heads to stop them . Hohenheim and Envy are both transmuted at the same time that Alphonse transmutes Gluttony and Wrath . With the Gate opened , Eckhart leads a fleet into the other world , where she gains the ability to use alchemy . However , she begins to go mad with power and fear of her new surroundings and launches an attack on Central City . Alfons launches Edward in a rocket @-@ powered plane to return him to his world before being gunned down .
Edward appears in his world , reunited with Alphonse and their friend Winry Rockbell , who fits Edward with new automail limbs . The Amestris military manages to stop most of Eckhart 's soldiers with the help of Roy Mustang . Edward battles Eckhart before Alphonse transmutes parts of his soul to a group of armors , which attack her and force her to retreat . Upon reappearing in her own world , Eckhart is covered with shadow creatures from the Gate and killed by an officer out of alarm of her new , monstrous appearance . Understanding the danger posed by the connection between the two worlds , Edward returns to Earth to seal the Gate on that side , knowing he will be trapped on Earth forever . Instead of sealing the Gate on the other world 's side as per Edward 's request , however , Alphonse has Mustang seal the Gate and follows Edward to remain with his brother . Following Alfons ' funeral , the Elric brothers leave Munich with Noah , intending to destroy the weapons meant to be used in Hitler 's attack and enjoy their new lives together on Earth .
= = New characters = =
Alfons Heiderich ( アルフォンス ・ ハイデリヒ , Arufonsu Haiderihi )
Voiced by : Shun Oguri ( Japanese ) ; Jason Liebrecht ( English )
A young German rocket scientist who Edward befriends some time after arriving in Munich . He is similar in name and appearance to Edward 's brother , Alphonse . He is easygoing and enjoys listening to Edward 's stories of his homeworld , and while he doubts whether or not they are true and is hurt by how distant Edward behaves , he is nonetheless supportive of his efforts . He suffers from a fatal lung disease and hopes to make a difference for the world before he dies . His wish is granted when he helps Edward return to his world through the opened Gate on a rocket before he is fatally shot by Rudolf Hess of the Thule Society .
Dietlinde Eckhart ( デートリンデ ・ エッカルト , Dētorinde Ekkaruto )
Voiced by : Kazuko Katō ( Japanese ) ; Kelly Manison ( English )
A member of the Thule Society and the main antagonist of the film who is based loosely on real @-@ life Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart . She is an ambitious young woman who desires to open the gate to Edward 's world , believing it to be the utopia " Shamballa " , so that she may harness the powers and weapons of that world and overthrow Hitler in contrast to her organization 's goal to support the Nazi Party . Upon seizing leadership of the Thule Society and entering the other world , however , her lust for power and shallow understanding of alchemy cause her to gradually go mad with fear of her new surroundings and try to destroy Amestris 's capital of Central City . When she is forced back into her world , she is covered with shadow creatures from the Gate of Truth and takes on a fearsome appearance , leading her to be shot to death ( before returning to her lifeless human form ) by an officer resembling Maes Hughes .
Noah ( ノーア , Nōa )
Voiced by : Miyū Sawai ( Japanese ) ; Leah Clark ( English )
A young traveling Romani girl who Edward saves from being sold to the Thule Society . On the surface , she is proud of her heritage and lifestyle , but is unable to bear being discriminated for it . She has the ability to read the minds of others , and becomes fascinated with Edward 's world after witnessing his memories of it . Believing she wouldn 't be discriminated in Edward 's world , Noah assists the Thule Society in opening the Gate based on information from Edward 's memories , but relents once Edward points out that his home is no utopia , and leaves Munich together with the Elric brothers . She is also similar in appearance to Rose , a character from the original anime .
Several historic figures appear in supporting roles including Fritz Lang ( physically based on King Bradley ) , Rudolf Hess , Karl Haushofer , and Adolf Hitler . The Earth counterparts of Maes Hughes and his wife Gracia appear in supporting roles , along with cameos from other characters .
= = Production = =
Production of the film began shortly after the television series finishing its original broadcasting on Japanese channels , although pre @-@ production started during the show 's run in March 2004 . The film 's production was led by director Seiji Mizushima , who also had directed the series as well . Mizushima allowed a camera crew and interviewers into the show 's conference room at the Bones studios where he described how production went , as seen in a special feature on the DVD release of the film . The conference room was filled with every cut and drawing created for the show and movie , but it was eventually cleared out to make room for other projects .
The original draft of the film 's script was written by Sho Aikawa at a hundred pages long , making the film over three hours long . Mizushima and others had to cut a third of the script 's scenes out in order to make the film an appropriate length . Some scenes and characters were removed from the final cut , including a character named Steiner who could see auras , having a role similar to Noah 's . A scene which was cut involved characters Roy Mustang and Winry Rockbell meeting in front of the late Maes Hughes ' grave . By October 2004 , the script was completed and the pre @-@ check storyboards were produced . The pre @-@ check storyboards showed the movements of objects and characters in each shot along with the characters ' lines . Production on the proper storyboards began in November of the same year , but the schedule in producing the film was immensely busy , so the directors of the film split the storyboards into six sections , one for each of the directors to create .
The opening and ending scenes were drawn by Mizushima ; the scene involving the debut of the film 's villain was drawn by Soichi Masui ; the middle section of the film was drawn by Shingo Kaneko ; Edward Elric 's return to his homeworld was drawn by Masahiro Ando ; action scenes were drawn by Shinji Aramaki ; and the battle between Wrath and Gluttony was drawn by Yutaka Nakamura . Mizushima was repeatedly harassed by the head employees at Aniplex to speed up work on the storyboards . The artwork for the film was produced once Kaneko was finished and cel @-@ animation was used to produce several characters or items in the film . Seven hundred of the film 's animated frames had to be redone with only two weeks to the film 's release .
A trailer was produced for the film in December 2004 with Romi Park , the voice actor for Edward Elric , narrating it . Three posters were produced for the film , two teaser posters and a third for the release of the film . A " Fullmetal Festival " was held on December 26 , 2004 to celebrate the show and film . Most of the directors finished their assigned storyboards by February 2005 except Shingo Kaneko , who was taking longest due to the general slow process , but his storyboards were nevertheless impressive .
= = = Music = = =
The film score was composed by Michiru Oshima . L 'Arc @-@ en @-@ Ciel gave two of their new songs for the film 's opening and closing credits , " Link " and " LOST HEAVEN " , respectively . The film 's orchestral music was performed by the Moscow Orchestra . " KELAS [ LET 'S @-@ DANCE ] , " the song performed by the Romani women while Edward and Heiderich hitch a ride , was composed by Ferenc Snétberger ( who also played guitar for the song ) , with vocals by Tayo Awosusi . A soundtrack CD of the film , Fullmetal Alchemist The Movie Conqueror Of Shamballa OST , which contained forty @-@ six tracks , was released on July 20 , 2005 . Single CDs of the songs " Link " and " LOST HEAVEN " have also been released by L 'Arc @-@ en @-@ Ciel near the film 's premier .
= = Release and distribution = =
The film premiered in Japan on July 23 , 2005 . The Japanese DVD as well as the Universal Media Disc were released on January 25 , 2006 . A limited edition including with a special box , English subtitles and a series of other extras was published on the same date .
Some promotional activity was done before the film was already gone from theaters . The movie trailer was shown to a group of about 300 persons at Shiokazecon in Houston , Texas on April 27 , 2006 . Vic Mignogna , the English voice actor for Edward Elric , also promoted the film at anime conventions . On February 27 , 2006 , Funimation announced that they licensed the film . The movie premiered at Montreal Fantasia 's Festival on July 22 , 2006 . The movie had its American premiere on July 3 at Anime Expo , and was later premiered on September 8 in 40 theaters by Funimation Films . It was announced on the movie 's MySpace that the movie was going to be shown again in select theaters on September 20 , 2007 , but only for one day . During the 2006 Nan Desu Kan anime convention , the film was screened . Seiji Mizushima , director from the film , attended the screening .
Funimation released the English DVD on September 12 , 2006 , while the limited edition was published on November 14 , 2006 . Similar to the Japanese version , the English limited edition features several extras such as interviews with the Japanese cast , a video explanation of the film 's creation , and an 18 @-@ page guidebook featuring character sketches . A special edition featuring extras , a book and cards was published on June 23 , 2009 . In May 2009 , Funimation announced that the film would be released in Blu @-@ ray format . It was released on November 17 , 2009 and features the same special features on the limited edition except for the 18 @-@ page guidebook .
= = Reception = =
During its premiere , Conqueror of Shamballa ranked 3rd at the Japanese box office . In the second week , it fell to 7th . By next week , it ranked 10th , but it did not appear in the top ten from the following weeks . In the Japanese market , the film 's gross revenue summed up to $ 9 @,@ 712 @,@ 635 during 2005 . Overseas , it grossed to $ 10 @,@ 197 @,@ 984 during 2005 . As of 2007 , it grossed to ¥ 1 @.@ 22 billion ( $ 10 @.@ 8 million ) in the Japanese box office . It became the seventh most popular anime film released in Japan during 2005 . In a theatrical chart from the same year , Conqueror of Shamballa ranked as the seventh best anime film from 2005 , and as the 47th best film in overall .
During the " 9th Japanese Media Arts Festival Winners " , the film was listed as " recommendable anime " . In the Tokyo Anime Fair , the film won in the categories " Animation of the Year " , " Best Original Story " ( Hiromu Arakawa ) and " Best Music " ( Michiru Oshima ) . In an Oricon 's survey from 2005 , the film 's theme song , " Link " by L 'Arc @-@ en @-@ Ciel , sold 235 @,@ 751 copies , ranking as fourth in the " Top 10 Anime Theme Songs of 2005 " . It also won the " 2005 Animation Grand Award " prize in Mainichi Film Awards , and " Best Animated Film " prize in Fantasia International Film Festival ( Montreal , Canada ) . During the American Anime Awards , the film was nominated in the category of " Best Anime Feature " . The first English DVD was the third bestselling Japanese anime DVD in the United States in 2006 with a sale ratio of 31 compared to the sales of the # 1 title as 100 . During 2007 the limited edition DVD from the film ranked 23rd with a sales ratio of 23 . In the NEO Awards 2007 from Neo , Conqueror of Shamballa won in the category " Best Anime Movie . "
Critical response to the film has generally been positive . Theron Martin from Anime News Network found Conqueror of Shamballa as a very entertaining film " as it has all of the action , flashy magic , comedy , snappy dialogue , drama , and intrigue that made the TV series so great . " The few negative points he found about the plot were lack of discussions of morality which were featured in the anime series and that " the writing and plotting just don 't feel as sharp as they were for the series . " He praised the additional content from the limited edition DVD as well as the English dub , but criticized the subtitles for having grammatical mistakes . Although Dani Moure from Mania Entertainment did not find the story to be very original , he still favored it due to its mix of themes , turning it into an entertaining film . He also praised the staff from the series , commenting they have done an " admirable job , " making the film a " sequel well worthy of bearing the series ' name . " Chris Johnston of Newtype USA praised it is as " a perfect way " to conclude the TV series , saying it is " a rousing , action @-@ packed and heartrending close . "
It also received praise by IGN 's Jeremy Mullin , who gave it an overall 9 over 10 , having had good opinion of the graphics used during the film and how the film expands Fullmetal Alchemist 's story . The film was compared to The End of Evangelion due to how both titles expand their anime 's endings , resulting in a " proper ending " due to the characters ' development featured in the film . Mullin also liked the audio from Conqueror of Shamballa , but added that some of the English voice actors lacked accents . DVD Talk writer Todd Douglass Jr. also liked the film as he was " pleased to report that the story was handled nigh @-@ flawlessly . The inclusion of real world events helps ground the fact that Edward is in our world , but there was just something surreal about that after seeing it . " He found the film 's ending to be fitting for Fullmetal Alchemist and said it will be well received by fans from the series . While reviewing the special edition DVD , Douglass commented the extras featured in the DVD " are worth the price . " However , he also added that " some people just don 't care about the extras " and concluded that " this is a strong reissue that could have possibly been better , but is fine just the same . "
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= No. 75 Wing RAAF =
No. 75 Wing was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) wing that operated during World War II . It was formed in October 1943 at Townsville , Queensland , under North @-@ Eastern Area Command . The wing soon deployed to Horn Island to take control of RAAF units based there and at Thursday Island and Cape York Peninsula . Responsible for air defence and maritime patrol in the Torres Strait , No. 75 Wing 's flying units operated P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters , Bristol Beaufort reconnaissance bombers , and A @-@ 31 Vengeance dive bombers . The wing was disbanded in August 1944 .
= = History = =
No. 75 Wing was raised on 13 October 1943 at Garbutt in Townsville , Queensland , under the command of Wing Commander ( later Group Captain ) Edgar Bruce Courtney . On formation it had a staff of ten , including three officers . The wing was responsible for RAAF units at Horn Island , Thursday Island , and Higgins Field on Cape York Peninsula . An advance party departed Garbutt for Horn Island on 21 October , and the wing headquarters was fully established there six days later . The same month , No. 84 Squadron , based at Horn Island and recently converted from CAC Boomerangs to P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks , was transferred from the control of No. 72 Wing ( headquartered at Merauke , New Guinea ) to No. 75 Wing .
Other units at Horn Island included No. 28 Operational Base Unit , which had been located there since being formed in May 1942 ; No. 112 Mobile Fighter Sector Headquarters ( formerly No. 12 Mobile Fighter Sector Headquarters ) ; and a detachment of No. 7 Squadron ( headquartered at Townsville ) , operating Bristol Beaufort reconnaissance bombers . No. 33 Operational Base Unit , formed at Townsville in April 1943 , established itself at Higgins Field on 23 October . No. 1 Repair and Salvage Unit was also headquartered at Higgins , but maintained a detachment on Thursday Island . No. 23 Air Stores Park , based on Thursday Island , was responsible for logistical support of No. 75 Wing units .
No. 84 Squadron had been responsible for air defence in the Torres Strait since arriving at Horn Island in April 1943 , and No. 7 Squadron for anti @-@ shipping duties . A Beaufort of No. 7 Squadron was credited with shooting down a Japanese " Jake " seaplane during a patrol west of Horn Island on 11 November . The Beauforts undertook their first bombing and strafing mission from Horn Island against targets in Dutch New Guinea on 27 November . By the end of the year , No. 75 Wing headquarters had a strength of 144 staff , including twenty @-@ three officers , and one de Havilland DH.84. According to George Odgers , " Although the Merauke and Horn Island squadrons had relatively slight contact with the enemy in 1943 they fulfilled a very useful purpose in conjunction with the North @-@ Western Area squadrons in securing the flank of MacArthur 's forces " .
In February 1944 , No. 75 Wing headquarters moved from Horn Island to Higgins Field , where it was soon joined by No. 7 Squadron and another unit now under the wing 's control , No. 23 Squadron . The advance party from No. 75 Wing headquarters left Horn Island on 7 February , and the main party departed for Higgins by air and sea eleven days later . No. 7 Squadron moved to Higgins between 3 and 26 March , and No. 23 Squadron between 13 and 31 March . On 19 March , No. 112 Fighter Control Unit was re @-@ formed at Horn Island as No. 32 Zone Filter Centre under No. 75 Wing . By the end of the month , wing headquarters staff numbered 121 , including twenty officers , and the DH.84 had been augmented by a Supermarine Walrus .
On 11 March 1944 , No. 84 Squadron was hurriedly redeployed to North @-@ Western Area to replace the Supermarine Spitfires of No. 1 Wing , which had been despatched to Perth in response to a feared Japanese naval attack . No attack took place , and No. 84 Squadron returned to Horn Island less than two weeks later . On 17 May , the squadron departed Horn Island for Townsville , and was subsequently reduced to cadre . No. 7 Squadron continued operations in the Dutch East Indies from Higgins , generally in conjunction with other forces such as B @-@ 25 Mitchells from North @-@ Western Area , before its tasking was reduced in August pending transfer to No. 71 Wing in New Guinea . No. 23 Squadron was equipped with A @-@ 31 Vengeance dive bombers and undertook army @-@ cooperation duties out of Higgins until being declared non @-@ operational in June . That month , a squadron leader from North @-@ Eastern Area Command arrived at No. 75 Wing headquarters to investigate Vengeance accidents and unserviceability ; on departure his Vengeance crash @-@ landed on the beach at Princess Charlotte Bay and the crew had to be rescued by an aircraft of No. 9 Squadron . No. 23 Squadron was subsequently re @-@ equipped with B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers and transferred to North @-@ Western Area .
By the end of July 1944 , No. 75 Wing headquarters strength was sixty @-@ three staff , including eighteen officers , and a DH.84. The wing ceased operations on 21 August , still under Courtney 's command , and was disbanded four days later . Its remaining units then became the direct responsibility of North @-@ Eastern Area headquarters .
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= Nassak Diamond =
The Nassak Diamond ( also known as the Nassac Diamond and the Eye of the Idol ) is a large , 43 @.@ 38 carats ( 8 @.@ 676 g ) diamond that originated as a larger 89 carat diamond in the 15th century in India . Found in the Amaragiri mine located in Mahbubnagar , Telangana , India , and originally cut in India , the diamond was the adornment in the Trimbakeshwar Shiva Temple , near Nashik , in the state of Maharashtra , India from at least 1500 to 1817 . The British East India Company captured the diamond through the Third Anglo @-@ Maratha War and sold it to British jewellers Rundell and Bridge in 1818 . Rundell and Bridge recut the diamond in 1818 , after which it made its way into the handle of the 1st Marquess of Westminster 's dress sword .
The Nassak Diamond was imported into the United States in 1927 , and was considered one of the first 24 great diamonds of the world by 1930 . American jeweller Harry Winston acquired the Nassak Diamond in 1940 in Paris , France and recut it to its present flawless 43 @.@ 38 carats ( 8 @.@ 676 g ) emerald cut shape . Winston sold the diamond to a New York jewellery firm in 1942 . Mrs. William B. Leeds of New York received the gem in 1944 as a sixth anniversary present and wore it in a ring . The Nassak Diamond was last sold at an auction in New York in 1970 to Edward J. Hand , a 48 @-@ year @-@ old trucking firm executive from Greenwich , Connecticut .
= = History = =
The Nassak Diamond originated in the 15th century in India . Although the date of the original cutting is unknown , the original cutting was performed in India and had sacrificed everything to size while giving the diamond a form and appearance similar to that of the Koh @-@ i @-@ Noor diamond . From at least 1500 to 1817 , the Nassak Diamond adorned the Shivalinga in the Trimbakeshwar Shiva Temple , near Nashik ( Nassak ) , India on the upper Godavari River . As priests worshiped Shiva , the diamond eventually acquired its name from its long @-@ term proximity to Nashik .
In 1817 , the British East India Company and the Maratha Empire in India began the Third Anglo @-@ Maratha War . During the Maratha war , the Nassak Diamond disappeared from the Shiva temple . The war ended in 1818 and the British East India Company was left decisively in control of most of India .
The Nassak Diamond quickly resurfaced in the possession of Baji Rao II the last independent Indian Peshwa Prince , who handed over the diamond to an English colonel named J. Briggs . In turn , Briggs delivered the diamond to Francis Rawdon @-@ Hastings , the 1st Marquess of Hastings who had conducted the military operations against the Peshwa . Rawdon @-@ Hastings delivered the diamond to the East India Company as part of the spoils of the Maratha war . The East India Company then sent the Nassak Diamond to England , to be sold on the London diamond market in 1818 .
At the London diamond market , the Nassak Diamond was presented as an approximately 89 carats ( 17 @.@ 8 g ) diamond of great purity " but of bad form , " having a somewhat pear @-@ shape . The diamond further was characterised as a " rudely faceted , lustreless mass . " Illustrations in Herbert Tillander 's book " Diamond Cuts in Historic Jewelry – 1381 to 1910 " show it as being a semi @-@ triangular moghal cut with a plateau top , similar looking to the 115 @-@ carat Taj @-@ E @-@ Mah Diamond which resides in the Iranian Crown Jewels . Despite its appearance , the diamond was sold for about 3 @,@ 000 pounds ( equivalent today to £ 198 @,@ 000 ) to Rundell and Bridge , a British jewellery firm based in London .
Rundell and Bridge held onto the diamond for the next 13 years . During that time , the jewellery firm instructed its diamond cutter " to keep as closely as possible to the traces of the Hindu cutter , ' amending his defects , and accommodating the pattern to the exigencies of the subject matter . ' " The recut by Rundell and Bridge from 89 @.@ 75 carats ( 17 @,@ 950 mg ) to 78 @.@ 625 carats ( 15 @,@ 725 @.@ 0 mg ) resulted of a loss of no more than 10 percent of the original weight of the diamond .
In 1831 , Rundell and Bridge sold the diamond to the Emanuel Brothers for about 7 @,@ 200 pounds ( today about £ 590 @,@ 000 ) . Six years later in 1837 , the Emanuel Brothers sold the Nassak Diamond at a public sale to Robert Grosvenor , the 1st Marquess of Westminster . At one point , the Marquess mounted the diamond in the handle of his dress sword . In 1886 , the diamond was valued at between 30 @,@ 000 and 40 @,@ 000 pounds ( today between £ 2 @,@ 947 @,@ 000 and £ 3 @,@ 930 @,@ 000 ) , due in part to its vast gain in brilliancy from the re @-@ cut by Rundell and Bridge .
= = Mauboussin and the lawsuit = =
In 1922 , George Mauboussin had become the named partner of " Mauboussin , Successeur de Noury , " a French jewellery house that traced its roots to its founding by M. Rocher in 1827 . In March 1927 , the Duke of Westminster used US importers Mayers , Osterwald & Muhlfeld to sell the diamond to Parisian jeweller George Mauboussin , who was living in the United States at the time . Mauboussin 's importation of the diamond into the United States was tax free , since the diamond was determined to be an artistic antiquity produced more than one hundred years prior to the date of importation . However , E. F. Bendler , an American wholesaler and dealer in diamonds and a rival of Mauboussin , filed a protest that resulted in a lawsuit to determine whether a tax should be imposed on the diamond 's entry into the United States . By November 1927 , Mauboussin considered selling the diamond to friends of General Primo de Rivera , who planned to give the diamond to the dictator on the occasion of his forthcoming investiture as marshal of Spain . That sale never materialised and the lawsuit continued . The diamond was nearly lost in a theft that occurred in January 1929 , when four gunmen robbed the Park Avenue jewellery store where the Nassak Diamond was being kept . However , the thieves missed finding the diamond because it was being stored in a soiled envelope .
After the first robbery attempt , Mauboussin 's jewellery firm opened a branch in New York City on 1 October 1929 , only to be met by the Wall Street Crash of 1929 at the end of October . To compound matters , the same gang of international robbers tried to steal the Nassak Diamond again in May 1930 , but once again missed it .
Prior to the outcome of the lawsuit , the insured diamond was valued between US $ 400 @,@ 000 and $ 500 @,@ 000 ( allowing for inflation , this would now be $ 5 @.@ 67 million and $ 7 @.@ 08 million ) . At the time the lawsuit was pending , imported diamonds that were cut and suitable for use in the manufacture of jewellery , without actually being set as jewellery were subject to an ad valorem tax of 20 % its value . However , artistic antiquities produced more than one hundred years prior to the date of importation could be imported into the United States duty @-@ free ; that is to say , without having to pay a 20 % tax . The final decision of the lawsuit was released on 4 June 1930 . In that decision , the court determined that the unset 78 @.@ 625 carats ( 15 @,@ 725 @.@ 0 mg ) Nassak Diamond was not an artistic antiquity and was suitable for use in manufacture of jewellery . In particular , the court said that the 1930 Nassak Diamond was nothing more than " a large diamond , cut in an ordinary way . " As a result , the importer owed an ad valorem tax of 20 % of the diamond 's value under US Tariff Act of 1922 .
= = Harry Winston 's influence = =
In 1930 , the Nassak Diamond had a somewhat elongated triangle form with rounded corners . The depth of one side of the triangle was thicker than the other . The diamond was " without flaw , unusually brilliant , and so cut as to well display its clear , crystal brilliancy . " While on exhibit at the 1933 World 's Fair in Chicago , Illinois , the " Official guide book of the fair , 1933 " described the diamond as a flawless , blue- white stone with a reputation of being " the finest diamond outside crown jewels collections . "
In 1940 , American jeweller Harry Winston acquired the Nassak Diamond in Paris , France and recut it to its present flawless 43 @.@ 38 carats ( 8 @.@ 676 g ) emerald cut shape . Winston sold the diamond to a New York jewellery firm in 1942 . In 1944 , Commander William Bateman Leeds , Jr . , millionaire son of the inventor of a tin plating process and friend of George Mauboussin , purchased the diamond for his wife , Reflexion Olive Leeds ( born Olive Hamilton ) , and gave it to her in a set ring as a sixth anniversary present .
= = Present information = =
In early 1964 , gemologist G. Robert ( Bob ) Crowningshield evaluated the Nassak Diamond at the Gemological Institute of America gem laboratory to produce a Diamond Grading Report . In that same year , the Nassak Diamond was placed in the hands of J. & S.S. DeYoung , a then 100 @-@ year @-@ old estate jewellery house located in New York . The Gemological Institute of America Diamond Grading Report that came with the diamond indicated that it was Internally Flawless .
In early April 1970 , the diamond was rated one of the thirty great stones of the world and placed on display at Parke @-@ Bernet Galleries in New York City . On 16 April 1970 , the diamond was sold at auction for $ 500 @,@ 000 ( allowing for inflation , this would now be $ 3 @.@ 05 million ) to Edward J. Hand , a then 48 @-@ year @-@ old trucking firm executive from Greenwich , Connecticut . This was the second highest auction price ever for a diamond at that time , the first being circa $ 1 @.@ 1 million for the Taylor @-@ Burton Diamond several years earlier . Six years later , the diamond was placed on display in November 1976 at a charity benefit as a means to attract donors to that benefit .
= = Trivia = =
In December 1982 , British Midland Airways purchased a McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 9 aircraft from KLM ; two months later , the plane was in the United Kingdom with the name " The Nassak Diamond " .
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= Crybaby ( song ) =
" Crybaby " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey . It was released on July 20 , 2000 by Columbia Records as a double A @-@ side with " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " . It was written by Carey and Snoop Dogg , and produced by the former and Damizza for Carey 's seventh studio album , Rainbow ( 1999 ) . It features Snoop Dogg throughout the songs bridge and is built around a sample of the 1988 song " Piece of My Love , " originally performed by Guy and written by Teddy Riley , Aaron Hall , Timmy Gatling and Gene Griffin . Throughout the song , the protagonist reveals the struggles of dealing with insomnia and thoughts of a past relationship during the night , as she spirals out of control and declares " I gotta get me some sleep . "
The song was the center of a very public controversy between Carey and her label Sony Music Entertainment , due to their lack of promotion of it as a commercial single . It , alongside its A @-@ side " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " were not eligible to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , due to the charts rules at the time of their release . Eventually , the song was able to attain a peak of twenty eight , Carey 's first single to miss the top twenty . The song 's music video features Carey spending a restless night in her apartment , throwing wine and cereal while trying to " get some sleep . " Snoop Dogg makes an appearance in the video through a television monitor . Carey performed the song live during her Rainbow World Tour , in support of the album and its singles .
= = Background and composition = =
" Crybaby " was recorded during the summer of 1999 in Capri , Italy . The song is composed in the key of F major and features instrumentation from the guitar and piano . Carey 's vocal range throughout the song ranges from the low note of E3 to the high note of F5 . " Crybaby " features a rap verse from Snoop Dogg , and incorporates heavy usage of background vocals . The song 's lyrics find the protagonist struggling with insomnia due to thoughts of a past lover throughout the night , not allowing her to sleep . According to Carey , the song also has a more personal message , relating to the difficulty of getting rest with such a work @-@ filled schedule . She claimed that through writing , recording and producing her music , as well as all the promotional appearances , it became increasingly difficult for her to unwind and sleep at night . At one point in the song , Carey sings " I gotta get me some sleep , " before finishing the final chorus .
= = Controversy = =
As with Butterfly two years prior , Rainbow became the center of a conflict in between Carey and her label . After Carey 's divorce with Sony record official and Columbia CEO Tommy Mottola , the working relationship with Carey and her label deteriorated . After the first two singles from Rainbow were released , Carey was gearing up for a third single to be released . She intended for " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " to be the next single , as it held very personal lyrical content . However , after getting wind of her plan , Sony made it clear that the album needed a more up @-@ beat and urban track to warm airwaves . These different opinions led to a very public feud in between them , as Carey began posting messages on her webpage during early and mid @-@ 2000 , telling fans inside information on the scandal , as well as instructing them to request " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " on radio stations . One of the messages Carey left on her page read :
" Basically , a lot of you know the political situation in my professional career is not positive . It 's been really , really hard . I don 't even know if this message is going to get to you because I don 't know if they want you to hear this . I 'm getting a lot of negative feedback from certain corporate people . But I am not willing to give up . "
Carey 's actions were given mixed reception , with critics and executives both commending her bold actions towards a song she felt needed to be heard , while others criticized her for publicizing the scandal further . Soon after , Sony involved themselves further , stripping Carey 's webpage of any messages and began trying to reach an agreement with her . Fearing to lose their label 's highest seller , and the best @-@ selling artist of the decade , Sony chose to release the song as a double A @-@ side with " Crybaby " . Carey , initially content with the agreement , soon found out that the song had only been allowed a very limited and low @-@ promotion release , not allowing the song to chart on the official US chart , and making international charting extremely difficult and unlikely .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reviews for " Crybaby " were generally positive . Danyel Smith from Entertainment Weekly called the song " sexy " and wrote " the rapper 's words tumble like dice across her velvety vocals . " Editor from Rolling Stone , Arion Berger , also complimented " Crybaby , " especially the way Snoop Dogg 's verses blended with Carey 's vocals . Berger called his rap verses " fittingly careless . " Robert Christgau , an editor from The Village Voice , commented that the song was " not real R & B thrush , " but wrote " its good enough to fake it . " While reviewing Rainbow , Dara Cook from MTV wrote that " Mariah amazes , " on the song also calling the collaboration " Snoop Dogg enhanced . " Cook wrote further " Perhaps culled from remnant Derek Jeter @-@ directed rage , a frenzied and fed @-@ up Mariah aggravates herself into a soulful , improvisational tizzy . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Crybaby " was released as the third single from Rainbow in 2000 , as a double A @-@ side with " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " . " Can 't Take That Away " was emphasized at Top 40 Mainstream radio stations and " Crybaby " at mainstream urban stations . It was intended that the former would chart on the US Billboard Hot 100 and the latter would focus on the R & B charts . The songs had very limited airplay , and because Billboard magazine rules at that time stipulated that the song from a double A @-@ side with the most airplay ( in this case , " Crybaby " ) would be credited only , " Crybaby " was eligible to chart . Double A @-@ sided singles were credited together on the charts until 1998 , when the Hot 100 changed from a " singles " chart to a " songs " chart , and consequently every song was credited individually . " Crybaby " did not appear on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart . It debuted on the Hot 100 at number 28 only after its release as a commercial single , but its minimal airplay prevented it from ascending the Hot 100 . It remained in the top forty for two weeks and on the chart for just seven weeks , becoming Carey 's first single to miss the US top twenty .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was directed by Sanaa Hamri , who also directed the video for " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) . " Both videos were shot back to back , and were released simultaneously to music programs and channels for immediate circulation . The video begins with Carey lying in her bed , as she receives a text message from Snoop Dogg reading " Yo what 's happening ? What you crying for ? Now you know you look 2 damn good 2 be crying ... Come here ... Holla at a playa DPG style ... Ya know , " to which Carey responds " I can 't sleep . " As the video progresses as the lyrics continue , it appears to be 5 AM , and Carey is still unable to sleep . She lies in bed with the lamp on , pondering on thoughts of a past lover until she takes a bath . Afterwards , she makes her way to the kitchen , and begins pouring an abundant amount of cereal and milk into a bowl , spilling it over the counter in a restless rage . As the scene finishes , Snoop 's face is seen on a small monitor , directing his verse to Carey in the video . As the last chorus plays , Carey becomes restless and tosses a champagne glass and bottle at a large window , shattering it and sending glass around the living room . The video ends with Carey lying down on the couch one more , attempting to sleep once more .
= = Live performances = =
Carey performed " Crybaby " live during every show on the Rainbow World Tour . For the song 's performances , the stage was set with a large bed , pillows and comforters , as well as a small desk and homely props . Carey , dressed in pajamas , sang while re @-@ enacting segments of the video . During her performance at Madison Square Garden on April 11 , 2000 , she threw the audience small stuffed bears and completed the song while lying in the bed on stage . After the song 's bridge , Snoop 's pre @-@ recorded verse was played over the background vocals . The song was also performed on select nights of The Elusive Chanteuse Show tour in 2014 .
= = Track listing and formats = =
US CD Single
" Crybaby " ( Radio Edit ) – 4 : 31
" Crybaby " ( Album Version ) – 5 : 19
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Rainbow liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= Scotch Run ( Catawissa Creek ) =
Scotch Run is one of the main tributaries of Catawissa Creek in Columbia County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 7 @.@ 8 miles ( 12 @.@ 6 km ) long and flows through Beaver Township and Main Township . The stream 's watershed has an area of 9 @.@ 10 square miles ( 23 @.@ 6 km2 ) . The stream is infertile and acidic . It is 7 @.@ 2 feet ( 2 @.@ 2 m ) wide in its upper reaches and 17 @.@ 0 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) wide in its lower reaches . The main rock formations in the watershed include the Mauch Chunk Formation , the Pocono Formation , the Pottsville Formation , and the Spechty Kopf Formation . The main soils include Leck Kill soil and Hazleton soil . It flows between Nescopeck Mountain and McCauley Mountain .
Nearly all of Scotch Run 's length is within 1 @,@ 640 feet ( 500 m ) of a road . However , most of its length is not within 328 feet ( 100 m ) of one . Part of Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 58 is in the watershed and ephemeral natural pool system is located near the stream . The area in the vicinity of the stream was settled relatively late compared to the surrounding areas . The Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission carried out a survey of the creek in 1977 . Scotch Run is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery . In 1997 , three species of fish were observed in the upper reaches of the stream , while eight species were observed in the lower reaches . Both reaches contained brown trout and brook trout . There is a hemlock @-@ mixed hardwood palustrine forest along the stream .
= = Course = =
Scotch Run begins in a lake in a valley in eastern Beaver Township . It flows west and slightly south for several miles between Nescopeck Mountain and McCauley Mountain . The stream eventually passes through the unincorporated community of Mifflin Cross Roads . Near this community , it turns south briefly before turning west @-@ southwest again and flowing between Nescopeck Mountain and Dry Ridge . A short distance later , the stream exits Beaver Township and enters Main Township . In Main Township , it flows between Nescopeck Mountain and Full Mill Hill for slightly more than half a mile . It then reaches its confluence with Catawissa Creek .
Scotch Run joins Catawissa Creek 8 @.@ 30 miles ( 13 @.@ 36 km ) upstream of its mouth .
= = = Tributaries = = =
Scotch Run has no named tributaries . However , it does have one unnamed tributary , which is unofficially known as " Trib 27547 to Scotch Run " and enters the stream from the right .
= = Hydrology = =
Throughout its entire length , Scotch Run is infertile and acidic . It has the potential to be affected by acid precipitation .
In June 1997 , the air temperature in the vicinity of Scotch Run was measured to be 25 @.@ 0 ° C ( 77 @.@ 0 ° F ) at river mile 5 @.@ 1 , 24 @.@ 0 ° C ( 75 @.@ 2 ° F ) at river mile 1 @.@ 3 , and 25 @.@ 0 ° C ( 77 @.@ 0 ° F ) at its mouth . The water temperature of the stream at these locations was measured to be 15 @.@ 1 ° C ( 59 @.@ 2 ° F ) , 14 @.@ 7 ° C ( 58 @.@ 5 ° F ) , and 15 @.@ 0 ° C ( 59 @.@ 0 ° F ) , respectively . The specific conductance of the stream was 67 micro @-@ siemens at river mile 5 @.@ 1 and 51 micro @-@ siemens at river mile 1 @.@ 3 . It was 64 micro @-@ siemens at the stream 's mouth .
At river mile 5 @.@ 1 , the pH of the waters of Scotch Run is 6 @.@ 6 and at river mile 1 @.@ 3 , the pH is 7 @.@ 0 . At the stream 's mouth , the pH is 6 @.@ 8 . The concentration of alkalinity in the stream is 5 milligrams per liter at river mile 5 @.@ 1 and 8 milligrams per liter at river mile 1 @.@ 3 and at the mouth . At river mile 5 @.@ 1 , the level of water hardness in the stream is 23 milligrams per liter , while at river mile 1 @.@ 3 , the water hardness is 15 milligrams per liter . It is 18 milligrams per liter at the stream 's mouth .
= = Geography and geology = =
The elevation near the mouth of Scotch Run is 554 feet ( 169 m ) above sea level . The elevation of the stream 's source is between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 020 feet ( 300 and 310 m ) above sea level . Near its headwaters , the stream has a width of 7 @.@ 2 feet ( 2 @.@ 2 m ) . At this location , its gradient is 23 feet per mile ( 4 @.@ 4 m / km ) . However , further downstream , its width is 16 @.@ 9 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) . Its gradient at this location is 141 feet per mile ( 26 @.@ 7 m / km ) .
Scotch Run flows over rock of the Mauch Chunk Formation for its entire length . However , the headwaters of its unnamed tributary , " Trib 27547 to Scotch Run " are on rock of the Pocono Formation . The Spechty Kopf Formation occurs on the northernmost edge of the watershed and the Pottsville Formation occurs not far to the south of the stream . Mining land in various stages of reclamation also occurs to the south of the stream , on McCauley Mountain .
Scotch Run flows over Leck Kill soil , a deep and well @-@ drained fine loamy soil for its entire length . However , the northern and southern edges of the watershed are on Hazleton soil , a deep , loamy , siliceous , well @-@ drained soil .
Scotch Run flows through the Scotch Valley . The stream flows over the lowest point between Nescopeck Mountain and McCauley Mountain . Scotch Valley is relatively narrow , but becomes somewhat wider downstream of Mifflin Cross Roads . A pond or small lake is located at the stream 's headwaters . A few patches of wetland on the National Wetlands Inventory are near the stream . It is flanked by a 100 year floodplain throughout its entire length .
= = Watershed = =
The watershed of Scotch Run has an area of 9 @.@ 10 square miles ( 23 @.@ 6 km2 ) . The watershed is mostly in Beaver Township , but a portion of its lower reaches is in Main Township . The watershed 's northern edge is on the border between Beaver Township and Mifflin Township . The mouth of the stream is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Shumans . However , its source is in the quadrangle of Nuremberg . Part of it flows through Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 58 .
In its upper reaches , ( upstream of river mile 5 @.@ 1 ( river kilometer 8 @.@ 2 ) ) , 24 percent of the length of Scotch Run is within 328 feet ( 100 m ) of a road . A total of 71 percent is within 984 feet ( 300 m ) and 100 percent is within 1 @,@ 640 feet ( 500 m ) . Further downstream , between river mile 5 @.@ 1 ( river kilometer 8 @.@ 2 ) and the mouth , 23 percent of the stream is within 328 feet ( 100 m ) of a road , 57 percent is within 984 feet ( 300 m ) of a road , and 90 percent is within 1 @,@ 640 feet ( 500 m ) of one . In 1990 , the population density near its headwaters was 26 people per square mile ( 10 people per square kilometer ) . The population density further downstream was 41 people per square mile ( 16 people per square kilometer ) . The stream flows predominantly through rural areas .
In its upper reaches , most of Scotch Run is closed to public access . For this reason , a 1997 report stated that this section of the stream offered poor recreational opportunities . However , the report stated that the stream provided good recreational opportunities in its lower reaches . According to the report , both sections of the stream are poor sites for angling .
The upper reaches of the watershed of Scotch Run , upstream of Mifflin Cross Roads , are predominantly forested land . However , there are some residential areas near the headwaters of the stream . Downstream of Mifflin Cross Roads , the watershed contains both forested land and agricultural land . The forested land occurs primarily on the valley slopes , while the bottom of the valley contains a number of small farms . A road known as Scotch Valley Drive follows the stream 's general direction up valley of the stream . A road known as LR 19015 also runs alongside to the stream for some distance .
An ephemeral natural pool system is located in the vicinity of Scotch Run . In the past , a reservoir was created on the stream by damming it . In the 21st century , a small residential area and a number of roads are present near it . The forests and vernal pools on Scotch Run are fragmented by dirt roads . The habitat quality of the area may also be impaired by All Terrain Vehicles . Additionally , the vernal pools may be used as breeding grounds for mosquitos .
The mouth of Scotch Run is near Mainville .
= = History = =
Scotch Run was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2 , 1979 . Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1187155 .
Due to the topography of the area in the vicinity of Scotch Run , the area near the stream was not settled until some time after the first settlement in the surrounding areas . Alexander McCauley settled on the stream in Beaver Township 1774 . Some time before 1820 , a carding mill was built by George Fleming on the stream southeast of Mainville . In 1820 , it started to be used as a school , which was run by Jacob Gensel .
The Sunbury Hazleton , and Wilkes @-@ Barre Railroad ( the later name of the Danville , Hazleton and Wilkes @-@ Barre Railroad ) , followed the bank of Scotch Run throughout its length . The stream was historically well known as a trout stream .
Scotch Run was surveyed by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission prior to the 1990s . This survey was carried out by Daniels and others in 1977 . However , Graff also performed water chemistry samples at the stream 's mouth in 1966 .
Two bridges more than 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) long have been built over Scotch Run . The first is a steel girder bridge that was built in 1911 and is 26 @.@ 9 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) long . The second is a concrete culvert bridge that was built in 1974 and is also 26 @.@ 9 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) long .
= = Biology = =
The entire drainage basin of Scotch Run is designated by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery . The Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission has stocked it with adult trout . The Black Creek Sportsmens Club and the Beaver Township Rod and Gun Club also stock the stream with trout . A 1997 electrofishing survey by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission discovered a small population of wild brook trout and hatchery brook trout in the stream .
In 1997 , brook trout , brown trout , and white suckers inhabited Scotch Run in its upper reaches . Two decades earlier , this part of the stream was also inhabited by pumpkinseeds and blacknose dace , but not by brown trout . The reason for the disappearance of the blacknose dace is unknown . The pumpkinseeds were only present in the 1970s due to their escape from nearby farm ponds .
The lower reaches of Scotch Run were inhabited by eight species of fish in 1997 : bluegills , brook trout , brown trout , blacknose dace , creek chubs , longnose dace , pumpkinseeds , white suckers . Bluegills and longnose dace were not present in this part of the stream two decades earlier , but rainbow trout and golden shiners were present at that time . The rainbow trout disappeared from the stream because the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission stopped stocking them and the golden shiners were only present in the 1970s due to bait bucket introductions .
The total biomass of wild trout in Scotch Run in its upper reaches is 2 @.@ 98 kilograms per hectare . 2 @.@ 93 kilograms per hectare come from brook trout ( 2 @.@ 42 kilograms per hectare of which are less than 175 millimeters long and 0 @.@ 51 kilograms per hectare of which are more than 175 millimeters long ) . The remaining 0 @.@ 05 kilograms per hectare come from brown trout , all of which are less than 175 millimeters long . This segment of the stream contains 66 brook trout less than 175 millimeters long and 3 brook trout more than 175 millimeters long per kilometer . It contains only three brown trout per kilometer , all less than 175 millimeters long . There are 174 brook trout per hectare , 166 of which are less than 175 millimeters long and eight brown trout per hectare , all of which are less than 175 millimeters long .
The total biomass of wild trout in Scotch Run in its lower reaches is 4 @.@ 39 kilograms per hectare . All of the biomass comes from brook trout ( 3 @.@ 40 kilograms per hectare of which are less than 175 millimeters long and 0 @.@ 99 kilograms per hectare of which are more than 175 millimeters long ) . This segment of the stream contains 487 brook trout per kilometer , 480 of which are less than 175 millimeters long . There are 955 brook trout per hectare , 942 of which are less than 175 millimeters long .
Amphibians use the ephemeral natural pools on Scotch Run as a breeding ground . Amphibians inhabiting the vernal pools on the stream include spring peepers , spotted salamanders , and wood frogs .
A hemlock @-@ mixed hardwood palustrine forest is present in the vicinity of Scotch Run east of the reservoir on the stream . The forest contains wooded wetlands and vernal pools . Trees inhabiting the forest include white oak , red oak , tulip poplar , yellow birch , eastern hemlock , American beech , and red maple . Other plants in the forest include teaberry , sphagnum moss , wood anemone , false hellebore , skunk cabbage , goldthread , and sensitive fern .
The Columbia County Natural Areas Inventory recommends establishing a riparian buffer around Scotch Run and discouraging further development and All Terrain Vehicle usage .
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= Iowa archaeology =
The archaeology of Iowa is the study of the buried remains of human culture within the state of Iowa from the earliest prehistoric through the late historic periods . When the American Indians first arrived in what is now Iowa more than 13 @,@ 000 years ago , they were hunters and gatherers living in a Pleistocene glacial landscape . By the time European explorers visited Iowa , American Indians were largely settled farmers with complex economic , social , and political systems . This transformation happened gradually . During the Archaic period ( 10 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 800 years ago ) American Indians adapted to local environments and ecosystems , slowly becoming more sedentary as populations increased . More than 3 @,@ 000 years ago , during the Late Archaic period , American Indians in Iowa began utilizing domesticated plants . The subsequent Woodland period saw an increase on the reliance on agriculture and social complexity , with increased use of mounds , ceramics , and specialized subsistence . During the Late Prehistoric period ( beginning about AD 900 ) increased use of maize and social changes led to social flourishing and nucleated settlements . The arrival of European trade goods and diseases in the Protohistoric period led to dramatic population shifts and economic and social upheaval , with the arrival of new tribes and early European explorers and traders . During the Historical period European traders and American Indians in Iowa gave way to American settlers and Iowa was transformed into an agricultural state .
= = Iowa archaeologists = =
Archaeologists have studied the prehistory of Iowa since the mid @-@ 19th century , when large American Indian mounds were first observed along the Mississippi . Early archaeologists such as S.V. Proudfit and Theodore Lewis documented large sites such as earthworks , mounds , and earthlodges . Truly systematic recording of Iowa sites began with Charles R. Keyes and Ellison Orr ’ s surveys and excavations beginning in the 1920s . Documenting hundreds of sites , often just before they disappeared under the plow , Keyes ’ and Orr ’ s work led to the formation of the Iowa Archaeological Survey , the Iowa Archeological Society , and the designation of Effigy Mounds National Monument . After their deaths in 1951 , the Survey was disbanded , and their efforts were continued by the University of Iowa ’ s Department of Sociology and Anthropology , which formed the Office of the State Archaeologist ( OSA ) in 1959 . The OSA maintains an extensive list of more than 23 @,@ 000 recorded archaeological sites in Iowa , and conducts survey and excavation across the state . Other institutions conducting archaeological research in Iowa include the State Historical Society of Iowa , the Iowa Archeological Society , the University of Iowa , Iowa State University , Grinnell College , Luther College , and private archaeological firms . Professional archaeologists in Iowa are represented by the Association of Iowa Archaeologists . Iowa archaeology grew dramatically beginning in the 1960s with the introduction of Cultural Resources Management legislation that required archaeological survey and excavation at many federal projects in Iowa .
= = Paleoindian ( 13 @,@ 500 – 10 @,@ 500 years ago ) = =
Paleoindian hunters and gatherers were the first occupants of Iowa , entering the state at the end of the Pleistocene glacial period . At the time the state was covered by tundra , conifer forests , and deciduous forests . Areas immediately north of Des Moines extending to Minnesota were covered by the receding Des Moines Lobe , a large glacier system . Highly mobile , their sites are scattered across Iowa and are noted for their large stone points . While Paleoindians were traditionally viewed as big game hunters , more recent research suggests much of their subsistence was derived from small game and wild plants . Paleoindian points are found throughout Iowa , but almost no intact Paleoindian sites have been excavated , probably because they were ephemeral and are now either destroyed by plowing or are very deeply buried in river valleys .
= = = Clovis and other Early Paleoindian = = =
The oldest artifacts found in Iowa are Clovis points , large lanceolate points found occasionally in all parts of the state except for the Des Moines Lobe . Possible sources of game were giant Pleistocene megafauna , including mammoth , mastodon , and giant forms of bison , all of which are now extinct . While widespread , only two Clovis sites have been excavated in Iowa . The Rummells @-@ Maske site is a Clovis site in Cedar County ; unfortunately , this site was damaged by plowing , although 20 points and point fragments were recovered . The Carlisle Clovis Cache Site in Warren County contained 38 unfinished stone tools that appear to date to the Clovis period , but these results have not yet been published .
Other Iowa Early Paleoindian points include Gainey , a point that appears to be intermediate between Clovis and Folsom . Gainey points were also recovered at Rummells @-@ Maske . While Folsom points are found throughout Iowa , especially western Iowa , none have been excavated in a well @-@ preserved site .
= = = Dalton and other Late Paleoindian = = =
At the beginning of the glacial @-@ free Holocene Epoch , humans in Iowa utilized projectile point found throughout the mid @-@ continent , including Dalton , Fayette , Agate Basin , and Hell Gap . Humans were still highly mobile , and by this time most of the Pleistocene megafauna had gone extinct . As with the Early Paleoindian period , no intact Late Paleoindian sites have been excavated in Iowa .
= = Archaic Period = =
The Archaic is the longest period of Iowa prehistory , lasting about 8 @,@ 000 years . Overall , populations appear to have increased in Iowa during the Archaic , despite a changing climate . During this time American Indians transitioned from highly mobile hunters and gatherers with large ranges towards a focus on local resources and ecosystems . Domesticated plants appeared in Iowa towards the end of the Archaic .
= = = Early Archaic ( 10 @,@ 500 – 7 @,@ 500 years ago ) = = =
During the Early Archaic period regional variation in point forms is seen in Iowa , and Indians adapted to more localized forms of hunting and gathering while probably maintaining seasonal movements from camp to camp . Common stone tool types are Corner @-@ notched St. Charles points and Thebes Knives . Soon Hardin and Kirk points appear in Iowa as well . Excavated Early Archaic sites in Iowa include the Soldow Site , Horizons IIIa and II of the Cherokee Sewer Site , and the Simonsen Site .
= = = Middle Archaic ( 7 @,@ 500 – 5 @,@ 000 years ago ) = = =
Temperatures rose in the mid @-@ continent during the Middle Archaic , a warming trend known as the Hypsithermal . Grasslands expanded east , forests became less common , and many Iowa lakes shrank or disappeared . Humans responded by diversifying their subsistence strategy : eastern Iowa saw a shift towards river resources , and western Iowa towards Plains resources . Excavated sites in eastern and central Iowa include the Brash Site , the Gast Spring Site , and the Ed ’ s Meadow Site . Western Iowa sites include the Turin Site , Horizon I of the Cherokee Sewer Site , and the Pony Creek Site .
= = = Late Archaic ( 5 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 800 years ago ) = = =
In the Late Archaic the climate became more similar to modern with the end of the Hypsithermal . The number of Late Archaic Sites increased in Iowa , perhaps reflective of increased populations allowed by climate change and new subsistence strategies . The Late Archaic sees the first indication of mound building in Iowa , as well as direct evidence of domesticated plants , and large , long @-@ term settlements . The Red Ocher Culture appeared in northeast Iowa , associated with copper artifacts and mound building . Numerous Late Archaic sites have been excavated in eastern Iowa , some showing the gradual adaptation of cultigens , including squash , little barley , marsh elder , and barnyard grass . Sites with evidence for early cultigens in Iowa include the Edgewater Park Site in Coralville , the Gast Spring Site , and the Sand Run Slough West Site . In western Iowa , Late Archaic sites are common , however large bison killing or processing sites are less common than before , and there is little evidence for the use of domesticated plants .
= = Woodland Period = =
During the Woodland period , many American Indians in Iowa shifted away from hunting and gathering and used more domesticated plants , although wild food was still important . Ceramics , the bow and arrow , burial mounds , and evidence of political and social hierarchy became common at Woodland sites in Iowa .
= = = Early Woodland ( 800 BC – 200 BC ) = = =
The Early Woodland period saw the introduction of ceramics to Iowa , including Marion Thick and Black Sand types . Marion Thick may have originated with the nucleated Late Archaic cultures of the Upper Midwest , and was widespread in distribution . Early Woodland Indians in eastern Iowa built large burial mounds in the Mississippi River region , and participated in long @-@ distance trade of exotic raw material . This long @-@ distance trade may have been the forerunner of the later Havanna @-@ Hopewell trading sphere . In north @-@ central Iowa , Early Woodland peoples appear to have interacted more directly with the Prairie Lakes region of Minnesota . Numerous Early Woodland sites have been excavated in Iowa , including the Gast Spring Site , and many sites which have not been formally published .
= = = Middle Woodland ( 200 BC – 400 AD ) = = =
The Middle Woodland Indians of eastern Iowa participated at the edge of the Havana and Hopewell interaction networks . This cultural connection to the East is seen in the construction of large mounds , earthworks , and the trade of exotic goods over very long distances . There were several large earthwork enclosures in Iowa along the Mississippi that date to the Middle Woodland period , but none in the interior of the state , indicating Iowa is the western edge of Havana @-@ Hopewell influence . The Toolesboro Mound Group in Louisa County included a large octagonal earthen enclosure that covered several acres ; earthworks of this style are indicative of the monumental construction once seen in Havana , Illinois along the Illinois River and sites in the Ohio River drainage including Chillicothe and Newark , Ohio . Hopewell trading networks were quite extensive , with obsidian from the Yellowstone area , copper from Lake Superior , and shells from the Gulf Coast appearing in Middle Woodland Iowa sites . Sites in eastern Iowa appeared to nucleate , vacating much of the hinterlands . Western Iowa appears to have been not directly involved in this exchange network , and the Havana @-@ Hopewell flourishing did not extend much above the Kansas City area of the Missouri River .
= = = Late Woodland ( 400 – 1250 AD ) = = =
The Late Woodland Period was once considered to be relatively unimportant and uninteresting compared to earlier and later periods , but recent research shows unexpected cultural complexity . Late Woodland sites are more dispersed than Middle Woodland sites , but they are apparently more numerous . Gone are the complex earthworks and long @-@ distance trade networks , but this does not appear to be a cultural collapse , since Late Woodland sites and artifact types overlap with and transition from Middle Woodland sites . Technical changes of the Late Woodland include the use of true arrow heads , thinner and larger ceramics with less elaborate decorations , and the adaptation of new crops , including maize . Numerous regional variations and phases have been defined in Iowa , based in large extent on differences of ceramic form and decoration . Excavations at Late Woodland sites are common , some of these sites showing surprising complexity . The Gast Farm Site excavations revealed a complex settlement associated with a midden of refuse 100 m in diameter . Large storage and food processing pits , trash middens , and other features were excavated . Occupants utilized acorns , other nuts and fruits , goosefoot , little barley , maygrass , sunflower , fish , birds , deer , muskrat , and turtle . There was little evidence of long @-@ distance trade . The Rainbow and M.A.D. sites provide a glimpse into the Late Archaic of western Iowa . At Rainbow , a large house was excavated , showing evidence of reuse and possible joint occupation by two families . Mound building became more common during the Late Woodland Period , large groups of mounds appeared including the Slinde Mound Group , and the Fish Farm Mound Group .
= = = Effigy Mounds = = =
The Late Woodland in Iowa is perhaps best known for effigy mounds , large , low mounds shaped like animals such as birds and bears . Effigy mounds are distributed across southern Wisconsin , northern Illinois , and northeast Iowa . A large concentration of mounds in several groups is preserved at Effigy Mounds National Monument . Like most mounds in Iowa , excavation reveals that these mounds were commonly used as sacred burial locations but contain few artifacts . Recent ground @-@ penetrating radar survey of selected mounds at Effigy Mounds National Monument reveal that many are badly disturbed , but others appear to be comparatively intact . The Folkert Mound Group in central Iowa contains an enigmatic cruciform mound that may or may not be astronomically aligned .
= = Late Prehistoric ( 900 – 1600 ) = =
Maize appears to have been the catalyst for change in the Late Prehistoric period in Iowa . While maize had been a minor crop in the Woodland Period , many archaeologists believe new varieties of maize were introduced to the region that produced higher yields , allowing for a population boom . This increase in population , combined with the potential for surplus and growing tensions over control of territory , appears to have led to large nucleated settlements throughout the eastern U.S. Although this manifested itself earliest along the Mississippi south of Iowa , the earliest Late Prehistoric cultures appeared in the western part of the state .
= = = Great Oasis ( ca . 900 – 1100 ) = = =
Great Oasis sites appeared in the Missouri River drainage , and have attributes of both Late Woodland and Late Prehistoric cultures . Great Oasis cultures extended through the eastern Plains from Iowa to South Dakota . Developing independently from the eastern Mississippian cultures , Great Oasis sites display large sites along major stream terraces , increased reliance on agriculture combined with hunting and gathering , substantial pit earth lodges , and a transition from Late Woodland to Late Prehistoric ceramic forms . Overall , Great Oasis appears to have been a regional adaptation of new forms of farming and settlement patterns , including seasonal occupation of different ecological zones , that includes aspects of Late Woodland and the subsequent Middle Missouri Tradition .
= = = Mill Creek and Glenwood ( 1100 – 1300 ) = = =
In northwestern Iowa , Great Oasis underwent dramatic changes as Mill Creek sites appeared . While Mill Creek has many stylistic similarities with Great Oasis and some Mill Creek sites contain Great Oasis ceramic forms , Mill Creek sites are substantially different . Mill Creek sites became nucleated , often fortified , had a much higher dependence on maize and bison hunting , show substantial evidence of long @-@ distance trade , and appear to have been occupied year @-@ round . The Phipps and Chan @-@ Ya @-@ Ta sites are classic examples . Glenwood culture sites in southwest Iowa near the Missouri River appear to be unrelated to the earlier Great Oasis sites , and are notable for their large earthlodge sites . Glenwood sites appear to have been more oriented in lifeways and trade with the Central Plains Tradition cultures to the west than with the Mississippian cultures to the southeast . Around 1300 AD Mill Creek and Glenwood sites in Iowa disappeared , replaced by the rapidly spreading Oneota cultures .
= = = Oneota ( 1250 – 1700 ) = = =
Very large Mississippian centers appeared around AD 1000 , with enormous earthen pyramids , palisades , and extreme social hierarchy . The earliest large Mississippian center was Cahokia , east of St. Louis . Cahokia appears to have dominated trade in the upper Mississippi , with satellite or closely aligned settlements as far as Aztalan in Wisconsin . In Iowa , there is little evidence of Mississippian occupation , and the Late Woodland lasts longer in the east than in the west . This is puzzling , given the proximity to Mississippian cultures ; it is possible that the nearby presence of the large , hierarchal Mississippian trading network inhibited local development . After the decline of the Cahokia network after AD 1250 the local Late Woodland populations expanded in complexity , developing large nucleated villages and their own trading network , known as Oneota . Oneota , named by Charles Keyes for a river in northeast Iowa , was a large cultural manifestation that covered the Upper Midwest at the edge of the Mississippian cultures . Oneota sites are easily identifiable by the globular , shell tempered pots , which typically have strap handles and incised designs . Pots of this kind were well designed for the cooking of porridge and foods made from the various cultivated foods of the area . Important Oneota sites in Iowa include Kingston , Mckinney , Christenson , Blood Run , Hartley Fort , the Lane Enclosure , three sites in downtown Des Moines , and sites along the Upper Iowa River , including several large earthwork enclosures . After the decline of the Mill Creek and Glenwood cultures in western Iowa , Oneota cultures appeared across the state . It is widely accepted that the Oneota were the ancestors of modern American Indian tribes associated with Iowa , including the Ioway , Ho @-@ Chunk ( Winnebago ) , Otoe , Missouria , and Omaha .
= = Protohistoric ( 1600 – 1800 ) = =
Protohistoric refers to the period when American Indians were exposed to European trade items and large population shifts occurred because of introduced European diseases and warfare , but there is very little direct written documentation . Explorers such as Marquette and Joliet occasionally documented American Indians along the Mississippi in Iowa , but it was not until the early 19th century that regular written accounts of American Indians in Iowa became common . American Indians in the early Protohistoric period continued many aspects of Oneota culture , but soon almost all indigenous technology disappeared , including ceramics and stone tool production . It was during this period that the Meskwaki ( Fox ) and Sauk appeared in eastern Iowa , displaced from their homelands in the east . Important protohistoric sites include Milford ; Blood Run ; Gillett Grove ; and Iowaville .
= = Historical ( 1800 – present ) = =
The earliest European forts and settlements were established by traders beginning in the 1680s . Almost none of these ephemeral early historical sites have been located archaeologically . Julien Dubuque ’ s Mines of Spain settlement and adjacent Meskwaki village occupied in the late 18th century and early 19th century , has been the subject of numerous archaeological surveys . Fort Madison ( 1808 – 1813 ) , the first American settlement and the first American fort in Iowa , was partially excavated in 1965 . American settlement began in earnest in the 1830s , and the official removal of American Indians from Iowa was completed by 1852 . Several of these historical sites have been excavated , including Gilbert ’ s Trading Post. and Fort Atkinson . Archaeologists have also studied historical American settlements , including excavations at the Plum Grove Historic House , the Buxton African @-@ American community , and the Bowen ’ s Prairie community .
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= Cobi Crispin =
Cobi Crispin ( born 22 December 1988 ) is a 4 point wheelchair basketball forward from Western Australia . She began playing wheelchair basketball in 2003 when she was 17 years old . The Victorian Institute of Sport and Direct Athlete Support ( DAS ) program have provided assistance to enable her to play . She played club basketball in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) for the Victorian Dandenong Rangers in 2012 after having previously played for the Western Stars . In 2015 she began playing for the Minecraft Comets . She played for the University of Alabama in the United States in 2013 @-@ 15 .
Crispin made her Australian women 's national wheelchair basketball team debut in 2006 , competing in the Joseph F. Lyttle World Basketball Challenge that year , and participated in Paralympic qualification in 2007 . She remained on the team and was part of the bronze medal winning Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2008 Summer Paralympics . At the 2010 IWBF World Championships in Birmingham England , her team finished fourth . The following year , she was captain of the 2011 Under 25 ( U25 ) Women ’ s Wheelchair Basketball team at the World Championships and earned a silver medal . Also in 2012 , she participated in Paralympic qualifying , and went on to compete at the 2012 Summer Paralympics where her team finished second .
= = Personal = =
Cobi Crispin was born in Mackay , Queensland , on 22 December 1988 , the daughter of Alan and Cathy Crispin . She has three brothers . She was born missing a femur . She moved to Melbourne , Victoria as a result of switching wheelchair basketball club sides to play with the Dandenong Rangers , and now lives in Ashburton , Victoria . Other sports she has had interest in include hockey , swimming and touch football . Her role models are Paralympic wheelchair basketball players Liesl Tesch and Alison Mosely . She was educated at St Patrick 's College , Mackay , and as of 2012 attends Deakin University .
= = Basketball = =
Crispin 's wheelchair basketball classification is 4 @.@ 0 point player , and she plays forward . She has played the sport since 2003 , when she was 17 years old . In 2009 , she was an Aspire to be a Champion grant recipient . In 2010 , she had a scholarship with the Victorian Institute of Sport , which provides " provide assistance with specialist coaching , sport science , sports medicine , physical preparation and education and career development services as well as training & competition expenses " . In 2010 / 11 and 2011 / 12 , the Australian Sports Commission gave her A $ 17 @,@ 000 grants through the Direct Athlete Support ( DAS ) program , a scheme which provides direct financial support to elite athletes . She received $ 5 @,@ 571 in 2009 / 10 and $ 10 @,@ 000 in 2012 / 13 .
= = = National team = = =
Crispin 's first national team appearance was in 2006 . She was selected to participate in a national team training camp in 2010 , and was member of the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing . The Gliders defeated Japan 53 @-@ 47 to win the bronze medal .
= = = = 2012 Paralympics = = = =
In October 2011 , Crispin was named to the senior national squad that would compete at the Asia / Oceania Championships 2011 in Goyang , South Korea , a qualifying tournament for the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , with the top two teams qualifying . The Gliders lost to Japan twice in the qualifying rounds , but made the finals on percentage , and fought their way back from being seven points down at quarter time to defeat China in the gold medal match , 45 @-@ 44 .
In the first game of the 2012 Paralympics tournament against Brazil , which her team won 52 @-@ 50 , she played 32 : 34 minutes . She scored 18 points against the Brazil women 's national wheelchair basketball team , and had seven rebounds . In the team 's third game of pool play , where they lost to Canada 50 @-@ 57 , she played 29 : 43 minutes and scored 12 points . In the team 's fourth game of pool play against the Netherlands women 's national wheelchair basketball team that her team won 58 @-@ 49 , she played 25 : 09 minutes , and scored ten points . In her team 's quarterfinal 62 @-@ 37 victory over Mexico women 's national wheelchair basketball team , she played 17 : 08 minutes , and scored twelve points . Her team met the United States women 's national wheelchair basketball team in the semifinals , where Australia won 40 @-@ 39 and she played 24 : 37 minutes , and scored six points . In the gold medal game against the Germany women 's national wheelchair basketball team , she played 29 : 40 minutes . While her team lost 44 @-@ 58 and was awarded a silver medal , she scored six points , and had five rebounds .
= = = = Other competitions = = = =
In 2006 , Crispin was named the Northern Challenge Most Valuable Player . Organised by the Sporting Wheelies , this competition beings together teams from across northern Queensland . She was also on the squad that competed at the Joseph F. Lyttle World Basketball Challenge that year . In 2007 , she played with the national team that the competed in the Asia Oceania Qualification tournament , and the silver medal winning team that competed at the Osaka Cup . She also played with the 2008 , 2009 and 2010 Osaka Cup @-@ winning teams . In 2010 , she was part of the fourth place @-@ finishing Australian national squad that competed at the IWBF World Championships , in Birmingham , England .
Crispin was co @-@ captain of the 2011 Under 25 ( U25 ) Women ’ s Wheelchair Basketball team that competed at the U25 Women ’ s World Championship of Basketball , and finished second . She was the team 's top scorer in all but last two matches in the tournament , when as reporter Pat Koopman stated , " the opposition concentrated on nullifying her influence " on the games . "
In 2013 Crispin began playing for the University of Alabama , and won the Jessica Staley Impact Award and the Stephanie Wheeler Performance Award for 2013 @-@ 14 . The Alabama team of which she was part went through the season undefeated by women 's teams , and defeated the University of Illinois 58 @-@ 52 to win the 2015 national championship on 28 February 2015 .
= = = Club basketball = = =
In 2008 , Crispin was named one of Australia 's Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) All @-@ Star Five . She played her club basketball for WNWBL 's Western Stars . In the second round of the 2008 season , the Western Stars defeated the Hills Hornets 52 @-@ 44 . Playing for the Stars , wearing number 5 , she scored 14 points in her team 's victory . She switched to the Dandenong Rangers for the 2011 season . In her debut game , she scored 28 points and 16 rebounds against her old team . The Rangers went on to win the 2011 WNWBL title , defeating the Sydney Uni Flames 62 @-@ 59 , in a match in which Crispin scored 16 points and was named to the league ’ s All @-@ Star 5 . She was with the Rangers again for the 2012 season , in which was named the 2012 WNWBL MVP of the Final Series after scoring 28 points in the Rangers ' Championship win against the Stacks Goudkamp Bears . In 2015 she joined the Minecraft Comets .
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= The Curse of Frank Black =
" ' The Curse of Frank Black " is the sixth episode of the second season of the crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on October 31 , 1997 . The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Ralph Hemecker . " The Curse of Frank Black " featured a guest appearance from Dean Winters .
Millennium centers on offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) , who investigates unusual crimes as part of the private investigative organisation the Millennium Group . In this episode , Black tries to spend Halloween with his daughter , but is continually reminded of a figure from his past .
" The Curse of Frank Black " , which was inspired by the 1964 Japanese horror film Kwaidan , has received positive reviews from critics , with its minimalist plot being seen as its main strength .
= = Plot = =
On Halloween , Millennium Group member Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) is carving a jack @-@ o ' -lantern while preparing to take his daughter Jordan ( Brittany Tiplady ) trick @-@ or @-@ treating . As he leaves to collect her , he notices a demonic figure watching him from across the street . That night , Jordan deliberately passes by one house , telling Black that it is haunted . Black tells her there are no such thing as ghosts , but is reminded of a moment from his past . In a flashback , we see a five @-@ year @-@ old Black being dared by his friends to knock the door of the same house ; a man named Crocell ( Dean Winters ) answers and invites Black inside . Crocell is a Second World War veteran , and he explains the meaning of Halloween to Black , telling the boy that it is the one night of the year that ghosts walk among the living . Crocell hopes that it is his chance to commune with the friends he lost in the war , and is dismayed when the young Black dismisses the possibility of ghosts .
After bringing Jordan back to her mother , Catherine ( Megan Gallagher ) , Black is driving home when he notices several youths egging a house — the house he once shared with Catherine and Jordan , and in which his friend Bob Bletcher was killed . He goes inside , and overhears several teenagers gathered in the basement trying to scare each other with the story of Bletcher 's murder . Black interrupts , scaring off the youths — and is again reminded of his past , recalling his reaction when Crocell was found to have committed suicide . As Black leaves the house , he picks up an egg carton discarded by the fleeing teenagers and throws the remaining eggs at the walls .
When Black arrives home , he leafs through the day 's mail , finally noticing that the numbers " 268 " and the letters " ACT " have been appearing to him throughout the day , including Crocell 's door number being 268 . Black takes these coincidences to be pointing him towards a Bible verse , Acts of the Apostles 26 : 8 — " why should it be thought incredible by you that God raises the dead ? " . Black then hears something moving in his attic , and investigates . He discovers Crocell 's ghost , who claims to have been sent back to warn Black that he should abandon his work with the Millennium Group , and return to live with his wife and child instead . Crocell warns that Black will end up as lonely as he did , but when Black dismisses this , the spirit vanishes . The following day , Black returns to his old house to clean up where it was egged . As he cleans , he momentarily glimpses the same demonic figure as the day before , but he ignores it and continue his work .
= = Production = =
" The Curse of Frank Black " was written by frequent collaborators Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Ralph Hemecker . Hemecker had previously helmed the first season episode " The Well @-@ Worn Lock " , and a further three in the third season . He would return for the third season episode " Exegesis " . Morgan and Wong had previously collaborated to write several episodes of the first season . The duo would go on to pen a number of episodes over the course of the second season , having taken the roles of co @-@ executive producers for the season .
Morgan and Wong 's script for the episode was influenced by the 1964 Japanese horror film Kwaidan and features very little dialogue . Morgan felt that Henriksen was the right actor for such a script , describing him as " so great with looks " . Morgan also credited Hemecker with " a lot of the episode 's tone " , finding the director 's work to have been " beautiful " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Curse of Frank Black " was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on October 31 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 7 during its original broadcast , meaning that 5 @.@ 7 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 5 @.@ 59 million households , and left the episode the eighty @-@ fourth most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode received positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen rated the episode an A , calling it " the best episode of Millennium yet , by a long chalk " . Handlen felt that the episode effectively scaled the series ' grandiose apocalyptic tone down to one man 's struggle , making both the series and Frank Black more understandable to viewers . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 4 out of 5 , " moody , bamboozling " and " truly creepy " . Gibron also felt that the episode 's structure , based on " hidden hints and secret connections " , foreshadowed Morgan and Wong 's later work on the film Final Destination . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " The Curse of Frank Black " five stars out of five , feeling that " it 's simple , and it 's brave , and it 's curiously moving " . Shearman felt that the episode 's minimalism — its paucity of dialogue and music — was key to its tone , and praised Henriksen 's expressiveness for helping to shape this .
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= No. 81 Wing RAAF =
No. 81 Wing is the wing responsible for operating the McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet multi @-@ role fighters of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Headquartered at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales , the wing comprises three combat units , Nos. 3 and 77 Squadrons based at Williamtown and No. 75 Squadron based at RAAF Base Tindal , Northern Territory , as well as an operational conversion unit at Williamtown . No. 81 Wing headquarters oversees squadron training in air @-@ to @-@ air combat , air @-@ to @-@ ground tactics , and support for the Australian Army and Royal Australian Navy . Tasked with offensive and defensive counter @-@ air operations , the Hornets have been deployed to Diego Garcia in 2001 – 02 , when they provided local air defence , and to Iraq in 2003 , when they saw action flying fighter escort and close air support missions in concert with Coalition forces . They have also been employed to patrol high @-@ profile events in Australia , including the Commonwealth Games and visits by foreign dignitaries , and acted as contingency support for peacekeeping operations in East Timor in 1999 – 2000 .
Formed in April 1944 , No. 81 Wing comprised three flying units , Nos. 76 , 77 and 82 Squadrons , operating P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II . Following the end of hostilities , the wing converted to P @-@ 51 Mustangs and was based in Japan as part of the Allied occupational forces ; it disbanded there in November 1948 . Re @-@ formed at Williamtown in January 1961 , its complement included Nos. 75 and 76 Squadrons , and No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit , operating CAC Sabre jets . The Sabres were deployed to RAAF Base Darwin , Northern Territory , in 1964 to guard against possible attack by Indonesian forces during the Konfrontasi with Malaysia . No. 81 Wing converted to Dassault Mirage III supersonic fighters before disbanding in December 1966 . It was re @-@ formed again at Williamtown in February 1987 , to operate the Hornet . The wing also controlled Nos. 25 ( later 79 ) and 76 Squadrons , flying Macchi lead @-@ in fighters , until they were transferred to No. 78 Wing in 2000 .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
Established at Ballarat , Victoria , on 12 April 1944 , No. 81 Wing operated P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II . Group Captain Gordon Steege set up headquarters on Los Negros in the Admiralty Islands on 30 August . Comprising Nos. 76 , 77 and 82 Squadrons , the formation joined Nos. 77 and 78 Wings on Noemfoor as part of No. 10 Operational Group in September 1944 . No. 10 Group was renamed the First Tactical Air Force ( No. 1 TAF ) in October . The same month , No. 81 Wing undertook offensive sweeps and ground attacks against targets in West Papua . In November , Nos. 77 and 82 Squadrons dive bombed Japanese airfields on Halmahera . The wing flew 1 @,@ 125 sorties in October and November , dropping over 400 @,@ 000 pounds ( 180 @,@ 000 kg ) of bombs , for the loss of 15 aircraft and 11 pilots . The relegation of No. 1 TAF to areas of operation bypassed by the main Allied thrust towards the Philippines and Japan led to poor morale . In December 1944 , No. 81 Wing 's new commander , Group Captain Wilfred Arthur , produced a " balance sheet " to demonstrate that the formation 's combat results were not worth the cost in ordnance and casualties , setting in train events that would culminate in the so @-@ called " Morotai Mutiny " the following year .
By January 1945 , the number of missions flown by No. 81 Wing had dropped to less than 400 , from over 1 @,@ 000 the previous month . In March , the Kittyhawks carried out some 80 patrols around Noemfoor but encountered enemy activity on less than half of these . The wing was slated to take part in Operation Oboe One , the invasion of Tarakan , in May 1945 but was unable to move in time from Noemfoor to its new base on Morotai in the Dutch East Indies ; only No. 76 Squadron played any part in the battle , undertaking patrols and convoy escort . The following month , No. 81 Wing flew close support missions for the Australian 9th Division in Operation Oboe Six , the invasion of Labuan . In addition to its three Kittyhawk squadrons , the wing 's order of battle included No. 457 Squadron flying Spitfires , No. 25 Air Stores Park , No. 24 Medical Clearing Station , No. 22 Repair and Servicing Unit , No. 9 Repair and Servicing Unit Detachment , No. 111 Mobile Fighter Control Unit , and seven Radar Stations — a total of over 2 @,@ 000 personnel . Its commander on Morotai and Labuan was Group Captain Ian McLachlan . No. 81 Wing was to have provided two squadrons in support of Operation Oboe Two , the assault on Balikpapan , in June but Tarakan airfield , from which it was to operate , was not ready in time . The wing was still based on Labuan when the Pacific War ended in August 1945 . Calls soon came to serve with the formation as part of the proposed Commonwealth occupation forces in Japan , and many personnel volunteered to do so .
= = = Allied occupation of Japan = = =
No. 81 Wing began re @-@ equipping with P @-@ 51D Mustangs at Labuan in September 1945 . No. 481 ( Maintenance ) Squadron was formed in December from elements of No. 22 Repair and Servicing Unit , No. 25 Air Stores Park , and other units based on Labuan . No. 381 ( Base ) Squadron , established in January 1946 , also utilised personnel and equipment from No. 81 Wing 's specialist units at Labuan , including No. 47 Operational Base Unit , No. 24 Medical Clearing Station , No. 25 Air Stores Park and No. 2 Airfield Defence Squadron . The base squadron was an administrative and logistical unit , intended to make its wing self @-@ supporting and mobile . Under the leadership of Wing Commander Glen Cooper , No. 81 Wing subsequently transferred to new headquarters at Bofu , a former kamikaze base , where it formed the Australian air contingent of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) in Japan until 1948 , when the RAAF presence was reduced . The first of its units to arrive in Japan had been No. 5 Airfield Construction Squadron ( No. 5 ACS ) in December 1945 , followed by the three flying squadrons in March 1946 . No. 82 Squadron lost three Mustangs and an escorting de Havilland Mosquito in bad weather en route to Bofu , killing all crew members . The wing 's strength was augmented by Nos. 381 and 481 Squadrons , and later No. 111 Mobile Fighter Control Unit ( No. 111 MFCU ) . Also making the journey to Japan was the wing 's mascot , Flying Officer ( later Flight Lieutenant ) Raleigh , " a small yellow dog and combat @-@ seasoned veteran with over 40 hours operational flying to his credit " .
As the Japanese offered no serious resistance to the Allied occupation , No. 81 Wing 's prime operational duty was surveillance patrols . The RAAF personnel also helped maintain law and order , and supervised elections , while No. 5 ACS , in addition to military construction , contributed to rebuilding local infrastructure . Otherwise they generally maintained a peacetime training regime . By late 1946 , No. 381 Squadron was providing technical support to all BCOF squadrons , including five from Britain , New Zealand and India , as well as to the RAAF contingent . Group Captain Brian Eaton took over command of No. 81 Wing from Cooper in September 1947 . The wing transferred to Iwakuni in April 1948 , the same month that the Federal government determined to reduce Australia 's contribution to BCOF and disband the formation , retaining only No. 77 Squadron in Japan . Nos. 76 and 82 Squadrons disbanded in October , the former subsequently re @-@ emerging and joining No. 78 Wing when it deployed to Malta in 1952 . No. 81 Wing headquarters and No. 481 Squadron were disbanded in November 1948 , followed by No. 111 MFCU in January 1949 . Detachments of No. 381 Squadron and No. 5 ACS remained with No. 77 Squadron under the aegis of a new organisation called RAAF Component , eventually disbanding in February and April 1950 , respectively . No. 77 Squadron personnel were preparing to return to Australia when , on 25 June 1950 , they were placed on standby for action in the Korean War , which had just broken out ; the unit began flying missions over Korea a week later .
= = = Later formations = = =
In January 1961 , No. 81 Wing was re @-@ established at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales . Flying CAC Sabres , its complement included Nos. 75 and 76 Squadrons , as well as No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit ( No. 2 OCU ) and a re @-@ formed No. 481 Maintenance Squadron . In September 1964 , Nos. 76 and 481 Squadrons were deployed to RAAF Base Darwin , Northern Territory , as part of Operation Handover , a little @-@ publicised contingency plan put into effect during the Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia . No. 76 Squadron 's Sabres , armed with Sidewinder missiles , were to defend against possible attack by Indonesian forces following the recent establishment of the Federation of Malaysia . This was the first time since World War II that an RAAF flying squadron was positioned " in harm 's way " on Australian territory . As No. 75 Squadron was effectively out of action pending conversion to the Dassault Mirage III , the deployment meant that practically the entire mainland fighter force had been committed to the north . The Officer Commanding No. 81 Wing , Group Captain A.F. Mather , took on the role of Area Air Defence Commander . No combat ensued , the Sabres ' only interception being a Canberra bomber of No. 1 Operational Conversion Unit , but the experience did reveal deficiencies in the defence of Northern Australia and contributed to the decision to maintain a permanent detachment of No. 81 Wing fighters in Darwin , and later at RAAF Base Tindal . The wing converted from Sabres to Mirages between 1964 and 1966 , commencing with No. 2 OCU and concluding with No. 76 Squadron ; the last @-@ mentioned disbanded in 1973 . No. 81 Wing itself disbanded at Williamtown in December 1966 . No. 75 Squadron was based at RAAF Base Butterworth , Malaysia , from 1967 until 1983 , when it relocated to Darwin . Following conversion to the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet in 1988 , it transferred to Tindal . Owing to its remote location , it became the largest Hornet squadron , employing an extensive maintenance section to ensure readiness .
No. 81 Wing re @-@ formed at Williamtown on 2 February 1987 . Along with No. 75 Squadron at Tindal , its flying units consisted of Nos. 3 and 77 Squadrons based at Williamtown with No. 2 OCU , all of which had converted from the Mirage to the Hornet between 1985 and 1987 , the last @-@ mentioned being the prime operator of the two @-@ seat F / A @-@ 18B trainers . Having continued to perform fighter maintenance through the 1960s and ' 70s , No. 481 Squadron was disbanded on 31 January 1987 . It re @-@ formed the next day as No. 481 Wing under No. 81 Wing 's parent organisation , Tactical Fighter Group ( TFG ) , and consisted of two squadrons , Aircraft Maintenance Squadron Williamtown ( AMSWLM ) and Aircraft Equipment Maintenance Squadron Williamtown ( AEMSWLM ) . By 1996 , No. 81 Wing had been augmented by Nos. 25 and 76 Squadrons , operating Macchi MB @-@ 326 lead @-@ in fighters , the former based at RAAF Base Pearce , Western Australia , and the latter at Williamtown , where it also employed Pilatus PC @-@ 9s for forward air control ( FAC ) . On 1 July 1996 , No. 481 Wing was reorganised as No. 402 Wing , incorporating a newly re @-@ formed No. 481 Squadron as well as Weapon Systems Support Flight and Field Training Flight . No. 402 Wing transferred its functions to No. 81 Wing 's flying squadrons on 31 July 1998 before disbanding in October . The same year , No. 25 Squadron was split , its Macchis now being operated by a re @-@ formed No. 79 Squadron . No. 78 Wing was re @-@ established in 2000 as an operational training formation , taking over Nos. 76 and 79 Squadrons , and No. 2 OCU . By 2007 , No. 2 OCU had returned to the control of No. 81 Wing .
From 2000 to 2003 , No. 77 Squadron flew the FAC PC @-@ 9s previously operated by No. 76 Squadron ; this role was subsequently assigned to the newly formed Forward Air Control Development Unit . A detachment of No. 81 Wing , consisting of Hornets from No. 75 Squadron and PC @-@ 9s from No. 77 Squadron , was prepared to support INTERFET operations in East Timor between September 1999 and February 2000 , but was not required . Following the September 11 attacks in 2001 , Hornets from both No. 3 and No. 77 Squadrons were deployed for air defence at the USAF base on Diego Garcia ; no combat ensued and the planes returned in May 2002 . That year , Hornets from No. 75 Squadron undertook combat air patrols in connection with the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Queensland . No. 81 Wing became part of RAAF Air Command 's new Air Combat Group when TFG merged with Strike Reconnaissance Group in February 2002 . The following year , 14 Hornets from No. 75 Squadron deployed to the Middle East to support the invasion of Iraq , escorting high @-@ value Coalition aircraft and later providing close air support to ground troops and air interdiction against Iraqi forces , the first time the RAAF had delivered bombs in anger since the Vietnam War . The Hornets were led by Wing Commander Mel Hupfeld , who became Officer Commanding No. 81 Wing in 2006 – 07 , Commander Air Combat Group in 2009 – 12 , and subsequently Air Commander Australia . The Hornets have also continued to play an air defence role in securing high @-@ profile events in Australia , including the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne , the 2007 APEC meeting in Sydney , and the 2011 visit by US President Barack Obama .
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= Jane Fonda =
Jane Fonda ( born Jayne Seymour Fonda ; December 21 , 1937 ) is an American actress , writer , political activist , former fashion model and fitness guru . She is a two @-@ time Academy Award winner and two time BAFTA Award winner . In 2014 , she was the recipient of the American Film Institute AFI Life Achievement Award .
Fonda made her Broadway debut in the 1960 play There Was a Little Girl , for which she received the first of two Tony Award nominations , and made her screen debut later the same year in Tall Story . She rose to fame in 1960s films such as Period of Adjustment ( 1962 ) , Sunday in New York ( 1963 ) , Cat Ballou ( 1965 ) , Barefoot in the Park ( 1967 ) and Barbarella ( 1968 ) . Her first husband was Barbarella director Roger Vadim . A seven @-@ time Academy Award nominee , she received her first nomination for They Shoot Horses , Don 't They ( 1969 ) and went on to win two Best Actress Oscars in the 1970s for Klute ( 1971 ) and Coming Home ( 1978 ) . Her other nominations were for Julia ( 1977 ) , The China Syndrome ( 1979 ) , On Golden Pond ( 1981 ) and The Morning After ( 1986 ) . Her other major competitive awards include an Emmy Award for the 1984 TV film The Dollmaker , two BAFTA Awards for Julia and The China Syndrome and four Golden Globe Awards .
In 1982 , she released her first exercise video , Jane Fonda 's Workout , which became the highest @-@ selling video of the time . It would be the first of 22 workout videos released by her over the next 13 years which would collectively sell over 17 million copies . Divorced from second husband Tom Hayden , she married billionaire media mogul Ted Turner in 1991 and retired from acting . Fonda was divorced from Turner in 2001 . She returned to acting with her first film in 15 years with the 2005 comedy Monster in Law . Subsequent films have included Georgia Rule ( 2007 ) , The Butler ( 2013 ) , This Is Where I Leave You ( 2014 ) and Youth ( 2015 ) . In 2009 , she returned to Broadway after a 45 @-@ year absence , in the play 33 Variations , which earned her a Tony Award nomination , while her recurring role in the HBO drama series The Newsroom ( 2012 @-@ 2014 ) , has earned her two Emmy Award nominations . She also released another five exercise videos between 2010 and 2012 . She currently stars with Lily Tomlin and Martin Sheen in the Netflix original series Grace and Frankie ( 2015 ) .
Fonda was a visible political activist in the counterculture era during the Vietnam War and has been more recently involved in advocacy for women . She was famously and controversially photographed sitting on an anti @-@ aircraft gun on a 1972 visit to Hanoi . She has also protested the Iraq War and violence against women , and describes herself as a feminist . In 2005 , she , Robin Morgan and Gloria Steinem co @-@ founded the Women 's Media Center , an organization that works to amplify the voices of women in the media through advocacy , media and leadership training , and the creation of original content . Fonda currently serves on the board of the organization . She published an autobiography in 2005 . In 2011 , she published a second memoir , Prime Time .
= = Background = =
Jayne Seymour Fonda was born on December 21 , 1937 , in New York City , the daughter of actor Henry Fonda and the Canadian @-@ born socialite Frances Ford Brokaw ( née Seymour ) . According to her father , their surname came from an Italian ancestor who immigrated to the Netherlands in the 1500s . There , they intermarried and began to use Dutch given names , with Jane 's first Fonda ancestor reaching New York in 1650 . She also has English , Scottish , and French ancestry . She was named for the third wife of Henry VIII , Jane Seymour , to whom she is distantly related on her mother 's side . She has a brother , Peter , an actor , and a maternal half @-@ sister , Frances de Villers Brokaw ( aka " Pan " ) , whose daughter is Pilar Corrias , owner of Pilar Corrias Gallery in London . On April 14 , 1950 , when Fonda was twelve , her mother committed suicide while under treatment at Craig House psychiatric hospital in Beacon , NY . Later that year , Fonda 's father married socialite Susan Blanchard ( born 1928 ) , just nine years his daughter 's senior ; this marriage ended in divorce . At 15 Fonda taught dance at Fire Island Pines , New York . She attended Greenwich Academy in Greenwich , Connecticut .
Fonda attended the Emma Willard School in Troy , New York , and Vassar College in Poughkeepsie , where she was an undistinguished student . Before starting her acting career , Fonda was a model , gracing the cover of Vogue twice .
= = Acting career = =
Fonda became interested in acting in 1954 , while appearing with her father in a charity performance of The Country Girl , at the Omaha Community Playhouse . After dropping out of Vassar , she went to Paris for two years to study art . Upon returning to the states , in 1958 , she met Lee Strasberg and the meeting changed the course of her life , Fonda saying , " I went to the Actors Studio and Lee Strasberg told me I had talent . Real talent . It was the first time that anyone , except my father — who had to say so — told me I was good . At anything . It was a turning point in my life . I went to bed thinking about acting . I woke up thinking about acting . It was like the roof had come off my life ! "
= = = 1960s = = =
Her stage work in the late 1950s laid the foundation for her film career in the 1960s . She averaged almost two movies a year throughout the decade , starting in 1960 with Tall Story , in which she recreated one of her Broadway roles as a college cheerleader pursuing a basketball star , played by Anthony Perkins . Period of Adjustment and Walk on the Wild Side followed in 1962 . In Walk on the Wild Side , Fonda played a prostitute and earned a Golden Globe for Most Promising Newcomer .
In 1963 , she appeared in Sunday in New York . Newsday called her " the loveliest and most gifted of all our new young actresses " . However , she also had detractors — in the same year , the Harvard Lampoon named her the " Year 's Worst Actress " for The Chapman Report . Fonda 's career breakthrough came with Cat Ballou ( 1965 ) , in which she played a schoolmarm turned outlaw . This comedy Western received five Oscar nominations and was one of the year 's top ten films at the box office . It was considered by many to have been the film that brought Fonda to bankable stardom . After this came the comedies Any Wednesday ( 1966 ) , opposite Jason Robards and Dean Jones , and Barefoot in the Park ( 1967 ) , co @-@ starring Robert Redford .
In 1968 , she played the title role in the science fiction spoof Barbarella , which established her status as a sex symbol . In contrast , the tragedy They Shoot Horses , Don 't They ? ( 1969 ) won her critical acclaim , and she earned her first Oscar nomination for the role . Fonda was very selective by the end of the 1960s , turning down lead roles in Rosemary 's Baby and Bonnie and Clyde , which went to Mia Farrow and Faye Dunaway , respectively .
= = = 1970s = = =
Fonda won her first Academy Award for Best Actress in 1971 , again playing a prostitute , the gamine Bree Daniels , in the murder mystery Klute . She won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress for Klute and another in 1978 for Coming Home as well as the Academy Award for Best Actress in 1978 , for the story of a disabled Vietnam War veteran 's difficulty in re @-@ entering civilian life .
Between Klute in 1971 and Fun With Dick and Jane in 1977 , Fonda did not have a major film success . She appeared in A Doll 's House ( 1973 ) , Steelyard Blues and The Blue Bird ( 1976 ) . From comments ascribed to her in interviews , some have inferred that she personally blamed the situation on anger at her outspoken political views : " I can 't say I was blacklisted , but I was greylisted . " However , in her 2005 autobiography , My Life So Far , she rejected such simplification . " The suggestion is that because of my actions against the war my career had been destroyed ... But the truth is that my career , far from being destroyed after the war , flourished with a vigor it had not previously enjoyed . " She reduced acting because of her political activism providing a new focus in her life . Her return to acting in a series of ' issue @-@ driven ' films reflected this new focus .
In 1972 , Fonda starred as a reporter alongside Yves Montand in Tout Va Bien , directed by Jean @-@ Luc Godard and Jean @-@ Pierre Gorin . The two directors then made Letter to Jane , in which the two spent nearly an hour discussing a news photograph of Fonda .
Through her production company , IPC Films , she produced films that helped return her to star status . The 1977 comedy film Fun With Dick and Jane is generally considered her " comeback " picture . Also in 1977 , she portrayed the playwright Lillian Hellman in Julia , receiving positive reviews , BAFTA and Golden Globe Awards for Best Actress , and an Oscar nomination . During this period , Fonda announced that she would make only films that focused on important issues , and she generally stuck to her word . She turned down An Unmarried Woman because she felt the part was not relevant . She won another BAFTA Award for Best Actress in 1979 with The China Syndrome , about a cover @-@ up of a vulnerability in a nuclear power plant . The same year , she starred in The Electric Horseman with her previous co @-@ star , Robert Redford .
= = = 1980s = = =
In 1980 , Fonda starred in 9 to 5 with Lily Tomlin and Dolly Parton . The film was a huge critical and box office success , becoming the second highest @-@ grossing release of the year . Fonda had long wanted to work with her father , hoping it would help their strained relationship . She achieved this goal when she purchased the screen rights to the play On Golden Pond , specifically for her father and her . On Golden Pond , which also starred Katharine Hepburn , brought Henry Fonda his only Academy Award for Best Actor , which Jane accepted on his behalf , as he was ill and could not leave home . He died five months later .
Fonda continued appearing in feature films throughout the 1980s , winning an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in 1984 for The Dollmaker , and starring in the role of Dr. Martha Livingston in Agnes of God ( 1985 ) . She was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her portrayal of an alcoholic murder suspect in the 1986 thriller The Morning After , opposite Jeff Bridges . She ended the decade by appearing in Old Gringo . This was followed by the romantic drama Stanley & Iris ( 1990 ) with Robert De Niro , which would be her final film for 15 years .
= = = = Exercise videos = = = =
For many years Fonda took ballet class to keep fit , but after fracturing her foot while filming The China Syndrome , she was no longer able to participate . To compensate , she began participating in aerobics and strengthening exercises under the direction of Leni Cazden . The Leni Workout became the Jane Fonda Workout , which began a second career for her , continuing for many years . This was considered one of the influences that started the fitness craze among baby boomers , then approaching middle age . In 1982 , Fonda released her first exercise video , titled Jane Fonda 's Workout , inspired by her best @-@ selling book , Jane Fonda 's Workout Book . Jane Fonda 's Workout became the highest selling home video of the next few years , selling over a million copies . The video 's release led many people to buy the then @-@ new VCR in order to watch and perform the workout at home . The exercise videos were produced and directed by Sidney Galanty , who helped to put the deal together with video distributor Stuart Karl , of Karl Home Video . Galanty produced the first video and 11 more after that . She would subsequently release 23 workout videos with the series selling a total of 17 million copies combined , more than any other exercise series . She released five workout books and thirteen audio programs , through 1995 . After a fifteen @-@ year hiatus , she released two new fitness videos on DVD in 2010 , aiming at an older audience .
= = = Retirement and return = = =
In the early 1990s , after three decades in film , Fonda announced her retirement from the film industry . In May 2005 , she returned to the screen with the box office success Monster @-@ in @-@ Law , starring opposite Jennifer Lopez . Two years later , Fonda had a supporting role in the drama Georgia Rule , alongside Felicity Huffman and Lindsay Lohan .
In 2009 , Fonda returned to act on Broadway for the first time since 1963 , playing Katherine Brandt in Moisés Kaufman 's 33 Variations . The role earned her a Tony nomination for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play .
Fonda filmed her second movie in French when she had a leading role in the 2011 drama All Together . The same year she starred alongside Catherine Keener in Peace , Love and Misunderstanding , playing a hippy grandmother . In 2012 , Fonda began a recurring role as Leona Lansing , CEO of a major media company , in HBO 's original political drama The Newsroom . Her role continued throughout the show 's three seasons , and Fonda received two Emmy nominations for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series .
In 2013 , Fonda had a small role in The Butler , portraying First Lady Nancy Reagan . She had more film work the following year , appearing in the comedies Better Living Through Chemistry and This is Where I Leave You . She also voiced a character on The Simpsons . She played an acting diva in Paolo Sorrentino 's Youth in 2015 , for which she earned a Golden Globe Award nomination . Her upcoming film roles include Fathers and Daughters with Russell Crowe .
Fonda appears as a joint @-@ lead in the Netflix series Grace and Frankie . She and Lily Tomlin play aging women whose husbands reveal they are in love . Filming on the first season was completed in November 2014 , and the show premiered online on May 8 , 2015 .
In June 2016 , the Human Rights Campaign released a video in tribute to the victims of the 2016 Orlando gay nightclub shooting ; in the video , Fonda and others told the stories of the people killed there .
= = Political activism = =
During the 1960s , Fonda engaged in political activism in support of the Civil Rights Movement , and in opposition to the Vietnam War . Fonda 's visits to France brought her into contact with leftist French intellectuals who were opposed to war , an experience that she later characterized as " small @-@ c communism " . Along with other celebrities , she supported the Alcatraz Island occupation by American Indians in 1969 , which was intended to call attention to failures of the government in treaty rights and the movement for greater Indian sovereignty .
She supported Huey Newton and the Black Panthers in the early 1970s , stating " Revolution is an act of love ; we are the children of revolution , born to be rebels . It runs in our blood . " She called the Black Panthers " our revolutionary vanguard ... we must support them with love , money , propaganda and risk . " She has been involved in the feminist movement since the 1970s , which dovetails with her activism in support of civil rights .
= = = Opposition to Vietnam War = = =
In April 1970 , Fonda , with Fred Gardner and Donald Sutherland formed the FTA tour ( " Free The Army " , a play on the troop expression " Fuck The Army " ) , an anti @-@ war road show designed as an answer to Bob Hope 's USO tour . The tour , described as " political vaudeville " by Fonda , visited military towns along the West Coast , with the goal of establishing a dialogue with soldiers about their upcoming deployments to Vietnam . The dialogue was made into a movie ( F.T.A. ) which contained strong , frank criticism of the war by servicemen and servicewomen ; it was released in 1972 .
On May 4 , 1970 , Fonda appeared before an assembly at the University of New Mexico , in Albuquerque , to speak on GI rights and issues . The end of her presentation was met with a discomforting silence . The quiet was broken when Beat poet Gregory Corso staggered onto the stage . Drunk , Corso challenged Fonda , using a four @-@ letter expletive : Why hadn 't she addressed the shooting of four students at Kent State by the Ohio National Guard , which had just taken place ? Fonda in her autobiography revisited the incident : " I was shocked by the news and felt like a fool . " On the same day , she joined a protest march on the home of university president , Ferrel Heady . The protestors called themselves " They Shoot Students , Don 't They ? " — a reference to Fonda 's recently released film , They Shoot Horses , Don 't They ? , which had just been screened in Albuquerque .
In the same year , Fonda spoke out against the war at a rally organized by Vietnam Veterans Against the War ( VVAW ) in Valley Forge , Pennsylvania . She offered to help raise funds for VVAW and , for her efforts , was rewarded with the title of Honorary National Coordinator . On November 3 , 1970 , Fonda started a tour of college campuses on which she raised funds for the organization . As noted by The New York Times , Fonda was a " major patron " of the VVAW .
= = = = Controversial visit to Hanoi = = = =
Fonda visited Hanoi in July 1972 to witness firsthand the bombing damage to the dikes . After touring and photographing dike systems in North Vietnam , she said the United States had been intentionally targeting the dike system along the Red River . Columnist Joseph Kraft , who was also touring North Vietnam , said he believed the damage to the dikes was incidental and was being used as propaganda by Hanoi , and that , if the U.S. Air Force were " truly going after the dikes , it would do so in a methodical , not a harum @-@ scarum way " .
Fonda was photographed seated on a anti @-@ aircraft gun ; the controversial photo outraged a number of Americans , and earned her the nickname " Hanoi Jane " . In her 2005 autobiography , she wrote that she was manipulated into sitting on the battery ; she had been horrified at the implications of the pictures and regretted they were taken . In a 2011 entry at her official website , Fonda explained :
It happened on my last day in Hanoi . I was exhausted and an emotional wreck after the 2 @-@ week visit ... The translator told me that the soldiers wanted to sing me a song . He translated as they sung . It was a song about the day ' Uncle Ho ' declared their country 's independence in Hanoi 's Ba Dinh Square . I heard these words : " All men are created equal ; they are given certain rights ; among these are life , Liberty and Happiness . " These are the words Ho pronounced at the historic ceremony . I began to cry and clap . These young men should not be our enemy . They celebrate the same words Americans do . The soldiers asked me to sing for them in return ... I memorized a song called " Day Ma Di " , written by anti @-@ war South Vietnamese students . I knew I was slaughtering it , but everyone seemed delighted that I was making the attempt . I finished . Everyone was laughing and clapping , including me ... Here is my best , honest recollection of what happened : someone ( I don 't remember who ) led me towards the gun , and I sat down , still laughing , still applauding . It all had nothing to do with where I was sitting . I hardly even thought about where I was sitting . The cameras flashed ... It is possible that it was a set up , that the Vietnamese had it all planned . I will never know . But if they did I can 't blame them . The buck stops here . If I was used , I allowed it to happen ... a two @-@ minute lapse of sanity that will haunt me forever ... But the photo exists , delivering its message regardless of what I was doing or feeling . I carry this heavy in my heart . I have apologized numerous times for any pain I may have caused servicemen and their families because of this photograph . It was never my intention to cause harm .
Fonda made radio broadcasts on Hanoi Radio throughout her two @-@ week tour , commenting on her visits to villages , hospitals , schools , and factories damaged in the war and denouncing U.S. military policy in Vietnam . Fonda has defended her decision to travel to North Vietnam and her radio broadcasts . During the course of her visit , Fonda visited American prisoners of war ( POWs ) , and brought back messages from them to their families . When stories of torture of returning POWs were later being publicized by the Nixon administration , Fonda called the returning POWs " hypocrites and liars and pawns " , adding about the prisoners she visited , " These were not men who had been tortured . These were not men who had been starved . These were not men who had been brainwashed . " In addition , Fonda told The New York Times in 1973 , " I 'm quite sure that there were incidents of torture ... but the pilots who were saying it was the policy of the Vietnamese and that it was systematic , I believe that 's a lie . " Her visits to the POW camp led to persistent and exaggerated rumors which were repeated widely in the press and continued to circulate on the Internet decades later . Fonda , as well as the named POWs , have personally denied the rumors , and subsequent interviews with the POWs showed these rumored allegations to be false as the persons named had never met Fonda .
In 1972 , Fonda helped fund and organize the Indochina Peace Campaign , which continued to mobilize antiwar activists across the nation after the 1973 Paris Peace Agreement , through 1975 , when the United States withdrew from Vietnam .
Because of her tour of North Vietnam during wartime and the subsequent rumors circulated about her visit , resentment against her among some veterans and currently serving U.S. military still exists . For example , when U.S. Naval Academy plebes , who had not yet been born when Fonda protested the Vietnam war , shouted out " Goodnight , Jane Fonda ! " , the company replied " Goodnight , bitch ! " This practice has since been prohibited by the academy 's Plebe Summer Standard Operating Procedures . In 2005 , Michael A. Smith , a U.S. Navy veteran , was arrested for disorderly conduct in Kansas City , Missouri , after he spat chewing tobacco in Fonda 's face during a book @-@ signing event for her autobiography , My Life So Far . He told reporters that he " consider [ ed ] it a debt of honor " , adding " she spit in our faces for 37 years . It was absolutely worth it . There are a lot of veterans who would love to do what I did . " Fonda refused to press charges .
= = = = Regrets = = = =
In a 1988 interview with Barbara Walters , Fonda expressed regret for some of her comments and actions , stating :
I would like to say something , not just to Vietnam veterans in New England , but to men who were in Vietnam , who I hurt , or whose pain I caused to deepen because of things that I said or did . I was trying to help end the killing and the war , but there were times when I was thoughtless and careless about it and I 'm very sorry that I hurt them . And I want to apologize to them and their families . [ ... ] I will go to my grave regretting the photograph of me in an anti @-@ aircraft gun , which looks like I was trying to shoot at American planes . It hurt so many soldiers . It galvanized such hostility . It was the most horrible thing I could possibly have done . It was just thoughtless .
Some critics responded that her apology came at a time when a group of New England Veterans had launched a campaign to disrupt a film project she was working on , leading to the charge that her apology was motivated at least partly by self @-@ interest .
In a 60 Minutes interview on March 31 , 2005 , Fonda reiterated that she had no regrets about her trip to North Vietnam in 1972 , with the exception of the anti @-@ aircraft @-@ gun photo . She stated that the incident was a " betrayal " of American forces and of the " country that gave me privilege " . Fonda said , " The image of Jane Fonda , Barbarella , Henry Fonda 's daughter ... sitting on an enemy aircraft gun was a betrayal ... the largest lapse of judgment that I can even imagine . " She later distinguished between regret over the use of her image as propaganda and pride for her anti @-@ war activism : " There are hundreds of American delegations that had met with the POWs . Both sides were using the POWs for propaganda ... It 's not something that I will apologize for . " Fonda said she had no regrets about the broadcasts she made on Radio Hanoi , something she asked the North Vietnamese to do : " Our government was lying to us and men were dying because of it , and I felt I had to do anything that I could to expose the lies and help end the war . "
= = = = Subject of government surveillance = = = =
In 2013 , it was revealed that Fonda was one of approximately 1 @,@ 600 Americans whose communications between 1967 and 1973 were monitored by the United States National Security Agency ( NSA ) as part of Project Minaret , a program that some NSA officials have described as " disreputable if not downright illegal " . Fonda 's communications , as well as those of her husband , Tom Hayden , were intercepted by Britain 's Government Communications Headquarters ( GCHQ ) . Under the UKUSA Agreement , the GCHQ sent the intercepted data on Americans to the U.S. government .
= = = Feminist causes = = =
Fonda has been a longtime supporter of feminist causes , including V @-@ Day , a movement to stop violence against women , inspired by the off @-@ Broadway hit The Vagina Monologues , of which she is an honorary chairperson . She was present at their first summit in 2002 , bringing together founder Eve Ensler , Afghan women oppressed by the Taliban , and a Kenyan activist campaigning to save girls from genital mutilation .
In 2001 , she established the Jane Fonda Center for Adolescent Reproductive Health at Emory University in Atlanta , Georgia to help prevent adolescent pregnancy through training and program development .
On February 16 , 2004 , Fonda led a march through Ciudad Juárez , with Sally Field , Eve Ensler and other women , urging Mexico to provide sufficient resources to newly appointed officials helping investigate the murders of hundreds of women in the rough border city . That same year , she served as a mentor to the first ever all @-@ transsexual cast of The Vagina Monologues .
In the days before the September 17 , 2006 Swedish elections , Fonda went to Sweden to support the new political party Feministiskt initiativ in their election campaign .
In My Life So Far , Fonda stated that she considers patriarchy to be harmful to men as well as women . She also states that for many years , she feared to call herself a feminist , because she believed that all feminists were " anti @-@ male " . But now , with her increased understanding of patriarchy , she feels that feminism is beneficial to both men and women , and states that she " still loves men " , adding that when she divorced Ted Turner , she felt like she had also divorced the world of patriarchy , and was very happy to have done so .
= = = Native Americans = = =
Fonda went to Seattle , Washington , in 1970 to support a group of Native Americans who were led by Bernie Whitebear . The group had occupied part of the grounds of Fort Lawton , which was in the process of being surplussed by the United States Army and turned into a park . The group was attempting to secure a land base where they could establish services for the sizable local urban Indian population , protesting that " Indians had a right to part of the land that was originally all theirs . " The endeavor succeeded and the Daybreak Star Cultural Center was constructed in the city 's Discovery Park .
= = = Israeli – Palestinian conflict = = =
In December 2002 , Fonda visited Israel and the West Bank as part of a tour focusing on stopping violence against women . She demonstrated with Women in Black against Israel 's occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip outside the residence of Israel 's Prime Minister . She later visited Jewish and Arab doctors and patients at a Jerusalem hospital , followed by visits to Ramallah to see a physical rehabilitation center , and a Palestinian refugee camp . She was heckled by three members of Women in Green as she arrived for a meeting with leading Israeli feminists .
In September 2009 , she was one of more than 1 @,@ 500 signatories to a letter protesting the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival 's spotlight on Tel Aviv . The protest letter said that the spotlight on Tel Aviv was part of " the Israeli propaganda machine " because it was supported in part by funding from the Israeli government and had been described by the Israeli Consul General Amir Gissin as being part of a Brand Israel campaign intended to draw attention away from Israel 's conflict with the Palestinians . Other signers included actor Danny Glover , musician David Byrne , journalist John Pilger , and authors Alice Walker , Naomi Klein , and Howard Zinn .
Rabbi Marvin Hier of the Simon Wiesenthal Center stated that " People who support letters like this are people who do not support a two @-@ state solution . By calling into question the legitimacy of Tel Aviv , they are supporting a one @-@ state solution , which means the destruction of the State of Israel . " Hier continued , saying that " it is clear that the script [ the protesters ] are reading from might as well have been written by Hamas . "
Fonda , in The Huffington Post , said she regretted some of the language used in the original protest letter and how it " was perhaps too easily misunderstood . It certainly has been wildly distorted . Contrary to the lies that have been circulated , the protest letter was not demonizing Israeli films and filmmakers . " She continued , writing " the greatest ' re @-@ branding ' of Israel would be to celebrate that country 's long standing , courageous and robust peace movement by helping to end the blockade of Gaza through negotiations with all parties to the conflict , and by stopping the expansion of West Bank settlements . That 's the way to show Israel 's commitment to peace , not a PR campaign . There will be no two @-@ state solution unless this happens . " Fonda emphasized that she , " in no way , support [ s ] the destruction of Israel . I am for the two @-@ state solution . I have been to Israel many times and love the country and its people . " Several prominent Atlanta Jews subsequently signed a letter to The Huffington Post rejecting the vilification of Fonda , who they described as " a strong supporter and friend of Israel " .
= = = Opposition to the Iraq War = = =
Fonda argued that the military campaign in Iraq will turn people all over the world against America , and asserted that a global hatred of America would result in more terrorist attacks in the aftermath of the war . In July 2005 , Fonda announced plans to make an anti @-@ war bus tour in March 2006 with her daughter and several families of military veterans , saying that some of the war veterans she had met while on her book tour had urged her to speak out against the Iraq War . She later canceled the tour , because of concerns that she would distract attention from Cindy Sheehan 's activism .
In September 2005 , Fonda was scheduled to join British politician and anti @-@ war activist George Galloway at two stops on his U.S. book tour , Madison , Wisconsin and Chicago . She canceled her appearances at the last minute , citing instructions from her doctors to avoid travel following recent hip surgery .
On January 27 , 2007 , Fonda participated in an anti @-@ war rally and march held on the National Mall in Washington , D.C. , declaring that " silence is no longer an option " . Fonda spoke at an anti @-@ war rally earlier in the day at the Navy Memorial , where members of the organization Free Republic picketed in a counter protest .
= = = Fonda and Kerry = = =
In the 2004 presidential election , her name was used as a disparaging epithet against John Kerry , the former VVAW leader , who was then the Democratic Party presidential candidate . Republican National Committee Chairman Ed Gillespie called Kerry a " Jane Fonda Democrat " . Also , Kerry 's opponents circulated a photograph showing Fonda and Kerry in the same large crowd at a 1970 anti @-@ war rally , although they were sitting several rows apart . A faked composite photograph , which gave the false impression that the two had shared a speaker 's platform , was also circulated .
= = = Environmentalism = = =
In 2015 , Fonda expressed disapproval with President Barack Obama 's permitting of arctic drilling ( Petroleum exploration in the Arctic ) at the Sundance Film Festival . In July , she marched in a Toronto protest called the " March for Jobs , Justice , and Climate , " which was organized by dozens of nonprofits , labor unions , and environmental activists , including Canadian author Naomi Klein . The march aimed to show businesses and politicians alike that climate change is inherently linked to issues that may seem unrelated .
= = Writing = =
On April 5 , 2005 , Random House released Fonda 's autobiography My Life So Far . The book describes her life as a series of three acts , each thirty years long , and declares that her third " act " will be her most significant , partly because of her commitment to the Christian religion , and that it will determine the things for which she will be remembered .
Fonda 's autobiography was well received by book critics , and was noted to be " as beguiling and as maddening as Jane Fonda herself " in its Washington Post review , pronouncing her a " beautiful bundle of contradictions " . The New York Times called the book " achingly poignant " .
In January 2009 , Fonda started chronicling her Broadway return in a blog , with posts about topics ranging from her Pilates class to her fears and excitement about her new play . She uses Twitter and has a Facebook page . In 2011 , Fonda published a new book : Prime Time : Love , health , sex , fitness , friendship , spirit — making the most of all of your life . The book offers stories from her own life as well as from the lives of others , giving her perspective on how to better live what she calls " the critical years from 45 and 50 , and especially from 60 and beyond " .
= = Charitable work = =
According to IRS filings , Fonda founded the Jane Fonda Foundation in 2004 as a charitable corporation with herself as president , chair , director and secretary ; Fonda contributes 10 hours each week on its behalf .
= = Personal life = =
Fonda married her first husband , French film director Roger Vadim , on August 14 , 1965 , at the Dunes Hotel in Las Vegas . The couple had a daughter , Vanessa , born on September 28 , 1968 , in Paris , France , and named for actress and activist Vanessa Redgrave . On January 19 , 1973 , three days after obtaining a divorce from Vadim in Santo Domingo , Fonda married activist Tom Hayden in a free @-@ form ceremony at her home in Laurel Canyon . Their son , Troy O 'Donovan Garity , was born on July 7 , 1973 in Los Angeles and was given his paternal grandmother 's maiden name , as the names " Fonda and Hayden carried too much baggage " . Fonda and Hayden wanted to give their son a name that " was both American and Vietnamese " and chose " Troy " , an Anglicization of the Vietnamese " Troi " , as the only name they could think of meeting that requirement . Hayden chose O 'Donovan as the middle name after Irish revolutionary Jeremiah O 'Donovan Rossa . In 1982 , Fonda and Hayden unofficially adopted an African @-@ American teenager , Mary Luana Williams ( known as Lulu ) , who was the daughter of members of the Black Panthers . Fonda and Hayden were divorced on June 10 , 1990 in Santa Monica . She married her third husband , cable @-@ television tycoon and CNN founder Ted Turner , on December 21 , 1991 , at a ranch near Capps , Florida . The pair divorced on May 22 , 2001 in Atlanta , Georgia . Since 2009 , Fonda has been in a relationship with record producer Richard Perry .
Fonda grew up an atheist , but turned to Christianity in the early 2000s . She describes her beliefs as being " outside of established religion " , with a more feminist slant , and views God as something that " lives within each of us as Spirit ( or soul ) . " She practices Zazen meditation and Yoga .
Having been diagnosed with breast cancer , Fonda underwent a lumpectomy in November 2010 , and has recovered .
= = Honors = =
In 1962 , Fonda was given the honorary title of " Miss Army Recruiting " by the Pentagon .
In 1981 , she was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award .
In 1994 , the United Nations Population Fund made Fonda a Goodwill Ambassador . In 2004 , she was awarded the Women 's eNews 21 Leaders for the 21st Century award as one of Seven Who Change Their Worlds . In 2007 , Fonda was awarded an Honorary Palme d 'Or by Cannes Film Festival President Gilles Jacob for career achievement . Only three others had received such an award – Jeanne Moreau , Alain Resnais , and Gerard Oury .
In December 2008 , Fonda was inducted into the California Hall of Fame , located at The California Museum for History , Women and the Arts . In December 2009 , Fonda received the New York Women 's Agenda Lifetime Achievement Award . She was selected as the 42nd recipient ( 2014 ) of the AFI Life Achievement Award .
= = Filmography = =
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= The Haunting Hour : Don 't Think About It =
R. L. Stine 's The Haunting Hour : Don 't Think About It is a 2007 American children 's horror film based on the children 's book of the same name by R. L. Stine . The film was directed by Alex Zamm , written by Dan Angel and Billy Brown , and stars Emily Osment , Cody Linley , Brittany Curran , and Tobin Bell . It was released direct @-@ to @-@ DVD . The plot follows a goth girl named Cassie ( Emily Osment ) moving into a new town and fascinated by the occult . At a mysterious Halloween store , the store owner ( Tobin Bell ) insists on selling her an old book . Stuck with her brother Max ( Alex Winzenread ) on Halloween night , she reads the book to him , despite the book 's warnings not to read it out aloud or think about its monster . The monster comes to life and captures Max . Cassie , with help from her friends , must save Max and defeat the monster before their parents return from a Halloween party .
The film was a joint production with Universal Studios Home Entertainment Family Productions , The Hatchery , and Steeltown Entertainment . The film was released on DVD by Universal Studios Home Entertainment on September 4 , 2007 , and aired on Cartoon Network on September 7 , 2007 . The film received mostly positive reviews from media critics upon release .
= = Plot = =
Cassie ( Emily Osment ) is a thirteen @-@ year @-@ old goth girl who just moved with her family to a new neighborhood and school . She loves to trick the popular kids at school and her younger brother Max ( Alex Winzenread ) .
On the way to a library , Cassie finds a mysterious Halloween store in an alley and goes inside . The store owner ( Tobin Bell ) insists on selling her an old book titled The Evil Thing , which contains a warning not to read it aloud or think about its monster called " The Evil Thing " , a two @-@ headed creature that sucks blood while the other head eats meat . That night , Cassie ignores the warning in the book and reads it to Max as revenge for him unplugging her computer in the middle of a report she was writing . Priscilla Wright ( Brittany Curran ) , a school bully who stole The Evil Thing from Cassie 's bag in school , films her jumping in fear , after using a CD player to play monster sounds outside in order to make the monster appear to have come to life .
After Cassie 's parents leave for a Halloween party and later that night , The Evil Thing is brought to life by Max 's thoughts , and captures him , Priscilla and a Papa John 's Pizza delivery man . It is up to Cassie and Sean ( Cody Linley ) , a popular boy who Cassie likes , to save them . At first , they try to defeat The Evil Thing on their own , but fail . Cassie then asks the owner of the shop , where she bought the book , for help . Cassie discovers that the store owner travels around the world each Halloween , searching for a person who loves to scare people the most and tricks them into reading the book aloud , releasing The Evil Thing , possibly in order to teach them a lesson . He leaves them with the riddle " two heads are better than one ; that 's the way to get the bloody job done " before his shop disappears . After he disappears , Sean solves the riddle . Together , they formulate that if they get blood from a roast that Cassie 's mother made and throw it onto The Evil Thing , it will be forced to suck up the blood . In doing so , it will devour itself . While they plan their attack , The Evil Thing 's babies hatch and tries to eat the victims . Luckily , Sean and Cassie make it in time . By using Sean 's CD of monster sound effects , they are able to lure the monster to the CD player ; however , when the monster nudges it , the music turns into hip hop , thus ruining their plan . While fumbling , Sean and Cassie accidentally drop the blood near Max , who must conquer his fears . When Cassie encourages him , Max tosses the blood onto The Evil Thing , causing its heads to begin attacking each other . The monster eats itself , eventually exploding in a shower of yellow blood , killing itself and its offspring .
With The Evil Thing destroyed , Max , Sean and Cassie save Priscilla . She angrily yells at Cassie and calls her a witch , and Sean rejects Priscilla in favor of Cassie . After Priscilla leaves , they save the pizza delivery man , who offers them free pizza in return for releasing him , then follows Priscilla to hit on her , to her disgust . Cassie and Sean burn the book and set aside all their thoughts about The Evil Thing . Sean leaves shortly afterward . Cassie and Max 's parents then come home and find the book in the fireplace . The father mockingly reads it out loud , reviving The Evil Thing . The film concludes with Cassie realizing that The Evil Thing has been brought back to life and that it is not over yet .
= = Cast = =
Emily Osment as Cassie Keller , a goth girl who likes to read and enjoys pulling pranks on students and her brother . While walking to the library , Cassie visits a Halloween shop , which she did not think was there before . After ignoring the warning within the book to not read it aloud , a monster known as the Evil Thing escapes into the city after her brother thinks about it .
Cody Linley as Sean Redford , a popular boy in high school who likes Priscilla Wright . After feeling regret for helping Priscilla to bully Cassie , he leaves her , befriending Cassie and helping her defeat the monster .
Brittany Curran as Priscilla Wright , a popular girl in high school , who bullies Cassie for her goth appearance and takes pride in holding the festive title of " Pumpkin Queen " .
Alex Winzenread as Maximilian " Max " Keller , Cassie 's little brother , who is easily frightened . Cassie thinks that her brother is annoying and a nuisance , so she frequently scares him . After Cassie , Max , and Sean work together to defeat the Evil Thing , she gains respect for her brother .
Tobin Bell as the Stranger , who owns the Halloween shop . His shop is not always in the same location , as he moves from place to place to find people who like to terrify others .
= = Production = =
Margaret Loesch , who founded Fox Kids and the Hallmark Channel , served as the executive producer . The film 's music score was composed by Chris Hajian . Dan Angel , who wrote the script , said " The key is to do no gore , no violence , no [ bad ] language , no sex , no one dies , but you can take the audience to a scary place and bring them back " .
R. L. Stine was consulted for how the script should be written . There was supposed to be a series based on the short stories in R. L. Stine 's book , but the executive producers decided to film their own original story , and Stine contributed what he thought should be added to it . Stine said that the film is no different from his short stories , saying , " It 's a really good , creepy adventure for kids , but it never really goes too far , sort of like my stories . "
Filming took place in the borough of Carnegie , Pennsylvania as well as Cranberry Township in October and November 2006 . Filmed in Pittsburgh , the local Steeltown Entertainment Project has a credit in the film 's beginning for investing in the film 's production . Other people in Pittsburgh have credits at the end of the film . Over 100 local citizens had a part in the film 's production . Loesch stated the filming could not have happened in Pittsburgh without the help of Steeltown . A problem during the production was how many hours children can work each day , due to child labor laws .
Product placement for the film includes a cookie from the restaurant chain Eat 'n Park and Papa John 's Pizza . The use of pizza delivery by Papa John 's Pizza in the film was regarded by Common Sense Media , a media website for parents , reviewer Heather Boerner , as " overly integrated product placement " . She criticized the product placement , writing , " Not only is the pizza delivery guy included in more than half of the DVD , but the logo is present and the kids are shown munching ecstatically on the pizza at the end of the movie . They even say that the pizza is great , and how the delivery guy was nice . It 's enough to make a commercial @-@ conscious parent gag " .
Gregory Nicotero and Howard Berger designed the animatronic monster , The Evil Thing . The Evil Thing was created by Nicotero 's company KNB FX , the same company that did the special effects for The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe . The monster 's two heads were controlled by two people . Cody Linley described the monster as " nasty " , while the director Alex Zamm said , " That 's lunch " .
= = Release = =
= = = Home media = = =
In the United States , the film was rated as " PG " by the Motion Picture Association of America for " scary content and thematic elements " . It was rated " 12 " by the British Board of Film Classification in the United Kingdom .
The Haunting Hour : Don 't Think About It was released on DVD with seven special features , including Emily Osment singing " I Don 't Think About It " , a behind the scenes video of the production , a personality test that compares the viewer to the characters , an interview with R. L. Stine and the film 's cast , and three trailers for other films . The DVD is in widescreen format with English Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 0 sound . Subtitles on the DVD are available in English , French , and Spanish . The DVD was released on September 4 , 2007 in the United States and on October 22 , 2007 in the United Kingdom .
The DVD release of The Haunting Hour : Don 't Think About It was reported as the fourth top children 's DVD rental on a chart from the Orlando Sentinel , published on September 28 , 2007 .
= = = Television = = =
The film aired on the children 's cable channel Cartoon Network on September 7 , 2007 . A re @-@ airing of the film received the most viewers of that week for the channel .
The film spawned a spin @-@ off television series called R. L. Stine 's The Haunting Hour premiered October 29 , 2010 on the Hub Network . The series was similar to R.L. Stine 's previous anthology television series , Goosebumps , and had a different story in each episode . It was cancelled on December 6 , 2014 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received mostly positive reviews . William Lee , a reviewer writing for the Movie Metropolis , said " Don 't Think About It is a very simplistic and straightforward tale . The characters all fit into the standard roles of popular boy , outsider , and mean girl and they never advance beyond those descriptions " .
Nick Lyons of DVD Talk wrote : " As the children 's horror movie / television field is sparse , this film is a perfect opportunity for youngins to experience the genre before eventually moving on to classic horror movies . Hopefully we shall see more Haunting Hour films in the future " . In her review for About.com , Carey Bryson said : " The movie is a great Halloween flick for kids in the target age group ( about ages 8 @-@ 14 , depending on their ability to handle scary content ) , and stars some of the big names in current kid culture " . Melanie Dee of Yahoo ! Voices called The Haunting Hour : Don 't Think About It " a fast @-@ paced movie " . She noted the scenes " jump quickly and get the point across , making it an easy to follow upbeat flick that kids and parents alike will enjoy . "
= = = Accolades = = =
In 2008 , film writers Dan Angel and Billy Brown were nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for the Children 's Script - Long Form or Special category . At the 29th Young Artist Awards , Cody Linley and Emily Osment were nominated for Best Performance in a TV Movie , Miniseries , or Special - Leading Young Actor and Actress categories , respectively .
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= Jake Diekman =
Jacob Tanner Diekman ( born January 21 , 1987 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher with the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He previously played for the Philadelphia Phillies . He throws left @-@ handed . Diekman grew up in Wymore , Nebraska , where he attended a high school too small for a baseball team , so he instead focused on golf , playing baseball in the summer for an American Legion team . He played two seasons of baseball in college at Doane College and Cloud County Community College respectively before attending a junior college baseball showcase , at which he was offered a scholarship to play Division I baseball . However , in the 2007 Major League Baseball Draft , the Philadelphia Phillies selected him in the 30th round , and he ultimately signed .
With the Phillies , Diekman began as a starting pitcher and progressed through a few levels of the Phillies ' farm system in his first two years as a starter before adjusting his mechanics and lowering his arm slot to throw sidearm out of the bullpen as a relief pitcher . The adjustment worked , and helped him move through the remaining levels of the Phillies ' farm system and , in 2012 , making his major league debut . Over the next two seasons , he split time between the major league Phillies and their Triple @-@ A ( AAA ) affiliate , the Lehigh Valley Iron Pigs , though while he was with the major league team , was considered one of the " lone bright spots " in both 2012 and 2013 . Diekman throws a fastball in the mid @-@ 90s ( mph ) , a slider , and an occasional changeup ; his fastball is among the fastest of any left @-@ handed reliever in the major leagues .
Diekman 's parents have been key parts of his life , especially his mother , who died soon before the Phillies drafted him , and from whom he now draws inspiration . He holds a degree in business administration , and resides in Beatrice , Nebraska in the offseason .
= = Early career = =
Diekman was born to Paul and Billie Diekman in 1987 . He has one brother . He attended Southern High School in Wymore , Nebraska , which was too small to field a baseball team , so Diekman played golf there instead . Eventually , he joined an American Legion baseball team with players from Wymore and several surrounding towns , which Diekman called " the best experience of my life ... so much fun " . Concurrently , he worked full @-@ time at a lawn mower factory to earn money to pursue post @-@ secondary education .
After graduating high school , he enrolled at Doane College , where he pitched for one season . He transferred to Cloud County Community College in Kansas . Following his sophomore season , he attended a showcase at which , with a fastball well over 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) , he drew much interest . He received an offer for a full scholarship to be a Nebraska Cornhusker , which he would have accepted had the Phillies not drafted him in the 2007 Major League Baseball Draft 's 30th round .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Philadelphia Phillies = = =
Between 2007 and 2010 , he pitched in the lower levels of the Philadelphia Phillies ' Minor League system initially as a starter , and subsequently as a reliever . Although he initially saw success in 2007 , posting a 2 @.@ 72 ERA in 10 starts with GCL Phillies and Williamsport Crosscutters , he struggled in 2008 , posting an ERA of 5 @.@ 09 in 27 starts , split between Williamsport and the Lakewood Blue Claws . At the conclusion of both 2008 and 2009 , he pitched in the Florida Instructional League to continue honing his skills on the mound .
He converted from a starting pitcher to a reliever in 2009 , along with several other Phillies pitching prospects . Around that time , he also , at the suggestion of the same minor league pitching coaches who converted him to relief , lowered his release point to his current low angle . Success did not manifest itself immediately , as he still posted a 4 @.@ 04 ERA in 2009 , his first season in relief , but in 2010 , he cut his ERA to 2 @.@ 91 while splitting time between Lakewood and the Clearwater Threshers , the Phillies High @-@ A affiliate . At the end of the 2010 season , he played for the Mesa Solar Sox in the Arizona Fall League . He spent the 2011 season with the Double @-@ A Reading Phillies , accruing a 0 – 1 record and a 3 @.@ 05 ERA and 3 saves in 53 games . Thereafter , the Phillies added him to their 40 @-@ man roster to protect him from the Rule 5 draft .
After receiving praise from Phillies ' pitching coach Rich Dubee for his performance in spring training , Diekman opened the 2012 season with the Triple @-@ A ( AAA ) Lehigh Valley IronPigs . With Lehigh Valley , he posted a 1 – 0 record and a 0 @.@ 59 ERA with 5 saves in 13 games in the season 's first month . He was added to the Phillies ' 25 @-@ man Major League roster on May 11 , and four days later recorded a win against the Houston Astros in his MLB debut . He finished the year an established lefty specialist , and had a 3 @.@ 95 ERA , though walked 6 @.@ 6 batters per 9 innings , and was erratic in his control .
Entering 2013 , Diekman was expected to be a key part of the Phillies bullpen after his success in 2012 , however he did not break camp with the big league club , beginning the season in AAA . In AAA , he struggled , which delayed his arrival to the major league team until June . While with the big league club , he continued his dominance of left @-@ handed hitters , however was not as good against right @-@ handed hitters ( a 150 @-@ point differential in opponent batting average and over 300 point differential in On @-@ base plus slugging ( OPS ) ) . Diekman improved his control , which made him a presumptive member of the 2014 bullpen , as he was one of 2013 's " lone bright spots " for the otherwise dismal Phillies ' bullpen . Ultimately , he did make the Phillies ' opening day roster as a member of the bullpen .
Early in the season , Diekman emerged as a reliable reliever in the Phillies ' bullpen , and was used extensively by manager Ryne Sandberg . As the season progressed , Diekman was more successful against left @-@ handed hitters than right @-@ handed hitters , but was used against both in a variety of situations . On September 1 , 2014 , Diekman was one of four pitchers who combined for a no @-@ hitter in the Phillies ' 7 @-@ 0 win over the Atlanta Braves in Turner Field . By the end of the season , the Phillies had one of the best bullpens in the league , and it consisted predominantly of young players such as Diekman . There was excitement from both Phillies ' personnel and writers that the bullpen could remain solid for a long time because of young pitchers such as Diekman , Ken Giles , and Justin De Fratus . Moreover , Diekman and Giles had potential as closers should the Phillies trade Jonathan Papelbon . Overall , Diekman emerged as a name to be mentioned among the " elite " relievers of the National League , but was overused against right @-@ handed batters , which hurt his statistics .
= = = Texas Rangers = = =
On July 31 , 2015 , Diekman was traded to the Texas Rangers along with Cole Hamels in exchange for Matt Harrison , Nick Williams , Jorge Alfaro , Jake Thompson , Alec Asher , and Jerad Eickhoff . He became an important bullpen piece in the Rangers ' run to the playoffs in 2016 . Diekman and the Rangers agreed to a one @-@ year deal worth $ 1 @.@ 225 million on January 29 , 2016 , and avoided arbitration .
= = Pitching style = =
A lefty specialist , Diekman throws a fastball in the mid @-@ 90s , a slider at 78 – 81 , and an occasional changeup to right @-@ handed hitters . His fastball is among the fastest of left @-@ handed relievers in the major leagues . Like most left @-@ handed pitchers , particularly those who throw out of an arm angle similar to Diekman 's , he is tough on left @-@ handed hitters . In 2013 , he held lefties to just a .368 OPS , though allowed a .765 OPS to right @-@ handed hitters . Despite suggestions he remain a lefty specialist , he emerged in 2014 as a favorite middle reliever for manager Ryne Sandberg against both righties and lefties .
= = Personal life = =
Diekman 's maturation was characterized by two parents that were equally loving , but embodied a stark juxtaposition in terms of demeanor . His mother , Billie , was Diekman 's " biggest fan " , and had to order her husband , Paul , to stop pacing , and watch Diekman pitch . However , Billie died at age 57 , just months before the Phillies drafted her son . Diekman has sought therapy to cope with the loss , and meditates thinking about her during " The Star Spangled Banner " prior to each game .
" ( After his mother 's death ) Diekman started to appreciate the little things . The game slowed down when he had fun . He invoked his mother 's spirit rather than avoiding it . ' The drive and determination she had for all the projects she did , how hard she worked , the dedication she had for her job , ' Diekman said . ' It really paid off . It really came to me . I thought , ' If I have a job , I want to put in the time and dedication like she did . ' ' That is how Billie Diekman 's legacy perseveres . It is why a young man from tiny Wymore , Neb . , will cherish Sunday 's rendition of " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " at a baseball stadium ... "
Diekman describes his father as his " best friend " , and one who has helped him cope with his mother 's death . Away from baseball , Diekman holds an associate 's degree in business administration from Cloud County Community College , and enjoys listening to music , working out , and playing golf . He resides in Beatrice , Nebraska during the offseason .
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= Heavy Metal and Reflective =
" Heavy Metal and Reflective " is a song recorded by American rapper Azealia Banks for her debut studio album Broke with Expensive Taste ( 2014 ) . It was released as the second single from the album on July 28 , 2014 . Production of the song was handled by Lil Internet , who previously worked with Banks on her 2013 single " Yung Rapunxel " , while writing came from Banks , James Strife and Julian Wodsworth . The track received generally mixed reviews from critics , who complimented the song 's overall sound , but were critical of Banks ' vocals . To promote " Heavy Metal and Reflective " , Banks released a music video for the song on August 5 , 2014 , directed by Rob Soucy and Nick Ace , in which Banks escapes from being kidnapped and left in the desert , before leading a motorcycle gang through the terrain , arming herself with pit bulls .
= = Background = =
In 2011 , it was reported that Banks was working on her debut studio album with British producer Paul Epworth , despite not being signed to a record label at the time . In January 2012 , Banks signed a deal with Interscope and Polydor Records to work on new music , and a month later , she announced the title of the album to be Broke with Expensive Taste . " Heavy Metal and Reflective " was first announced in September 2013 , when Banks posted the track listing of the album to her Instagram account . Approximately a year later , she handed a complete version of the album in to the labels . Banks initially thought it would receive favorable reception from the labels ; however , the representatives told Banks that she had not recorded a " hit " single for the album . Ultimately , Banks ended the record deal with Interscope and Polydor in July 2014 . " Heavy Metal and Reflective " was the first post @-@ Interscope / Polydor track that Banks released , under her own new label , Azealia Banks Records . She later approached Jeff Kwatinetz and signed a contract with his company , Prospect Park , which ultimately led to the long @-@ awaited release of Broke with Expensive Taste on November 7 , 2014 .
Throughout December 2014 , Banks released a series of videos in which she gave a track @-@ by @-@ track commentary for all of the songs from Broke with Expensive Taste , and revealed how each song came to be , dubbed the ' 16 Days of Azealia ' . During the commentary video for " Heavy Metal and Reflective " , Banks revealed that the song was created during a four @-@ day studio session based in London , in which she was with the track 's producer , Lil Internet , as well as Machinedrum and her friends . She talked about how Lil Internet was " off in this other area " , segregated from the rest of the group , for two days . He then emerged from his segregated space on the second day in the studio , with the instrumental for the track . Banks described her initial reaction to the song 's production as " holy shit , this is crazy " , and that the beat reminded her of past works of DMX , Ruff Ryders and Swizz Beatz . She also revealed that the track was originally titled " Street Angel " .
= = Composition = =
" Heavy Metal and Reflective " is a song that runs for a duration of two minutes and thirty seconds . The track was produced by Lil Internet , who previously worked with Banks on her 2013 single " Yung Rapunxel " . Kevipod from Direct Lyrics described the song 's instrumental as " a hard @-@ hitting , menacing beat courtesy of Lil Internet " . Chris Coplan from Consequence of Sound commented that the song possessed a " combo of throbbing bass and sweat @-@ soaked synths " . Iyana Robertson , writing for Vibe , described the song 's instrumental as a " a high @-@ energy , twerk @-@ yielding backdrop " , going on to describe Banks ' rapping in the song " [ Banks ] employs a complementing monotone to wield her sexual prowess " .
= = Reception = =
The track received generally mixed reviews from critics . BET writed Dominique Zonyeé spoke on the track , calling it a " high energy , boastful song in which Azealia struts her stuff while reminding you that competitors have nothing on her " . Chris Coplan from Consequence of Sound thought that the song had " the potential to a true club banger " . Vanyaland writer Michael Marotta described the track as " brooding and menacing " , going on to describe Banks ' delivery , " Banks slices through her verses in a way that recalls the magic she first flashed on the still @-@ lethal 2011 track ' 212 ' " . In a positive review , Chris Thomas from HipHopWired complimented the track , writing " The Harlem native waxes poetics with a dexterous flow . Her rhymes are laden with braggadocios lines about her boss status " . In a mixed review , Kevipod from Direct Lyrics complimented the song 's instrumental , but was critical of Banks ' vocals , writing " ' Heavy Metal and Reflective ' possesses a hard @-@ hitting , menacing beat courtesy of Lil Internet and a lot of stale rapping by Azealia " , while also commenting on the need for a more mainstream song from Banks ' " if she really wants to put her career together again " . Robbie Daw from Idolator panned the track , describing the song as " trap @-@ lite trash " , recommending that Banks spends more time " actually focus [ ing ] on not making shit music " .
Commercially , the single achieved minor success in the UK . The song peaked at number 40 on the UK Indie Chart , and number 10 on the UK Indie Breakers Chart .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
Banks initially announced the track 's release via a tweet of a video still from the song 's music video , on July 18 , 2014 . In the still , Banks was seen standing under the sun , sporting a black jumpsuit adorned with flames on the chest and matching 3D flames on the sleeve . Critics called the release date bold , as the video was scheduled to drop a mere twenty @-@ four hours after that of fellow female rapper Nicki Minaj 's " Anaconda " . The music video was released on August 5 , 2014 , and was directed by Rob Soucy and Nick Ace . In the video , Banks escapes from being kidnapped and left in the desert , before leading a motorcycle gang through the terrain , arming herself with pit bulls .
= = = Live performances = = =
On April 10 , 2015 , Banks performed " Heavy Metal and Reflective " during her set at the Coachella Festival . Rap @-@ Up commented that the audience 's " energy was consistently high " during the performance .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Broke with Expensive Taste liner notes .
Locations
Recorded at Music Box Studios ( London , UK )
Mixed at The Fortress of Amplitude studios ( Los Angeles , California )
Personnel
Vocals – Azealia Banks
Songwriting – Azealia Banks , James Strife , Julian Wodsworth
Production – Lil Internet
Engineering – Rick McRae
Recording – Rick McRae
Mixing – Rob Kinelski
Mixing assistant – David Baker
= = Release history = =
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= Battle of Vaslui =
The Battle of Vaslui ( also referred to as the Battle of Podul Înalt or the Battle of Racova ) was fought on January 10 , 1475 , between Stephen III of Moldavia and the Ottoman governor of Rumelia , Hadım Suleiman Pasha . The battle took place at Podul Înalt ( the High Bridge ) , near the town of Vaslui , in Moldavia ( now part of eastern Romania ) . The Ottoman troops numbered up to 120 @,@ 000 , facing about 40 @,@ 000 Moldavian troops , plus smaller numbers of allied and mercenary troops .
Stephen inflicted a decisive defeat on the Ottomans , described as " the greatest ever secured by the Cross against Islam , " with casualties , according to Venetian and Polish records , reaching beyond 40 @,@ 000 on the Ottoman side . Mara Brankovic ( Mara Hatun ) , the former younger wife of Murad II , told a Venetian envoy that the invasion had been worst ever defeat for the Ottomans . Stephen was later awarded the title " Athleta Christi " ( Champion of Christ ) by Pope Sixtus IV , who referred to him as " verus christianae fidei athleta " ( " the true defender of the Christian faith " ) .
According to the Polish chronicler Jan Długosz , Stephen did not celebrate his victory ; instead , he fasted for forty days on bread and water and forbade anyone to attribute the victory to him , insisting that credit be given only to the Lord .
= = Background = =
The conflict between Stephen and Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II worsened when both laid their claims to the historical region of Bessarabia , now known under the name of Budjak . The region had belonged to Wallachia , but later succumbed to Moldavian influence under Petru I of Moldavia and was possibly annexed to Moldavia in the late 14th century by Roman I of Moldavia . Under Alexandru cel Bun , it had become an integral part of Moldavia and was successfully defended in 1420 against the first Ottoman attempt to capture castle Chilia . The ports of Chilia and Akkerman ( Romanian : Cetatea Albā ) were essential for Moldavian commerce . The old trade route from Caffa , Akkerman , and Chilia passed through Suceava in Moldavia and Lwow in Poland ( now in Ukraine ) .
Both Poland and Hungary had previously made attempts to control the region , but had failed ; and for the Ottomans , " the control of these two ports and of Caffa was as much an economic as a political necessity , " as it would also give them a better grip on Moldavia and serve as a valuable strategic point from which naval attacks could be launched against the Commonwealth of Poland @-@ Lithuania . This is confirmed by a German chronicle which explains that Mehmet wanted to turn Moldavia into " some kind of fortress , " and from there , to launch attacks against Poland and Hungary . The Ottomans also feared the strategic position of Moldavia , from whence it would only take 15 to 20 days to reach Constantinople .
In 1448 , Petru II of Moldavia awarded Chilia to John Hunyadi , the governor of Transylvania ; and in effect , it gave Hungary control of the strategic area on the Danube , with access to the Black Sea . With the assassination of Bogdan II of Moldavia in 1451 by his brother Petru Aron , the country fell into civil war , as two pretenders fought for the throne : Aron and Alexăndrel . Bogdan 's son , Stephen , fled Moldavia together with his cousin , Vlad Dracula — who had sought protection at the Moldavian court – to Transylvania , at the court of Hunyadi . Even though Hungary had made peace with the Turks in 1451 , Hunyadi wanted to transform Wallachia and Moldavia into a barrier that would protect the kingdom from Ottoman expansion . In the fall of 1453 , after the Ottoman capture of Constantinople , Moldavia received an ultimatum to start paying tribute to the Porte ; two years later , on October 5 , 1455 , Aron sent the first Moldavian tribute to the Porte : a payment of 2 @,@ 000 ducats . With both Wallachia and Moldavia conducting a pro @-@ Ottoman policy , the plan to install Vlad Țepeș as prince of Wallachia began to take shape . Sometime between April to July 1456 , with the support of a few Hungarian troops and Wallachian boyars , Prince Vladislav II was dethroned and slain , as Vlad Țepeș took possession of the Wallachian throne ; and as such , Chilia became a shared Wallachian @-@ Hungarian possession . In April 1457 , Vlad Țepeș supported Stephen with 6 @,@ 000 horsemen , which the latter used to invade Moldavia and occupy the Moldavian throne , ending the civil war as Aron fled to Poland . The new prince continued sending the tribute that his uncle and Mehmed had agreed upon , and in such way , avoided any premature confrontation with his enemy . His first priority was to strengthen the country and to retrieve its lost territory . Because Aron resided in Poland , Stephen made a few incursions in southern Poland . The hostilities ended on April 4 , 1459 , when in a new treaty between the two countries , Moldavia accepted vassalage and Poland returned Hotin back to Moldavia ; the latter also assumed the obligation to support Moldavia in retrieving Chilia and Cetatea Albă . It was also in the interest of Poland to have the area belonging to Moldavia , as it would increase their commerce in the region . On March 2 , 1462 , in a renewed treaty between the two countries , it was agreed that no Moldavian territory should remain under foreign rulership , and if such territory was under foreign rulership , that territory should be regained . Later that year , it is believed that Stephen asked Vlad to return Chilia back to Moldavia – a demand which was most likely refused .
On June 22 , when Vlad was fighting Mehmed , Stephen allied himself with the Sultan and with some Turkish assistance , he launched an attack on Chilia . The fortress , defended by tall stone walls and 12 cannons , was in the middle of the 15th century the strongest fortification located in the Danube area . The Wallachians rushed to the scene with 7 @,@ 000 men , and together with the Hungarian garrison battled the Moldavians and the Turks for eight days . They managed to defend the town , while wounding Stephen in his foot with a shrapnel . In 1465 , while Vlad was imprisoned in Hungary , Stephen again advanced towards Chilia with a large force and siege weapons ; but instead of besieging the fortress , he showed the garrison – who favoured the Polish King – a letter in which the King required them to surrender the fortress . This they did , and Stephen entered the fortress where he found " its two captains , rather tipsy , for they have been to a wedding . " Mehmed was furious about the news and claimed Chilia for being a part of Wallachia – which now was a vassal to the Porte – and demanded Stephen to give it over to him . The latter refused , however , and recruited an army , forcing Mehmed – who was not yet ready to wage war – to accept the situation , if only for the time being . The Moldavian prince , realizing that a future war with Mehmed could not be avoided , tried to gain time by increasing his tribute to the Porte by 50 percent ( to 3 @,@ 000 ducats ) ; and also sent an envoy to Constantinople with gifts for the sultan . In 1467 , Matthias Corvinus of Hungary launched an expedition against Moldavia in order to punish Stephen for annexing the region . The invasion ended in a disaster for the Hungarians as they suffered a bitter defeat at the Battle of Baia , where Corvinus was thrice wounded by arrows and had to be “ carried from the battlefield on a stretcher , to avoid him falling into the hands of the enemy . ”
In order to secure his southern frontier from Ottoman threats , Stephen wanted to liberate Wallachia – where the hostile Radu the Handsome , the halfbrother of Vlad Țepeș ruled – from Ottoman dominion . In 1470 , he invaded the country and burned down the town of Brăila and in 1471 , Stephen and Radu confronted each other in Moldavia , where the latter was defeated . Meanwhile , Genoa , which possessed several colonies in the Crimea , began to worry about Stephen 's growing influence in the region ; and ordered her colonies to do whatever was needed to revenge past mischief from which allegedly , the Genovese had suffered . The colonies in turn pursued the Tatars to attack Moldavia . Later that year , the Tatars invaded the country from the north , causing great damage to the land and enslaving many . Stephen replied by invading Tatar territory with Polish assistance . In 1472 , Uzun Hassan of Ak Koyunlu invaded the Ottoman Empire from the east , causing a great crisis to the empire . He was defeated the following year , but this unexpected event , as it is explained in a contemporary source , encouraged Venice and Hungary to renew their war on the Ottomans , and Moldavia to free herself from any Ottoman influence . In 1473 , Stephen stopped paying the annual tribute to the Porte and as a reaction to this , an Italian letter , dated from 1473 to Bartolomeo Scala , secretary of the Republic of Florence , reveals that Mehmed had left Constantinople on April 13 and was planning to invade Moldavia from land and sea . Stephen still hoped to make peace with Radu and asked the Polish king to work as mediator . The peace attempts failed and the conflict intensified with three leaders challenging each other for the Wallachian throne : Radu , who was supported by Mehmed ; the seemingly loyal Basarab Laiotă , who at first was supported by Stephen ; and Basarab Ţepeluş cel Tânăr — who would gain the support of Stephen after Laiotă 's betrayal . A series of " absurd " clashes followed , starting with another confrontation between Stephen and Radu on November 18 – 20 , at Râmnicu Sărat , where the latter suffered his second defeat at the hands of the Moldavian " warlike " prince . A few days later , on November 28 , the Ottomans intervened with an army consisting of 12 @,@ 000 Ottomans and 6 @,@ 000 Wallachians , but " they incurred heavy losses and fled across the Danube . " After capturing the castle of Bucharest , Stephen put Laiotă on the throne , but on December 31 , a new Ottoman army of 17 @,@ 000 set camp around river Bârlad , laying waste to the countryside , and intimidating the new prince into abandoning his Wallachian throne and fleeing to Moldavia . In the spring of 1474 , Laiotă took the Wallachian throne for the second time ; and in June , he made the decision to betray his protégé by submitting to Mehmet . Stephen then invested his support into a new candidate , named Ţepeluş ( little spear ) , but his reign was even shorter , as it only lasted a few weeks after being defeated by Laiotă in battle on October 5 . Two weeks later , Stephen returned to Wallachia and forced Laiotă to flee . Mehmed , tired of what transpired in Wallachia , gave Stephen an ultimatum to forfeit Chilia to the Porte , to abolish his aggressive policy in Wallachia , and to come to Constantinople with his delayed homage . The Prince refused and in November 1474 , he wrote to the Pope to warn him of further Ottoman expansion , and to ask him for support .
= = Preparations for war = =
= = = Ottomans = = =
Mehmed ordered his general , Suleiman Pasha , to end the siege of Venetian @-@ controlled Shkodër ( now in Albania ) , to assemble his troops in Sofia , and from there to advance with additional troops towards Moldavia . For these already exhausted Ottoman troops , who had besieged the city from May 17 to August 15 , the transit from Shkodër to Moldavia was a month 's journey through bad weather and difficult terrain . According to Długosz , Suleiman was also ordered that after inflicting defeat on Stephen , he was to advance towards Poland , set camp for the winter , then invade Hungary in spring , and unite his forces with the army of the Sultan . The Ottoman army consisted of Janissaries and heavy infantry , which were supported by the heavy cavalry sipahis and by the light cavalry ( akinci ) , who would scout ahead . There were also Tatar cavalry and other troops ( such as the Timariots ) from vassal states . Twenty thousand Bulgarian peasants were also included in the army ; their main tasks were to clear the way for the rest of the army by building bridges over waters and removing snow from the roads , and to drive supply wagons . In total , the Ottoman cavalry numbered 30 @,@ 000 . In September 1474 , the Ottoman army gathered in Sofia , and from there , Suleiman marched towards Moldavia by crossing the frozen Danube on foot . His first stop was Wallachia , which he entered via Vidin and Nicopolis . His army rested in Wallachia for two weeks , and was later met by a Wallachian contingent of 17 @,@ 000 under Basarab Laiotă , who had changed sides to join the Ottomans .
= = = Moldavians = = =
Stephen was hoping to gain support from the West , and more specifically from the Pope . However , the help that he received was modest in numbers . The Hungarian Kingdom sent 1 @,@ 800 Hungarians , while Poland sent 2 @,@ 000 horsemen . Stephen recruited 5 @,@ 000 Székely soldiers . The Moldavian army consisted of twenty cannon ; light cavalry ( Călăraşi ) ; elite , heavy cavalry – named Viteji , Curteni , and Boyars – and professional foot soldiers . The army reached a strength of up to 40 @,@ 000 , of whom 10 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 comprised the standing army . The remainder consisted of 30 @,@ 000 peasants armed with maces , bows , and other home @-@ made weapons . They were recruited into Oastea Mare ( the Great Army ) , into which all able @-@ bodied free men over the age of 14 were conscripted .
= = Battle = =
The invading army entered Moldavia in December 1474 . In order to fatigue the Ottomans , Stephen had instituted a policy of scorched earth and poisoned waters . Troops who specialised in setting ambushes harassed the advancing Ottomans . The population and livestock were evacuated to the north of the country into the mountains .
Ottoman scouts reported to Suleiman that there were untouched villages near Vaslui , and the Ottomans headed for that region . The winter made it difficult to set camp , which forced the Ottomans to move quickly and head for the Moldavian capital , Suceava . In order to reach Vaslui , where the Moldavian army had its main camp , they needed to cross Podul Înalt over the Bârlad River . The bridge was made of wood and not suitable for heavy transportation of troops . Stephen chose that area for the battle – the same location where his father , Bogdan II , had defeated the Poles in 1450 ; and where he , at an age of 17 , had fought side @-@ by @-@ side with Vlad ' the Impaler ' . The area was ideal for the defenders : the valley was a semi @-@ oval surrounded on all sides by hills covered by forest . Inside the valley , the terrain was marshy , which restricted troop movement . Suleiman had full confidence in his troops and made few efforts to scout the area . On January 10 , on a dark and misty Tuesday morning , the battle began . The weather was frigid , and a dense fog limited vision . The Ottoman troops were exhausted , and the torrent made them look like " plucked chickens . " Stephen fortified the bridge , while setting and aiming his cannons at the structure . Peasants and archers were hidden in the forest , together with their Prince and his boyar cavalry .
The Moldavians made the first move by sending musicians to the middle of the valley . The sound of drums and bugles made Suleiman think that the entire Moldavian army awaited him there . Instead , the centre of the valley held the Székely forces and the Moldavian professional army , which were ordered to make a slow retreat when they encountered the enemy . Suleiman ordered his troops to advance and , when they made enough progress , the Moldavian artillery started to fire , followed by archers and handgunners firing from three different directions . The archers could not see the enemy for the fog , and , instead , had to follow the noise of their footsteps . The Moldavian light cavalry then helped to lure the Ottoman troops into the valley by making hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks . Ottoman cavalry tried to cross the wooden bridge , causing it to collapse . Those Ottoman soldiers who had managed to survive the attacks from the artillery and the archers , and who did not get caught in the marshes , had to confront the Moldavian army , together with the Székely soldiers further up the valley . The 5 @,@ 000 Székely soldiers were successful in repelling the 7 @,@ 000 Ottoman infantrymen . Thereafter , they made a slow retreat , as instructed by Stephen , but were later routed by the Ottoman sipahi , while the remaining Ottoman infantry attacked the Moldavian flanks .
Suleiman tried to reinforce his offensive , not knowing what had happened in the valley , but then Stephen , with the full support of his boyars , ordered a major attack . All his troops , together with peasants and heavy cavalry , attacked from all sides . Simultaneously , Moldavian buglers concealed behind Ottoman lines started to sound their bugles , and in great confusion some Ottoman units changed direction to face the sound . When the Moldavian army hit , Suleiman lost control of his army . He desperately tried to regain control , but was later forced to signal a retreat . The battle lasted for four days ; with the last three days seeing the fleeing Ottoman army being pursued by the Moldavian light cavalry and the 2 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Polish cavalry until they reached the town of Obluciţa ( now Isaccea , Romania ) , in Dobruja .
The Wallachians fled the field without joining battle and Laiotă now turned his sword against the Turks , who had hoped for a safe passage in Wallachia ; on January 20 , he exited his castle and confronted some of the Turks that were lurking on his land . Thereafter , he took one of their flags and sent it to a Hungarian friend as proof of his bravery . The Ottoman casualties were counted as 45 @,@ 000 , including four Pashas killed and a hundred standards taken . Jan Długosz writes that " all but the most eminent of the Turkish prisoners are impaled " , and their corpses burned . Only one was spared – the only son of the Ottoman general Isaac Bey , of the Gazi Evrenos family , whose father had fought with Mircea the Old . Another Polish chronicler reported that on the spot of the battle rested huge piles of bones upon each other , next to three immured crosses .
= = Aftermath = =
After the battle , Stephen sent " four of the captured Turkish commanders , together with thirty @-@ six of their standards and much splendid booty , to King Casimir in Poland " , and implored him to provide troops and money to support the Moldavians in the struggle against the Ottomans . He also sent letters and a few prisoners and Turkish standards to the Pope and Hungarian King Matthias Corvinus , asking for support . In response , " the arrogant Matthias writes to the Pope , the Emperor and other kings and princes , telling them that he has defeated a large Turkish army with his own forces under the Voivode of Wallachia . " The Pope 's reply to Stephen denied him help , but awarded him with the " Athleta Christi " , while King Casimir pleaded " poverty both in money and men " and did nothing ; his own men then accused him of sloth , and advised him to change his shameful behaviour or hand over his rule to someone else . Chronicler Jan Długosz hailed Stephen for his victory in the battle :
Hassan tried to create a new coalition with the European powers , arguing that Mehmed 's best troops were lost at Vaslui . Upon hearing about the devastating defeat , Mehmed refused for several days to give audience to anyone ; his other plans of expansion were put to rest as he planned revenge on Stephen . In the following year , Mehmed invaded the country with an army of 150 @,@ 000 , which was joined by 10 @,@ 000 Wallachians under Laiotă and 30 @,@ 000 Tatars under Meñli I Giray . The Tatars , who called for a Holy War , attacked with their cavalry from the north and started to pillage the country . The Moldavians took chase after them , and routed and killed most of them . " The fleeing Tatars discard their weapons , their saddles and clothes , while some , as though crazed , jump into the River Dniepr . " Giray wrote to Mehmed that he could not wage more war against Stephen , as he had lost his son and two brothers , and had returned with only one horse .
In July 1476 , after killing 30 @,@ 000 Ottomans , Stephen was defeated at the Battle of Valea Albă . However , the Ottomans were unsuccessful in their siege of the Suceava citadel and the Neamţ fortress , while Laiotă was forced to retreat back to Wallachia when Vlad and Stefan Báthory , Voivode of Transylvania , gave chase with an army of 30 @,@ 000 . Stephen assembled his army and invaded Wallachia from the north , while Vlad and Báthory invaded from the west . Laiotă fled , and in November , Vlad Țepeș was installed on the Wallachian throne . He received 200 loyal knights from Stephen to serve as his loyal bodyguards , but his army remained small .
When Laiotă returned , Vlad Tepes went to battle and was killed by the Janissaries near Bucharest in December 1476 . Laiotă again occupied the Wallachian throne , which urged Stephen to make another return to Wallachia and dethrone Laiotă for the fifth and last time , while a Dăneşti , Ţepeluş , was established as ruler of the country .
In 1484 , the Ottomans under Bayezid II , managed to conquer Chilia and Cetatea Albă and incorporate it into their empire under the name of Budjak , leaving Moldavia a landlocked principality for many years to come .
Between May and September 1488 , Stephen built the Voroneţ Monastery to commemorate the victory at Vaslui ; " the exterior walls – including a representation of the Last Judgment on the west wall – were painted in 1547 with a background of vivid cerulean blue . This is so vibrant that art historians refer to Voroneţ blue the same way they do Titian red . " In 1490 , he extended his work by building another monastery of Saint John the Baptist . These monasteries served as cultural centres ; today , they are on UNESCO 's World Heritage List . Stephen 's victory at Vaslui is considered one of the greatest Moldavian victories over the Ottomans , and as such " played a role in universal history " by securing the " culture and civilization of the Christian West from the onslaught of Islam . "
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= Confederate Memorial ( Romney , West Virginia ) =
The Confederate Memorial ( also referred to as the First Confederate Memorial ) at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney , West Virginia , commemorates residents of Hampshire County who died during the American Civil War while fighting for the Confederate States of America . It was sponsored by the Confederate Memorial Association , which formally dedicated the monument on September 26 , 1867 . The town of Romney has claimed that this is the first memorial structure erected to memorialize the Confederate dead in the United States and that the town performed the nation 's first public decoration of Confederate graves on June 1 , 1866 .
The idea to memorialize the Confederate war dead of Hampshire County was first discussed in the spring of 1866 . Following the decoration of the graves that summer , the Confederate Memorial Association engaged in fundraising for construction of the memorial , and by 1867 the necessary funds were raised . The inscription " The Daughters of Old Hampshire Erect This Tribute of Affection to Her Heroic Sons Who Fell in Defence of Southern Rights " was selected , and the contract for the memorial 's construction was awarded to the Gaddes Brothers firm of Baltimore . The memorial 's components were delivered to Indian Mound Cemetery on September 14 , 1867 , and the memorial was dedicated on September 26 of that year . The construction of the Confederate Memorial marked the beginning of an era of post @-@ war revitalization for Hampshire County following the American Civil War .
The Confederate Memorial is in the form of an obelisk , and it stands on a raised mound . The list of 125 names engraved on the monument includes four captains , seven lieutenants ( one of which was a chaplain ) , three sergeants , and 119 privates . The memorial underwent a restoration in 1984 , and is decorated annually with a handmade evergreen garland and wreath on Hampshire County Confederate Memorial Day .
= = Confederate Memorial Association = =
The idea to memorialize the men of Hampshire County who had died fighting in the Military of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War was first discussed at a meeting in early spring of 1866 at the Romney residence of former Confederate Colonel Robert White . In addition to White , those present at the meeting included his brother Christian Streit White , his future sister @-@ in @-@ law Elizabeth " Bessie " Jane Schultze , and his sister Frances Ann White , who later married Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy .
Following the meeting , the concept gained support among other residents of Romney . Later in the spring of 1866 , a group of Hampshire County women held a public meeting to organize the Confederate Memorial Association with the mission of honoring the men who had died fighting for the Confederacy and providing financial aid to their families . At this meeting , the association appointed officers , adopted a constitution , and organized committees to arrange for the decoration of Confederate interments .
The people of Hampshire County had been overwhelmingly pro @-@ Confederate during the American Civil War , but the county now lay within Unionist West Virginia . West Virginia 's first state constitution disenfranchised Confederate veterans and partisans and forbade them from holding elected office . In spite of these impediments and risking the ire of Unionist authorities , members of the Confederate Memorial Association and their families marched through Romney to Indian Mound Cemetery and formally decorated the gravestones at the interment sites of Confederate dead on June 1 , 1866 . Few Hampshire County residents participated in this first decoration of the Confederate graves , fearing reproach from Federal authorities ; some who had pledged to take part in the decoration later refused to do so for the same reason .
This adornment in Indian Mound Cemetery has been called the first such public decoration of Confederate burials , but the claim is disputed by other towns in the Southern United States . Romney 's decoration contributed to a precedent that spread throughout the South during the Reconstruction Era . Relatives and loved ones of the Union dead buried in Indian Mound Cemetery also began to follow this precedent by decorating the cemetery 's Union headstones .
= = Fundraising = =
Following the first decoration of the graves in 1866 , momentum built for the erection of a permanent monument to the Confederate dead at Indian Mound Cemetery . The Confederate Memorial Association engaged in fundraising for construction of the memorial , including sewing circles , bazaars , and fairs . Confederate veterans and others in Hampshire County undertook additional fundraising efforts , including entertainment shows and general solicitation . In addition to raising funds for the construction of the memorial , the Confederate Memorial Association also raised money for the widows and children of the Confederate dead . By October 15 , 1866 , the gross receipts returned to the association 's treasury amounted to $ 1 @,@ 170 @.@ 91 USD , of which the Confederate Memorial Association provided $ 421 @.@ 58 USD to the Confederate widows and orphaned children . Fundraising continued until June 1867 .
= = Design selection = =
By June 6 , 1867 , the Confederate Memorial Association had raised the necessary funds and proceeded to select the design , inviting and considering the opinions of Confederate veterans and others across Hampshire County .
In July 1867 , a committee of the Confederate Memorial Association narrowed the numerous proposals it had received for the memorial 's inscription to three finalists . The first inscription finalist said the Confederate soldiers " died in defense of what they believed to be right " , the second said they were " our sons and brothers , who fell as soldiers in the Confederate army " , and the third , which was ultimately adopted by the committee , read in full : " The Daughters of Old Hampshire Erect This Tribute of Affection to Her Heroic Sons Who Fell in Defence of Southern Rights " .
= = Construction = =
Once the design and inscription had been chosen , the association appointed committees to select a contractor . At the end of the process , the contract was awarded to the Gaddes Brothers firm of Baltimore . They were asked to fabricate a white Italian marble monument . The memorial was designed , sculpted , and manufactured at a cost of $ 1 @,@ 133 @.@ 63 USD . According to United Daughters of the Confederacy historian Mary Bell Foote , the words " Southern Rights " were initially omitted from the end of the memorial 's inscription during its fabrication due to the " bitter feelings at the time " following the American Civil War , and Federal statutes banning such monuments . After the memorial 's components were packaged for shipping to Romney , the words " Southern Rights " were secretly etched into the white marble and the components quickly boarded over and shipped .
The memorial 's components were delivered to Indian Mound Cemetery on September 14 , 1867 , and it was erected at its present location by a group of Romney volunteers . Bob Fisher was paid $ 5 @.@ 00 USD for raising the earthen mound around the monument 's location and $ 4 @.@ 11 USD for providing lodging to one of the Gaddes brothers at his residence . William Sheetz was paid $ 18 @.@ 80 USD for building the memorial 's raised mound and supporting foundation . Twelve days later on September 26 , the Confederate Memorial was formally dedicated in a public ceremony .
= = Location and design = =
The Confederate Memorial stands upon a raised mound ringed by five boxwoods within the original section of Indian Mound Cemetery , not far from the cemetery 's entrance . Several family interment plots surround the memorial and its circular raised lawn . A burial ground where Confederate and Union dead were buried during the American Civil War lies adjacent to the memorial .
The Confederate Memorial is in the form of an obelisk , measuring 4 square feet ( 0 @.@ 37 m2 ) at its base and 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) in height . The structure 's pedestal consists of two major stylized blocks of white marble , topped by a sculpture of a cloth draped urn . Carved into the façade of the smaller top block of the memorial is a high relief that represents either Fame or an angel placing a laurel wreath upon the head of a dying soldier clasping his sword . Below , on the façade of the larger block , is the inscription : " The Daughters of Old Hampshire Erect This Tribute of Affection to Her Heroic Sons Who Fell in Defence of Southern Rights . " The other three sides of the memorial contain the engraved names of 125 Hampshire County men who died for the Confederate cause . A number representing the total fallen Confederates was not included in the memorial as it was not precisely known at the time of the monument 's construction . The memorial 's foundation block bears the date of its erection , " 1867 " .
= = = Inscribed names = = =
The list of 125 names engraved on the monument consists of four captains , seven lieutenants ( one of which was a chaplain ) , three sergeants , and 119 privates . Since the memorial 's erection in 1867 , several names of Hampshire County 's Confederate dead were found to have been omitted from the memorial . These names have been included in the " Confederate Honor Roll " along with those names etched in the memorial and the names of Confederate veterans . Each of these names is recited during the annual ceremony held on Hampshire County Confederate Memorial Day . The following is the list of Confederate dead etched into the Confederate Memorial :
= = Restoration = =
In 1984 , the Confederate Memorial underwent an extensive restoration . The monument had darkened due to weathering . The surfaces of the memorial were sanded and sealed for future protection . This restoration effort was funded through charitable contributions . The names of the contributors were inscribed within the same treasurer 's book used to record the memorial 's inaugural contributions on June 6 , 1866 . The monument 's restoration cost totaled $ 2 @,@ 850 USD .
= = Hampshire County Confederate Memorial Day = =
The tradition of decorating the Confederate graves in Indian Mound Cemetery has continued annually since June 1 , 1866 , and occurs on the first Saturday in June , which is known as Hampshire County Confederate Memorial Day or June Decoration Day . On this day , participants in the ceremony march down Main Street ( U.S. Route 50 ) through Romney with American Civil War reenactors carrying Confederate flags . A handmade evergreen garland measuring 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) in length is suspended from the Confederate Memorial , along with evergreen wreaths . Flowers and Confederate flags are also placed at each of the Confederate headstones . The decorations are usually placed at the memorial and upon the Confederate gravestones by reenactors . Invited speakers address participants . A roll of honor is recited at the memorial , followed by a musket salute . Ceremony participants include descendants of the founding members of the Confederate Memorial Association .
= = Significance = =
The construction of the Confederate Memorial marked the beginning of an era of post @-@ war revitalization for Hampshire County following the American Civil War . The memorial became a symbol of the county 's restored confidence . The citizens of Hampshire County worked together to reestablish and rebuild the institutions , municipal buildings , and businesses destroyed during the war . The Confederate Memorial Association that constructed the monument was a part of a larger movement throughout the post @-@ war American South , especially in Virginia , which sought to provide suitable interments for Confederate war dead . Historian Caroline E. Janney averred that these " Ladies ' Memorial Associations " used " gender in the interest of Confederate politics " , which laid the groundwork for the establishment of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy belief .
The memorial is among the first monuments erected to memorialize the Confederate dead in the United States . Romney 's claim to have the first Confederate Memorial is disputed by Cheraw , South Carolina , as its monument was dedicated two months prior on July 26 , 1867 . However , the Cheraw memorial omits the mention of " Confederacy " , " Confederate " , or " Southern " .
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= Tropical Storm Chantal ( 2007 ) =
Tropical Storm Chantal was a short @-@ lived tropical storm in the northern Atlantic Ocean in the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season . It developed on July 31 from non @-@ tropical origins between Bermuda and Cape Cod , and with favorable conditions , Chantal rapidly attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . The storm accelerated northeastward over an area of progressively colder water temperatures , and after a decrease in convection the National Hurricane Center ceased issuing advisories as Chantal began undergoing extratropical transition early on August 1 . Shortly thereafter , the extratropical remnant crossed over southeastern Newfoundland before tracking into the open waters of the north Atlantic Ocean . Prior to forming , the storm dropped moderate rainfall on Bermuda . Subsequent to becoming extratropical , the remnants of Chantal produced gusty winds and heavy precipitation across the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland , causing flooding and wind damage ; insured damage totaled $ 25 million ( 2007 CAD , $ 24 @.@ 3 million 2007 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A frontal system moved off the Carolinas on July 21 , and as it drifted southeastward it degenerated into a trough of low pressure ; by July 26 , it was nearly stationary to the east of the Bahamas . Deep convection initially failed to persist , though on July 28 meteorologists began tracking it with the Dvorak technique . The system tracked northeastward , and initially unfavorable environmental conditions left the system disorganized . However , conditions were forecast to become more conducive for development , and by July 29 the National Hurricane Center remarked it had " potential for tropical or subtropical development . " On July 30 , the low passed to the west of Bermuda as it continued northeastward , under the influence of a large mid @-@ latitude trough . The system contained an exposed low @-@ level circulation , which intermittently passed beneath a persistent area of convection to its northeast . By early on July 31 , ship reports and QuikSCAT observations suggested winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) , and the center was well @-@ involved enough with the convection for the National Hurricane Center to classify it as Tropical Depression Three while it was located about 270 miles ( 435 km ) north @-@ northwest of Bermuda , or about 445 miles ( 710 km ) south @-@ southeast of Chatham , Massachusetts .
Upon receiving its classification , the depression consisted of a partially exposed low @-@ level center with deep convection occupying the northeastern semicircle . Located over sea surface temperatures of about 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) , one forecaster noted the depression had " a small window of opportunity ... for it to reach tropical storm strength before transitioning to an extratropical cyclone . " Convection increased further over the center , and at around 0600 UTC on July 31 the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Chantal while located about 530 miles ( 855 km ) south of Halifax , Nova Scotia . The storm continued northeastward , under the influence of a mid @-@ level trough , and Chantal quickly developed well @-@ defined curved banding features ; six hours after becoming a tropical storm , Chantal reached peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . The storm tracked through an area of progressively cold waters and cooler air , resulting in the weakening of its convection . The circulation became embedded within the approaching frontal zone , and by 0600 UTC on August 1 Chantal transitioned into an extratropical cyclone .
After becoming an extratropical cyclone , Chantal maintained scattered convection near its center , though its main area of convection and clouds extended to its north . Midday on August 1 , the cyclone struck Newfoundland along the Avalon Peninsula , hitting the Placentia Area with full force . It subsequently intensified to attain winds of near hurricane @-@ force . On August 3 the cyclone underwent a final weakening trend in the far northern Atlantic Ocean , and on August 5 the extratropical remnants of Chantal merged with another extratropical cyclone to the east of Iceland .
= = Impact = =
The precursor disturbance to Chantal began affecting Bermuda on July 30 , producing scattered storms and increased cloud cover . The next day the system dropped more rainfall as it passed to the west of the island , and in the two @-@ day period precipitation accumulated to 2 @.@ 12 inches ( 53 @.@ 8 mm ) at the Bermuda International Airport , accounting for 35 % of the monthly rainfall total . Thunderstorms were reported on the island , and maximum reported winds on the island reached 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . After Chantal passed Bermuda , a ship with the call sign C60Y4 recorded sustained winds of 37 mph ( 59 km / h ) over the open waters of the north Atlantic Ocean . At around 2300 UTC on July 31 , a buoy to the southeast of Nova Scotia reported a pressure of 995 mbar as Chantal passed nearby .
Shortly after it first became a tropical storm , the Atlantic Storm Prediction Center of Canada issued gale warnings for the coastal waters off Newfoundland . Later , the Newfoundland Labrador Weather Office issued heavy rainfall warnings for southeastern Newfoundland . In offshore waters , wave heights reached 20 feet ( 6 m ) . Onshore , the storm produced moderately strong winds , with an unofficial peak gust of 54 mph ( 88 km / h ) reported near where the storm moved ashore . The extratropical remnants of Chantal dropped heavy rainfall in a short duration across Newfoundland ; 1 @.@ 7 inches ( 43 mm ) fell in 1 hour at St. John 's West , the highest hourly rainfall total . Across the province , precipitation peaked at 7 @.@ 89 inches ( 200 @.@ 4 mm ) at Argentia . The rainfall caused flooding and street washouts in several towns along the Avalon Peninsula , such as Ship Harbour , Fox Harbour , and Dunville . Several communities in the region declared states of emergencies .
In Ship Harbour citizens were isolated for 5 days until a temporary road was made . Also in Spaniard 's Bay , the flooding caused a bridge to depress about 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 50 cm ) ; a temporary bridge was built within two months , with a permanent replacement scheduled to be finished by the summer of 2008 . Insured damage across the area totaled $ 25 million ( 2007 CAD , $ 24 @.@ 3 million 2007 USD ) .
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= National Register of Historic Places =
The National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) is the United States federal government 's official list of districts , sites , buildings , structures , and objects deemed worthy of preservation . A property listed in the National Register , or located within a National Register Historic District , may qualify for tax incentives derived from the total value of expenses incurred preserving the property .
The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act ( NHPA ) in 1966 established the National Register and the process for adding properties to it . Of the more than one million properties on the National Register , 80 @,@ 000 are listed individually . The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts . Each year approximately 30 @,@ 000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings .
For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service ( NPS ) , an agency within the United States Department of the Interior . Its goals are to help property owners and interest groups , such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation , coordinate , identify , and protect historic sites in the United States . While National Register listings are mostly symbolic , their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties . Protection of the property is not guaranteed . During the nomination process , the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places . The application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation , as well as the public and politicians .
Occasionally , historic sites outside the country proper , but associated with the United States ( such as the American Embassy in Tangiers ) are also listed . Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms , including individual properties , historic districts , and multiple property submissions ( MPS ) . The Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties : district , site , structure , building , or object . National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non @-@ contributing properties . Some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service . These include National Historic Landmarks ( NHL ) , National Historic Sites ( NHS ) , National Historical Parks , National Military Parks / Battlefields , National Memorials , and some National Monuments . ( Federal properties can be proclaimed National Monuments under the Antiquities Act because of either their historical or natural significance . They are managed by multiple agencies . Only monuments that are historic in character and managed by the National Park Service are listed administratively in the National Register . )
= = History = =
On October 15 , 1966 , the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices ( SHPO ) . Initially , the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Register 's creation , as well as any other historic sites in the National Park system . Approval of the act , which was amended in 1980 and 1992 , represented the first time the United States had a broad @-@ based historic preservation policy . The 1966 act required those agencies to work in conjunction with the SHPO and an independent federal agency , the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation ( ACHP ) , to confront adverse effects of federal activities on historic preservation .
To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places , the National Park Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior , with director George B. Hartzog , Jr . , established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation ( OAHP ) . Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law . Ernest Connally was the Office 's first director . Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register . The division administered several existing programs , including the Historic Sites Survey and the Historic American Buildings Survey , as well as the new National Register and Historic Preservation Fund .
The first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh , an architectural historian . During the Register 's earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s , organization was lax and SHPOs were small , understaffed , and underfunded . However , funds were still being supplied for the Historic Preservation Fund to provide matching grants @-@ in @-@ aid to listed property owners , first for house museums and institutional buildings , but later for commercial structures as well .
A few years later in 1979 , the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U.S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two " Assistant Directorates . " Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation . From 1978 until 1981 , the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service ( HCRS ) of the United States Department of the Interior .
In February 1983 , the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs . Jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate . He was described as a skilled administrator , who was sensitive to the need for the NPS to work with SHPOs , academia , and local governments .
Although not described in detail in the 1966 act , SHPOs eventually became integral to the process of listing properties on the National Register . The 1980 amendments of the 1966 law further defined the responsibilities of SHPOs concerning the National Register . Several 1992 amendments of the NHPA added a category to the National Register , known as Traditional Cultural Properties : those properties associated with Native American or Hawaiian groups .
The National Register of Historic Places has grown considerably from its legislative origins in 1966 . In 1986 , citizens and groups nominated 3 @,@ 623 separate properties , sites , and districts for inclusion on the National Register , a total of 75 @,@ 000 separate properties . Of the more than one million properties on the National Register , 80 @,@ 000 are listed individually . Others are listed as contributing members within historic districts .
= = Property owner incentives = =
Properties are not protected in any strict sense by the Federal listing . States and local zoning bodies may or may not choose to protect listed historic places . Indirect protection is possible , by state and local regulations on development of National Register properties , and by tax incentives .
Until 1976 , federal tax incentives were virtually non @-@ existent for buildings on the National Register . Before 1976 the federal tax code favored new construction rather than the reuse of existing , sometimes historical , structures . In 1976 , the tax code was altered to provide tax incentives that promote preservation of income @-@ producing historic properties . The National Park Service was given the responsibility to ensure that only rehabilitations that preserved the historic character of a building would qualify for federal tax incentives . A qualifying rehabilitation is one that the NPS deems consistent with the Secretary of the Interior 's Standards for Rehabilitation . Properties and sites listed in the Register , as well as those located in and contributing to the period of significance of National Register Historic Districts , became eligible for the federal tax benefits .
Owners of income @-@ producing properties listed individually in the National Register of Historic Places or of properties that are contributing resources within a National Register Historic District may be eligible for a 20 % investment tax credit for the rehabilitation of the historic structure . The rehabilitation may be of a commercial , industrial , or residential property , for rentals . The tax incentives program is operated by the Federal Historic Preservation Tax Incentives program , which is managed jointly by the National Park Service , individual State Historic Preservation Offices , and the Internal Revenue Service . Aside from the 20 % tax credit , the tax incentive program offers a 10 % tax credit for rehabilitation to owners of non @-@ historic , non @-@ residential buildings constructed before 1936 .
Some property owners may qualify for grants as well , for instance the Save America 's Treasures grants , which apply specifically to properties entered in the Register with national significance or designated as National Historic Landmarks . The Save America 's Treasures office has closed . The United States Congress did not renew the funding for the program for fiscal years 2011 and 2012 , and does not plan to re @-@ establish funding .
The NHPA did not distinguish between properties listed in the National Register of Historic Places and those designated as National Historic Landmarks concerning qualification for tax incentives or grants . This was deliberate , as the authors of the act had learned from experience that distinguishing between categories of significance for such incentives caused the lowest category to become expendable . Essentially , this made the Landmarks a kind of " honor roll " of the most significant properties of the National Register of Historic Places .
= = Nomination process = =
Any individual can prepare a National Register nomination , although historians and historic preservation consultants often are employed for this work . The nomination consists of a standard nomination form and contains basic information about a property 's physical appearance and the type of significance embodied in the building , structure , object , site , or district . The State Historic Preservation Office receives National Register nominations and provides feedback to the nominating individual or group . After preliminary review , the SHPO sends each nomination to the state 's historic review commission , which then recommends whether the State Historic Preservation Officer should send the nomination to the Keeper of the National Register . For any non @-@ Federally owned property , only the State Historic Preservation Officer may officially nominate a property for inclusion in the National Register . After the nomination is recommended for listing in the National Register by the SHPO , the nomination is sent to the National Park Service , which approves or denies the nomination . If approved , the property is entered officially by the Keeper of the National Register into the National Register of Historic Places . Property owners are notified of the nomination during the review by the SHPO and state 's historic review commission . If an owner objects to a nomination of private property , or in the case of a historic district , a majority of owners , then the property cannot be listed in the National Register of Historic Places .
= = = Criteria = = =
For a property to be eligible for the National Register , it must meet at least one of the four National Register main criteria . Information about architectural styles , association with various aspects of social history and commerce , and ownership are all integral parts of the nomination . Each nomination contains a narrative section that provides a detailed physical description of the property and justifies why it is significant historically with regard either to local , state , or national history . The four National Register of Historic Places criteria are the following .
Criterion A , " Event , " the property must make a contribution to the major pattern of American history .
Criterion B , " Person , " is associated with significant people of the American past .
Criterion C , " Design / Construction , " concerns the distinctive characteristics of the building by its architecture and construction , including having great artistic value or being the work of a master .
Criterion D , " Information potential , " is satisfied if the property has yielded or may be likely to yield information important to prehistory or history .
The criteria are applied differently for different types of properties ; for instance , maritime properties have application guidelines different from those of buildings .
= = = Exclusions = = =
There are specific instances where properties usually do not merit listing in the National Register . As a general rule , cemeteries , birthplaces , graves of historical figures , properties owned by religious institutions or used for religious purposes , moved structures , reconstructed historic buildings , commemorative properties , and properties that have achieved significance during the last fifty years are not qualified for listing on the Register . There are , however , exceptions to all the preceding ; mitigating circumstances allow properties classified in one of those groups to be included .
= = = Properties listed = = =
A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district , site , building , or property . However , the Register is mostly " an honorary status with some federal financial incentives . " The National Register of Historic Places automatically includes all National Historic Landmarks as well as all historic areas administered by the National Park Service . Landmarks such as these include : National Historic Sites ( NHS ) , National Historical Parks , National Military Parks / Battlefields , National Memorials , and some National Monuments . Occasionally , historic sites outside the country 's borders , but associated with the United States , such as the American Legation in Tangiers , also are listed .
Listing in the National Register does not restrict private property owners from the use of their property . Some states and municipalities , however , may have laws that become effective when a property is listed in the National Register . If federal money or a federal permitting process is involved , Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 is invoked . Section 106 requires the federal agency involved to assess the effect of its actions on historic resources . Statutorily , the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation ( ACHP ) has the most significant role by Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act . The section requires that the director of any federal agency with direct or indirect jurisdiction of a project that may affect a property listed or determined eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places , must first report to the Advisory Council . The director of said agency is required to " take into account the effect of the undertaking " on the National Register property , as well as to afford the ACHP a reasonable opportunity to comment .
While Section 106 does not mandate explicitly that any federal agency director accept the advice of the ACHP , their advice has practical influence , especially given the statutory obligations of the NHPA that require federal agencies to " take into account the effect of the undertaking . "
In cases where the ACHP determines federal action will have an " adverse effect " on historic properties , mitigation is sought . Typically , a Memorandum of Agreement ( MOA ) is created by which the involved parties agree to a particular plan . Many states have laws similar to Section 106 . In contrast to conditions relating to a federally designated historic district , municipal ordinances governing local historic districts often restrict certain kinds of changes to properties . Thus , they may protect the property more than a National Register listing does .
The Department of Transportation Act , passed on October 15 , 1966 , the same day as the National Historic Preservation Act , included provisions that addressed historic preservation . The DOT Act is much more general than Section 106 NHPA in that it refers to properties other than those listed in the Register .
The more general language has allowed more properties and parklands to enjoy status as protected areas by this legislation , a policy developed early in its history . The United States Supreme Court ruled in the 1971 case Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe that parklands could have the same protected status as " historic sites . "
= = = Multiple Property Submission = = =
A Multiple Property Submission ( MPS ) is a thematic group listing of the National Register of Historic Places that consists of related properties that share a common theme and can be submitted as a group . Multiple property submissions must satisfy certain basic criteria for the group of properties to be included in the National Register .
The process begins with the Multiple Property Documentation Form , which acts as a cover document rather than the nomination to the National Register of Historic Places . The purpose of the documentation form is to establish the basis of eligibility for related properties . The information of the Multiple Property Documentation Form can be used to nominate and register related historic properties simultaneously , or to establish criteria for properties that may be nominated in the future . Thus , additions to an MPS can occur over time .
The nomination of individual properties in an MPS is accomplished in the same manner as other nominations . The name of the " thematic group " denotes the historical theme of the properties . It is considered the " multiple property listing . " Once an individual property or a group of properties is nominated and listed in the National Register , the Multiple Property Documentation Form , combined with the individual National Register of Historic Places Nomination Forms , constitute a Multiple Property Submission . Examples of MPS include the Lee County Multiple Property Submission , the Warehouses in Omaha , the Boundary Markers of the Original District of Columbia , and the Illinois Carnegie Libraries . Before the term " Multiple Property Submission " was introduced in 1984 , such listings were known as " Thematic Resources " , such as the Operating Passenger Railroad Stations Thematic Resource , or " Multiple Resource Areas . "
= = Types of properties = =
Listed properties are generally in one of five broad categories , although there are special considerations for other types of properties that in any one , or into more specialized subcategories . The five general categories for National Register properties are : building , structure , site , district , and object . In addition , historic districts consist of contributing and non @-@ contributing properties .
Buildings , as defined by the National Register , are distinguished in the traditional sense . Examples include a house , barn , hotel , church , or similar construction . They are created primarily to shelter human activity . The term building , as in outbuilding , can be used to refer to historically and functionally related units , such as a courthouse and a jail or a barn and a house .
Structures differ from buildings in that they are functional constructions meant to be used for purposes other than sheltering human activity . Examples include an aircraft , a grain elevator , a gazebo , and a bridge .
Objects are usually artistic in nature , or small in scale compared to structures and buildings . Although objects may be movable , they are generally associated with a specific setting or environment . Examples of objects include monuments , sculptures , and fountains .
Sites are the locations of significant events , which can be prehistoric or historic in nature and represent activities or buildings ( standing , ruined , or vanished ) . When sites are listed , it is the locations themselves that are of historical interest . They possesses cultural or archaeological value regardless of the value of any structures that currently exist at the locations . Examples of types of sites include shipwrecks , battlefields , campsites , natural features , and rock shelters .
Historic districts possess a concentration , association , or continuity of the other four types of properties . Objects , structures , buildings , and sites in a historic district are united historically or aesthetically , either by choice or by the nature of their development .
There are several other different types of historic preservation associated with the properties of the National Register of Historic Places that cannot be classified as either simple buildings and historic districts . Through the National Park Service , the National Register of Historic Places publishes a series of bulletins designed to aid in evaluating and applying the criteria for evaluation of different types of properties . Although the criteria are always the same , the manner they are applied may differ slightly , depending upon the type of property involved . The National Register bulletins describe application of the criteria for aids to navigation , historic battlefields , archaeological sites , aviation properties , cemeteries , and burial places , historic designed landscapes , mining sites , post offices , properties associated with significant persons , properties achieving significance within the last fifty years , rural historic landscapes , traditional cultural properties , and vessels and shipwrecks .
= = Recent past = =
In American historic preservation , the fifty @-@ year rule is the generally held belief that a property cannot be listed in the National Register of Historic Places unless it is at least fifty years old . Actually , this rule is not a hard rule at all ; it is an exception to the National Register 's criteria for evaluation . As stated by John H. Sprinkle , Jr . , Deputy Director of the Federal Preservation Institute , “ this ‘ rule ’ is only an exception to the criteria that shape listings within the National Register of Historic Places . Of the eight ' exceptions ' [ or criteria considerations ] , Consideration G , for properties that have achieved significance within the past fifty years , is probably the best @-@ known , yet also misunderstood preservation principle in America . ”
With each passing year , a new group of resources crosses the fifty @-@ year threshold , that were before considered “ too recent ” for listing on the National Register of Historic Places ( unless they were exceptionally significant ) . The preservation of these “ underage ” resources has gained increasing attention in recent years .
= = Limitations = =
As of 1999 , there have been 982 properties removed from the Register , most often due to being destroyed .
= = Similar designations outside the United States = =
Austria – Bundesdenkmalamt
Brazil – National Institute of Historic and Artistic Heritage
Canada – National Historic Site , National Historic Event , National Historic Person — akin to US National Historic Landmarks
Chile – National Monuments of Chile
China - Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at the National Level
France – Monument historique
Germany – Deutsche Stiftung Denkmalschutz and National Heritage Sites ( Kulturdenkmal )
Hong Kong – Historic building , see List of Grade I historic buildings in Hong Kong , List of Grade II historic buildings in Hong Kong and List of Grade III historic buildings in Hong Kong
Italy – Monumento nazionale
Mexico – National Monuments of Mexico
Netherlands – Rijksmonument
Norway – Riksantikvaren
New Zealand – Heritage New Zealand
Philippines – National Historical Commission of the Philippines
Portugal – IGESPAR
Romania – National Register of Historic Monuments in Romania
Singapore – National Monuments of Singapore
Spain - Bien de Interés Cultural
United Kingdom – Listed building or scheduled monument
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= Ralph Bakshi =
Ralph Bakshi ( born October 29 , 1938 ) is an American director of animated and live @-@ action films . In the 1970s , he established an alternative to mainstream animation through independent and adult @-@ oriented productions . Between 1972 and 1992 , he directed nine theatrically released feature films , five of which he wrote . He has been involved in numerous television projects as director , writer , producer and animator .
Beginning his career at the Terrytoons television cartoon studio as a cel polisher , Bakshi was eventually promoted to animator , and then director . He moved to the animation division of Paramount Pictures in 1967 and started his own studio , Bakshi Productions , in 1968 . Through producer Steve Krantz , Bakshi made his debut feature film , Fritz the Cat , released in 1972 . It was the first animated film to receive an X rating from the Motion Picture Association of America , and the most successful independent animated feature of all time .
Over the next eleven years , Bakshi directed seven additional animated features . He is well known for such films as Wizards ( 1977 ) , The Lord of the Rings ( 1978 ) , American Pop ( 1981 ) and Fire and Ice ( 1983 ) . In 1987 , Bakshi returned to television work , producing the series Mighty Mouse : The New Adventures , which ran for two years . After a nine @-@ year hiatus from feature films , he directed Cool World ( 1992 ) , which was largely rewritten during production and received poor reviews . Bakshi returned to television with the live @-@ action film Cool and the Crazy ( 1994 ) and the anthology series Spicy City ( 1997 ) .
During the 2000s , he focused largely on fine art and painting and in 2003 co @-@ founded The Bakshi School of Animation with his son Eddie and Jess Gorell . Bakshi has received several awards for his work , including the 1980 Golden Gryphon for The Lord of the Rings at the Giffoni Film Festival , the 1988 Annie Award for Distinguished Contribution to the Art of Animation , and the 2003 Maverick Tribute Award at the Cinequest Film Festival .
= = Early life ( 1938 – 1956 ) = =
Ralph Bakshi was born to a Jewish family on October 29 , 1938 , in Haifa , Mandatory Palestine . In 1939 , his family immigrated to New York City to escape World War II , and he grew up in the Brownsville neighborhood of Brooklyn . The family lived in a low @-@ rent apartment , where Bakshi became fascinated with the urban milieu . As a child , he enjoyed comic books , and often dug through trash cans to find them .
In the spring of 1947 , Bakshi 's father and uncle traveled to Washington , D.C. , in search of business opportunities , and soon moved the family to the black neighborhood of Foggy Bottom . Bakshi recalled , " All my friends were black , everyone we did business with was black , the school across the street was black . It was segregated , so everything was black . I went to see black movies ; black girls sat on my lap . I went to black parties . I was another black kid on the block . No problem ! "
The racial segregation of local schools meant that the nearest white school was several miles away ; Bakshi obtained his mother 's permission to attend the nearby black school with his friends . Bakshi was the only white student in the classroom . Most of the students had no problem with Bakshi 's presence , but a teacher sought advice from the principal , who called the police . Fearing that segregated whites would riot if they learned that a white student was attending a black school , the police removed Bakshi from his classroom . Meanwhile , his father had been suffering from anxiety attacks . Within a few months , the family moved back to Brownsville , where they rarely spoke of these events .
At the age of 15 , after discovering Gene Byrnes ' Complete Guide to Cartooning at the public library , Bakshi took up cartooning to document his experiences and create fantasy @-@ influenced artwork . He stole a copy of the book and learned every lesson in it . During his teenage years , Bakshi took up boxing . While attending Thomas Jefferson High School , he took little interest in academics , spending most of his time focusing on " broads , mouthing off , and doodling " . After participating in a food fight and being caught smoking , Bakshi was sent to the principal 's office . Believing Bakshi was unlikely to prosper at Thomas Jefferson , the principal transferred him to Manhattan 's School of Industrial Art . In June 1956 , Bakshi graduated from the school with an award in cartooning .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career ( 1956 – 1968 ) = = =
When Bakshi was 18 , his friend Cosmo Anzilotti was hired by the cartoon studio Terrytoons ; Anzilotti recommended Bakshi to the studio 's production manager , Frank Schudde . Bakshi was hired as a cel polisher and commuted four hours each day to the studio , based in suburban New Rochelle . His low @-@ level position required Bakshi to carefully remove dirt and dust from animation cels .
After a few months , Schudde was surprised that Bakshi was still showing up to work , and promoted him to cel painter . Bakshi began to practice animating ; to give himself more time , at one point he slipped ten cels he was supposed to work on into the " to @-@ do " pile of a fellow painter , Leo Giuliani . Bakshi 's deception was not noticed until two days later , when he was called to Schudde 's office because the cels had been painted on the wrong side . When Bakshi explained that Giuliani had made the mistake , an argument ensued between the three . Schudde eventually took Bakshi 's side . By this point , the studio 's employees were aware of Bakshi 's intention to become an animator , and he began to receive help and advice from established animators , including Connie Rasinski , Manny Davis , Jim Tyer , Larry Silverman and Johnnie Gentilella .
Bakshi married his first wife , Elaine , when he was 21 . Their son , Mark , was born when Bakshi was 22 . Elaine disliked his long work hours ; parodying his marital problems , Bakshi drew Dum Dum and Dee Dee , a comic strip about a man determined " to get — and keep — the girl " .
As he perfected his animation style , he began to take on more jobs , including creating design tests for the studio 's head director , Gene Deitch . Deitch was not convinced that Bakshi had a modern design sensibility . In response to the period 's political climate and as a form of therapy , Bakshi drew the comic strips Bonefoot and Fudge , which satirized " idiots with an agenda " , and Junktown , which focused on " misfit technology and discarded ideals " .
Bakshi 's frustrations with his failing marriage and the state of the planet further drove his need to animate . In 1959 , he moved his desk to join the rest of the animators ; after asking Rasinski for material to animate , he received layouts of two scenes : a hat floating on water and Deputy Dawg , the lead character of one of Terrytoons ' syndicated television series , running . Despite threats of repercussion from the animators ' union , Rasinski fought to keep Bakshi as a layout artist . Bakshi began to see Rasinski as a father figure ; Rasinski , childless , was happy to serve as Bakshi 's mentor .
At the age of 25 , Bakshi was promoted to director . His first assignment was the series Sad Cat . Bakshi and his wife had separated by then , giving him the time to animate each short alone . Bakshi was dissatisfied with the traditional role of a Terrytoons director : " We didn 't really ' direct ' like you 'd think . We were ' animation directors , ' because the story department controlled the storyboards . We couldn 't affect anything , but I still tried . I 'd re @-@ time , mix up soundtracks — I 'd fuck with it so I could make it my own . "
Independent animation studios such as Hanna @-@ Barbera were selling shows to the networks , even as the series produced by Terrytoons ( which was owned by CBS ) were declining in popularity . In 1966 , Bill Weiss asked Bakshi to help him carry presentation boards to Manhattan for a meeting with CBS . The network executives rejected all of Weiss 's proposals as " too sophisticated " , " too corny " , or " too old @-@ timey " .
As Fred Silverman , CBS 's daytime programming chief , began to leave the office , an unprepared Bakshi pitched a superhero parody called The Mighty Heroes . He described the series ' characters , including Strong Man , Tornado Man , Rope Man , Cuckoo Man and Diaper Man : " They fought evil wherever they could and the villains were stupider than they were . "
The executives loved the idea , and while Silverman required a few drawings before committing , Weiss immediately put Bakshi to work on the series ' development . Once Silverman saw the character designs , he confirmed that CBS would greenlight the show , on the condition that Bakshi serve as its creative director . It would appear as a segment of Mighty Mouse Playhouse on the network 's 1966 – 67 Saturday morning schedule ; the series was renamed Mighty Mouse and the Mighty Heroes in recognition of the new segment .
Bakshi received a pay raise , but was not as satisfied with his career advancement as he had anticipated ; Rasinski had died in 1965 , Bakshi did not have creative control over The Mighty Heroes , and he was unhappy with the quality of the animation , writing , timing and voice acting . Although the series ' first 20 segments were successful , Bakshi wanted to leave Terrytoons to form his own company . In 1967 , he drew up presentation pieces for a fantasy series called Tee @-@ Witt , with help from Anzilotti , Johnnie Zago and Bill Foucht .
On the way to the CBS offices to make his pitch , he was involved in a car accident . At the auto body shop , he met Liz , who later became his second wife . Though CBS passed on Tee @-@ Witt , its designs served as the basis for Bakshi 's 1977 film Wizards . While leaving the network offices , he learned that Paramount Pictures had recently fired Shamus Culhane , the head of its animation division . Bakshi met with Burt Hampft , a lawyer for the studio , and was hired to replace Culhane .
Bakshi enlisted comic book and pulp fiction artists and writers Harvey Kurtzman , Lin Carter , Gray Morrow , Archie Goodwin , Wally Wood and Jim Steranko to work at the studio . After finishing Culhane 's uncompleted shorts , he directed , produced , wrote and designed four short films at Paramount : The Fuz , Mini @-@ Squirts , Marvin Digs and Mouse Trek .
Marvin Digs , which Bakshi conceived as a " flower child picture " , was not completed the way he had intended : It " was going to have curse words and sex scenes , and a lot more than that . [ ... ] Of course , they wouldn 't let me do that . " He described the disappointing result as a " typical 1967 limited @-@ animation theatrical " . Animation historian Michael Barrier called the film " an offensively bad picture , the kind that makes people who love animation get up and leave the theater in disgust " . Production of Mighty Heroes ended when Bakshi left Terrytoons .
Bakshi served as head of the studio for eight months before Paramount closed its animation division on December 1 , 1967 . He learned that his position was always intended to be temporary and that Paramount never intended to pick up his pitches . Although Hampft was prepared to offer Bakshi a severance package , Bakshi immediately ripped up the contract .
Hampft suggested that Bakshi work with producer Steve Krantz , who had recently fired Culhane as supervising director on the Canadian science fiction series Rocket Robin Hood . Bakshi and background artist Johnnie Vita soon headed to Toronto , planning to commute between Canada and New York , with artists such as Morrow and Wood working from the United States .
Unknown to Bakshi , Krantz and producer Al Guest were in the middle of a lawsuit . Failing to reach a settlement with Guest , Krantz told Bakshi to grab the series ' model sheets and return to the United States . When the studio found out , a warrant for Bakshi 's arrest was issued by the Toronto police . He narrowly avoided capture before being stopped by an American border guard who asked him what he was doing . Bakshi responded , " All of these guys are heading into Canada to dodge the draft and I 'm running back into the States . What the fuck is wrong with that ! ? " The guard laughed , and let Bakshi through . Vita was detained at the airport ; he was searched and interrogated for six hours .
Bakshi soon founded his own studio , Bakshi Productions , in the Garment District of Manhattan , where his mother used to work and which Bakshi described as " the worst neighborhood in the world " . Bakshi Productions paid its employees higher salaries than other studios and expanded opportunities for female and minority animators . The studio began work on Rocket Robin Hood , and later took over the Spider @-@ Man television series . Bakshi married Liz in August 1968 . His second child , Preston , was born in June 1970 .
= = = Fritz the Cat ( 1969 – 1972 ) = = =
In 1969 , Ralph 's Spot was founded as a division of Bakshi Productions to produce commercials for Coca @-@ Cola and Max , the 2000 @-@ Year @-@ Old Mouse , a series of educational shorts paid for by Encyclopædia Britannica . Bakshi was uninterested in the kind of animation the studio was turning out , and wanted to produce something personal . He soon developed Heavy Traffic , a tale of inner @-@ city street life . Krantz told Bakshi that Hollywood studio executives would be unwilling to fund the film because of its content and Bakshi 's lack of film experience . While browsing the East Side Book Store on St. Mark 's Place , Bakshi came across a copy of Robert Crumb 's Fritz the Cat . Impressed by Crumb 's sharp satire , Bakshi purchased the book and suggested to Krantz that it would work as a film . Krantz arranged a meeting with Crumb , during which Bakshi presented the drawings he had created while learning the artist 's distinctive style to prove that he could adapt Crumb 's artwork to animation . Impressed by Bakshi 's tenacity , Crumb lent him one of his sketchbooks for reference .
Preparation began on a studio pitch that included a poster @-@ sized cel featuring the comic 's cast against a traced photo background — as Bakshi intended the film to appear . Despite Crumb 's enthusiasm , the artist refused to sign the contract Krantz drew up . Artist Vaughn Bodé warned Bakshi against working with Crumb , describing him as " slick " . Bakshi later agreed with Bodé 's assessment , calling Crumb " one of the slickest hustlers you 'll ever see in your life " . Krantz sent Bakshi to San Francisco , where he stayed with Crumb and his wife , Dana , in an attempt to persuade Crumb to sign the contract . After a week , Crumb left , leaving the film 's production status uncertain . Two weeks after Bakshi returned to New York , Krantz entered his office and told Bakshi that he had acquired the film rights through Dana , who had Crumb 's power of attorney and signed the contract .
After Bakshi pitched the project to every major Hollywood studio , Warner Bros. bought it and promised an $ 850 @,@ 000 budget . Bakshi hired animators he had worked with in the past , including Vita , Tyer , Anzilotti and Nick Tafuri , and began the layouts and animation . The first completed sequence was a junkyard scene in Harlem , in which Fritz smokes marijuana , has sex and incites a revolution . Krantz intended to release the sequence as a 15 @-@ minute short in case the picture 's financing fell through ; Bakshi , however , was determined to complete the film as a feature . They screened the sequence for Warner Bros. executives , who wanted the sexual content toned down and celebrities cast for the voice parts . Bakshi refused , and Warner Bros. pulled out , leading Krantz to seek funds elsewhere . He eventually made a deal with Jerry Gross , the owner of Cinemation Industries , a distributor specializing in exploitation films . Although Bakshi did not have enough time to pitch the film , Gross agreed to fund its production and distribute it , believing that it would fit in with his grindhouse slate .
Despite receiving financing from other sources , including Saul Zaentz ( who agreed to distribute the soundtrack album on his Fantasy Records label ) , the budget was tight enough to exclude pencil tests , so Bakshi had to test the animation by flipping an animator 's drawings in his hand before they were inked and painted . When a cameraman realized that the cels for the desert scenes were not wide enough and revealed the transparency , Bakshi painted a cactus to cover the mistake . Very few storyboards were used . Bakshi and Vita walked around the Lower East Side , Washington Square Park , Chinatown and Harlem , taking moody snapshots . Artist Ira Turek inked the outlines of these photographs onto cels with a Rapidograph , the technical pen preferred by Crumb , giving the film 's backgrounds a stylized realism virtually unprecedented in animation . The tones of the watercolor backgrounds were influenced by the work of Ashcan School painters such as George Luks and John French Sloan . Among other unusual techniques , bent and fisheye camera perspectives were used to portray the way the film 's hippies and hoodlums viewed the city . Many scenes featured documentary recordings of real conversations in place of scripted dialogue — this too would become a signature of Bakshi 's .
In May 1971 , Bakshi moved his studio to Los Angeles to hire additional animators . Some , including Rod Scribner , Dick Lundy , Virgil Walter Ross , Norman McCabe and John Sparey , welcomed Bakshi and felt that Fritz the Cat would bring diversity to the animation industry . Other animators were less pleased by Bakshi 's arrival and placed an advertisement in The Hollywood Reporter , stating that his " filth " was unwelcome in California . By the time production wrapped , Cinemation had released Melvin Van Peebles ' Sweet Sweetback 's Baadasssss Song to considerable success , despite the X rating it had received . When the Motion Picture Association of America gave Bakshi 's film an X rating as well , Cinemation exploited it for promotional purposes , advertising Fritz the Cat as " 90 minutes of violence , excitement , and SEX ... he 's X @-@ rated and animated ! " Variety called it an " amusing , diverting , handsomely executed poke at youthful attitudes " . John Grant writes in his book Masters of Animation that Fritz the Cat was " the breakthrough movie that opened brand new vistas to the commercial animator in the United States " , presenting an " almost disturbingly accurate " portrayal " of a particular stratum of Western society during a particular era , [ ... ] as such it has dated very well . " Fritz the Cat was released on April 12 , 1972 , opening in Hollywood and Washington , D.C. A major hit , it became the most successful independent animated feature of all time . The same month as the film 's release , Bakshi 's daughter , Victoria , was born .
= = = Heavy Traffic ( 1972 – 1973 ) = = =
By the time Fritz the Cat was released , Bakshi had become a celebrity , but his reputation was primarily based upon his having directed the first " dirty " animated film . Facing criticism of his work on publicity tours and in trade publications , he began writing poetry to express his emotions . This became a tradition , and Bakshi wrote poems before beginning production on each of his films . The first of these poems was " Street Arabs " , which preceded the production of Heavy Traffic in 1972 . Inspiration for the film came from penny arcades , where Bakshi often played pinball , sometimes accompanied by his 12 @-@ year @-@ old son , Mark . Bakshi pitched Heavy Traffic to Samuel Z. Arkoff , who expressed interest in his take on the " tortured underground cartoonist " and agreed to back the film . Krantz had not compensated Bakshi for his work on Fritz the Cat , and halfway through the production of Heavy Traffic , Bakshi asked when he would be paid . Krantz responded , " The picture didn 't make any money , Ralph . It 's just a lot of noise . " Bakshi found Krantz 's claims dubious , as the producer had recently purchased a new BMW and a mansion in Beverly Hills . Bakshi did not have a lawyer , so he sought advice from fellow directors with whom he had become friendly , including Martin Scorsese , Francis Ford Coppola and Steven Spielberg . He soon accused Krantz of ripping him off , which the producer denied .
As he continued to work on Heavy Traffic , Bakshi began pitching his next project , Harlem Nights , a film loosely based on the Uncle Remus story books . The idea interested producer Albert S. Ruddy , whom Bakshi encountered at a screening of The Godfather . Bakshi received a call from Krantz , who questioned him about Harlem Nights . Bakshi said , " I can 't talk about that " , and hung up . After locking Bakshi out of the studio the next day , Krantz called several directors , including Chuck Jones , in search of a replacement . Arkoff threatened to withdraw his financial backing unless Krantz rehired Bakshi , who returned a week later .
Bakshi wanted the voices to sound organic , so he experimented with improvisation , allowing his actors to ad lib during the recording sessions . Several animation sequences appear as rough sketchbook pages . The film also incorporated live @-@ action footage and photographs . Although Krantz , in an attempt to get the film an R rating , prepared different versions of scenes involving sex and violence , Heavy Traffic was rated X. However , due to the success of Fritz the Cat , many theaters were willing to book adult @-@ oriented animation , and the film did well at the box office . Bakshi became the first person in the animation industry since Walt Disney to have two financially successful movies released consecutively . Heavy Traffic was very well received by critics . Newsweek applauded its " black humor , powerful grotesquerie and peculiar raw beauty . " The Hollywood Reporter called it " shocking , outrageous , offensive , sometimes incoherent , occasionally unintelligent . However , it is also an authentic work of movie art and Bakshi is certainly the most creative American animator since Disney . " Vincent Canby of The New York Times ranked Heavy Traffic among his " Ten Best Films of 1973 " . Upon release , the movie was banned by the Film Censorship Board in the province of Alberta , Canada .
= = = Coonskin ( 1973 – 1975 ) = = =
In 1973 , Bakshi and Ruddy began the production of Harlem Nights , which Paramount was originally contracted to distribute . While Fritz the Cat and Heavy Traffic proved that adult @-@ oriented animation could be financially successful , animated films were still not respected , and Bakshi 's pictures were considered to be " dirty Disney flicks " that were " mature " only for depicting sex , drugs and profanity . Harlem Nights , based on Bakshi 's firsthand experiences with racism , was an attack on racist prejudices and stereotypes . Bakshi cast Scatman Crothers , Philip Michael Thomas , Barry White and Charles Gordone in live @-@ action and voice roles , cutting in and out of animation abruptly rather than seamlessly because he wanted to prove that the two mediums could " coexist with neither excuse nor apology " . He wrote a song for Crothers to sing during the opening title sequence : " Ah 'm a Niggerman " . Its structure was rooted in the history of the slave plantation : slaves would " shout " lines from poems and stories great distances across fields in unison , creating a natural beat . Bakshi has described its vocal style , backed by fast guitar licks , as an " early version of rap " .
Bakshi intended to attack stereotypes by portraying them directly , culling imagery from blackface iconography . Early designs in which the main characters ( Brother Rabbit , Brother Bear and Preacher Fox ) resembled figures from The Wind in the Willows were rejected . Bakshi juxtaposed stereotypical designs of blacks with even more negative depictions of white racists , but the film 's strongest criticism is directed at the Mafia . Bakshi said , " I was sick of all the hero worship these guys got because of The Godfather . " Production concluded in 1973 . During editing , the title was changed to Coonskin No More ... , and finally to Coonskin . Bakshi hired several African American animators to work on Coonskin , including Brenda Banks , the first African American female animator . Bakshi also hired graffiti artists and trained them to work as animators . The film 's release was delayed by protests from the Congress of Racial Equality , which called Bakshi and his film racist . After its distribution was contracted to the Bryanston Distributing Company , Paramount canceled a project that Bakshi and Ruddy were developing , The American Chronicles .
Coonskin , advertised as an exploitation film , was given limited distribution and soon disappeared from theaters . Initial reviews were negative ; Playboy commented that " Bakshi seems to throw in a little of everything and he can 't quite pull it together . " Eventually , positive reviews appeared in The Hollywood Reporter , New York Amsterdam News ( an African American newspaper ) and elsewhere . The New York Times ' Richard Eder said the film " could be [ Bakshi 's ] masterpiece [ ... ] a shattering successful effort to use an uncommon form — cartoons and live action combined to convey the hallucinatory violence and frustration of American city life , specifically black city life [ ... ] lyrically violent , yet in no way [ does it ] exploit violence " . Variety called it a " brutal satire from the streets " . A reviewer for the Los Angeles Herald @-@ Examiner wrote , " Certainly , it will outrage some and , indeed , it 's not Disney . [ ... ] The dialog it has obviously generated — if not the box office obstacles — seems joltingly healthy . " Bakshi called Coonskin his best film .
= = = Hey Good Lookin ' ( 1973 – 1975 / 1982 ) = = =
After production concluded on Harlem Nights , Bakshi wanted to distinguish himself artistically by producing a film in which live action and animated characters would interact . Bakshi said , " The illusion I attempted to create was that of a completely live @-@ action film . Making it work almost drove us crazy . " Hey Good Lookin ' is set in Brooklyn during the 1950s ; its lead characters are Vinnie , the leader of a gang named " The Stompers " , his friend Crazy Shapiro and their girlfriends , Roz and Eva . Vinnie and Crazy Shapiro were based on Bakshi 's high school friends Norman Darrer and Allen Schechterman . Warner Bros. optioned the screenplay and greenlit the film in 1973 .
An initial version of Hey Good Lookin ' was completed in 1975 . A three @-@ minute promo of this version was screened at the 1975 Cannes Film Festival , and the film was scheduled for a Christmas 1975 release , but was moved to the summers of 1976 and later 1977 , before ultimately being postponed indefinitely . Warner Bros. was concerned about any controversy the film would encounter as a result of the backlash over the film Coonskin , and felt that the film was " unreleasable " because of its mix of live action and animation , and it would not spend further money on the project . Bakshi financed the film 's completion himself from the director 's fees for other projects such as Wizards , The Lord of the Rings and American Pop . The live @-@ action sequences of Hey Good Lookin ' were gradually replaced by animation ; among the eliminated live @-@ action sequences was one featuring the glam punk band New York Dolls . Singer Dan Hicks worked on the initial musical score , but the final version was scored by John Madara .
Hey Good Lookin ' opened in New York City on October 1 , 1982 , and was released in Los Angeles in January 1983 . The film 's release was limited , and went largely unnoticed in the United States , although it garnered respectable business in foreign markets . In a brief review , Vincent Canby wrote that it was " not exactly incoherent , but whatever it originally had on its mind seems to have slipped away " . Animation historian Jerry Beck wrote , " the beginning of the film is quite promising , with a garbage can discussing life on the streets with some garbage . This is an example of what Bakshi did best — using the medium of animation to comment on society . Unfortunately , he doesn 't do it enough in this film . There is a wildly imaginative fantasy sequence during the climax , when the character named Crazy starts hallucinating during a rooftop shooting spree . This scene almost justifies the whole film . But otherwise , this is a rehash of ideas better explored in Coonskin , Heavy Traffic , and Fritz the Cat . " The film has since gained a cult following through cable television and home video . Quentin Tarantino stated that he preferred Hey Good Lookin ' to Martin Scorsese 's Mean Streets .
= = = Shift to fantasy film ( 1976 – 1978 ) = = =
In 1976 , Bakshi pitched War Wizards to 20th Century Fox . Returning to the fantasy drawings he had created in high school for inspiration , Bakshi intended to prove that he could produce a " family picture " that had the same impact as his adult @-@ oriented films . British illustrator Ian Miller and comic book artist Mike Ploog were hired to contribute backgrounds and designs . The crew included Vita , Turek , Sparey , Vitello and Spence , who had become comfortable with Bakshi 's limited storyboarding and lack of pencil tests . As the production costs increased , Fox president Alan Ladd , Jr. declined Bakshi 's requests for salary increases , and refused to give him $ 50 @,@ 000 to complete the film . At the same time , Ladd was dealing with similar budget problems on George Lucas 's Star Wars . Bakshi and Lucas had negotiated contracts entitling them to franchise ownership , merchandising and back @-@ end payment , so Ladd suggested that they fund the completion of their films themselves .
Bakshi chose rotoscoping as a cost @-@ effective way to complete the movie 's battle scenes with his own finances . Because he could not afford to hire a film crew or actors , or develop 35mm stock , Bakshi requested prints of films that contained the type of large battle scenes needed , including Sergei Eisenstein 's Alexander Nevsky , and spliced together the footage he needed . However , the cost of printing photographs of each frame would have cost $ 3 million . Learning that IBM had introduced an industrial @-@ sized photocopier , Bakshi asked one of the company 's technical experts if he would be able to feed 35mm reels into the machine to produce enlarged copies of each frame . The experiment worked , and Bakshi got the pages he needed for a penny per copy .
As War Wizards neared completion , Lucas requested that Bakshi change the title of his film to Wizards to avoid conflict with Star Wars ; Bakshi agreed because Lucas had allowed Mark Hamill to take time off from Star Wars to record a voice for Wizards . Although Wizards received a limited release , it was successful in the theaters that showed it and developed a worldwide audience . Dave Kehr of The Chicago Reader saw it as " marred by cut @-@ rate techniques and a shapeless screenplay " . In the view of film historian Jerry Beck , the lead character , an aging sorcerer , " clearly owes much to cartoonist Vaughn Bodé 's Cheech Wizard character . [ ... ] The film has a few interesting moments , particularly in a series of still illustrations by Marvel comic artist Mike Ploog , but is perhaps most notable as a turning point , not necessarily a positive one , in Bakshi 's film career . "
In late 1976 , Bakshi learned that John Boorman was contracted to direct an adaptation of The Lord of the Rings , in which J. R. R. Tolkien 's three @-@ volume novel would be condensed into a single film . Bakshi arranged a meeting with Mike Medavoy , United Artists ' head of production , who agreed to let Bakshi direct in exchange for the $ 3 million that had been spent on Boorman 's screenplay . Down the hall from Medavoy was Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer president Dan Melnick , who interrupted a meeting with Peter Bogdanovich when he learned that Bakshi wanted to discuss acquiring the rights to The Lord of the Rings . Melnick agreed to pay United Artists $ 3 million , but was soon fired ; the project was canceled by his replacement , Dick Shepherd . Bakshi contacted Saul Zaentz , who wrote a check to cover MGM 's debt and agreed to fund the $ 8 million budget for the first of what was initially planned as a series of three films , and later negotiated down to two . Before production began , Bakshi and Zaentz insisted that the Tolkien estate receive residuals from the film .
Bakshi did not want to produce a broad cartoon version of the tale , so he planned to shoot the entire film in live action and animate the footage with rotoscoping . The film also incorporated brief cel animation and straightforward live @-@ action footage . Production of the live @-@ action sequences took place in Spain . During the middle of a large shoot , union bosses called for a lunch break , and Bakshi secretly shot footage of actors in Orc costumes moving toward the craft service table , and used the footage in the film . Jerry Beck later wrote that , while he found the rotoscoped animation " beautiful " , he felt that it was unclear whether the use of live action was an artistic choice or due to budgetary constraints .
After the Spanish film development lab discovered that telephone lines , helicopters and cars were visible in the footage , they tried to incinerate it , telling Bakshi 's first assistant director , " if that kind of sloppy cinematography got out , no one from Hollywood would ever come back to Spain to shoot again . " When Bakshi returned to the United States , he learned that the cost of developing blown @-@ up prints of each frame had risen . He did not want to repeat the process that had been used on Wizards , which was unsuitable for the level of detail he intended for The Lord of the Rings , so Bakshi and camera technician Ted Bemiller created their own photographic enlarger to process the footage cheaply . Live @-@ action special effects and analog optics were used in place of animation to keep the visual effects budget low and give the film a more realistic look . Among the voice actors was the well @-@ regarded John Hurt , who performed the role of Aragorn . The project 's high profile brought heavy trade journal coverage , and fans such as Mick Jagger visited the studio for the chance to play a role . Animator Carl Bell loved drawing Aragorn so much that Bakshi gave Bell the live @-@ action costume , which he wore while animating .
Viewing The Lord of the Rings as a holiday film , United Artists pressured Bakshi to complete it on schedule for its intended November 15 , 1978 , release . Once it was finished , Bakshi was told that audiences would not pay to see an incomplete story ; over his objections , The Lord of the Rings was marketed with no indication that a second part would follow . Reviews of the film were mixed , but it was generally seen as a " flawed but inspired interpretation " . Newsday 's Joseph Gelmis wrote that " the film 's principal reward is a visual experience unlike anything that other animated features are doing at the moment " . Roger Ebert called Bakshi 's effort a " mixed blessing " and " an entirely respectable , occasionally impressive job [ which ] still falls far short of the charm and sweep of the original story " . Vincent Canby found it " both numbing and impressive " . David Denby of New York felt that the film would not make sense to viewers who had not read the book . He wrote that it was too dark and lacked humor , concluding , " The lurid , meaningless violence of this movie left me exhausted and sickened by the end . " The film , which cost $ 4 million to produce , grossed $ 30 @.@ 5 million . The studio refused to fund the sequel , which would have adapted the remainder of the story . The Lord of the Rings won the Golden Gryphon at the 1980 Giffoni Film Festival .
= = = American Pop and Fire and Ice ( 1979 – 1983 ) = = =
Following the production struggles of The Lord of the Rings , Bakshi decided to work on something more personal . He pitched American Pop to Columbia Pictures president Dan Melnick . Bakshi wanted to produce a film in which songs would be given a new context in juxtaposition to the visuals . American Pop follows four generations of a Russian Jewish immigrant family of musicians , whose careers parallel the history of American pop and starred actor Ron Thompson in a dual lead role . While the film does not reflect Bakshi 's own experiences , its themes were strongly influenced by people he had encountered in Brownsville . The film 's crew included character layout and design artist Louise Zingarelli , Vita , Barry E. Jackson , and Marcia Adams . Bakshi again used rotoscoping , in an attempt to capture the range of emotions and movement required for the film 's story . According to Bakshi , " Rotoscoping is terrible for subtleties , so it was tough to get facial performances to match the stage ones . " Bakshi was able to acquire the rights to an extensive soundtrack — including songs by Janis Joplin , The Doors , George Gershwin , The Mamas & the Papas , Herbie Hancock , Lou Reed , and Louis Prima — for under $ 1 million . Released on February 12 , 1981 , the film was a financial success . The New York Times ' Vincent Canby wrote , " I 'm amazed at the success that Mr. Bakshi has in turning animated characters into figures of real feelings . " Jerry Beck called it " one of Bakshi 's best films " . Due to music clearance issues , it was not released on home video until 1998 .
By 1982 , fantasy films such as The Beastmaster and Conan the Barbarian had proven successful at the box office , and Bakshi wanted to work with his long @-@ time friend , the fantasy illustrator Frank Frazetta . Fire and Ice was financed by some of American Pop 's investors for $ 1 @.@ 2 million , while 20th Century Fox agreed to distribute . Fire and Ice was the most action @-@ oriented story Bakshi had directed , so he again used rotoscoping ; the realism of the design and rotoscoped animation replicated Frazetta 's artwork . Bakshi and Frazetta were heavily involved in the production of the live @-@ action sequences , from casting sessions to the final shoot . The film 's crew included background artists James Gurney and Thomas Kinkade , layout artist Peter Chung , and established Bakshi Productions artists Sparey , Steve Gordon , Bell and Banks . Chung greatly admired Bakshi 's and Frazetta 's work , and animated his sequences while working for The Walt Disney Company . The film was given a limited release , and was financially unsuccessful . Andrew Leal wrote , " The plot is standard [ ... ] recalling nothing so much as a more graphic episode of Filmation 's He @-@ Man series . [ ... ] Fire and Ice essentially stands as a footnote to the spate of barbarian films that followed in the wake of Arnold Schwarzenegger 's appearance as Conan . "
= = = Unproduced projects and temporary retirement ( 1983 – 1986 ) = = =
After production of Fire and Ice wrapped , Bakshi attempted several projects that fell through , including adaptations of Hunter S. Thompson 's Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas , William Kotzwinkle 's The Fan Man , Eric Rücker Eddison 's The Worm Ouroboros , Stephen Crane 's Maggie : A Girl of the Streets , Mickey Spillane 's Mike Hammer novels and an anthropomorphic depiction of Sherlock Holmes . He turned down offers to direct Ray Bradbury 's Something Wicked This Way Comes and Philip K. Dick 's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep ? He passed the latter to Ridley Scott , who adapted it into the 1982 film Blade Runner .
During this period , Bakshi reread J. D. Salinger 's The Catcher in the Rye , which he had first read in high school , and saw parallels between his situation and that of the book 's protagonist , Holden Caulfield . Inspired to seek the film rights , he intended to shoot the story 's bracketing sequences in live action and to animate the core flashback scenes . Salinger had rejected previous offers to adapt the novel , and had not made a public appearance since 1965 or granted an interview since 1980 . Bakshi sent Salinger a letter explaining why he should be allowed to adapt the novel ; the writer responded by thanking Bakshi and asserting that the novel was unfit for any medium other than its original form .
Prompted in part by Salinger 's letter , Bakshi briefly retired to focus on painting . During this time he completed the screenplay for If I Catch Her , I 'll Kill Her , a live @-@ action feature he had been developing since the late 1960s . United Artists and Paramount Pictures each paid Bakshi to develop the film in the 1970s , but were unwilling to produce it , as were the studios he pitched the film to in the 1980s . According to Bakshi , " They thought that no one was going to admit that women can — and do — cheat on their husbands . They thought it was too hot , which made no sense . " In 1985 , he received a phone call from The Rolling Stones ' manager , Tony King , who told Bakshi that the band had recorded a cover of Bob & Earl 's " Harlem Shuffle " , and wanted Bakshi to direct the music video . He was told that the live @-@ action shoot needed to be completed within one day ( January 28 , 1986 ) for it to be shown at the Grammy Awards . Production designer Wolf Kroeger was forced to drastically compact his sets , and animation director and designer John Kricfalusi had to push his team , including Lynne Naylor , Jim Smith and Bob Jaques , to complete the animation within a few weeks . The band 's arrival at the set was delayed by a snowstorm and several takes were ruined when the cameras crossed paths . Bakshi was forced to pay the union wages out of his own fees , and the continuity between Kricfalusi 's animation and the live @-@ action footage did not match ; however , the video was completed on time .
Bakshi recognized Kricfalusi 's talent , and wanted to put him in charge of a project that would showcase the young animator 's skills . Bakshi and Kricfalusi co @-@ wrote the screenplay Bobby 's Girl as a take on the teen films of the era . Jeff Sagansky , president of production at TriStar Pictures , put up $ 150 @,@ 000 to develop the project , prompting Bakshi to move back to Los Angeles . When Sagansky left TriStar , Bakshi was forced to pitch the film again , but the studio 's new executives did not understand its appeal and cut off financing . Bakshi and Zingarelli began to develop a feature about Hollywood 's Golden Age , and Bakshi Productions crewmembers worked on proposed cartoons influenced by pulp fiction . Bobby 's Girl was reworked as a potential prime time series called Suzy 's in Love , but attracted no serious interest .
= = = Return to television ( 1987 – 1989 ) = = =
In April 1987 , Bakshi set up a meeting with Judy Price , the head of CBS 's Saturday morning block . Three days before the meeting , Bakshi , Kricfalusi , Naylor , Tom Minton , Eddie Fitzgerald and Jim Reardon met to brainstorm . Bakshi remembers , " My car was packed to the windows . Judy was my last stop before driving cross country back to New York to my family . " Price rejected Bakshi 's prepared pitches , but asked what else he had . He told her that he had the rights to Mighty Mouse , and she agreed to purchase the series . However , Bakshi did not own the rights and did not know who did . While researching the rights , he learned that CBS had acquired the entire Terrytoons library in 1955 and forgotten about it . According to Bakshi , " I sold them a show they already owned , so they just gave me the rights for nothin ' ! "
Kricfalusi 's team wrote story outlines for thirteen episodes in a week and pitched them to Price . By the next week , Kricfalusi had hired animators he knew who had been working at other studios . Mighty Mouse : The New Adventures went into production the month it was greenlighted ; it was scheduled to premiere on September 19 , 1987 . This haste required the crew to be split into four teams , led by supervising director Kricfalusi , Fitzgerald , Steve Gordon and Bruce Woodside . Each team was given a handful of episodes , and operated almost entirely independently of the others . Although the scripts required approval by CBS executives , Kricfalusi insisted that the artists add visual gags as they drew . Bruce Timm , Andrew Stanton , Dave Marshall and Jeff Pidgeon were among the artists who worked on the series . Despite the time constraints , CBS was pleased with the way Bakshi Productions addressed the network 's notes .
During the production of the episode " The Littlest Tramp " , editor Tom Klein expressed concern that a sequence showing Mighty Mouse sniffing the remains of a crushed flower resembled cocaine use . Bakshi did not initially view the footage ; he believed that Klein was overreacting , but agreed to let him cut the scene . Kricfalusi expressed disbelief over the cut , insisting that the action was harmless and that the sequence should be restored . Following Kricfalusi 's advice , Bakshi told Klein to restore the scene , which had been approved by network executives and the CBS standards and practices department . The episode aired on October 31 , 1987 , without controversy .
In 1988 , Bakshi received an Annie Award for " Distinguished Contribution to the Art of Animation " . The same year , he began production on a series pilot loosely adapted from his Junktown comic strips . According to Bakshi , the proposed series " was going to be a revitalization of cartoon style from the ' 20s and ' 30s . It was gonna have Duke Ellington and Fats Waller jazzing up the soundtrack . " Nickelodeon was initially willing to greenlight 39 episodes of Junktown .
On June 6 , 1988 , Donald Wildmon , head of the American Family Association ( AFA ) , alleged that " The Littlest Tramp " depicted cocaine use , instigating a media frenzy . The AFA , during its incarnation as the National Federation for Decency , had previously targeted CBS as an " accessory to murder " after a mother killed her daughter following an airing of Exorcist II : The Heretic . Concerning Bakshi 's involvement with Mighty Mouse : The New Adventures , the AFA claimed that CBS " intentionally hired a known pornographer to do a cartoon for children , and then allowed him to insert a scene in which the cartoon hero is shown sniffing cocaine . " Bakshi responded , " You could pick a still out of Lady and the Tramp and get the same impression . Fritz the Cat wasn 't pornography . It was social commentary . This all smacks of burning books and the Third Reich . It smacks of McCarthyism . I 'm not going to get into who sniffs what . This is lunacy ! " On CBS 's order , Klein removed the sequence from the master broadcast footage . Wildmon claimed that the edits were " a de facto admission that , indeed , Mighty Mouse was snorting cocaine " . Despite receiving an award from Action for Children 's Television , favorable reviews , and a ranking in Time magazine 's " Best of ' 87 " feature , Mighty Mouse : The New Adventures was canceled by CBS following the controversy .
The incident had a ripple effect , weakening Nickelodeon 's commitment to Junktown . Bakshi has also stated that " we were trying something different [ ... ] but a series didn 't make sense . It just didn 't work " . The series was scrapped , and the completed pilot aired as a special , Christmas in Tattertown , in December 1988 . It was the first original animated special created for Nickelodeon . Bakshi moved into a warehouse loft in downtown Los Angeles to clear his head , and was offered $ 50 @,@ 000 to direct a half @-@ hour live @-@ action film for PBS 's Imagining America anthology series . Mark Bakshi produced the film , This Ain 't Bebop , his first professional collaboration with his father . Bakshi wrote a poem influenced by Jack Kerouac , jazz , the Beat Generation and Brooklyn that served as the narration , which was spoken by Harvey Keitel . After a car crash , Bakshi completed the post @-@ production in stitches and casts . Bakshi said of the work , " It 's the most proud I 've been of a picture since Coonskin — the last real thing I did with total integrity . "
As a result of the film , Bakshi received an offer to adapt Dr. Seuss 's The Butter Battle Book for TNT . Ted Geisel had never been satisfied with the previous screen versions of his Dr. Seuss work . Bakshi wanted to produce an entirely faithful adaptation , and Geisel — who agreed to storyboard the special himself — was pleased with the final product . Bakshi next directed the pilot Hound Town for NBC ; he described the result as " an embarrassing piece of shit " .
= = = Return to film , continued television projects and retirement ( 1990 – 1997 ) = = =
In 1990 , Bakshi pitched Cool World to Paramount Pictures as a partially animated horror film . The concept involved a cartoon and human having sex and conceiving a hybrid child who visits the real world to murder the father who abandoned him . The live @-@ action footage was intended to look like " a living , walk @-@ through painting " , a visual concept Bakshi had long wanted to achieve . Massive sets were constructed on a sound stage in Las Vegas , based on enlargements of designer Barry Jackson 's paintings . The animation was strongly influenced by the house styles of Fleischer Studios and Terrytoons . As the sets were being built , producer Frank Mancuso , Jr . , son of Paramount president Frank Mancuso , Sr. , had the screenplay rewritten in secret ; the new version , by Michael Grais and Mark Victor , was radically different from Bakshi 's original . Paramount threatened to sue Bakshi if he did not complete the film . As Bakshi and Mancuso wrangled over their creative differences , Bakshi and the studio also began to fight over the film 's casting . To keep actor Brad Pitt , Bakshi had to replace Drew Barrymore , his original choice for the character of Holli Would , with Kim Basinger , a bigger box office draw at the time . The film 's animators were never given a screenplay , and were instead told by Bakshi , " Do a scene that 's funny , whatever you want to do ! "
Designer Milton Knight recalled that " audiences actually wanted a wilder , raunchier Cool World . The premiere audience I saw it with certainly did . " The critical reaction to the film was generally negative . Roger Ebert wrote , " The DJ who was hosting the radio station 's free preview of Cool World leaped onto the stage and promised the audience : ' If you liked Roger Rabbit , you 'll love Cool World ! ' He was wrong , but you can 't blame him — he hadn 't seen the movie . I have , and I will now promise you that if you liked Roger Rabbit , quit while you 're ahead . " The film was a box @-@ office disappointment . While other film projects followed , Bakshi began to focus more attention on painting .
In 1993 , Lou Arkoff , the son of Samuel Z. Arkoff , approached Bakshi to write and direct a low @-@ budget live @-@ action feature for Showtime 's Rebel Highway series . For the third time , Bakshi revisited his screenplay for If I Catch Her , I 'll Kill Her , which he retitled Cool and the Crazy . The picture , which aired September 16 , 1994 , starred Jared Leto , Alicia Silverstone , Jennifer Blanc and Matthew Flint . Reviewer Todd Everett noted that it had the same " hyperdrive visual sense " of Bakshi 's animated films . He said , " Everything in ' Cool ' [ ... ] seems to exist in pastels and Bakshi shoots from more odd angles than any director since Sidney J. Furie in his heyday . And the closing sequences ably demonstrate how it 's possible to present strong violence without any blood being shed onscreen . Bakshi pulls strong [ performances ] from a cadre of youngish and largely unknown actors " .
In 1995 , Hanna @-@ Barbera producer Fred Seibert offered Bakshi the chance to create two animated short films for Cartoon Network 's What a Cartoon ! : Malcom and Melvin and Babe , He Calls Me , focusing on a trumpet @-@ playing cockroach named Malcom and his best friend , a clown named Melvin . Both were heavily edited after Bakshi turned them in and he disowned them as a result . Bakshi was subsequently contacted by HBO , which was looking to launch the first animated series specifically for adults , an interest stirred by discussions involving a series based upon Trey Parker and Matt Stone 's video Christmas card , Jesus vs. Santa . Bakshi enlisted a team of writers , including his son Preston , to develop Spicy Detective , later renamed Spicy City , an anthology series set in a noir @-@ ish , technology @-@ driven future . Each episode was narrated by a female host named Raven , voiced by Michelle Phillips . The series premiered in July 1997 — one month before the debut of Parker and Stone 's South Park — and thus became the first " adults only " cartoon series . Although critical reaction was largely unfavorable , Spicy City received acceptable ratings . A second season was approved , but the network wanted to fire Bakshi 's writing team and hire professional Los Angeles screenwriters . When Bakshi refused to cooperate , the series was canceled .
= = = Painting , teaching and new animation projects ( 2000 – 2013 ) = = =
Bakshi retired from animation once more , returning to his painting . In 2000 , he began teaching an undergraduate animation class at New York 's School of Visual Arts . In December 14 , 2001 , he did some paintings for the Cameron Crowe film Vanilla Sky . He later became involved in several screen projects , including a development deal with the Sci Fi Channel , In September 2002 , Bakshi , Liz and their dogs moved to New Mexico , where he became more productive than ever in his painting and began development on the Last Days of Coney Island film . In 2003 , he appeared as the Fire Chief in the episode " Fire Dogs 2 " of John Kricfalusi 's Ren & Stimpy " Adult Party Cartoon " ..
In September 2008 , Main Street Pictures announced that it would collaborate with Bakshi on a sequel to Wizards . In 2012 , Bakshi began producing the short film series Bakshi Blues . The first of these shorts , Trickle Dickle Down , contains reused animation from Coonskin and criticizes Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney . The shorts will focus on " old and new characters " and will comment on modern @-@ day America .
= = = Last Days of Coney Island ( 2013 – present ) = = =
In February 2013 , Bakshi launched a successful Kickstarter campaign to obtain funding for his latest film Last Days of Coney Island .
Actor Matthew Modine was cast in the film in February 2013 after Modine , a longtime Bakshi fan , came across the film 's Kickstarter campaign online .
LDOCI was released on Vimeo in 2015 .
= = Legacy = =
In 2003 , Bakshi received a Maverick Tribute Award at the Cinequest San Jose Film Festival . The same year , he began teaching an animaton class in New Mexico - this became The Bakshi School of Animation and Cartooning , which is run by Ralph 's son Edward and his partner Jess Gorell . The availability of Bakshi 's work on the Internet sparked a resurgence of interest in his career , resulting in a three @-@ day American Cinematheque retrospective held at Grauman 's Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood and the Aero Theater in Santa Monica , California , in April 2005 . Unfiltered : The Complete Ralph Bakshi , a hardcover book of Bakshi 's art , was released on April 1 , 2008 . The foreword was written by Quentin Tarantino and the afterword by Bakshi .
The Online Film Critics Society released a list of the " Top 100 Animated Features of All Time " in March 2003 that included four of Bakshi 's films : Fritz the Cat , The Lord of the Rings , Coonskin and Fire and Ice . Fritz the Cat was ranked number 56 in the 2004 poll conducted by Britain 's Channel 4 for its documentary The 100 Greatest Cartoons . The Museum of Modern Art has added Bakshi 's films to its collection for preservation .
After attending a Quentin Tarantino FilmFest in April 1999 where Coonskin was screened , Ain 't It Cool News head writer Harry Knowles wrote that American Pop was still his favorite Ralph Bakshi film .
Gore Verbinski commented about Ralph Bakshi and showed that he was inspired by him during an interview in The Hollywood Reporter for his first animated movie , Rango . Saying , " What happened to the Ralph Bakshis of the world ? We 're all sitting here talking family entertainment . Does animation have to be family entertainment ? Audiences want something new ; they just can 't articulate what . "
On January 12 , 2014 at The Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood , there was a special screening of Bakshi 's film American Pop with actors Ron Thompson and Mews Small in attendance , it was the first time lead actor Ron Thompson had ever introduced the film before a live audience .
At the Aero Theatre in Santa Monica , California on March 27 , 2015 , there was a screening of Heavy Traffic and American Pop with Ralph Bakshi , Ron Thompson and Mews Small attending .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Television = = =
^ I Selected episodes ^ II Provided the voices of Connelly and Goldblum in the episode " Sex Drive " , and Stevie in the episode " Mano 's Hands " ^ III Provided the voice of the Super Hero ^ IV Animated in conjunction with Doug Compton ^ V Provided the voice of Fire Chief in the episode " Fire Dogs 2 "
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= George Ripley ( transcendentalist ) =
George Ripley ( October 3 , 1802 – July 4 , 1880 ) was an American social reformer , Unitarian minister , and journalist associated with Transcendentalism . He was the founder of the short @-@ lived Utopian community Brook Farm in West Roxbury , Massachusetts .
Born in Greenfield , Massachusetts , George Ripley was pushed to attend Harvard College by his father and completed his studies in 1823 . He went on graduate from the Harvard Divinity School and the next year married Sophia Dana . Shortly after , he became ordained as the minister of the Purchase Street Church in Boston , Massachusetts , where he began to question traditional Unitarian beliefs . He became one of the founding members of the Transcendental Club and hosted its first official meeting in his home . Shortly after , he resigned from the church to put Transcendental beliefs in practice by founding an experimental commune called Brook Farm . The community later converted to a model based on the work of Charles Fourier , although the community was never financially stable in either format .
After Brook Farm 's failure , Ripley was hired by Horace Greeley at the New York Tribune . He also published the New American Cyclopaedia , which made him financially successful . He built a national reputation as an arbiter of taste and literature before his death in 1880 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Ripley 's ancestors had lived in Hingham , Massachusetts for 140 years before Jerome Ripley moved his family to Greenfield , a town in the western part of the state , in 1789 . He was moderately successful as the owner of a general store and tavern and was a prominent member of the community . His son George Ripley was born in Greenfield on October 3 , 1802 , the ninth child in the family .
George Ripley 's early life was heavily influenced by women . His nearest brother was thirteen years older than he was and he was raised primarily by his conservative mother , who was distantly related to Benjamin Franklin , and his sisters . He was sent to a private academy run by a Mr. Huntington in Hadley , Massachusetts to prepare for college . Before going to college , he spent three months in Lincoln with Ezra Ripley , a distant relative who was also the stepfather of Ralph Waldo Emerson . Although Ripley wanted to attend the religiously conservative Yale University , his Unitarian father pushed him to attend Harvard College , then known as a hotbed of liberal Unitarianism . Ripley was a good and dedicated student , although he was not popular with students because of his trust of the establishment . Early in his time at Harvard , he had sided with the administration during a student @-@ led protest against poor food , and his attempts at reconciling the two sides prompted ridicule from his peers . Ripley , seeking a socially useful role , found work as a teacher in Fitchburg during winter vacation of his senior year . He graduated in 1823 .
During his time at the school , Ripley became disenchanted with his father and his home town , admitting " no particular attachment to Greenfield " . He hoped to enroll at Andover but his father convinced him to stay in Cambridge to attend Harvard Divinity School . There , he was influenced by Levi Frisbie , Professor of Natural Religion , who was largely interested in moral philosophy , which he termed " the science of the principles and obligations of duty " . Ripley was becoming very interested in more " liberal " religious views , what he wrote to his mother as " so simple , scriptural , and reasonable " . He graduated in 1826 . A year later , on August 22 , 1827 , he married Sophia Dana , a fact which he originally kept a secret from his parents . He asked his sister Marianne to inform them shortly after .
= = = Early career = = =
Ripley officially became a minister at Boston 's Purchase Street Church on November 8 , 1826 , and became influential in the developing the Unitarian religion . Thest ten years of his tenure there were quiet and uneventful , until March 1836 , when Ripley published a long article titled " Schleiermacher as a Theologian " in the Christian Examiner . In it , Ripley praised Schleiermacher 's attempt to create a " religion of the heart " based on intuition and personal communion with God . Later that year , he published a review of British theologian James Martineau 's The Rationale of Religious Enquiry in the same publication . In the review , Ripley charged Unitarian church elders with religious intolerance because they forced the literal acceptance of miracles as a requirement for membership in their church . Andrews Norton , a leading theologian of the day , responded publicly and insisted that disbelief in miracles ultimately denied the truth of Christianity . Norton , formerly Ripley 's teacher at the Divinity School , had been labeled by many as the " hard @-@ headed Unitarian Pope " , and began his public battle with Ripley in the Boston Daily Advertiser on November 5 , 1836 , in an open letter charging Ripley with academic and professional incompetence . Ripley contended that to insist upon the reality of miracles was to demand material proof of spiritual matters , and that faith needed no such external confirmation ; but Norton and the mainstream of Unitarianism found this tantamount to heresy . This dispute laid the groundwork for the separation of a more extreme Transcendentalism from its liberal Unitarian roots . The debate between Norton and Ripley , which earned allies on both sides , continued until 1840 .
= = = Transcendental Club = = =
Ripley met with Ralph Waldo Emerson , Frederic Henry Hedge , and George Putnam in Cambridge , Massachusetts on September 8 , 1836 , to discuss the formation of a new club . Ten days later , on September 18 , 1836 , Ripley hosted their first official meeting at his house . The group at this first meeting of what would become known as the " Transcendental Club " included Bronson Alcott , Orestes Brownson , James Freeman Clarke , and Convers Francis as well as Hedge , Emerson , and Ripley . Future members would include Henry David Thoreau , William Henry Channing , Christopher Pearse Cranch , Sylvester Judd , and Jones Very . Female members included Sophia Ripley , Margaret Fuller , and Elizabeth Peabody . The group planned its meetings for times when Hedge was visiting from Bangor , Maine , leading to the early nickname " Hedge 's Club " . The name Transcendental Club was given to the group by the public and not by its participants . Hedge wrote : " There was no club in the strict sense ... only occasional meetings of like @-@ minded men and women " , earning the nickname " the brotherhood of the ' Like @-@ Minded ' " . Beginning in 1839 , Ripley edited Specimens of Foreign Standard Literature : fourteen volumes of translations meant to demonstrate the breadth of Transcendental thoughts .
= = = Separation from church = = =
Amid the Panic of 1837 , many began to criticize social institutions . That year , Ripley gave a sermon titled " The Temptations of the Times " , suggesting that the major problem in the country was " the inordinate pursuit , the extravagant worship of wealth " . Ripley had been asked by church proprietors to avoid controversial topics in his sermons . He said , " Unless a minister is expected to speak out on all subjects which are uppermost in his mind , with no fear of incurring the charge of heresy or compromising the interests of his congregation , he can never do justice to himself , to his people , or the truth which he is bound to declare " . In May 1840 , he offered his resignation from the Purchase Street Church but was convinced to stay . He soon decided he should leave the ministry altogether and , on October 3 , 1840 , he read a 7 @,@ 300 @-@ word lecture , Letter Addressed to the Congregational Church in Purchase Street , expressing his dissatisfaction with Unitarianism .
Because of his experience with the Specimens translations , Ripley was chosen to be the managing editor of the Transcendental publication The Dial at its inception , working alongside its first editor Margaret Fuller . In addition to overseeing distribution , subscriptions , printing , and finances , Ripley also contributed essays and reviews . In October 1841 , he resigned his post with The Dial as he prepared for an experiment in communal living . As he told Emerson , although he was happy seeing all the Transcendental thoughts in print , he could not be truly happy " without the attempt to realize them " .
= = = Brook Farm = = =
In the late 1830s Ripley became increasingly engaged in " Associationism " , an early Fourierist socialist movement . In October 1840 he announced to the Transcendental Club his plan to form an Associationist community based on Fourier 's Utopian plans . His goals were lofty . As he wrote , " If wisely executed , it will be a light over this country and this age . If not the sunrise , it will be the morning star . "
Ripley and his wife formed a joint stock company in 1841 along with 10 other initial investors . Shares of the company were sold for $ 500 apiece with a promise of five percent of the profits to each investor . The founding membership of the original community included Nathaniel Hawthorne . They chose the Ellis Farm in West Roxbury , Massachusetts as the site of their experiment , which they named Brook Farm . Its 170 acres ( 0 @.@ 69 km2 ) were about eight miles ( 13 km ) from Boston ; a pamphlet described the land as a " place of great natural beauty , combining a convenient nearness to the city with a degree of retirement and freedom from unfavorable influences unusual even in the country " . The land , however , turned out to be difficult to farm and the community struggled with financial difficulties as it built greenhouses and craft shops .
Brook Farm was initially based mostly on the ideals of Transcendentalism ; its founders believed that by pooling labor they could sustain the community and still have time for literary and scientific pursuits . The experiment meant to serve as an example for the rest of the world , established on the principles of " industry without drudgery , and true equality without its vulgarity " . Many in the community wrote of how much they enjoyed their experience . One participant , a man named John Codman , joined the community at the age of 27 in 1843 . He wrote , " It was for the meanest a life above humdrum , and for the greatest something far , infinitely far beyond . They looked into the gates of life and saw beyond charming visions , and hopes springing up for all " . In their free time , the members of Brook Farm enjoyed music , dancing , card games , drama , costume parties , sledding , and skating . Hawthorne , eventually elected treasurer of the community , did not enjoy his experience . He wrote to his wife @-@ to @-@ be Sophia Peabody , " labor is the curse of the world , and nobody can meddle with it without becoming proportionately brutified " .
Many outside the community were also critical , especially in the press . The New York Observer , for example , suggested that , " The Associationists , under the pretense of a desire to promote order and morals , design to overthrow the marriage institution , and in the place of the divine law , to substitute the ' passions ' as the proper regulator of the intercourse of the sexes " , concluding that they were " secretly and industriously aiming to destroy the foundation of society " .
In 1844 , the community , perpetually struggling financially , drafted an entirely new constitution and committed to following more closely the Fourierist model . Not everyone at the community supported the transition , and many left . Many were disappointed that the new , more structured daily routine de @-@ emphasized the carefree leisure time that had been a trademark . Ripley himself became a celebrity proponent of Fourierism and organized conventions throughout New England to discuss the community .
By May 1846 , troubled by the financial difficulties at Brook Farm , Ripley had made an informal split from the community . By its closure a year later , Brook Farm had amassed a total debt of $ 17 @,@ 445 . Ripley was devastated at the failure of his experiment and told a friend , " I can now understand how a man would feel if he could attend his own funeral " . His personal life was also taxed . His wife had converted to Catholicism in 1846 , encouraged by Orestes Brownson , and had become doubtful of his Associationist politics ; the Ripleys ' relationship became strained by the 1850s .
= = = Writing = = =
After Brook Farm , George Ripley began to work as a freelance journalist . In 1849 he was employed by Horace Greeley at the New York Tribune , taking the role left vacant by Margaret Fuller . Greeley had been a proponent of Brook Farm 's conversion to Fourierism . Ripley started his role with the Tribune at $ 12 a week and , at this wage , was not able to pay off the debt of Brook Farm until 1862 . As a critic , he believed in high moral standards for literature but offered good @-@ natured praise in the majority of his reviews . Greeley took advantage of Ripley 's cheerful style of writing to boost circulation amid significant competition . Ripley wrote a " Gotham Gossip " column and many articles discussing local personalities and notable public events , including speeches by Henry Clay and Frederick Douglass . He stayed away from philosophy of theology , despite some efforts to persuade him to write on the subject . As he told a friend , he had " long since lost ... immediate interest in that line of speculation " .
Ripley then edited Harper 's Magazine . Together with Bayard Taylor he compiled a Handbook of Literature and the Fine Arts ( 1852 ) .
With Charles A. Dana , he edited the 16 volume The New American Cyclopaedia ( 1857 – 1863 ) , reissued as The American Cyclopaedia ( 1873 – 1876 ) . It sold in the millions and its immediate earnings amounted to over $ 100 @,@ 000 .
He also continued his critical work and in 1860 reviewed On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin . He was one of the few contemporary critics to be sympathetic to Darwin , although he was reluctant to show he was convinced of the theories .
= = = Later years = = =
In 1861 Sophia Ripley died . George Ripley remarried , to Louisa Sclossberger , in 1865 , and was a part of the Gilded Age New York literary scene for the remainder of his life . Because of his convivial nature , he was careful to avoid the city 's rampant literary feuds at the time . He became a public figure with a national reputation and , known as an arbiter of taste , he helped establish the National Institute of Literature , Art , and Science in 1869 . In his later years , he began suffering frequent illnesses , including a bout with influenza in 1875 which prevented him from traveling to Germany . He also suffered from gout and rheumatism .
Ripley was found dead at his desk on July 4 , 1880 , slumped over his work . Pallbearers at his funeral included Frederick Augustus Porter Barnard , George William Curtis , and Whitelaw Reid . At the time of his death , Ripley had become financially successful ; the New American Cyclopaedia had earned him royalties of nearly $ 1 @.@ 5 million . The biography of George Ripley ( 1882 ) was written by Octavius Brooks Frothingham .
= = Critical assessment = =
Ripley built a wide reputation as a critic . Contemporary publications rated him as one of the most important critics of the day , including the Hartford Courant , the Springfield Republican , the New York Evening Gazette , and the Chicago Daily Tribune . Henry Theodore Tuckerman commended Ripley as " a scholar and an aesthetic as well as technical critic : [ he ] knows public taste and the laws of literature " .
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= Battle of Svolder =
The Battle of Svolder ( Svold , Swold ) was a naval battle fought in September 999 or 1000 in the western Baltic Sea between King Olaf Tryggvason of Norway and an alliance of his enemies . The backdrop of the battle was the unification of Norway into a single state , long @-@ standing Danish efforts to gain control of the country , and the spread of Christianity in Scandinavia .
King Olaf was sailing home after an expedition to Wendland ( Pomerania ) , when he was ambushed by an alliance of Svein Forkbeard , King of Denmark , Olof Skötkonung ( also known as Olaf Eiríksson ) , King of Sweden , and Eirik Hákonarson , Jarl of Lade . Olaf had only 11 warships in the battle against a fleet of at least 70 . His ships were captured one by one , last of all the Ormen Lange , which Jarl Eirik captured as Olaf threw himself into the sea . After the battle , Norway was ruled by the Jarls of Lade as a fief of Denmark and Sweden .
The exact location of the battle is disputed , and depends on which group of sources is preferred : it is only Icelandic sources that place it near a place called Svolder , while Adam of Bremen places it in Øresund .
The most detailed sources on the battle , the kings ' sagas , were written approximately two centuries after it took place . Historically unreliable , they offer an extended literary account describing the battle and the events leading up to it in vivid detail . The sagas ascribe the causes of the battle to Olaf Tryggvason 's ill @-@ fated marriage proposal to Sigrid the Haughty and his problematic marriage to Thyri , sister of Svein Forkbeard . As the battle starts Olaf is shown dismissing the Danish and Swedish fleets with ethnic insults and bravado while admitting that Eirik Hákonarson and his men are dangerous because " they are Norwegians like us " . The best known episode in the battle is the breaking of Einarr Þambarskelfir 's bow , which heralds Olaf 's defeat .
In later centuries , the saga descriptions of the battle , especially that in Snorri Sturluson 's Heimskringla , have inspired a number of ballads and other works of literature .
= = Context = =
In earliest recorded history , Norway was divided into a number of small and sometimes warring petty kingdoms with weak central authority . In traditional historiography the rise of Harald Fairhair in the 9th century started the process of unification of the country and the consolidation of royal power . Harald 's descendants , and other claimants to the throne , had to contend with strong regional leaders such as the Jarls of Lade in the north and the rulers of Vingulmark in the east , while the kings of Denmark claimed regions in the south and were eager to acquire Norwegian vassals to increase their influence . The spread of Christianity also became an increasingly important political issue in the late 10th century .
In the 970s , Haakon Sigurdsson , Jarl of Lade , became the most powerful man in Norway , at first supported by Harald Bluetooth of Denmark and paying tribute to him — though the two later fell out over religious matters . Harald had converted to Christianity and was eager to Christianise Norway , while Haakon remained a staunch pagan . In 995 Haakon was deposed and the young Christian leader Olaf Tryggvason came to the throne .
While rejecting Danish authority , Olaf made it his mission to convert Norway and the Norse colonies in the west as quickly and as completely as possible . Proceeding with threats , torture and executions , Olaf broke down pagan resistance and within a few years Norway was , at least nominally , a Christian country . But King Olaf had acquired several enemies during his meteoric rise to power . The most prominent were Eirik Jarl , son of Haakon Jarl , and Svein Forkbeard , king of Denmark , both of whom felt that Olaf had deprived them of their share of Norway .
The same interests which clashed in the Battle of Svolder were to divide Norway for decades to come , leading to further major engagements , including the Battle of Nesjar and the Battle of Stiklestad . The resolution came in 1035 with the accession of the Norwegian Magnus the Good to the throne of an independent and Christian Norway .
= = Events leading up to the battle = =
Nothing can be gleaned from the contemporary skaldic poems on the causes of the battle . Adam of Bremen states that Olaf Tryggvason 's Danish wife , Thyri , egged him on to make war against Denmark . When Olaf heard that Svein Forkbeard and Olaf the Swede had formed an alliance , he was angered and decided the time had come for an attack . Ágrip and Historia Norwegie have a similar account . Thyri was the sister of Svein Forkbeard , and when Olaf Tryggvason married her , Svein refused to pay her promised dowry . Angered , Olaf launched an expedition to attack Denmark , but he was too impatient to wait for a fleet to assemble from all of Norway , and he set sail for the south with only 11 ships , expecting the rest to follow . When that hope was not realized , he set out for Wendland ( Pomerania ) to seek allies and on the way was ambushed by Svein and his allies . These accounts are contradicted by a contemporary verse of Halldórr the Unchristian which states that Olaf Tryggvason was travelling from the south when he came to the battle .
Oddr Snorrason has an elaborate account of the problems arising from Thyri 's marriages . He tells us that she was betrothed and married to the Wendish king Burislav , who received a large dowry for her ; but she did not want to be his wife and starved herself after their wedding , so Burislav sent her back to Denmark . She then arranged to have herself married to Olaf Tryggvason , to the displeasure of her brother Svein . Svein 's queen , Sigrid the Haughty , a staunch opponent of Olaf , egged Svein to make war on him . Svein then conspired with Jarl Sigvaldi and King Olaf of Sweden to lure Olaf Tryggvason into a trap . Olaf Tryggvason travelled to Wendland to collect Thyri 's dowry from King Burislav and while there heard rumours of a planned ambush ; but Sigvaldi arrived to tell him these rumours were false . Believing Sigvaldi , Olaf sent most of his fleet home , as his men were impatient . He therefore had only a small fleet left when he was ambushed near Svolder .
Fagrskinna and Heimskringla largely follow Oddr 's account but simplify it and diverge from it in some respects . According to Heimskringla , Sigvaldi sailed from Wendland with Olaf and a fleet of Wendish ships and led him into the ambush .
Whether the above details are accurate or not , it is clear that Svein , Olaf the Swede and Eirik had ample reason to oppose Olaf Tryggvason . Olaf had taken control of Viken in south Norway , an area long under Danish overlordship . Olaf and Svein had been in England together , but Olaf had made peace while Svein kept campaigning . Svein was on friendly terms with Olaf the Swede and connected to him by marriage , so the two were natural allies . Finally , Jarl Eirik had been driven from his patrimony by Olaf Tryggvason , as arguably had his father , Jarl Hakon , whom he may have wished to avenge .
From the conflicting accounts of the sources , historians have tried to reconstruct the most likely sequence of events leading up to the battle . It is probable that Olaf Tryggvason was indeed sailing from Wendland to Norway when he was ambushed , though the kings ' sagas probably play up the importance of Thyri and her marriages . While it is possible that Olaf was collecting dowry , it seems more probable that he was expecting war and seeking allies in Wendland , but met with little success . The character of Sigvaldi remains enigmatic , though there is evidence from skaldic poetry that he did indeed betray Olaf .
= = Time and location = =
All sources which date the battle agree that it took place in 1000 . The oldest source to date it is the meticulous Íslendingabók , written around 1128 , which specifies that it took place in the summer . Oddr Snorrason says further that the battle is " memorialized for the fallen men on the Third or Fourth Ides of September " , ( 10 or 11 September ) . Mesta states that the battle occurred on 9 September , and other sources agree with either date . Since some medieval writers reckoned the end of the year in September , it is possible that the year referred to is in fact the one we know as 999 .
The location of the battle cannot be identified with any certainty . According to Adam of Bremen , it took place in Oresund . Ágrip and Historia Norwegie also place it off Zealand . Theodoricus says it took place " beside the island which is called Svöldr ; and it lies near Slavia " . Fagrskinna speaks of " an island off the coast of Vinðland ... [ t ] his island is called Svölðr . " Oddr Snorrason and Heimskringla agree on the island 's name but do not specify its location . A stanza by Skúli Þórsteinsson speaks of " the mouth of Svolder " , suggesting that Svolder was originally the name of a river which Norse unfamiliarity with Wendish geography turned into an island . The Danish Annales Ryenses are unique in placing the battle in the Schlei . Modern historians are divided , some locating the confrontation near the German island of Rügen while others prefer Oresund .
= = Composition of the fleets = =
The Norse sources agree that Olaf Tryggvason fought against overwhelming odds in the battle . Fagrskinna , for example , says that he had " only a small force " , and that the sea around him was " carpeted with warships " The sources which specify the number of warships all agree that Olaf Tryggvason had 11 vessels but they give various numbers for the allied fleets .
Though the sagas agree that Olaf Tryggvason had only 11 ships in the battle , some of them quote a verse by Halldórr the Unchristian saying that Olaf had 71 ships when he sailed from the south . The sagas explain the discrepancy by saying that some of the 71 ships belonged to Jarl Sigvaldi , who deserted Olaf , and that others sailed past the trap at Svolder before it was sprung .
The sagas describe three of the ships in Olaf Tryggvason 's fleet . According to Heimskringla , the Crane was a large swift @-@ sailing warship with thirty rowers ' benches , high in stem and stern . It was commissioned by King Olaf and used as his flagship for some time .
Olaf confiscated the second of his great ships from a pagan he had tortured to death for refusing to convert to Christianity . King Olaf " steered it himself , because it was a much larger and finer ship than the Crane . Its stem had a dragon 's head on it , and on its stern , a crook shaped like a tail ; and both sides of the neck and all the stern were gilded . That ship the king called the Serpent , because when the sail was hoisted it was to look like the wing of a dragon . That was the finest ship in all Norway . "
Olaf 's third flagship , the Long Serpent , was a legendary vessel mentioned in several anecdotes in the sagas .
It was constructed as a dragon ship , on the model of the Serpent which the king had taken along from Hálogaland ; only it was much larger and more carefully wrought in all respects . He called it the Long Serpent and the other one , the Short Serpent . The Long Serpent had thirty @-@ four compartments . The head and the tail were all gilt . And the gunwales were as high as those on a seagoing ship . This was the best ship ever built in Norway , and the most costly .
The only allied ship described is Jarl Eirik 's Iron Ram . According to Fagrskinna it was " the biggest of all ships " . Heimskringla gives more detail :
Earl Eirík owned a mighty big ship which he was accustomed to take on his viking expeditions . It had a beak [ or ram ] on the upper part of the prow , fore and aft , and below that heavy iron plates as broad as the beak itself , which went down to the waterline .
= = The leaders assess their opponents = =
It is unlikely that the saga writers had accurate information on details of the battle beyond the sparse accounts in the surviving poems . Nevertheless , starting with Oddr Snorrason , they present an elaborate literary account , depicting the main participants through their words and deeds .
Olaf Tryggvason 's ships pass the anchorage of his allied enemies in a long column without order , as no attack is expected . Conveniently placed to observe the fleet , Jarl Eirik and the two kings remark upon the passing vessels . Svein and Olaf are eager to join battle , but Eirik is portrayed as more cautious and familiar with the Norwegian forces .
As progressively larger vessels appear , the Danes and Swedes think each one is the Long Serpent and want to attack straight away , but Eirik holds them off with informed comments :
It is not King Olaf on this ship . I know this ship because I have seen it often . It is owned by Erlingr Skjálgsson from Jaðarr , and it is better to attack this ship from the stern . It is manned with such fellows that , should we encounter King Olaf Tryggvason , we will quickly learn that it would be better for us to find a gap in his fleet than to do battle with this longship .
As Eirik finally consents to attack , King Svein boasts that he will command the Long Serpent " before the sun sets " . Eirik makes a remark " so that few men heard him " saying that " with only the Danish army at his disposal , King Sveinn would never command this ship " . As the allies set out to attack Olaf Tryggvason , the point of view shifts to the Norwegian fleet .
After spotting the enemy , Olaf might have used sail and oar to outrun the ambush and escape , but he refuses to flee and turns to give battle with the eleven ships immediately about him . Seeing the Danish fleet arrayed against him , he comments : " The forest goats will not overcome us , for the Danes have the courage of goats . We will not fear that force because the Danes have never carried off the victory if they fought on ships . " Similarly , Olaf writes off the Swedes with a reference to their pagan customs :
The Swedes will have an easier and more pleasant time licking out their sacrificial bowls than boarding the Long Serpent in the face of our weapons and succeeding in clearing our ships . I expect that we will not need to fear the horse eaters .
It is only when Olaf Tryggvason sights Eirik Hákonarson 's contingent that he realises he is in for a hard battle , because " they are Norwegians like us " . The sagas ' emphasis of Eirik 's contribution stands in marked contrast to the Danish accounts of Adam of Bremen and Saxo Grammaticus , who portray the battle as a Danish victory over Norwegians , with no mention of Jarl Eirik or his men .
= = The battle is joined = =
The disposition adopted in the battle was one which recurs in many sea @-@ fights of the Middle Ages where a fleet had to fight on the defensive . Olaf lashed his ships side to side , with his own , the Long Serpent , in the middle of the line , where her bows projected beyond the others . The advantages of this arrangement were that it left all hands free to fight , that a barrier could be formed with the oars and yards , and that it limited the enemy 's ability to make its superior numbers count . The Long Serpent was the longest ship and so also the tallest — another advantage to the defenders , who could rain down arrows , javelins and other missiles while the enemy would have to shoot upwards . Olaf , in effect , turned his eleven ships into a floating fort .
The sagas give all the credit to the Norwegians , praising Eirik Hákonarson for any intelligence and for most of the valour shown by Olaf Tryggvason 's opponents . The Danes and Swedes rush at the front of Olaf 's line and are repulsed , suffering heavy casualties and loss of ships . Jarl Eirik attacks the flank and forces his vessel , the Iron Ram , up against the last ship of Olaf 's line , which he clears with a fierce attack and then proceeds onto the next ship . In this way , Olaf 's ships were cleared one by one , till the Long Serpent alone was left .
= = Einarr Þambarskelfir = =
One of the best known episodes from the battle involves Einarr Þambarskelfir , an archer in King Olaf 's fleet who later became a cunning politician . Heimskringla describes his attempt at killing Jarl Eirik and saving the day for Olaf :
Einar shot an arrow at Earl Eirik , which hit the tiller end just above the earl 's head so hard that it entered the wood up to the arrow @-@ shaft . The earl looked that way , and asked if they knew who had shot ; and at the same moment another arrow flew between his hand and his side , and into the stuffing of the chief 's stool , so that the barb stood far out on the other side . Then said the earl to a man called Fin , -- but some say he was of Fin ( Laplander ) race , and was a superior archer , -- " Shoot that tall man by the mast . " Fin shot ; and the arrow hit the middle of Einar 's bow just at the moment that Einar was drawing it , and the bow was split in two parts .
" What is that " , cried King Olaf , " that broke with such a noise ? "
" Norway , king , from thy hands , " cried Einar .
" No ! not quite so much as that , " says the king ; " take my bow , and shoot , " flinging the bow to him .
Einarr took the bow , and drew it over the head of the arrow . " Too weak , too weak , " said he , " for the bow of a mighty king ! " and , throwing the bow aside , he took sword and shield , and fought valiantly .
The same story is found in Gesta Danorum , though there Einarr is aiming at Svein , rather than Eirik .
= = King Olaf 's death = =
At last , the Long Serpent is overpowered and Olaf Tryggvason defeated . The Danish sources report that when all was lost he committed suicide by throwing himself into the sea , " the end befitting his life " , according to Adam of Bremen . Saxo Grammaticus says that Olaf preferred suicide to death at the hands of the enemy and jumped overboard in full armour rather than see his foes victorious . The Norwegian and Icelandic accounts are more complex and more favourable to Olaf . Hallfreðr 's memorial poem for his lord had already alluded to rumours that Olaf escaped death at Svolder . The sagas offer a variety of possibilities . Ágrip reports :
" But of the fall of King Óláfr nothing was known . It was seen that as the fighting lessened he stood , still alive , on the high @-@ deck astern on the Long Serpent , which had thirty @-@ two rowing places . But when Eiríkr went to the stern of the ship in search of the king , a light flashed before him as though it were lightning , and when the light disappeared , the king himself was gone . "
Other sagas suggest that one way or another Olaf made his way to the shore ; perhaps by swimming , perhaps with the help of angels , most likely rescued by one of the Wendish ships present . After his escape , Olaf supposedly sought salvation for his soul abroad , perhaps joining a monastery . Mesta describes a series of " sightings " of him in the Holy Land , the last in the 1040s .
King Olaf , like Charlemagne , Frederick Barbarossa and Sebastian of Portugal , is one of those legendary heroic figures whose return was looked for by the people , their deaths never completely accepted . ( See King in the mountain . )
= = Aftermath = =
After the Battle of Svolder , the victorious leaders split Norway into areas of control . Heimskringla gives the most detailed account of the division , describing it as threefold . Olaf the Swede received four districts in Trondheim as well as Møre , Romsdal and Rånrike . He gave these to Jarl Svein Hákonarson , his son in law , to hold as a vassal . Svein Forkbeard gained possession of the Viken district , where Danish influence had long been strong . The rest of Norway was ruled by Eirik Hákonarson as Svein 's vassal . Fagrskinna , in contrast , says that the Swedish part consisted of Oppland and a part of Trondheim . Other sources are less specific .
The Jarls Eirik and Svein proved strong , competent rulers , and their reign was prosperous . Most sources say that they adopted Christianity but allowed the people religious freedom , leading to a backlash against Christianity which undid much of Olaf Tryggvason 's missionary work .
= = Legacy = =
Several factors combined to make the Battle of Svolder one of the most famous battles of the Viking Age . In Norwegian @-@ Icelandic historiography , King Olaf Tryggvason was held in high regard as the man who brought Christianity to the North . His colourful end in a battle against overwhelming odds therefore makes a fitting narrative . Jarl Eirik 's court poets also ensured their lord a fair share of the glory . Mesta says :
The battle is acknowledged to have been for many reasons the most famous that was ever fought in Northern lands . For , first there was the noble defence made by King Olaf and his men on board the Long Serpent . No instance is known where men have defended themselves so long and so valiantly against such overwhelming numbers of foes as they had to encounter . Then there was the fierce attack made by Earl Eric and his men , which has been held in wide renown . ... The battle was very famous too , on account of the great slaughter , and the Earl 's success in clearing a ship that up to that time was the largest built and the fairest in Norway ; of which shipmen said that it would never , while floating on the sea , be won with arms in the face of such heroes as manned it .
In Iceland , where the kings ' sagas continued to be copied and studied , the battle exercised the imagination of several poets . A 15th century rímur cycle , Svöldrar rímur , chronicles the battle in verse , largely following the account of Oddr Snorrason . Two more rímur cycles on the same topic were composed in the 18th century , one of which is preserved . In the 19th century , the popular poet Sigurður Breiðfjörð composed yet another rímur cycle on the battle , based on the account in Mesta .
With the 19th century rise of nationalism and romanticism and the growing number of translations of the sagas , interest in the battle of Svolder increased outside of Iceland . Around 1830 , the Faroese poet Jens Christian Djurhuus composed a ballad on the battle titled Ormurin langi , following Snorri 's account . The ballad was well received and remains among the most popular and well @-@ known Faroese ballads . In 2002 , a heavy metal version by the band Týr gained some following abroad .
In Norway , Johan Nordahl Brun 's rousing patriotic play Einar Tambarskjelve , written in 1772 , is considered a milestone in Norwegian literature . Later Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson wrote a well @-@ known short poem , Olav Trygvason , on the fall of the king . Bjørnson also collaborated with Edvard Grieg on an opera about Olaf Tryggvason , but the two fell out before the work was finished . Ragnar Søderlind has now completed the opera , which premiered in September 2000 , 1000 years after the Battle of Svolder . Søderlind introduced fate motifs from Wagner , Beethoven and Liszt in the battle scene .
The battle has also inspired art outside of Scandinavia , including a manga volume by the Japanese artist Ryō Azumi . The best known English @-@ language work is probably Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 's cycle " The Saga of King Olaf " ( from his 1863 collection of poems Tales of a Wayside Inn ) , much of which is dedicated to the Battle of Svolder , and which includes the verse :
Louder the war @-@ horns growl and snarl ,
Sharper the dragons bite and sting !
Eric the son of Hakon Jarl
A death @-@ drink salt as the sea
Pledges to thee ,
Olaf the King !
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= Charles Blackader =
Major @-@ General Charles Guinand Blackader , CB , DSO ( 20 September 1869 – 2 April 1921 ) was a British Army officer of the First World War . He commanded an Indian brigade on the Western Front in 1915 , and a Territorial brigade in Dublin during the Easter Rising of 1916 , before being appointed to command the 38th ( Welsh ) Division on the Western Front , a position he held until retiring due to ill @-@ health in May 1918 .
Originally joining the Army in 1888 as a junior officer in the Leicestershire Regiment , Blackader 's first active posting was in the late 1890s , when he served on attachment to the West African Frontier Force , closely followed by service during the Boer War , where he commanded a company at the defence of Ladysmith . An efficient and well @-@ regarded administrator , he commanded a series of detached stations in addition to his regimental duties for the next ten years , eventually rising to take command of the 2nd Battalion , Leicestershire Regiment , in 1912 . On the outbreak of the First World War , he commanded his battalion on the Western Front as part of an Indian Army formation ; when his superior officer was promoted in early 1915 , Blackader succeeded him as commander of the brigade , and led it through the Battle of Neuve Chapelle and the Battle of Loos .
After the Indian Army was withdrawn from France , Blackader was posted to a second @-@ line Territorial Force brigade training in the United Kingdom . In 1916 , it was sent to Dublin during the Easter Rising ; following the Rising , Blackader presided over a number of the resulting courts @-@ martial , including those of several of the signatories to the Proclamation of the Irish Republic . Later that year , he was ordered to France to take over command of the 38th ( Welsh ) Division , a New Army formation which had suffered heavy losses in the Battle of the Somme . He remained with the division for almost two years , helping retrain and reorganise it as an efficient fighting unit . The division would see significant successes in the Hundred Days Offensive of late 1918 , but by this point Blackader was no longer in command ; he had been invalided home earlier in the year . He died shortly after the war , in 1921 , aged 51 .
= = Early life = =
Charles Guinand Blackader was born in Richmond , Surrey on 20 September 1869 . His father , Charles George Blackader , was a teacher to a small number of boarding pupils ; he had come from an Army family , and taught at Cheltenham College and Clifton College , Bristol , before moving to private tuition . His mother , Charlotte Guinand , was born in Germany ; her family may have come from Alsace @-@ Lorraine , as Blackader would later describe himself as half @-@ French . During his childhood , the Blackaders moved from Richmond to Southampton , where his father headed the education department at the Hartley Institute , and then to Boulogne , where he taught at Beaurepaire School .
Returning from France in 1887 , Blackader studied at the Royal Military College , Sandhurst , where he was regarded as a generally promising pupil ; his marks were highest in administrative and academic subjects , but lower in drawing and physical education . He left Sandhurst in August 1888 , and joined the 1st Battalion , Leicestershire Regiment , as a second lieutenant . The battalion sailed for a posting in Bermuda two weeks after his arrival ; his departure was delayed , however , by remaining in London to marry . The ceremony took place on 2 October , at a registry office in Marylebone , and his biographer notes that it was " clearly in haste " - their first child was born six and a half months after the wedding . Such an early wedding was very unusual for a junior officer at this period ; on average , army officers did not marry until their mid @-@ thirties .
Blackader and his wife spent a year and a half in Bermuda , where their daughter Dorothy was born in April 1889 , and moved to Nova Scotia when the battalion was transferred there in 1890 ; shortly after arrival , on 21 March , he was promoted to lieutenant on 21 March . Their second daughter Joan was born in April 1892 , and a year later the battalion transferred again , this time to the West Indies ; Blackader was appointed adjutant - the officer responsible for administration - to one wing of the battalion , a force of three companies stationed at Jamaica . In late 1895 , the battalion moved to South Africa , but shortly after arrival Blackader returned to England ; he was promoted to captain on 6 December .
= = West Africa and the Boer War = =
In late 1897 , Blackader was seconded for service in West Africa , as one of the officers recruited by Frederick Lugard for the newly raised West African Frontier Force . Blackader was attached to the 1st Battalion , under Thomas Pilcher , who described him as always " cheery and anxious to do his work " ; he threw himself fully into the organisation of the force , and within six months of his arrival the battalion was able to be deployed successfully on operations against local slave @-@ traders . This was Blackader 's first active service , and saw his first mention in despatches ; it also saw an early appearance of his skill for administration and management , which would mark much of his later career .
He left West Africa in January 1899 , after a successful posting , but in ill @-@ health ; a third of the officers sent with him had died while on secondment , and Blackader had contracted malaria as well as suffering an attack of dysentery . He spent six months on leave to recover , and then sailed to take command of a company of the 1st Leicesters , still stationed in South Africa .
Blackader joined his company in Natal in early October 1899 . It saw action with the battalion within a few days of the outbreak of the Second Boer War , at the Battle of Talana Hill on 20 October , and again at the Battle of Ladysmith on the 30th . Boer forces surrounded Ladysmith after the battle , and began a four @-@ month siege .
The battalion remained in the town , with the monotony broken by an occasional skirmish with the besiegers , until the relief column arrived at the end of February . Following the advance into Natal , they were stationed in Middelburg in October , for a second prolonged period of garrison duty broken by occasional raids in the Transvaal . The battalion 's area of responsibility was extended in April 1901 to take in Witbank , and Blackader was appointed commandant of the railway station and its associated collieries , with over 1 @,@ 500 staff .
Following the battalion 's move up the railway line in July , Blackader was transferred to a new post at Balmoral ; as well as the railway station , he was made responsible for a civilian concentration camp outside the town . These camps were frequently crowded , unhealthy , and badly supplied ; few reports have survived on the Balmoral camp , however , and it is not clear how efficient or otherwise Blackader 's administration was .
Blackader had applied for a home posting in December 1900 , as adjutant to a battalion of volunteers ; this had been approved in August 1901 , subject to his being released from duties in South Africa . However , the transfer was delayed , and he did not leave for home until June 1902 , when he sailed on board the SS Bavarian with troops returning for the Coronation of Edward VII . He had been twice mentioned in despatches during the war , received the Queen 's South Africa Medal , and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) .
= = Home service and India = =
In August 1902 , Blackader took up his appointment as adjutant of the 1st Volunteer Battalion , Leicestershire Regiment , where he would spend the next two years . This was primarily an administrative post - he was the senior regular officer attached to the battalion , and responsible for its organisation and training . At the end of his tenure he was promoted to major in September 1904 , and left for India a few months later to join the regular 1st Battalion . Shortly after his arrival , he was appointed to command the cantonment at the Purandhar Sanatorium , his fourth administrative posting in five years . He returned to England with the battalion at the end of 1906 , when it moved into camp at Shorncliffe .
In the summer of 1907 , he applied to become Chief Constable of Leicester - a move which would have meant leaving the Army - but did not succeed ; the job went to John Hall @-@ Dalwood , a lawyer and ex @-@ Army officer who had made a career in the police . He settled into the undemanding life of a home posting , with an active social as well as sporting calendar ; he and Edward Challenor , a fellow officer in the battalion , won the garrison tennis cup two years running , and Blackader was recorded to have made a good showing at sports as diverse as billiards and soccer . Blackader had passed the exams for " tactical fitness for command " of a battalion in 1908 , and was given command of a battalion and promoted to lieutenant colonel in September 1912 .
= = First World War = =
In August 1914 , on the outbreak of the First World War , Blackader was in India , commanding the 2nd Battalion of the Leicesters , which was mobilised for service as part of the 20th ( Garhwal ) Brigade of the 7th ( Meerut ) Division . The division was sent to France as part of Indian Expeditionary Force A , seeing its first action in the trenches on 29 October . On 19 December a force under Blackader 's command staged a successful attack on the German trenches , though the attack was overshadowed by the beginning of the German attack on Givenchy the following day , through which the Leicesters remained in reserve .
= = = Garhwal Brigade = = =
Brigadier Keary , commanding the Garhwals , was promoted to command the Lahore Division in January 1915 , and on 8 January Blackader was given the temporary rank of Brigadier @-@ General , assuming command of the Garhwal Brigade in his stead . The Garhwals led the first wave of the Indian Corps ' attack at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle on 10 March , Three of the attacking battalions reached their objectives , but one was delayed by strong resistance ; after clearing the last German trenches , the brigade halted to let the second wave pass through . In the attack , two men were awarded the Victoria Cross , and nine the Indian Order of Merit , and Blackader was commended by his corps commander , General Willcocks , who wrote that " I had learned to respect him and to trust in his judgement . The manner in which he handled his brigade at Neuve Chapelle was good to see , and his report ... is written as brave and modest men write " . His force had taken heavy losses , however ; the trailing battalion on the flank , the 2 / 39th Garhwal Rifles , lost over half its men and all its officers .
The brigade repulsed a heavy attack on the morning of 12 March , but settled into a relatively static position thereafter . On 9 May , the Garhwal Brigade was used as a second wave in the first attacks of the Battle of Aubers Ridge , without success ; they saw action again on the night of 15 May , where the leading battalions met heavy resistance and Blackader was forced to call off the attack .
After Aubers Ridge , the corps was then rested in a quiet sector until September , when it deployed for the Battle of Loos . The initial attack was to be made by three divisions , with the Meerut Division leading the attack on the Indian front ; Blackader 's brigade , with two Gurkha battalions and the 2nd Leicesters , was on its right flank . Whilst the attack successfully crossed no @-@ man 's land under cover of the barrage , the right flank of the brigade was caught up in defensive wire , and only one battalion successfully made their way into the German trenches ; the brigade lost momentum and dug in .
The Indian Corps was withdrawn after Loos , and as a result this was Blackader 's last major action in command of Indian troops ; by the end of November , the Meerut Division had left France .
= = = Ireland = = =
He was transferred to command of the 177th ( 2 / 1st Lincoln and Leicester ) Brigade , part of the 59th ( 2nd North Midland ) Division in January 1916 . The 59th was a second @-@ line Territorial Force division , formed from those Territorials and new volunteers who had not volunteered for overseas service . As a result , it was generally undermanned and underequipped , with priority given to equipping its first @-@ line counterpart , and tasked mostly with home defence duties . The 177th Brigade had been formed as the duplicate of the 138th ( Lincoln and Leicester ) Brigade , with two second @-@ line battalions of the Lincolnshire Regiment and two of the Leicestershire Regiment .
The 59th Division was rushed to Ireland in response to the Easter Rising of April 1916 , where Blackader 's new brigade saw its first active service . Following the Rising , many of those believed by the British authorities to be responsible were tried by military courts ; ninety were sentenced to death , of whom fifteen were eventually executed . Blackader , as a senior officer , chaired a number of courts @-@ martial , including those of Éamonn Ceannt , Thomas Clarke , Thomas MacDonagh , Patrick Pearse , and Joseph Plunkett , five of the seven signatories to the Proclamation of the Irish Republic . It appears that Blackader found this task difficult ; after Pearse 's trial , he is reported to have commented that " I have just done one of the hardest tasks I have ever had to do . I have had to condemn to death one of the finest characters I have ever come across . There must be something very wrong in the state of things that makes a man like that a rebel . I don 't wonder that his pupils adored him . "
= = = 38th ( Welsh ) Division = = =
On 21 June , Blackader was ordered to leave the brigade and go to France ; he described the news of the unexpected posting as " like a bombshell " . On 9 July , when the Ivor Philipps was removed from command of 38th ( Welsh ) Division , due to the failure of its hitherto limited attacks against Mametz Wood during the early stages of the Battle of the Somme as well as the poor communication between the division and Corps headquarters , Blackader was named as the preferred replacement by Henry Horne , the Corps commander . Horne was overruled , and the command was temporarily given to Herbert Watts . Under Watts , the division successfully took its objective , Mametz Wood , though with severe losses ; within a week , Watts was back in command of 7th Division and Blackader had taken permanent command .
The division had been raised in the New Armies in 1914 with a strong sense of Liberal patronage , and many of its officers had been personally appointed by Lloyd George ; as a result , political convenience had often taken priority over military competence when selecting officers . Under Blackader , a new officer from outside the Welsh Liberal milieu and able to sack his subordinates as he saw fit , the division 's standard improved significantly . It saw service at Pilckem Ridge in the early stages of the Third Battle of Ypres , but from September 1917 onwards it was kept on relatively quiet defensive sectors . The division trained through this period , and in April 1918 was able to mount a limited brigade @-@ size attack , which whilst it involved heavy losses was a clear success in a way that would not have been possible two years earlier .
In late May 1918 , Blackader was relieved of command and replaced by Thomas Cubitt , a younger officer . This was not apparently due to incompetence or age – Douglas Haig had described Blackader 's achievements with 38th Division as " excellent " – but due to illness ; according to Gary Sheffield , he had fallen ill after " being licked by a rabid dog " . Under Cubitt 's command , the 38th Division would build on its past training and fight through the Hundred Days Offensive with great success . In November 1918 , Blackader was appointed to command the Southern District in Ireland .
For his service in the war , he was appointed an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the King in 1916 , and made a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1917 . He was also made a Commander of the Belgian Order of Leopold , and awarded both the Belgian and French Croix de Guerre .
Blackader died , of liver cancer and heart failure on 2 April 1921 , at Queen Alexandra 's Military Hospital , Millbank , London , survived by his wife and two daughters , and leaving a small estate of just under £ 450 . There is a memorial to him in the regimental chapel in Leicester Cathedral . On 1 March 2013 , as a result of research into the circumstances of his death by the In From The Cold Project , he was accepted for commemoration by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission in their United Kingdom Book of Remembrance , until June when his grave had been belatedly found at Putney Vale Cemetery ( Section K ) .
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= Secrets of Rætikon =
Secrets of Rætikon is an action @-@ adventure , open world video game developed and published by Broken Rules . The player controls a bird and must explore the environment of Rætikon to find its secrets . Game elements include animals with specific behaviors and ancient puzzles . Development began in 2011 and the game was formally announced in July 2013 and followed by alpha and Steam Early Access releases . Rætikon was released on April 17 , 2014 for Windows , OS X , and Linux platforms . It received mixed reviews from reviewers , who praised its artwork and movement physics , but criticized its inconsistency , lack of cohesion , and technical issues .
= = Gameplay = =
Secrets of Rætikon is a single @-@ player , story @-@ driven , open world sandbox action @-@ adventure video game . The player @-@ character takes form of a bird . The player controls the bird with three buttons : one that flaps its wings , another that takes items into the bird 's beak , and another that makes bird sounds . While the game can be played through keyboard and mouse , the developers instead recommend a controller .
The objective is to fly through the Rætikon environment to find its titular secrets , namely by collecting relics to power an ancient device . The environment is split into themed levels such as swamp , lagoon , mountaintops , and forests . Glowing are shards dispersed throughout each level , which can be collected and redeemed at an altar within each themed level for a glowing relic . These relics can be returned to where the player started the game to power a mysterious , ancient device . The player @-@ character carries the relics past aggressive enemies and treacherous environment , and completes puzzles of reconstructing animal statues from its pieces to access new levels . Each level features different animals and contain environmental objects that player can interact with .
= = Development = =
Rætikon was first announced in July 2013 , though its development began in 2011 . The game 's Viennese developer and publisher , Broken Rules Games , had previously worked on the 2012 Wii U game Chasing Aurora , which itself was based on a multiplayer prototype for Rætikon . The game is partly based on an Alps region culture conquered by the Roman Empire . Its visuals were inspired by dream @-@ like flying sensations . In an effort to increase the game 's replay value , the developers emphasized its artificial intelligence , physics , and interactive qualities , including animal @-@ specific behaviors and strippable plant foliage .
Broken Rules released an alpha version of the game in October 2013 . Around the same time , they announced an Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign in lieu of searching for a publisher . The game later entered Steam Early Access . Rætikon was released on April 17 , 2014 for Windows , OS X , and Linux platforms via Steam , the Mac App Store , and the Humble Store . The Steam edition of the game supports Steam Workshop with a level editor for users to build and share original content .
= = Reception = =
The game received " mixed or average reviews " , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers praised the game 's artwork and movement physics , but criticized its lack of cohesion . Some appreciated the moments where the game 's elements coalesced . They estimated the game to run between two and three hours in length .
Joystiq 's Sam Prell said that the adventure felt restrictive and linear , " like a guided tour " . He wrote that Rætikon 's map design encourages players to think methodically about their path rather than to explore the game as a non @-@ linear open world . In this way , he felt that its gameplay philosophies contradicted . Hardcore Gamer 's Geoff Thew wrote that the game " commits a number of fundamental design sins " as one of " few games so ceaselessly tiring to play " . He felt that the animals who steal the game objectives created " busywork " , and complained of copious backtracking and the " straight up discourteous " exclusion of an in @-@ game map . Eurogamer 's Jon Denton added that numerous " extremely irritating conflicts " with off @-@ screen animals hurt the game 's pacing . He noted its gameplay influence from Fez and compared its blue shards game mechanics to that of Dark Souls . Denton did not feel that the game deserved the amount of effort it required of its players to understand its story . Reviewers noted technical issues and glitches within the game . Prell noted issues in the game 's physics and game save features . As Rætikon does not support manual saves , he frequently found his progress automatically saved while his player @-@ character was stuck in the environment . Thew of Hardcore Gamer found similar physics glitches that trapped him in the environment , which led him to use his keyboard alongside the Xbox 360 controller to circumvent controller compatibility issues .
When mentioning the game 's art style , most reviewers gave positive response . Denton described the style as a " beautifully drawn , angular 2D world " . Prell wrote that Rætikon 's triangle @-@ based art style made its characters feel like papercraft and gave the game " a sense of reverence and spirituality " when complemented by the story , and gave comparison to Shadow of the Colossus . Thew gave similar response noting that it is reminiscent of Origami . However , Thew continued to state that while the visuals were " distinctive " , the game 's " alpine " area was " clichéd and predictable " and its " good looks and smooth movement mechanics " did not compensate for the rest of the game 's design . He found the game " shallow " , uninteresting , and " a disappointment ... on almost every level " . Denton of Eurogamer praised the moments where he figured out how to find a shard or alphabet piece , but ultimately found Rætikon " awkward " , with " substance did not live up to its style " , and causing unjustified and unreasonable frustration .
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= Tuisto =
According to Tacitus 's Germania ( 98 CE ) , " In their ancient songs , their only form of recorded history , the Germans celebrate the earth @-@ born god , Tuisto . They assign to him a son , Mannus , the author of their race , and to Mannus three sons , ... " The figure remains the subject of some scholarly discussion , largely focused upon etymological connections and comparisons to figures in later ( particularly Norse ) Germanic mythology . In the larger Indo @-@ European pantheon , Tuisto is equated to the Vedic Tvastar .
= = Etymology = =
The Germania manuscript corpus contains two primary variant readings of the name . The most frequently occurring , Tuisto , is commonly connected to the Proto @-@ Germanic root tvai ( " two " ) and its derivative tvis ( " twice " ; " doubled " ) . Allusions to intersex is entirely conjectural , as the tvia / tvis roots are also the roots of any number of other concepts / words in the Germanic languages . Take for instance the Germanic " twist " , which , in all but the English has the primary meaning of " dispute / conflict " .
The second variant of the name , occurring originally in manuscript E , is Tuisco ( sometimes rendered Tuiscon ) . One proposed etymology for this variant reconstructs a Proto @-@ Germanic tiwisko , and connects this with Proto @-@ Germanic Tiwaz , yielded the meaning " son of Tiu " . This interpretation implies that Tuisco is the son of the sky god ( Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European Dyeus ) and the earth @-@ goddess .
= = = Tuisto , Tvastar , and Ymir = = =
Connections have been proposed between the 1st century figure of Tuisto and the hermaphroditic primeval being Ymir in later Norse mythology , attested in 13th century sources , based upon etymological and functional similarity . Meyer ( 1907 ) sees the connection as so strong , that he considers the two to be identical . Lindow ( 2001 ) , while mindful of the possible semantic connection between Tuisto and Ymir , notes an essential functional difference : while Ymir is portrayed as an " essentially … negative figure " - Tuisto is described as being " celebrated " ( celebrant ) by the early Germanic peoples in song , with Tacitus reporting nothing negative about Tuisto .
Jacob ( 2005 ) attempts to establish a genealogical relationship between Tuisto and Ymir based on etymology and a comparison with ( post- ) Vedic Indian mythology : as Tvastr , through his daughter Saranyū and her husband Vivaswān , is said to have been the grandfather of the twins Yama and Yami , so Jacob argues that the Germanic Tuisto ( assuming a connection with Tvastr ) must originally have been the grandfather of Ymir ( cognate to Yama ) . Incidentally , Indian mythology also places Manu ( cognate to Germanic Mannus ) , the Vedic progenitor of mankind , as a son of Vivaswān , thus making him the brother of Yama / Ymir .
= = Attestation = =
Tacitus relates that " ancient songs " ( Latin carminibus antiquis ) of the Germanic peoples celebrated Tuisto as " a god , born of the earth " ( deum terra editum ' ; see Autochthon ( ancient Greece ) ) . These songs further attributed to him a son , Mannus , who in turn had three sons , the offspring of whom were referred to as Ingaevones , Herminones and Istaevones , living near the Ocean ( proximi Oceano ) , in the interior ( medii ) , and the remaining parts ( ceteri ) of the geographical region of Germania , respectively .
= = Theories and interpretations = =
Tacitus 's report falls squarely within the ethnographic tradition of the classical world , which often fused anthropogony , ethnogony , and theogony together into a synthetic whole . The succession of father @-@ son @-@ three sons parallels occurs in both Germanic and non @-@ Germanic Indo @-@ European areas . The essential characteristics of the myth have been theorized as ultimately originating in Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European society around 2 @,@ 000 BCE .
According to Rives ( 1999 ) , the fact that the ancient Germanic peoples claimed descent from an earth @-@ born god was used by Tacitus to support his contention that they were an indigenous population : the Latin word indigena was often used in the same sense as the Greek autochthonos , meaning literally ' [ born from ] the earth itself ' ( from χθών – chthōn " earth " ) . Lindauer ( 1975 ) notes that , although this claim is to be judged as one made out of simple ignorance of the facts on the part of Tacitus , he was not entirely wrong , as he made the judgement based on a comparison with the relatively turbulent Mediterranean region of his day .
The sequence in which one god has a son , who has three famous sons , has a resemblance to how Búri has a son Borr who has three sons : Odin , Vili and Vé . The same tradition occurs with the Slavs and their expansion , in the legend of Lech , Čech and Rus .
= = Later influence = =
In 1498 , a monk named Annio da Viterbo published fragments known as " Pseudo @-@ Berossus " , now considered a forgery , claiming that Babylonian records had shown that Tuiscon or Tuisto , the fourth son of Noah , had been the first ruler of Scythia and Germany following the dispersion of peoples , with him being succeeded by his son Mannus as the second king . Later historians ( e.g. Johannes Aventinus ) managed to furnish numerous further details , including the assertion by James Anderson that this Tuiscon was in fact none other than the biblical Ashkenaz , son of Gomer .
In the following centuries , Tuisto was celebrated as the mythological founding father of the German nation in all forms of art . Burkhard Waldis mentions him in his work The Origins of the first Twelve German Kings and Princes from 1543 , as do Sigmund von Birken , Daniel Casper von Lohenstein and Ignaz Holzbauer in his opera Günther von Schwarzburg . In poetry , he is featured by Joseph Martin Kraus in his " I am a German Lad " , by Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock in his Thuiskon , and by Novalis , who refers to Tuisto in an early poem , written in 1788 . He invokes the mythological figure in an idealized form , belonging to the spirit of a magic era , long bygone .
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= 1994 – 95 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1994 – 95 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was fairly active , with storms forming regularly from October through April . It was much less damaging than its predecessor , and most of the storms in the season remained over water or only brushed land . The first system was Tropical Depression A1 , which formed in October and passed north of Madagascar . The first named storm was Albertine , which formed on November 23 in the northeastern portion of the basin and became one of three intense tropical cyclones . The last storm was Marlene , which was also an intense tropical cyclone and dissipated on April 11 .
Most of the storms originated from the intertropical convergence zone . In late December into early January , tropical storms Bentha and Christelle persisted to the east of Madagascar , undergoing the Fujiwhara effect with each other . Later in January , Dorina became the second of three intense tropical cyclones , but weakened before passing near Rodrigues . Tropical Depression Eliceca and Tropical Storm Fodah both formed in the Mozambique Channel toward the end of January , bringing gusty winds and rainfall to the region . In February , Gail produced gusty winds on Rodrigues , and Tropical Storm Heida entered the basin from Australian region . Later in the month , Ingrid brought strong winds to Mauritius . Tropical storms Josta and Kylie developed toward the beginning of March from the same overall system , affecting Madagascar and Réunion , respectively . After they dissipated , Tropical Depression Lidy caused flooding and damage on Rodrigues due to heavy rainfall .
= = Seasonal summary = =
During the year , the Météo @-@ France office on Réunion ( MFR ) issued warnings for tropical systems in the region as the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre . In the year , MFR tracked tropical cyclones south of the equator from the coast of Africa to 90 ° E. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) also issued warnings in an unofficial capacity .
Several of the storms in the season affected the island of Rodrigues , an outer island of Mauritius ; however , only one – Tropical Depression Lidy – caused damage after dropping heavy rainfall . The season as a whole was much less damaging than the preceding season . There were 58 days in which a storm or cyclone was active , 17 above normal . There were 11 systems that became moderate tropical storms , two above the normal of 9 . The six tropical cyclones – a storm with winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) – was also above the average of five .
= = Storms = =
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Albertine = = =
The intertropical convergence zone ( ITCZ ) became active toward the end of November , spawning a low pressure area on November 23 about 400 km ( 250 mi ) east of Diego Garcia . This system quickly organized into a tropical disturbance , aided by favorable conditions . On November 24 , the JTWC began classifying it as Tropical Cyclone 02S . The next day , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Albertine while moving southwestward , steered by a ridge to the southeast . Late on November 25 , an eye developed in the center of the convection , and Albertine intensified to tropical cyclone status the next day . The eye gradually became better organized , attaining a diameter of 90 km ( 55 mi ) on November 28 as Albertine became an intense tropical cyclone . At that time , the MFR estimated peak 10 – minute winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , with gusts to 250 km / h ( 160 mph ) . In contrast , the JTWC estimated 1 – minute winds of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . After moving over an area of cool water temperatures , Albertine quickly weakened and lost its well @-@ defined eye . On November 30 , the center passed about 110 km ( 68 mi ) northwest of Rodrigues after weakening to severe tropical storm status . After weakening gradually , the storm began deteriorating faster due to increasing wind shear . A polar low steered Albertine southeastward until absorbing the system on December 3 .
In its formative stages , Albertine brushed Diego Garcia with gusts of 63 km / h ( 39 mph ) . On Rodridgues , Albertine produced peak gusts of 170 km / h ( 110 mph ) , along with heavy rainfall , causing some damage . The island was under a cyclone watch for 39 hours , the first of the warning system set up by MFR during the season .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Christelle = = =
Toward the end of December , the equatorial trough spawned two areas of convection – one persisted southwest of Diego Garcia , which would become Tropical Storm Bentha , and the other persisted between Agalega and the Farquhar Group in the Seychelles . The latter system organized into Tropical Disturbance B1 on December 27 , but wind shear in the region prevented significant development and dislocated the center from the thunderstorms . A ridge to the southeast steered the disturbance slowly southwestward toward Madagascar . As it neared the country , the system turned westward and intensified into a tropical depression after developing a spiral band of convection . On January 2 , the depression made landfall near Antalaha in northeastern Madagascar , and quickly weakened over land .
The system moved to the northeast and looped back to the east , influenced by developing Tropical Storm Bentha . On January 4 , after Bentha was named , the system was renamed Tropical Disturbance C1 . Convection gradually reorganized over the center as the two storms interacted and moved cyclonically around each other . The disturbance intensified after Bentha began weakening , becoming Tropical Storm Christelle on January 5 . On the next day , the JTWC began issuing advisories on Tropical Cyclone 07S . Christelle slowly intensified as it turned more to the south , becoming the dominant system after absorbing Bentha . A warm spot formed in the center of the convection , and the MFR estimated peak winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) on January 6 . The same wind shear that weakened Bentha caused Christelle to deteriorate on January 7 . The center passed near Mauritius on January 8 as a tropical depression . Two days later , a cold front steered the system to the southeast , absorbing it after Christelle became extratropical on January 11 .
Both Bentha and Christelle brought gusty winds and rainfall to Mauritius , and caused Réunion to be under a cyclone watch for five days . The system also produced rainfall and landslides in Madagascar .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Bentha = = =
The same broad system that spawned Christelle also produced an area of convection southwest of Diego Garcia toward the end of December . On January 1 , the convection began organizing , aided by an anticyclone aloft , and it became a tropical depression on the next day . The system quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Bentha on January 3 while moving generally southwestward . Also on that day , the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 06S . On January 4 , Bentha attained peak winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , and on the same day the storm began interacting with developing Tropical Storm Christelle to the west . On January 5 , increased shear weakened Bentha , and by the following day the storm deteriorated into a tropical depression . The system passed about 250 km ( 155 mi ) north of Réunion on January 6 , dissipating shortly thereafter near Tromelin Island while being absorbed into Christelle .
Both Bentha and Christelle brought gusty winds and rainfall to Mauritius , and caused Réunion to be under a cyclone watch for five days .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Dorina = = =
The ITCZ spawned an area of convection and a vortex in the northeastern portion of the basin on January 18 , which organized into a tropical disturbance that day . It initially moved southeastward under the influence of the monsoon , although it gradually recurved back to the southwest . On January 19 , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Dorina , and on the next day the JTWC initiated advisories on it as Tropical Cyclone 08S . Dorina quickly intensified into a tropical cyclone by January 21 , developing a 40 km ( 25 mi ) eye in the center of the convection . Later that day , the storm became an intense tropical cyclone , less than three days after its development ; such a quick time to attain that intensity is unusual for the basin . At 18 : 00 UTC on January 21 , Dorina attained peak winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , according to the MFR , and 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) according to the JTWC .
After moving over an area of cooler waters , Dorina began weakening , indicated by the previously well @-@ defined eye becoming ragged . On January 24 , the cyclone weakened into a severe tropical storm . The motion became more west @-@ southwesterly after the ridge weakened . A passing trough increased shear over Dorina , which caused further weakening and for the convection to deteriorate . However , conditions became more favorable on January 27 , allowing Dorina to re @-@ intensify slightly as it redeveloped an eye feature . On that day , the storm passed about 250 km ( 155 mi ) south of Rodrigues , producing gusts of 115 km / h ( 70 mph ) . Subsequently , Dorina turned back to the southwest and later to the south , influenced by another passing trough that had absorbed Tropical Storm Fodah . Strong wind shear caused the storm to weaken again . On January 31 , Dorina became extratropical while turning to the southeast and was later absorbed into the trough .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Fodah = = =
After the remnants of Tropical Depression Eliceca dissipated over Madagascar , an area of disturbed weather persisted over the Mozambique Channel , spawning a low pressure area near Juan de Nova Island on January 21 . Convection greatly increased on the next day , indicating the system became a tropical disturbance . Moving southward , the system became a tropical depression on January 23 as the system organized further , aided by an anticyclone aloft . On January 24 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Fodah while near Europa Island , and soon after became a severe tropical storm . The MFR estimated peak winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) , while the JTWC , which initiated advisories that day as Tropical Cyclone 09S , estimated winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Gusts on Europa Island were less than 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) , despite the storm being nearby . A strong band of convection spread along the Madagascar coastline , producing gusts of 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) at Morombe . Fodah also produced 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of rainfall , as well as high seas . Moving around the ridge , Fodah continued southward , encountering stronger wind shear on January 25 . Steady weakening commenced as the convection deteriorated , and Fodah became extratropical on January 26 . A trough turned the remnants to the southeast , absorbing it on January 29 .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Gail = = =
The ITCZ spawned an area of convection near Diego Garcia that became a tropical disturbance on January 31 . The system slowly organized due to wind shear in the region , and it moved slowly for several days . On February 4 , the disturbance became a tropical depression after the convection organized slightly . Intensification became more rapid on the next day after conditions became more favorable , allowing the depression to intensify into Tropical Storm Gail . Also on February 5 , the JTWC began issuing warnings on the system as Tropical Cyclone 10S . Gail quickly strengthened while moving southwestward , developing a small , poorly @-@ defined eye in the center of the convection . On February 7 , it attained tropical cyclone status , reaching peak winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Increasing shear caused Gail to weaken , beginning on February 8 . That night , the center passed less than 30 km ( 20 mi ) north of Rodrigues . Gail maintained its intensity as a severe tropical storm after the shear decreased slightly . A trough turned the storm to the south on February 10 and caused weakening , resulting in Gail 's dissipation on the next day .
While Gail approached the island of Rodrigues , the storm produced winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) and gusts to 193 km / h ( 120 mph ) at Port Mathurin .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Heida = = =
As Gail was developing , the ITCZ spawned another disturbance in the Australian region on February 3 . On the next day , it crossed 90 ° E into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean as a tropical depression . The system intensified into Tropical Storm Heida on February 5 while moving west @-@ southwestward , although the convection never organized beyond a disorganized central dense overcast . The JTWC initiated advisories that day as Tropical Cyclone 11S , and Heida quickly attained peak winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . Wind shear in the region caused the storm to weaken into a tropical depression , although Heida briefly re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm on February 6 . A trough in the region steered the circulation to the south @-@ southwest and increased wind shear , resulting in Heida 's dissipation on February 8 .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Ingrid = = =
On February 22 , a tropical disturbance formed southwest of Diego Garcia . It moved westward , intensifying into Tropical Storm Ingrid on February 24 . That day , the JTWC began issuing advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 13S . Ingrid turned more to the southwest while passing just east of St. Brandon , where winds reached 56 km / h ( 35 mph ) . After continued intensification , the storm became a tropical cyclone on February 26 while passing between Mauritius and Rodrigues . On Mauritius , winds gusted to 91 km / h ( 56 mph ) at Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam International Airport , and the storm produced high waves . On the next day , the MFR estimated peak winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) , while the JTWC estimated winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Ingrid turned to the southeast and weakened , becoming extratropical on March 1 .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Josta = = =
An extended series of low pressure areas spawned what would become Tropical Storm Josta on March 5 near the Comoros in the northern Mozambique Channel . It initially drifted westward while slowly organizing , becoming a tropical storm on March 7 . On that day , the JTWC classified Josta as Tropical Cyclone 16S . On March 8 , Josta approached the coast of Mozambique within 90 km ( 55 mi ) of Pemba before turning abruptly to the east @-@ southeast . The convection fluctuated in intensity , eventually becoming better organized on March 9 . That day , an eye feature formed in the center of the convection , and the MFR estimated peak winds of 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) . By contrast , the JTWC upgraded Josta to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane with winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The eye feature dissipated soon after due to increased shear , causing Josta to weaken . On March 10 , the storm re @-@ intensified slightly , aided by the monsoon , as it passed 160 km ( 100 mi ) south of Mayotte . It again weakened soon thereafter , with the convection spreading ahead of the circulation over Madagascar . On March 12 , the circulation dissipated off the northwest coast of Madagascar , partially due to the influence of the stronger Kylie to the southeast . Rains from the storm reached 270 mm ( 11 in ) along the coast of Madagascar , despite the storm not making landfall .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Kylie = = =
The same overall system that spawned Josta also produced a disturbance on March 6 off the east coast of Madagascar . While drifting southeastward within a trough , the system slowly organized until becoming a tropical storm on March 7 , the same day that the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 17S . On the next day , the system was named Kylie as it meandered to the north of Mauritius without further strengthening . The convection organized on March 10 into a central dense overcast , and the next day attained peak winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , according to the MFR . By contrast , the JTWC assessed Kylie as becoming much stronger , reaching winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) . Subsequently , a trough turned the storm to the southwest , bringing it over the island of Réunion on March 13 . Increased wind shear deteriorated the convection as the storm turned to the southeast on March 14 . The next day , Kylie was absorbed by the trough .
On Réunion , Kylie produced rainfall along with gusts of over 100 km / h ( 65 km / h ) , along with high waves . The storm prompted classes to be canceled , as well as for the airport to be closed , causing flights to be canceled .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Marlene = = =
The final storm of the season formed on March 29 from the ITCZ to the east of Diego Garcia . The large area of convection quickly became more organized , intensifying into Tropical Storm Marlene on March 30 . On that date , the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 19S . Marlene continued to strengthen as it moved west @-@ southwestward , aided by a surge in the monsoon . An eye formed on March 31 , and on the next day the storm became a tropical cyclone . The eye reached a diameter of 25 km ( 15 mi ) , embedded within a well @-@ defined central dense overcast . Later on April 1 , Marlene became an intense tropical cyclone , just three days after its genesis . That day , it turned to the south due to a passing trough . Less favorable conditions caused Marlene to weaken on April 2 , although it re @-@ intensified the next day . The MFR estimated peak winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , and the JTWC estimated winds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) . The trough that turned it to the south later caused the cyclone to weaken and for the eye to dissipate . On April 5 , Marlene was downgraded into a severe tropical storm and subsequently drifted to the northwest , influenced by a ridge behind the trough . Two days later , the storm turned to the southeast and later to the east , gradually weakening into a tropical depression . On April 11 , a passing trough absorbed Marlene in the eastern periphery of the basin .
= = = Other storms = = =
On October 1 , an area of convection developed about 500 km ( 310 mi ) Seychelles at a low latitude . Moving southwestward , the system organized into Tropical Disturbance A1 on October 2 , the first of the season . A small central dense overcast subsequently developed over the circulation . A ridge to the south steered the disturbance westward , bringing it just north of the Farquhar Group . On October 5 , the disturbance intensified into a tropical depression , reaching peak winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . Subsequently , increased wind shear dissipated the convection as the rapidly weakening depression passed north of Madagascar . On October 7 , the circulation dissipated . There were two other disturbances between October and late November .
There was a tropical disturbance in the first two weeks of January before Dorina formed . Later in the month , the ITCZ spawned an area of convection in the northern Mozambique Channel near the Comoros . A circulation formed within the system on January 20 near the western coast of Madagascar , quickly becoming a tropical depression . That day , the Meteorological Service of Madagascar named the system Eliceca , but the depression quickly moved inland and dissipated . Two disturbances formed in February after the development of Heida and before Ingrid formed .
The ITCZ later produced a disturbance northeast of Rodrigues after Kylie dissipated on March 14 . It intensified into a tropical depression as it moved southwestward . Due to the threat to Rodrigues , the Mauritius Meteorological Service named the depression Lidy on March 15 , although wind shear in the region prevented further strengthening . It produced gusty winds while passing near Rodrigues on March 16 , and subsequently looped near the island . Convection from Lidy produced 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall , causing flooding in some areas on Rodrigues . The rains caused erosion and the most damage on the island of any storm in the season . Later , Lidy drifted to the west in the trade winds , dissipating on March 20 to the north of Réunion . After Lidy , there was one final non @-@ developing disturbance .
= = Storm names = =
A tropical disturbance is named when it reaches moderate tropical storm strength . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status west of 55 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status between 55 ° E and 90 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Mauritius assigns the appropriate name to the storm . A new annual list is used every year , so no names are retired .
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= Abou Diaby =
Vassiriki Abou Diaby ( French pronunciation : [ abu djabi ] ; born 11 May 1986 ) , known as Abou Diaby , is a French professional footballer who currently plays for French club Marseille . He plays primarily in a box to box role , as he is adept in both attacking and defending , and is described as a player who is " languid , elusive , and athletic " that can either " dribble past opponents or slip passes to team @-@ mates " . Of Ivorian descent , Diaby also possesses " superb touch " and " excellent close control " . Diaby 's career has been hampered by numerous repetitive injuries , a problem that has existed since his time in France . His physical appearance and positional preference have evoked comparisons to Arsenal legend and compatriot Patrick Vieira .
Diaby was born in the 10th arrondissement of Paris , but was raised in the Parisian commune of Aubervilliers . He began his football career playing for hometown club CM Aubervilliers . In 1998 , he joined Red Star Paris . A year later , Diaby was selected to attend the Clairefontaine academy . He spent four years at the academy while simultaneously training with Red Star . A year before departing Clairefontaine , Diaby moved to professional club Paris Saint @-@ Germain . Following an administrative error by club officials which made Diaby a free agent , he joined the academy of Auxerre . He spent two years in the club 's youth academy before making his professional debut in the 2004 – 05 season . Diaby also played in the UEFA Cup with the club . After spending the Autumn portion of the 2005 – 06 season with Auxerre , in January 2006 , Diaby signed with English club Arsenal on a long @-@ term contract for an undisclosed fee . He made his debut with the club that same month and scored his first goal three months later against Aston Villa . Diaby had his ankle broken by Dan Smith of Sunderland five months after joining Arsenal , and has since struggled with numerous injuries .
Diaby is a former French youth international having earned caps at under @-@ 19 and under @-@ 21 level . Prior to playing for the senior team , he played on the under @-@ 19 team that won the 2005 UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Football Championship . Diaby made his senior international debut in March 2007 in a UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying match against Lithuania . He has represented France at one major international tournament ; the 2010 FIFA World Cup . Diaby participated in all three group stage matches the team played as a starter .
= = Personal life = =
Diaby was born in the 10th arrondissement of Paris , but was raised in a housing development in Aubervilliers , a northeastern suburb of Paris . He is the son of a long @-@ distance truck driver and developed an interest into the sport of football after becoming fascinated by several players who played on the 1998 FIFA World Cup @-@ winning team , most notably midfield stalwart Patrick Vieira , whom Diaby describes as " a monument to French football " . Diaby was also adept at playing other sports such as basketball and boxing . Of Ivorian descent , Diaby is a practicing Muslim and , while growing up , developed a fascination towards the subjects of religion , philosophy , science , and astronomy . Diaby became interested in accountancy after taking a course at the age of 17 , while he was at the Auxerre youth academy .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Diaby began his football career playing for hometown club CM Aubervilliers in December 1996 . While at Aubervilliers , Diaby was coached by David Giguère and Alain Mboma , the latter now serving as the manager of Red Star Paris . After two years at the club , Diaby 's quick progression at the amateur club led to a move to nearby semi @-@ professional outfit Red Star Paris in Saint @-@ Ouen . While in the club 's youth academy , Diaby was supervised by youth academy director Yves @-@ Henri Gergaud and was described by club youth coach Marco Lienel as a player who was " fairly quiet and quite frail " . Diaby started his career at the club playing on its under @-@ 13 team in the Division Honneur Régionale of the Île @-@ de @-@ France region . After spending a year playing with Red Star , in 1999 , he was selected to attend the Clairefontaine academy . While at Clairefontaine , Diaby was a part of A la Clairefontaine , a documentary series which chronicled the lives of the France 's top young footballers during their time at the academy . During the series , an episode showed Diaby getting into a physical confrontation with Hatem Ben Arfa .
= = = Auxerre = = =
= = = = 2002 – 2004 = = = =
Towards the end of his development at Clairefontaine , Diaby departed Red Star to play domestic football with professional club Paris Saint @-@ Germain , despite being a supporter of Marseille . He spent a year at the Camp des Loges , the club 's training center , from 2001 – 2002 . After his departure from Clairefontaine , Diaby was expected to sign a youth contract with Paris Saint @-@ Germain . Club officials wanted to keep the player , however , the club 's human resources department failed to send a " letter of commitment " to Diaby 's parents ahead of the 30 April 2002 deadline , which resulted in the player becoming a free agent . Diaby was hastily recruited by Auxerre scouts and he joined the club 's academy ahead of the 2002 – 03 season . In his first season in the club 's youth academy , he won the Division d 'Honneur des 16 ans , the under @-@ 16 league title of the Bourgogne region .
During the 2003 – 04 season , Diaby alternated between playing on the club 's under @-@ 19 team in the Coupe Gambardella and playing in the club 's reserve team in the Championnat de France amateur , the fourth level of French football . During the reserve team season , he played on the team alongside future Arsenal teammate Bacary Sagna , as well as Younès Kaboul , Hassan Yebda , Jean @-@ Joël Perrier @-@ Doumbé and former Clairefontaine classmate Garra Dembélé . Diaby finished the season with the team with 11 appearances and one goal as the team finished first in its group . After the season , he signed his first professional contract with the club agreeing to a three @-@ year deal . Manager Guy Roux subsequently promoted Diaby to the first team and assigned him the number 24 shirt .
= = = = 2004 – 2006 = = = =
Similar to the previous season , Diaby regularly trained with the first team , while concurrently featuring as a starter on the club 's reserve team . He made his professional debut on 14 August 2004 appearing as a substitute in a 3 – 1 league win over Rennes . After making his debut for the club , Diaby spent the rest of the fall season either playing on the club 's reserve team or dealing with injuries . He returned to the team in March 2005 making his European debut in the team 's UEFA Cup Round of 16 first leg tie against domestic rivals Lille . Diaby appeared in both legs as a substitute as Auxerre won the round 1 – 0 on aggregate . The club later lost in the quarter @-@ finals to Russian club CSKA Moscow . Diaby made his first professional start on 20 March against his former youth club Paris Saint @-@ Germain . He played 74 minutes before being substituted out in a 1 – 0 loss . Diaby made three more appearances as a substitute to close out the season .
Following the season , Roux retired as manager of Auxerre after managing the club for 44 straight seasons . He was replaced with former France national team coach Jacques Santini . During the season , Diaby featured early on during the campaign , but as the season wore on , he struggled with injuries , which subsequently , led to the player failing to gain the confidence of Santini . Unlike fellow youngsters Sagna and Kaboul who were quickly establishing themselves at their respective positions , Diaby only featured in five league matches during the first half of the season . The midfielder did score his first professional goal on 10 September 2005 in a 3 – 1 loss to Rennes . In Europe , Diaby featured as a starter in the team 's first round defeat to Bulgarian club Levski Sofia in the UEFA Cup . Midway through the campaign , Diaby was deemed surplus to requirements by management . Following the sale of the player , vice @-@ president Gérard Bourgoin declared that , " We have always kept the young players which our coach wanted to use , but Diaby did not play , so this was a strategic sale for us . "
= = = Arsenal = = =
= = = = 2006 – 2009 = = = =
On 13 January 2006 , English club Arsenal confirmed that the club had signed Diaby on a long @-@ term contract for an undisclosed fee , later revealed to be £ 2 million . Prior to joining Arsenal , the player had reportedly turned down an offer to join Arsenal 's London rivals Chelsea . Upon joining Arsenal , Diaby was given the number 2 shirt , which was left vacant since the retirement of Lee Dixon . He made his club debut on 21 January 2006 appearing as a substitute in a 1 – 0 defeat to Everton . Three days later , he made his first start in a 2 – 1 Football League Cup victory over Wigan . On 21 February , Diaby made his UEFA Champions League debut appearing as a substitute in the team 's Round of 16 first leg victory over Spanish club Real Madrid . Two weeks later , Diaby assisted on a goal in Arsenal 's 4 – 0 win over Fulham . After dealing with an injury in the month of March , he returned to play in April scoring his first goal for the club in a 5 – 0 victory over Aston Villa on April Fools ' Day 2006 . He was set up for the goal by fellow club newcomer Emmanuel Adebayor .
On 1 May , Diaby suffered a severe ankle fracture after being on the receiving end of a tackle , described by the media as " horrendous " , from Sunderland defender Dan Smith . After the match , Wenger described the tackle as " a bad kick and an unnecessary one " and also criticized his competitors ' over @-@ physicality , while interim Sunderland manager Kevin Ball defended Smith stating " Smith is not a malicious , dirty player and I think it 's unfair to make that call on him and say he deliberately went to do it . Dan went for the ball , unfortunately Diaby was quicker than him " . As a result of the injury , Diaby missed the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final , as well as the 2006 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship . He underwent three surgeries to repair the injury and was told by doctors that the injury could possibly be career @-@ ending . Following the surgeries , he underwent eight months of rehabilitation and made his return to first team action in the 2006 – 07 season in a League Cup match against Liverpool . He appeared as a substitute in the match as Arsenal cruised to a 6 – 3 win . On 25 February 2007 , while participating in the 2007 Football League Cup Final against Chelsea , Diaby , while attempting to clear the ball out of the Arsenal defense , accidentally kicked rival defender John Terry in the face . Unconscious , Terry was stretchered off and hospitalized , but recovered to return to the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff for the trophy presentation following Chelsea 's 2 – 1 win . Though Arsenal lost , Diaby was credited with an assist on the team 's only goal of the match , which was converted by Theo Walcott . Diaby scored his first and only goal of the campaign on 14 March in a 1 – 0 win over Aston Villa when he deflected in a Julio Baptista shot . He remained a fixture within the team for the rest of the campaign , mostly as a substitute as he only started in consecutive matches once .
In Diaby 's first full season with Arsenal , he scored his first goal on 22 September 2007 in the club 's 5 – 0 win over Derby County . Three days later , he assisted on a goal in a 2 – 0 League Cup win over Newcastle United . In December 2007 , Diaby scored goals in back @-@ to @-@ back matches for the first time in his career . He scored the first goal on 12 December in the team 's final Champions League group stage match against Romanian club Steaua București . Arsenal won the match 2 – 1 . Six days later , Diaby scored Arsenal 's opening goal in the club 's 3 – 2 away win over Blackburn Rovers in the League Cup . Diaby failed to chart anything statistical for the rest of the winter months aside from an assist in a 4 – 1 win over Everton . On 29 March 2008 , Diaby was sent off for the first time in his professional career in a league match against Bolton Wanderers for a studs @-@ up tackle on defender Grétar Steinsson . Diaby was defended by Wenger who stated " I don ’ t think Diaby ’ s tackle was malicious , it was more protective " . Wenger also stated that Diaby 's tackle should not be compared to what had happened to teammate Eduardo da Silva a few weeks earlier . Wenger was , subsequently , criticized by the English media for flip @-@ flopping on the subject due to providing differing statements when Arsenal players are on the receiving end of tackles and when they are the aggressors .
After serving his red card suspension , Diaby featured in only one match in the final two months of the season . The match was the second leg of the club 's quarter @-@ final Champions League tie against Liverpool . In the match , Diaby netted the opening goal to give Arsenal , who drew 1 – 1 in the first leg , a 2 – 1 advantage . Arsenal , however , conceded four goals from Liverpool and lost the tie 5 – 3 on aggregate . Following the match against Liverpool , Diaby began struggling with a thigh injury . After the injury relapsed in a reserve match in late April , Diaby was ruled out for the rest of the season .
Diaby began the 2008 – 09 season late in the season after the thigh injury from the previous season was discovered to be more serious than first thought . He made his debut in the season on 18 October 2008 in a 3 – 1 win over Everton . Three days later , Diaby scored the third goal in a 5 – 2 Champions League group stage win over Fenerbahçe . He appeared regularly in the campaign for the first time in his Arsenal career . On 26 December 2008 , Diaby scored his third career goal against Aston Villa in a 2 – 2 draw . The following month , he assisted on the equalising goal , scored by Robin van Persie , in the team 's 1 – 1 draw with Everton . Diaby scored his second goal of the campaign in Arsenal 's 3 – 1 league win against Newcastle on 21 March . He finished the season by scoring the team 's third goal in the 4 – 1 win over Stoke City .
= = = = 2009 – 2012 = = = =
Diaby started the 2009 – 10 season healthy for the first time since 2007 and quickly made an impact . Playing alongside Alex Song and Cesc Fàbregas , he became part of the dynamic three @-@ man midfield partnership . On 22 August 2009 , he scored a double in a 4 – 1 win over Portsmouth . The following month , Diaby assisted on a goal in the team 's 3 – 2 comeback win over Belgian club Standard Liège in the Champions League . After alternating between the bench and starting lineup for the rest of September , in November , Diaby returned to the first eleven and responding by scoring the game @-@ winning goal in a 3 – 1 win over Birmingham City . Three weeks later , in the Champions League , he netted another goal in a group stage win over Dutch club AZ . On 7 November , Diaby picked up an injury in a 4 – 1 win over Wolverhampton Wanderers . The injury resulted in the player missing France 's World Cup playoff tie with the Republic of Ireland .
Diaby grabbed his fifth goal of the season in a 3 – 0 win over Hull City on 19 December . He also assisted on a goal in the win . A week later , Diaby scored his fourth goal overall against Aston Villa in another 3 – 0 victory . In the new year , Diaby began the 2010 calendar year by assisting on goals in a 2 – 2 draw against Everton and a 4 – 2 win over Bolton . On 10 February , he scored the only goal in a victory over Liverpool . Despite failing to score a goal for the rest of the season , Diaby was ever @-@ present in the waning moments of the season starting 12 of the final 14 matches he appeared in . He finished the campaign with career @-@ highs in matches played , goals , and assists .
Diaby began the 2010 – 11 season scoring a goal and issuing an assist in the team 's second match of the season against Blackpool ; a 6 – 0 win . During a match against Bolton at the Emirates Stadium on 11 September , he was injured after a challenge by Paul Robinson . Diaby was replaced in the 72nd minute by Denílson in a 4 – 1 win . Due to the injury , he missed two weeks and return to the team in its 3 – 2 loss to West Bromwich Albion . Diaby featured primarily as a substitute after returning from the injury . On 5 February 2011 , he was sent off after being adjudged to have committed violent conduct on opposing midfielder Joey Barton in a league match away to Newcastle . Prior to Diaby 's expulsion , Arsenal had been leading the match 4 – 0 . The team went on to concede four unanswered goals while playing with ten men , which resulted in the club leaving St James ' Park with only a point . On 10 April , Diaby scored his second goal of the season in a 3 – 1 win against Blackpool .
The 2011 – 12 season for Diaby was blighted once again by injury problems . He made just four substitute appearances during the Premier League campaign and one in the UEFA Champions League .
= = = = 2012 – 2015 = = = =
With the departure of Alex Song ahead of the 2012 – 13 season , Diaby started all three of Arsenal 's opening games . His performance against Liverpool saw him awarded Man of the Match by Sky Sports in Arsenal 's 2 – 0 win at Anfield . However , he was later injured in Arsenal 's 2 @-@ 1 loss against Chelsea on 29 September and was substituted . On 13 January 2013 , Diaby made his return against Manchester City at the Emirates Stadium . This controversial fixture in the Premier League , saw two red cards awarded , one for each team . Arsenal lost the match 2 – 0 .
Following several spells on the sidelines during February and March , it was announced on 28 March that Diaby had torn the anterior cruciate ligament ( ACL ) in his left knee and that after surgery , he would be out for approximately eight or nine months .
Arsenal announced that Diaby had changed his squad number from 2 to 24 for the 2013 – 14 season . Soon it was announced that he would be out until March 2014 , following further treatment on his knee .
On 11 May 2014 , Diaby returned from injury as a substitute in a 2 – 0 win at Norwich City in Arsenal 's final match of the 2013 – 14 Premier League season .
On 15 November 2014 , according to some English newspapers , Diaby suffered a hamstring injury which would keep him off the pitch for the next three months .
On 10 June 2015 , Diaby was released by Arsenal .
= = = Marseille = = =
In July 2015 , Diaby signed for French Ligue 1 side Marseille after being out of football since leaving Arsenal in June 2015 . Following continuing injury problems in the first half of the season , he made his return on 18 March 2016 , coming on as a substitute in Marseille 's 5 – 2 home defeat to Rennes . On 3 April 2016 , he started in a league match against Bastia , his first league start in over three years .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth = = =
Diaby played under manager Jean Gallice . Gallice , initially , called up Diaby at under @-@ 18 level for a match against Greece in November 2003 . Diaby , however , was forced to withdraw from the squad after suffering an injury while playing domestically . He made his youth international debut at under @-@ 19 level in a 2 – 1 friendly match win over Turkey . In qualifying for the 2005 European Under @-@ 19 Football Championship , Diaby appeared in all six matches as France finished both the first qualifying round and the Elite Round undefeated . In the tournament , he missed the team 's opening 1 – 1 group stage draw with England due to suspension , but returned to the starting lineup in the team 's 3 – 1 victory over Norway in the second group stage match . Diaby , subsequently , started every remaining match , including the championship match against England . France won the match 3 – 1 giving the nation its sixth under @-@ 19 title and Diaby his first international honor . In total with the under @-@ 19 team , he featured in 12 matches and scored no goals . At under @-@ 21 level , Diaby made his debut on 28 February 2006 in a friendly match against Slovakia . He appeared as a substitute as France won the match 2 – 1 . Due to suffering a fractured ankle domestically , Diaby missed the 2006 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship . Due to repetitive injuries , he missed every qualifier for the 2007 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship and made only one more appearance for the team , which occurred in a 1 – 1 draw in a friendly match with Armenia .
= = = Senior = = =
On 15 March 2007 , Diaby was called up to the senior team for the first time by coach Raymond Domenech for UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying match against Lithuania and a friendly against Austria . He described the call @-@ up as a " huge surprise " primarily because he has just returned from his ankle fracture just two months prior . Diaby made his senior international debut in the qualifier against Lithuania appearing as a substitute for Florent Malouda . He earned his first international start in the ensuing match against Austria ; the game ending in a 1 – 0 victory for France . Following the Austria match , Diaby went without an appearance for France for three years . The midfielder experienced several call ups to the team during the three years , but either withdrew from the squad due to injury or was not preferred by Domenech for a match . Despite this , Diaby was named to Domenech 's 30 @-@ man preliminary squad to participate in the 2010 FIFA World Cup . He made his return to the international scene in the team 's 2 – 1 friendly match win over Costa Rica . Diaby was later named to the 23 @-@ man team to serve as a possible backup in the holding midfield role .
Ahead of the competition , it was reported that Domenech was considering changing up the style of play in the team 's 4 – 3 – 3 formation with Malouda possibly moving from the winger role into the midfield . Following Malouda 's relegation to the bench for insubordination , Diaby was inserted in his place and made his World Cup debut in the team 's opening group stage match against Uruguay . The match ended 0 – 0 with Diaby playing the entire match . He was credited by Scottish newspaper The Scotsman as being the team 's best performer in the goalless draw . Diaby featured as a starter in both of France 's remaining group stage matches against Mexico and South Africa . France lost both matches as the competition ultimately ended in disastrous competitively and personally due to the players going on strike in response to its disagreement over the expulsion of striker Nicolas Anelka from the team . As a result of the players ' mutiny , Diaby , along with the 22 other members of the team , were suspended for the team 's friendly match against Norway .
Under manager Laurent Blanc , Diaby was penciled in as a starter in the team 's first two competitive matches of the new season . After playing the entire match in a 2 – 0 victory over Luxembourg , he missed the victory against England due to injury . Diaby returned to the team for its 9 February 2011 friendly against Brazil . He appeared as a second @-@ half substitute for Yann M 'Vila as France cruised to a 1 – 0 win . In March 2011 , Diaby was called back into the team for matches against Luxembourg and Croatia , but , for the second time in the season , withdrew from the team due to injury . He returned to the team in June 2011 for a UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying match against Belarus and friendly matches against Poland and the Ukraine . Diaby featured in all three matches . Due to injuries during the 2011 – 12 season , he missed UEFA Euro 2012 .
After over a year without an appearance at international level , Diaby returned to the national team in September 2012 under new manager Didier Deschamps . In his first appearance since June 2011 , he scored his first international goal in a 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification match against Finland .
= = Style of play = =
Diaby is often described as a typical box @-@ to @-@ box midfielder ; a midfielder who is adept both offensively and defensively . While he can play as a defensive midfielder , Diaby has often attempted to distance himself from that position , admitting that " I am better if I have a holding midfielder with me " . His club manager Arsène Wenger describes him similarly stating " He ( Diaby ) is more of an offensive player . He is not a defensive @-@ minded player and he 's not a holding player . He 's a player who crosses the field at ease , goes from box to box like it 's no distance and has good power as well " . During his early years with Auxerre , he was often used as an attacking midfielder or a support striker due to his technical ability , close control , and dexterity to dribble past opponents or slip passes to team @-@ mates .
Upon signing with Arsenal , club manager Wenger likened the player to former club player Patrick Vieira . Wenger compared the two primarily because of the similarities between each player 's physical appearance and positional preference . While the two are similar in appearance , Diaby has admitted that there are huge differences , stating , " I think maybe I am more attack @-@ minded , a more technical player , " and , " Vieira is much more aggressive . He makes more of a physical impact in a game , in midfield . He is amazing . I don ’ t think I have this quality yet . I think I can develop in that way but he is much stronger . " In 2009 , Wenger echoed Diaby 's sentiments , stating , " I believe Vieira was more of a passer of the ball . Diaby is more of a dribbler , more offensive and makes more penetrating runs . Vieira was more of a constructor . They have a similar elegance and type of play but are not completely comparable " .
Diaby is often described as being injury @-@ prone . Since returning from his fractured ankle injury in late 2006 , the midfielder has endured persistent niggling injuries that have resulted in Diaby failing to play a full season for his current club . During his second season at Auxerre , a season in which he was expected to get some significant playing time , Diaby failed to gain the confidence of manager Jacques Santini primarily due to repetitive injuries he endured during the Autumn portion of the 2005 – 06 season . After returning to the team , Diaby struggled to return to form , which ultimately resulted in his sale to Arsenal . His highest output for appearances with Arsenal came in the 2009 – 10 season when he played in 40 matches . Arsenal played a total of 55 competitive matches in the season .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 24 april 2016 .
= = = International = = =
Statistics accurate as of 7 September 2012
= = = = International goals = = = =
= = Honours = =
= = = International = = =
France
UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Football Championship : 2005
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= Bud Grant =
Harry Peter " Bud " Grant , Jr . ( born May 20 , 1927 ) is a former coach and player of American football and Canadian football . Grant served as the head coach of the Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League ( NFL ) for eighteen seasons ; he was the team 's second ( 1967 – 83 ) and fourth ( 1985 ) head coach . Before coaching the Vikings , he was the head coach of the Winnipeg Blue Bombers of the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) for ten seasons , winning the Grey Cup four times . Grant is the most successful coach in Vikings history , and the third most successful professional football coach overall ( behind Don Shula and George Halas ) , with a combined 290 wins in the NFL and CFL . Grant was elected to the Canadian Football Hall of Fame in 1983 and to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1994 . He was the first coach in the history of professional football to guide teams to the Grey Cup finals and the Super Bowl .
Grant attended the University of Minnesota and was a three @-@ sport athlete , in football , basketball , and baseball . After college , he played for the Minneapolis Lakers of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) , the Philadelphia Eagles of the NFL , and the Winnipeg Blue Bombers of the CFL .
On October 23 , 2014 , a statue of Grant was unveiled in front of the Winnipeg Blue Bombers ' new stadium , Investors Group Field .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Bud Grant was born on May 20 , 1927 , in Superior , Wisconsin to Harry Peter Sr. and Bernice Grant . His mother called him " Buddy Boy " , which later became " Bud " . As a child , Grant was diagnosed with poliomyelitis and a doctor suggested he become active in sports to strengthen his weakened leg muscles over time . He started with baseball , adding basketball and football as he got older . Due to a lack of organized school teams , he arranged football games between neighborhoods and contacted kids from other schools to participate . During weekends , he would spend time outdoors alone hunting rabbits . In his late teens and college years , he played organized baseball in Minnesota and Wisconsin .
= = = Family = = =
Bud married Pat ( formerly Patricia Bellew ; born March 28 , 1927 ) in 1950 , and they had six children . Their son Mike Grant has been the football head coach for Eden Prairie High School in Eden Prairie , Minnesota since 1992 . Mike Grant has coached Eden Prairie to ten state championships since 1996 . Bud Grant 's grandson Ryan Grant was a quarterback and linebacker at Eden Prairie and played at the University of Minnesota ( 2008 @-@ 2012 ) as a linebacker . Bud 's granddaughter Jenny is married to former NFL quarterback Gibran Hamdan . Pat Grant died in 2009 , of Parkinson 's Disease .
= = Playing career = =
= = = High school and college = = =
Grant played football , basketball , and baseball at Superior Central High School ( Wisconsin ) . He graduated from high school in 1945 and enlisted in the Navy during World War II . He was assigned to the Great Lakes Naval Training Station in Illinois and played on the football team coached by Paul Brown . Using an acceptance letter from the University of Wisconsin – Madison to be discharged from the service , Grant decided to attend the University of Minnesota instead . He was a three sport , nine letterman athlete in football , basketball , and baseball for the Minnesota Golden Gophers , earning All @-@ Big Ten honors in football twice .
= = = Professional basketball = = =
After leaving the University of Minnesota , Grant was selected in both the NFL and NBA Draft . He was selected in the first round ( fourteenth overall ) of the 1950 NFL Draft by the Philadelphia Eagles and fourth round ( forty @-@ second overall ) selection of the Minneapolis Lakers in the 1950 NBA Draft . He played thirty @-@ five games during the 1949 – 50 NBA season and signed with the Lakers for the 1950 – 51 NBA season . He chose to continue his basketball career with the Lakers because they were local and because he was offered a raise to stay for the season . Grant 's close personal friend , Sid Hartman , was the Lakers ' general manager , which may have influenced his decision to remain with the team . He averaged 2 @.@ 6 points per game in his two seasons as a reserve with the Lakers and was a member of the 1950 championship team .
= = = Professional football = = =
After two seasons in the NBA , Grant decided to end his professional basketball career . He contacted the Philadelphia Eagles of the NFL and agreed to play for the team during the 1951 NFL season . In his first season with the Eagles , Grant played as a defensive end and led the team in sacks ( an unofficial statistic at the time ) . He switched to offense as a wide receiver for his second season with the club and ranked second in the NFL for receiving yardage , with 997 yards on fifty @-@ six catches , including seven touchdowns .
Grant 's contract expired at the end of the 1952 NFL season and the Eagles refused to pay him what he thought he was worth . The Winnipeg Blue Bombers of the CFL had been interested in Grant while in college . Grant left for Winnipeg , Canada in 1953 and became the first professional player to " play out his option " and leave for another team . He played for the Blue Bombers until 1956 as an offensive end and was named a Western Conference all @-@ star three times . He led the Western Conference in pass receptions for the 1953 , 1954 , and 1956 seasons and receiving yards for the 1953 and 1956 seasons . He also holds the distinction of having five interceptions in a playoff game , played on October 28 , 1953 , which is a CFL record . The Blue Bombers played for the Grey Cup in 1953 , but lost to the Hamilton Tiger @-@ Cats in the 41st Grey Cup game .
= = Coaching career = =
= = = Winnipeg Blue Bombers = = =
Blue Bombers management decided that they needed a new coach prior to the 1957 season . On January 30 , 1957 , Grant accepted the Blue Bombers head coaching position after impressing management with his ability to make adjustments on offense and defense as a player . Club president , J.T. Russell , thought that Grant could coach even though nobody else did . Grant would remain the head coach of the Blue Bombers until 1966 . At age 29 ( he would be 30 by the time he coached his first game ) , Grant became the youngest head coach in CFL history .
During his ten seasons as head coach in Winnipeg , he led the team to six Grey Cup appearances , winning the championship four times in 1958 , 1959 , 1961 , and 1962 . He finished his Blue Bombers coaching career with a regular season record of 105 wins , 53 losses , and two ties and an overall record of 122 wins , 66 losses , and 3 ties . Grant was the CFL Coach of the Year in 1965 . Grant took on additional responsibilities as a club manager between 1964 and 1966 . Max Winter , the Minnesota Vikings founder , contacted Grant in 1961 and asked him to coach the new NFL expansion team . Grant declined the offer and remained in Winnipeg until 1967 when Winter and General Manager Jim Finks were successful in luring Grant to Minnesota .
= = = Minnesota Vikings = = =
Grant continued his coaching success in the NFL as he took over from original coach , Norm Van Brocklin . Over his tenure as Vikings head coach , Grant was known for instilling discipline in his teams and displaying a lack of emotion during games . He believed that football is a game of controlled emotion and teams would not follow the coach 's lead if he were to panic or lose his poise during the course of a game . He required his team to stand at attention in a straight line during the entire national anthem played before the game and even had national anthem practice . Grant required outdoor practice during the winter to get players used to the cold weather and would not allow heaters on the sidelines during games .
Grant and Finks orchestrated a rare trade in between leagues , which brought Joe Kapp from the British Columbia Lions to the Vikings . In return , the Vikings sent Jim Young , a Canadian born player , back to his native country .
In his second year , Grant led the team to a divisional championship and his first NFL playoffs appearance . In 1969 , he led the team to its first NFL Championship and their first appearance in the Super Bowl . The Vikings lost in Super Bowl IV to the American Football League champion Kansas City Chiefs . Prior to the 1970 season , Minnesota released Joe Kapp . After starting Gary Cuozzo at quarterback in 1970 and 1971 , the Vikings re @-@ acquired Fran Tarkenton prior to the 1972 season . During the 1970s , the Vikings would appear in three more Super Bowls ( VIII , IX , and XI ) under Grant and lose each one , but he was the first coach to lead a team to four Super Bowls . He retired after the 1983 NFL season and was succeeded by Les Steckel , who led the team to a 3 @-@ 13 record the following season . Steckel was fired as head coach after the 1984 season and Grant returned as coach for the Vikings in 1985 . After one season where he returned the club to a 7 @-@ 9 record , he stepped down again . Grant retired as the eighth most successful coach in NFL history with an overall record of 161 wins , 99 losses , and 5 ties . As of 2014 , he also remains the most successful coach in Vikings history . During his tenure with the Vikings , he led the Vikings to four Super Bowls , eleven division titles , one league championship and three NFC conference championships .
= = Head coaching record = =
= = Post @-@ coaching career = =
After retiring , Grant became a less prominent public figure and focused on hunting and fishing and supporting environmental reforms . He has been a spokesperson against Native American hunting and fishing treaty rights in Minnesota . In 1993 , Grant 's efforts resulted in a death threat . In 2005 , he spoke at a Capitol rally in Minnesota for the conservation of wetlands , wetland wildlife , and water . Grant addressed 5 @,@ 000 supporters , saying , " In this legislative session , we want to see some action . It ’ s more important than any stadium they could ever build in this state . "
Grant is still listed as a consultant for the Vikings and maintains an office at the team 's headquarters in Eden Prairie .
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= Gerald Ford =
Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr . ( born Leslie Lynch King Jr . ; July 14 , 1913 – December 26 , 2006 ) was an American politician who served as the 38th President of the United States from 1974 to 1977 . Prior to this he was the 40th Vice President of the United States , serving from 1973 until President Richard Nixon 's resignation in 1974 . He was the first person appointed to the vice presidency under the terms of the 25th Amendment , following the resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew on October 10 , 1973 . Becoming president upon Richard Nixon 's departure on August 9 , 1974 , he claimed the distinction as the first and to date the only person to have served as both Vice President and President of the United States without being elected to either office . As he was appointed to fill a vacancy and then succeeded to the presidency , Ford also earned the distinction of being the only person in American history to neither begin nor finish either a presidential or vice presidential term on the date of a regularly @-@ scheduled inauguration . Before ascending to the vice presidency , Ford served 25 years as Representative from Michigan 's 5th congressional district , the final 9 of them as the House Minority Leader .
As President , Ford signed the Helsinki Accords , marking a move toward détente in the Cold War . With the conquest of South Vietnam by North Vietnam nine months into his presidency , U.S. involvement in Vietnam essentially ended . Domestically , Ford presided over the worst economy in the four decades since the Great Depression , with growing inflation and a recession during his tenure . One of his more controversial acts was to grant a presidential pardon to President Richard Nixon for his role in the Watergate scandal . During Ford 's presidency , foreign policy was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play , and by the corresponding curb on the powers of the President . In the GOP presidential primary campaign of 1976 , Ford defeated then @-@ former California Governor Ronald Reagan for the Republican nomination . He narrowly lost the presidential election to the Democratic challenger , then @-@ former Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter , on November 2 .
Following his years as President , Ford remained active in the Republican Party . After experiencing health problems , he died in his home on December 26 , 2006 . Ford lived longer than any other U.S. president , 93 years and 165 days , while his 895 @-@ day presidency remains the shortest term of all presidents who did not die in office . As of 2016 , he is also the most recent former president and vice president to die .
= = Early life = =
Gerald Rudolph Ford was born Leslie Lynch King Jr . , on July 14 , 1913 , at 3202 Woolworth Avenue in Omaha , Nebraska , where his parents lived with his paternal grandparents . His mother was Dorothy Ayer Gardner , and his father was Leslie Lynch King Sr. , a wool trader and a son of prominent banker Charles Henry King and Martha Alicia King ( née Porter ) . Dorothy separated from King just sixteen days after her son 's birth . She took her son with her to the Oak Park , Illinois home of her sister Tannisse and brother @-@ in @-@ law , Clarence Haskins James . From there , she moved to the home of her parents , Levi Addison Gardner and Adele Augusta Ayer , in Grand Rapids , Michigan . Dorothy and King divorced in December 1913 ; she gained full custody of her son . Ford 's paternal grandfather Charles Henry King paid child support until shortly before his death in 1930 .
Ford later said his biological father had a history of hitting his mother . James M. Cannon , a member of the Ford administration , wrote in a biography of Ford that the Kings ' separation and divorce were sparked when , a few days after Ford 's birth , Leslie King took a butcher knife and threatened to kill his wife , his infant son , and Ford 's nursemaid . Ford later told confidantes that his father had first hit his mother on their honeymoon for smiling at another man .
After two and a half years with her parents , on February 1 , 1916 , Dorothy married Gerald Rudolff Ford , a salesman in a family @-@ owned paint and varnish company . They then called her son Gerald Rudolff Ford Jr . The future president was never formally adopted , and did not legally change his name until December 3 , 1935 ; he also used a more conventional spelling of his middle name . He was raised in Grand Rapids with his three half brothers from his mother 's second marriage : Thomas Gardner " Tom " Ford ( 1918 – 1995 ) , Richard Addison " Dick " Ford ( 1924 – 2015 ) , and James Francis " Jim " Ford ( 1927 – 2001 ) .
Ford also had three half @-@ siblings from the second marriage of Leslie King Sr. , his biological father : Marjorie King ( 1921 – 1993 ) , Leslie Henry King ( 1923 – 1976 ) , and Patricia Jane King ( born 1925 ) . They never saw one another as children and he did not know them at all . Ford was not aware of his biological father until he was 17 , when his parents told him about the circumstances of his birth . That year his biological father , whom Ford described as a " carefree , well @-@ to @-@ do man who didn 't really give a damn about the hopes and dreams of his firstborn son " , approached Ford while he was waiting tables in a Grand Rapids restaurant . The two " maintained a sporadic contact " until Leslie King Sr. ' s death in 1941 .
Ford said that " My stepfather was a magnificent person and my mother equally wonderful . So I couldn 't have written a better prescription for a superb family upbringing . "
Ford was involved in the Boy Scouts of America , and earned that program 's highest rank , Eagle Scout . He is the only Eagle Scout to have ascended to the U.S. presidency .
Ford attended Grand Rapids South High School , where he was a star athlete and captain of his football team . In 1930 , he was selected to the All @-@ City team of the Grand Rapids City League . He also attracted the attention of college recruiters .
= = College and law school = =
Attending the University of Michigan as an undergraduate , Ford became a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity ( Omicron chapter ) and washed dishes at his fraternity house to earn money for college expenses .
Ford played center , linebacker and long snapper for the school 's football team , and helped the Wolverines to undefeated seasons and national titles in 1932 and 1933 . The team suffered a steep decline in his 1934 senior year , however , winning only one game . Ford was the team 's star nonetheless . After a game during which Michigan held heavily favored Minnesota ( the eventual national champion ) to a scoreless tie in the first half , assistant coach Bennie Oosterbaan later said , " When I walked into the dressing room at halftime , I had tears in my eyes I was so proud of them . Ford and [ Cedric ] Sweet played their hearts out . They were everywhere on defense . " Ford later recalled , " During 25 years in the rough @-@ and @-@ tumble world of politics , I often thought of the experiences before , during , and after that game in 1934 . Remembering them has helped me many times to face a tough situation , take action , and make every effort possible despite adverse odds . " His teammates later voted Ford their most valuable player , with one assistant coach noting , " They felt Jerry was one guy who would stay and fight in a losing cause . "
During Ford 's senior year a controversy developed when the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets refused to play a scheduled game if a black player named Willis Ward took the field . Even after protests from students , players and alumni , university officials opted to keep Ward out of the game . Ford was Ward 's best friend on the team and they roomed together while on road trips . Ford reportedly threatened to quit the team in response to the university 's decision , but eventually agreed to play against Georgia Tech when Ward personally asked him to play .
During the same season , in a game against the University of Chicago , Ford became the only future U.S. president to tackle a future Heisman Trophy winner when he brought down running back Jay Berwanger , who won the Heisman Trophy the following year . In 1934 , Ford was selected for the Eastern Team on the Shriner 's East West Crippled Children game at San Francisco ( a benefit for crippled children ) , played on January 1 , 1935 . As part of the 1935 Collegiate All @-@ Star football team , Ford played against the Chicago Bears in the Chicago College All @-@ Star Game at Soldier Field . In honor of his athletic accomplishments and his later political career , the University of Michigan retired Ford 's No. 48 jersey in 1994 . With the blessing of the Ford family , it was placed back into circulation in 2012 as part of the Michigan Football Legends program and issued to sophomore linebacker Desmond Morgan before a home game against Illinois on October 13 .
Ford remained interested in football and his school throughout life , occasionally attending games . Ford also visited with players and coaches during practices , at one point asking to join the players in the huddle . Ford often had the Naval band play the University of Michigan fight song , The Victors , before state events instead of Hail to the Chief .
Following his graduation in 1935 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Economics , Ford turned down contract offers from the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers of the National Football League . Instead , in September 1935 he took job as the boxing coach and assistant varsity football coach at Yale University , and applied to its law school .
Ford hoped to attend Yale 's law school beginning in 1935 . Yale officials at denied his admission to the law school because of his full @-@ time coaching responsibilities . He spent the summer of 1937 as a student at the University of Michigan Law School and was eventually admitted in the spring of 1938 to Yale Law School . Ford earned his LL.B. degree in 1941 ( later amended to Juris Doctor ) , graduating in the top 25 percent of his class .
While attending Yale Law School , Ford joined a group of students led by R. Douglas Stuart Jr . , and signed a petition to enforce the 1939 Neutrality Act . The petition was circulated nationally and was the inspiration for the America First Committee , a group determined to keep the U.S. out of World War II . In the summer of 1940 he worked in Wendell Willkie 's presidential campaign .
Ford graduated from law school in 1941 , and was admitted to the Michigan bar shortly thereafter . In May 1941 , he opened a Grand Rapids law practice with a friend , Philip W. Buchen , who would later serve as Ford 's White House counsel .
= = U.S. Navy Reserve : World War II = =
Ford responded to the December 7 , 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor by enlisting in the Navy . He received a commission as ensign in the U.S. Naval Reserve on April 13 , 1942 . On April 20 , he reported for active duty to the V @-@ 5 instructor school at Annapolis , Maryland . After one month of training , he went to Navy Preflight School in Chapel Hill , North Carolina , where he was one of 83 instructors and taught elementary navigation skills , ordnance , gunnery , first aid , and military drill . In addition , he coached in all nine sports that were offered , but mostly in swimming , boxing and football . During the year he was at the Preflight School , he was promoted to Lieutenant , Junior Grade , on June 2 , 1942 , and to Lieutenant , in March 1943 .
= = = Sea duty = = =
After applying for sea duty , Ford was sent in May 1943 to the pre @-@ commissioning detachment for the new aircraft carrier USS Monterey ( CVL @-@ 26 ) , at New York Shipbuilding Corporation , Camden , New Jersey . From the ship 's commissioning on June 17 , 1943 , until the end of December 1944 , Ford served as the assistant navigator , Athletic Officer , and antiaircraft battery officer on board the Monterey . While he was on board , the carrier participated in many actions in the Pacific Theater with the Third and Fifth Fleets in late 1943 and 1944 . In 1943 , the carrier helped secure Makin Island in the Gilberts , and participated in carrier strikes against Kavieng , New Ireland in 1943 . During the spring of 1944 , the Monterey supported landings at Kwajalein and Eniwetok and participated in carrier strikes in the Marianas , Western Carolines , and northern New Guinea , as well as in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . After an overhaul , from September to November 1944 , aircraft from the Monterey launched strikes against Wake Island , participated in strikes in the Philippines and Ryukyus , and supported the landings at Leyte and Mindoro .
Although the ship was not damaged by Japanese forces , the Monterey was one of several ships damaged by the typhoon that hit Admiral William Halsey 's Third Fleet on December 18 – 19 , 1944 . The Third Fleet lost three destroyers and over 800 men during the typhoon . The Monterey was damaged by a fire , which was started by several of the ship 's aircraft tearing loose from their cables and colliding on the hangar deck . During the storm , Ford narrowly avoided becoming a casualty himself . As he was going to his battle station on the bridge of the ship in the early morning of December 18 , the ship rolled twenty @-@ five degrees , which caused Ford to lose his footing and slide toward the edge of the deck . The two @-@ inch steel ridge around the edge of the carrier slowed him enough so he could roll , and he twisted into the catwalk below the deck . As he later stated , " I was lucky ; I could have easily gone overboard . "
Ford , serving as General Quarters Officer of the Deck , was ordered to go below to assess the raging fire . He did so safely , and reported his findings back to the ship 's commanding officer , Captain Stuart Ingersoll . The ship 's crew was able to contain the fire , and the ship got underway again .
After the fire , the Monterey was declared unfit for service , and the crippled carrier reached Ulithi on December 21 before continuing across the Pacific to Bremerton , Washington where it underwent repairs . On December 24 , 1944 , at Ulithi , Ford was detached from the ship and sent to the Navy Pre @-@ Flight School at Saint Mary 's College of California , where he was assigned to the Athletic Department until April 1945 . One of his duties was to coach football . From the end of April 1945 to January 1946 , he was on the staff of the Naval Reserve Training Command , Naval Air Station , Glenview , Illinois , as the Staff Physical and Military Training Officer . On October 3 , 1945 , he was promoted to Lieutenant Commander .
Ford received the following military awards : the American Campaign Medal , the Asiatic @-@ Pacific Campaign Medal with nine 3 ⁄ 16 " bronze stars ( for operations in the Gilbert Islands , Bismarck Archipelago , Marshall Islands , Asiatic and Pacific carrier raids , Hollandia , Marianas , Western Carolines , Western New Guinea , and the Leyte Operation ) , the Philippine Liberation Medal with two 3 ⁄ 16 " bronze stars ( for Leyte and Mindoro ) , and the World War II Victory Medal .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
In January 1946 , Ford was sent to the Separation Center , Great Lakes to be processed out . He was released from active duty under honorable conditions on February 23 , 1946 . On June 28 , 1946 , the Secretary of the Navy accepted Ford 's resignation from the Naval Reserve .
Ford was a member of several civic organizations , including the Junior Chamber of Commerce ( Jaycees ) , American Legion , AMVETS , Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks , Sons of the Revolution , and Veterans of Foreign Wars .
Ford was initiated into Freemasonry on September 30 , 1949 . He later said in 1975 , " When I took my obligation as a master mason — incidentally , with my three younger brothers — I recalled the value my own father attached to that order . But I had no idea that I would ever be added to the company of the Father of our Country and 12 other members of the order who also served as Presidents of the United States . "
= = Marriage and children = =
On October 15 , 1948 , at Grace Episcopal Church in Grand Rapids , Ford married Elizabeth Bloomer Warren ( 1918 – 2011 ) , a department store fashion consultant . Warren had been a John Robert Powers fashion model and a dancer in the auxiliary troupe of the Martha Graham Dance Company . She had previously been married to and divorced from William G. Warren .
At the time of his engagement , Ford was campaigning for what would be his first of thirteen terms as a member of the United States House of Representatives . The wedding was delayed until shortly before the elections because , as The New York Times reported in a 1974 profile of Betty Ford , " Jerry was running for Congress and wasn 't sure how voters might feel about his marrying a divorced ex @-@ dancer . "
The couple had four children :
Michael Gerald , born in 1949
John Gardner , known as Jack , born in 1951
Steven Meigs , born in 1956
Susan Elizabeth , born in 1958
= = House of Representatives = =
After returning to Grand Rapids in 1946 , Ford became active in local Republican politics , and supporters urged him to take on Bartel J. Jonkman , the incumbent Republican congressman . Military service had changed his view of the world . " I came back a converted internationalist " , Ford wrote , " and of course our congressman at that time was an avowed , dedicated isolationist . And I thought he ought to be replaced . Nobody thought I could win . I ended up winning two to one . "
During his first campaign in 1948 , Ford visited voters at their doorsteps and as they left the factories where they worked . Ford also visited local farms where , in one instance , a wager resulted in Ford spending two weeks milking cows following his election victory .
Ford was a member of the House of Representatives for 25 years , holding the Grand Rapids congressional district seat from 1949 to 1973 . It was a tenure largely notable for its modesty . As an editorial in The New York Times described him , Ford " saw himself as a negotiator and a reconciler , and the record shows it : he did not write a single piece of major legislation in his entire career . " Appointed to the House Appropriations Committee two years after being elected , he was a prominent member of the Defense Appropriations Subcommittee . Ford described his philosophy as " a moderate in domestic affairs , an internationalist in foreign affairs , and a conservative in fiscal policy . " Ford was known to his colleagues in the House as a " Congressman 's Congressman " .
In the early 1950s , Ford declined offers to run for either the Senate or the Michigan governorship . Rather , his ambition was to become Speaker of the House .
= = = Warren Commission = = =
On November 29 , 1963 , Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Ford to the Warren Commission , a special task force set up to investigate the assassination of President John F. Kennedy . Ford was assigned to prepare a biography of Lee Harvey Oswald , the accused assassin . According to a 1963 FBI memo released in 2008 , Ford was in contact with the FBI throughout his time on the Warren Commission and relayed information to the deputy director , Cartha DeLoach , about the panel 's activities . In the preface to his book , A Presidential Legacy and The Warren Commission , Ford defended the work of the commission and reiterated his support of its conclusions .
= = = House Minority Leader = = =
In 1964 , Lyndon Johnson led a landslide victory for his party , securing another term as president and taking 36 seats from Republicans in the House of Representatives . Following the election , members of the Republican caucus looked to select a new Minority Leader . Three members approached Ford to see if he would be willing to serve ; after consulting with his family , he agreed . After a closely contested election , Ford was chosen to replace Charles Halleck of Indiana as Minority Leader .
In January 1965 , the Republicans had 140 seats in the House compared with the 295 seats held by the Democrats . With that large majority , and a majority in the U.S. Senate , the Johnson Administration proposed and passed a series of programs that was called by Johnson the " Great Society . " During the first session of the Eighty @-@ ninth Congress alone , the Johnson Administration submitted 87 bills to Congress , and Johnson signed 84 , or 96 % , arguably the most successful legislative agenda in Congressional history .
In 1966 , criticism over the Johnson Administration 's handling of the Vietnam War began to grow , with Ford and Congressional Republicans expressing concern that the United States was not doing what was necessary to win the war . Public sentiment also began to move against Johnson , and the 1966 midterm elections saw a 47 @-@ seat swing in favor of the Republicans . This was not enough to give Republicans a majority in the House , but the victory gave Ford the opportunity to prevent the passage of further Great Society programs .
Ford 's private criticism of the Vietnam War became public following a speech from the floor of the House , in which he questioned whether the White House had a clear plan to bring the war to a successful conclusion . The speech angered President Johnson , who accused Ford of playing " too much football without a helmet " .
As Minority Leader in the House , Ford appeared in a popular series of televised press conferences with Illinois Senator Everett Dirksen , in which they proposed Republican alternatives to Johnson 's policies . Many in the press jokingly called this " The Ev and Jerry Show . " Johnson said at the time , " Jerry Ford is so dumb he can 't fart and chew gum at the same time . " The press , used to sanitizing LBJ 's salty language , reported this as " Gerald Ford can 't walk and chew gum at the same time . "
After President Nixon was elected in November 1968 , Ford 's role shifted to being an advocate for the White House agenda . Congress passed several of Nixon 's proposals , including the National Environmental Policy Act and the Tax Reform Act of 1969 . Another high @-@ profile victory for the Republican minority was the State and Local Fiscal Assistance act . Passed in 1972 , the act established a Revenue Sharing program for state and local governments . Ford 's leadership was instrumental in shepherding revenue sharing through Congress , and resulted in a bipartisan coalition that supported the bill with 223 votes in favor ( compared with 185 against ) .
During the eight years ( 1965 – 1973 ) that Ford served as Minority Leader , he won many friends in the House because of his fair leadership and inoffensive personality .
= = Vice presidency ( 1973 – 74 ) = =
On October 10 , 1973 , Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned and then pleaded no contest to criminal charges of tax evasion and money laundering , part of a negotiated resolution to a scheme in which he accepted $ 29 @,@ 500 in bribes while governor of Maryland . According to The New York Times , Nixon " sought advice from senior Congressional leaders about a replacement . The advice was unanimous . ' We gave Nixon no choice but Ford , ' House Speaker Carl Albert recalled later " .
Ford was nominated to take Agnew 's position on October 12 , the first time the vice @-@ presidential vacancy provision of the 25th Amendment had been implemented . The United States Senate voted 92 to 3 to confirm Ford on November 27 . Only three Senators , all Democrats , voted against Ford 's confirmation : Gaylord Nelson of Wisconsin , Thomas Eagleton of Missouri and William Hathaway of Maine . On December 6 , 1973 , the House confirmed Ford by a vote of 387 to 35 . One hour after the confirmation vote in the House , Ford took the oath of office as Vice President of the United States .
Ford became Vice President as the Watergate scandal was unfolding . On Thursday , August 1 , Chief of Staff Alexander Haig contacted Ford to tell him that " smoking gun " evidence had been found . The evidence left little doubt that President Nixon had been a part of the Watergate cover @-@ up . At the time , Ford and his wife , Betty , were living in suburban Virginia , waiting for their expected move into the newly designated vice president 's residence in Washington , D.C. However , " Al Haig [ asked ] to come over and see me , " Ford later said , " to tell me that there would be a new tape released on a Monday , and he said the evidence in there was devastating and there would probably be either an impeachment or a resignation . And he said , ' I 'm just warning you that you 've got to be prepared , that things might change dramatically and you could become President . ' And I said , ' Betty , I don 't think we 're ever going to live in the vice president 's house . ' "
= = Presidency ( 1974 – 77 ) = =
= = = Swearing @-@ in = = =
When Nixon resigned on August 9 , 1974 , Ford assumed the presidency , making him the only person to assume the presidency without having been previously voted into either the presidential or vice presidential office . Immediately after taking the oath of office in the East Room of the White House , he spoke to the assembled audience in a speech broadcast live to the nation . Ford noted the peculiarity of his position : " I am acutely aware that you have not elected me as your president by your ballots , and so I ask you to confirm me as your president with your prayers . " He went on to state :
I have not sought this enormous responsibility , but I will not shirk it . Those who nominated and confirmed me as Vice President were my friends and are my friends . They were of both parties , elected by all the people and acting under the Constitution in their name . It is only fitting then that I should pledge to them and to you that I will be the President of all the people .
He also stated :
My fellow Americans , our long national nightmare is over . Our Constitution works ; our great Republic is a government of laws and not of men . Here , the people rule . But there is a higher Power , by whatever name we honor Him , who ordains not only righteousness but love , not only justice , but mercy . ... let us restore the golden rule to our political process , and let brotherly love purge our hearts of suspicion and hate .
A portion of the speech would later be memorialized with a plaque at the entrance to his presidential museum .
On August 20 , Ford nominated former New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller to fill the vice presidency he had vacated . Rockefeller 's top competitor had been George H. W. Bush . Rockefeller underwent extended hearings before Congress , which caused embarrassment when it was revealed he made large gifts to senior aides , such as Henry Kissinger . Although conservative Republicans were not pleased that Rockefeller was picked , most of them voted for his confirmation , and his nomination passed both the House and Senate . Some , including Barry Goldwater , voted against him .
= = = Pardon of Nixon = = =
On September 8 , 1974 , Ford issued Proclamation 4311 , which gave Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crimes he might have committed against the United States while President . In a televised broadcast to the nation , Ford explained that he felt the pardon was in the best interests of the country , and that the Nixon family 's situation " is a tragedy in which we all have played a part . It could go on and on and on , or someone must write the end to it . I have concluded that only I can do that , and if I can , I must . "
The Nixon pardon was highly controversial . Critics derided the move and said a " corrupt bargain " had been struck between the men . They said that Ford 's pardon was granted in exchange for Nixon 's resignation , which had elevated Ford to the presidency . Ford 's first press secretary and close friend Jerald terHorst resigned his post in protest after the pardon . According to Bob Woodward , Nixon Chief of Staff Alexander Haig proposed a pardon deal to Ford . He later decided to pardon Nixon for other reasons , primarily the friendship he and Nixon shared . Regardless , historians believe the controversy was one of the major reasons Ford lost the election in 1976 , an observation with which Ford agreed . In an editorial at the time , The New York Times stated that the Nixon pardon was a " profoundly unwise , divisive and unjust act " that in a stroke had destroyed the new president 's " credibility as a man of judgment , candor and competence " . On October 17 , 1974 , Ford testified before Congress on the pardon . He was the first sitting President since Abraham Lincoln to testify before the House of Representatives .
In the months following the pardon , Ford often declined to mention President Nixon by name , referring to him in public as " my predecessor " or " the former president . " When , on a 1974 trip to California , White House correspondent Fred Barnes pressed Ford on the matter , Ford replied in surprisingly frank manner : " I just can ’ t bring myself to do it . ”
After Ford left the White House in January 1977 , the former President privately justified his pardon of Nixon by carrying in his wallet a portion of the text of Burdick v. United States , a 1915 U.S. Supreme Court decision which stated that a pardon indicated a presumption of guilt , and that acceptance of a pardon was tantamount to a confession of that guilt . In 2001 , the John F. Kennedy Library Foundation awarded the John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage Award to Ford for his pardon of Nixon . In presenting the award to Ford , Senator Edward Kennedy said that he had initially been opposed to the pardon of Nixon , but later decided that history had proved Ford to have made the correct decision .
= = = Draft dodgers and deserters = = =
On September 16 , shortly after he announced the Nixon pardon , Ford introduced a conditional amnesty program for Vietnam War draft dodgers who had fled to countries such as Canada , and for military deserters , in Presidential Proclamation 4313 . The conditions of the amnesty required that those reaffirm their allegiance to the United States and serve two years working in a public service job or a total of two years service for those who had served less than two years of honorable service in the military . The program for the Return of Vietnam Era Draft Evaders and Military Deserters established a Clemency Board to review the records and make recommendations for receiving a Presidential Pardon and a change in Military discharge status . Full pardon for draft dodgers came in the Carter Administration .
= = = Administration officials = = =
Upon assuming office , Ford inherited Nixon 's Cabinet . During Ford 's brief administration , all members were replaced except Secretary of State Kissinger and Secretary of the Treasury William E. Simon . Ford 's dramatic reorganization of his Cabinet in the fall of 1975 has been referred to by political commentators as the " Halloween Massacre " . One of Ford 's appointees , William Coleman , as Secretary of Transportation , was the second black man to serve in a presidential cabinet ( after Robert C. Weaver ) and the first appointed in a Republican administration .
Other cabinet @-@ level posts :
White House Chief of Staff
Alexander Haig ( 1974 )
Donald Rumsfeld ( 1974 – 1975 )
Dick Cheney ( 1975 – 1977 )
Director of the Office of Management and Budget
Roy Ash ( 1974 – 1975 )
James Thomas Lynn ( 1975 – 1977 )
United States Trade Representative
William Denman Eberle ( 1974 – 1975 )
Frederick B. Dent ( 1975 – 1977 )
Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency
Russell E. Train ( 1974 – 1977 )
United States Ambassador to the United Nations
John A. Scali ( 1974 – 1975 )
Daniel Patrick Moynihan ( 1975 – 1976 )
William Scranton ( 1976 – 1977 )
Other important posts :
United States National Security Advisor
Henry Kissinger ( 1974 – 1975 )
Brent Scowcroft ( 1975 – 1977 )
Director of Central Intelligence
William Colby ( 1974 – 1976 )
George H. W. Bush ( 1976 – 1977 )
Press Secretary
Jerald terHorst ( 1974 )
Ron Nessen ( 1974 – 1977 )
Ford selected George H.W. Bush as Chief of the US Liaison Office to the People 's Republic of China in 1974 , and then Director of the Central Intelligence Agency in late 1975 .
Ford 's transition chairman and first Chief of Staff was former congressman and ambassador Donald Rumsfeld . In 1975 , Rumsfeld was named by Ford as the youngest @-@ ever Secretary of Defense . Ford chose a young Wyoming politician , Richard Cheney , to replace Rumsfeld as his new Chief of Staff ; Cheney became the campaign manager for Ford 's 1976 presidential campaign .
= = = Midterm elections = = =
The 1974 Congressional midterm elections took place less than three months after Ford assumed office and in the wake of the Watergate scandal . The Democratic Party turned voter dissatisfaction into large gains in the House elections , taking 49 seats from the Republican Party , increasing their majority to 291 of the 435 seats . This was one more than the number needed ( 290 ) for a two @-@ thirds majority , the number necessary to override a Presidential veto or to propose a constitutional amendment . Perhaps due in part to this fact , the 94th Congress overrode the highest percentage of vetoes since Andrew Johnson was President of the United States ( 1865 – 1869 ) . Even Ford 's former , reliably Republican House seat was won by a Democrat , Richard Vander Veen , who defeated Robert VanderLaan . In the Senate elections , the Democratic majority became 61 in the 100 @-@ seat body .
= = = Domestic policy = = =
= = = = Inflation = = = =
The economy was a great concern during the Ford administration . One of the first acts the new president took was to deal with the economy was to create , by Executive Order on September 30 , 1974 , the Economic Policy Board . In October 1974 , in response to rising inflation , Ford went before the American public and asked them to " Whip Inflation Now " . As part of this program , he urged people to wear " WIN " buttons . At the time , inflation was believed to be the primary threat to the economy , more so than growing unemployment ; there was a belief that controlling inflation would help reduce unemployment . To rein in inflation , it was necessary to control the public 's spending . To try to mesh service and sacrifice , " WIN " called for Americans to reduce their spending and consumption . On October 4 , 1974 , Ford gave a speech in front of a joint session of Congress ; as a part of this speech he kicked off the " WIN " campaign . Over the next nine days 101 @,@ 240 Americans mailed in " WIN " pledges . In hindsight , this was viewed as simply a public relations gimmick which had no way of solving the underlying problems . The main point of that speech was to introduce to Congress a one @-@ year , five @-@ percent income tax increase on corporations and wealthy individuals . This plan would also take $ 4 @.@ 4 billion out of the budget , bringing federal spending below $ 300 billion . At the time , inflation was over twelve percent .
= = = = Budget = = = =
The federal budget ran a deficit every year Ford was President . Despite his reservations about how the program ultimately would be funded in an era of tight public budgeting , Ford signed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 , which established special education throughout the United States . Ford expressed " strong support for full educational opportunities for our handicapped children " according to the official White House press release for the bill signing .
The economic focus began to change as the country sank into the worst recession since the Great Depression four decades earlier . The focus of the Ford administration turned to stopping the rise in unemployment , which reached nine percent in May 1975 . In January 1975 , Ford proposed a 1 @-@ year tax reduction of $ 16 billion to stimulate economic growth , along with spending cuts to avoid inflation . Ford was criticized greatly for quickly switching from advocating a tax increase to a tax reduction . In Congress , the proposed amount of the tax reduction increased to $ 22 @.@ 8 billion in tax cuts and lacked spending cuts . In March 1975 , Congress passed , and Ford signed into law , these income tax rebates as part of the Tax Reduction Act of 1975 . This resulted in a federal deficit of around $ 53 billion for the 1975 fiscal year and $ 73 @.@ 7 billion for 1976 .
When New York City faced bankruptcy in 1975 , Mayor Abraham Beame was unsuccessful in obtaining Ford 's support for a federal bailout . The incident prompted the New York Daily News ' famous headline " Ford to City : Drop Dead " , referring to a speech in which " Ford declared flatly ... that he would veto any bill calling for ' a federal bail @-@ out of New York City ' " . The following month , November 1975 , Ford changed his stance and asked Congress to approve federal loans to New York City .
= = = = Swine flu = = = =
Ford was confronted with a potential swine flu pandemic . In the early 1970s , an influenza strain H1N1 shifted from a form of flu that affected primarily pigs and crossed over to humans . On February 5 , 1976 , an army recruit at Fort Dix mysteriously died and four fellow soldiers were hospitalized ; health officials announced that " swine flu " was the cause . Soon after , public health officials in the Ford administration urged that every person in the United States be vaccinated . Although the vaccination program was plagued by delays and public relations problems , some 25 % of the population was vaccinated by the time the program was canceled in December 1976 . The vaccine was blamed for twenty @-@ five deaths ; more people died from the shots than from the swine flu .
= = = = Other domestic issues = = = =
Ford was an outspoken supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment , issuing Presidential Proclamation no . 4383 in 1975 :
In this Land of the Free , it is right , and by nature it ought to be , that all men and all women are equal before the law .
Now , therefore , I , Gerald R. Ford , President of the United States of America , to remind all Americans that it is fitting and just to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment adopted by the Congress of the United States of America , in order to secure legal equality for all women and men , do hereby designate and proclaim August 26 , 1975 , as Women 's Equality Day .
As president , Ford 's position on abortion was that he supported " a federal constitutional amendment that would permit each one of the 50 States to make the choice " . This had also been his position as House Minority Leader in response to the 1973 Supreme Court case of Roe v. Wade , which he opposed . Ford came under criticism for a 60 Minutes interview his wife Betty gave in 1975 , in which she stated that Roe v. Wade was a " great , great decision " . During his later life , Ford would identify as pro @-@ choice .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
Ford continued the détente policy with both the Soviet Union and China , easing the tensions of the Cold War . Still in place from the Nixon Administration was the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty ( SALT ) . The thawing relationship brought about by Nixon 's visit to China was reinforced by Ford 's December 1975 visit to that communist country . In 1975 , the Administration entered into the Helsinki Accords with the Soviet Union , creating the framework of the Helsinki Watch , an independent non @-@ governmental organization created to monitor compliance that later evolved into Human Rights Watch .
Ford attended the inaugural meeting of the Group of Seven ( G7 ) industrialized nations ( initially the G5 ) in 1975 and secured membership for Canada . Ford supported international solutions to issues . " We live in an interdependent world and , therefore , must work together to resolve common economic problems , " he said in a 1974 speech .
According to internal White House and Commission documents posted in February 2016 by the National Security Archive at The George Washington University , the Gerald Ford White House significantly altered the final report of the supposedly independent 1975 Rockefeller Commission investigating CIA domestic activities , over the objections of senior Commission staff . The changes included removal of an entire 86 @-@ page section on CIA assassination plots and numerous edits to the report by then @-@ deputy White House Chief of Staff Richard Cheney .
= = = = Middle East = = = =
In the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean , two ongoing international disputes developed into crises . The Cyprus dispute turned into a crisis with the Turkish invasion of Cyprus , causing extreme strain within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) alliance . In mid @-@ August , the Greek government withdrew Greece from the NATO military structure ; in mid @-@ September 1974 , the Senate and House of Representatives overwhelmingly voted to halt military aid to Turkey . Ford , concerned with both the effect of this on Turkish @-@ American relations and the deterioration of security on NATO 's eastern front , vetoed the bill . A second bill was then passed by Congress , which Ford also vetoed , although a compromise was accepted to continue aid until the end of the year . As Ford expected , Turkish relations were considerably disrupted until 1978 .
In the continuing Arab – Israeli conflict , although the initial cease fire had been implemented to end active conflict in the Yom Kippur War , Kissinger 's continuing shuttle diplomacy was showing little progress . Ford considered it " stalling " and wrote , " Their [ Israeli ] tactics frustrated the Egyptians and made me mad as hell . " During Kissinger 's shuttle to Israel in early March 1975 , a last minute reversal to consider further withdrawal , prompted a cable from Ford to Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin , which included :
I wish to express my profound disappointment over Israel 's attitude in the course of the negotiations ... Failure of the negotiation will have a far reaching impact on the region and on our relations . I have given instructions for a reassessment of United States policy in the region , including our relations with Israel , with the aim of ensuring that overall American interests ... are protected . You will be notified of our decision .
On March 24 , Ford informed congressional leaders of both parties of the reassessment of the administration policies in the Middle East . " Reassessment " , in practical terms , meant canceling or suspending further aid to Israel . For six months between March and September 1975 , the United States refused to conclude any new arms agreements with Israel . Rabin notes it was " an innocent @-@ sounding term that heralded one of the worst periods in American @-@ Israeli relations " . The announced reassessments upset the American Jewish community and Israel 's well @-@ wishers in Congress . On May 21 , Ford " experienced a real shock " when seventy @-@ six U.S. senators wrote him a letter urging him to be " responsive " to Israel 's request for $ 2 @.@ 59 billion in military and economic aid . Ford felt truly annoyed and thought the chance for peace was jeopardized . It was , since the September 1974 ban on arms to Turkey , the second major congressional intrusion upon the President 's foreign policy prerogatives . The following summer months were described by Ford as an American @-@ Israeli " war of nerves " or " test of wills " . After much bargaining , the Sinai Interim Agreement ( Sinai II ) , was formally signed on September 1 , and aid resumed .
= = = = Vietnam = = = =
One of Ford 's greatest challenges was dealing with the continued Vietnam War . American offensive operations against North Vietnam had ended with the Paris Peace Accords , signed on January 27 , 1973 . The accords declared a cease fire across both North and South Vietnam , and required the release of American prisoners of war . The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam and , like the Geneva Conference of 1954 , called for national elections in the North and South . The Paris Peace Accords stipulated a sixty @-@ day period for the total withdrawal of U.S. forces .
The accords had been negotiated by United States National Security Advisor Kissinger and North Vietnamese politburo member Lê Đức Thọ . South Vietnamese President Nguyen Van Thieu was not involved in the final negotiations , and publicly criticized the proposed agreement . However , anti @-@ war pressures within the United States forced Nixon and Kissinger to pressure Thieu to sign the agreement and enable the withdrawal of American forces . In multiple letters to the South Vietnamese president , Nixon had promised that the United States would defend Thieu 's government , should the North Vietnamese violate the accords .
In December 1974 , months after Ford took office , North Vietnamese forces invaded the province of Phuoc Long . General Trần Văn Trà sought to gauge any South Vietnamese or American response to the invasion , as well as to solve logistical issues , before proceeding with the invasion .
As North Vietnamese forces advanced , Ford requested Congress approve a $ 722 million aid package for South Vietnam , funds that had been promised by the Nixon administration . Congress voted against the proposal by a wide margin . Senator Jacob K. Javits offered " ... large sums for evacuation , but not one nickel for military aid " . President Thieu resigned on April 21 , 1975 , publicly blaming the lack of support from the United States for the fall of his country . Two days later , on April 23 , Ford gave a speech at Tulane University . In that speech , he announced that the Vietnam War was over " ... as far as America is concerned " . The announcement was met with thunderous applause .
1 @,@ 373 U.S. citizens and 5 @,@ 595 Vietnamese and third country nationals were evacuated from the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon during Operation Frequent Wind . In that operation , military and Air America helicopters took evacuees to U.S. Navy ships off @-@ shore during an approximately 24 @-@ hour period on April 29 to 30 , 1975 , immediately preceding the fall of Saigon . During the operation , so many South Vietnamese helicopters landed on the vessels taking the evacuees that some were pushed overboard to make room for more people . Other helicopters , having nowhere to land , were deliberately crash landed into the sea after dropping off their passengers , close to the ships , their pilots bailing out at the last moment to be picked up by rescue boats .
Many of the Vietnamese evacuees were allowed to enter the United States under the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act . The 1975 Act appropriated $ 455 million toward the costs of assisting the settlement of Indochinese refugees . In all , 130 @,@ 000 Vietnamese refugees came to the United States in 1975 . Thousands more escaped in the years that followed .
= = = = Mayaguez and Panmunjom = = = =
North Vietnam 's victory over the South led to a considerable shift in the political winds in Asia , and Ford administration officials worried about a consequent loss of U.S. influence there . The administration proved it was willing to respond forcefully to challenges to its interests in the region on two occasions , once when Khmer Rouge forces seized an American ship in international waters and again when American military officers were killed in the demilitarized zone ( DMZ ) between North and South Korea .
The first crisis was the Mayaguez incident . In May 1975 , shortly after the fall of Saigon and the Khmer Rouge conquest of Cambodia , Cambodians seized the American merchant ship Mayaguez in international waters . Ford dispatched Marines to rescue the crew , but the Marines landed on the wrong island and met unexpectedly stiff resistance just as , unknown to the U.S. , the Mayaguez sailors were being released . In the operation , two military transport helicopters carrying the Marines for the assault operation were shot down , and 41 U.S. servicemen were killed and 50 wounded while approximately 60 Khmer Rouge soldiers were killed . Despite the American losses , the operation was seen as a success in the United States and Ford enjoyed an 11 @-@ point boost in his approval ratings in the aftermath . The Americans killed during the operation became the last to have their names inscribed on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial wall in Washington , D.C.
Some historians have argued that the Ford administration felt the need to respond forcefully to the incident because it was construed as a Soviet plot . But work by Andrew Gawthorpe , published in 2009 , based on an analysis of the administration 's internal discussions , shows that Ford 's national security team understood that the seizure of the vessel was a local , and perhaps even accidental , provocation by an immature Khmer government . Nevertheless , they felt the need to respond forcefully to discourage further provocations by other Communist countries in Asia .
The second crisis , known as the axe murder incident , occurred at Panmunjom , a village which stands in the DMZ between the two Koreas . At the time , this was the only part of the DMZ where forces from the North and the South came into contact with each other . Encouraged by U.S. difficulties in Vietnam , North Korea had been waging a campaign of diplomatic pressure and minor military harassment to try and convince the U.S. to withdraw from South Korea . Then , in August 1976 , North Korean forces killed two U.S. officers and injured South Korean guards who were engaged in trimming a tree in Panmunjom 's Joint Security Area . The attack coincided with a meeting of the Conference of Non @-@ Aligned Nations in Colombo , Sri Lanka , at which Kim Jong @-@ il , the son of North Korean leader Kim Il @-@ sung , presented the incident as an example of American aggression , helping secure the passage of a motion calling for a U.S. withdrawal from the South .
At administration meetings , Kissinger voiced the concern that the North would see the U.S. as " the paper tigers of Saigon " if they did not respond , and Ford agreed with that assessment . After mulling various options the Ford administration decided that it was necessary to respond with a major show of force . A large number of ground forces went to cut down the tree , while at the same time the air force was deployed , which included B @-@ 52 bomber flights over Panmunjom . The North Korean government backed down and allowed the tree @-@ cutting to go ahead , and later issued an unprecedented official apology .
= = = = Indonesian invasion of East Timor = = = =
East Timor 's decolonization due to political instability in Portugal saw Indonesia posture to annex the new state in 1975 . Just hours before the Indonesian invasion of East Timor ( now Timor Leste ) on December 7 , 1975 , Ford and Kissinger had visited Indonesian President Suharto in Jakarta and guaranteed American compliance with the Indonesian operation . Suharto had been a key supporter of American influence in Indonesia and Southeast Asia and Ford did not desire to place pressure on the American @-@ Indonesian relationship .
Under Ford , a policy of arms sales to the Suharto regime began in 1975 , before the invasion . " Roughly 90 % " of the Indonesian army 's weapons at the time of East Timor 's invasion were provided by the U.S. according to George H. Aldrich , a former State Department deputy legal advisor . Post @-@ invasion , Ford 's military aid averaged about $ 30 million annually throughout East Timor 's occupation , and arms sales increased exponentially under President Carter . This policy continued until 1999 .
= = = Assassination attempts = = =
Ford faced two assassination attempts during his presidency . In Sacramento , California , on September 5 , 1975 , Lynette " Squeaky " Fromme , a follower of Charles Manson , pointed a Colt .45 @-@ caliber handgun at Ford . As Fromme pulled the trigger , Larry Buendorf , a Secret Service agent , grabbed the gun , and Fromme was taken into custody . She was later convicted of attempted assassination of the President and was sentenced to life in prison ; she was paroled on August 14 , 2009 .
In reaction to this attempt , the Secret Service began keeping Ford at a more secure distance from anonymous crowds , a strategy that may have saved his life seventeen days later . As he left the St. Francis Hotel in downtown San Francisco , Sara Jane Moore , standing in a crowd of onlookers across the street , pointed her .38 @-@ caliber revolver at him . Moore fired a single round but missed because the sights were off . Just before she fired a second round , retired Marine Oliver Sipple grabbed at the gun and deflected her shot ; the bullet struck a wall about six inches above and to the right of Ford 's head , then ricocheted and hit a taxi driver , who was slightly wounded . Moore was later sentenced to life in prison . She was paroled on December 31 , 2007 , after serving 32 years .
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
= = = = Supreme Court = = = =
In 1975 , Ford appointed John Paul Stevens as Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States to replace retiring Justice William O. Douglas . Stevens had been a judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit , appointed by President Nixon . During his tenure as House Republican leader , Ford had led efforts to have Douglas impeached . After being confirmed , Stevens eventually disappointed some conservatives by siding with the Court 's liberal wing regarding the outcome of many key issues . Nevertheless , in 2005 Ford praised Stevens . " He has served his nation well , " Ford said of Stevens , " with dignity , intellect and without partisan political concerns . "
= = = = Other judicial appointments = = = =
Ford appointed 11 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals , and 50 judges to the United States district courts .
= = = 1976 presidential election = = =
Ford reluctantly agreed to run for office in 1976 , but first he had to counter a challenge for the Republican party nomination . Former Governor of California Ronald Reagan and the party 's conservative wing faulted Ford for failing to do more in South Vietnam , for signing the Helsinki Accords , and for negotiating to cede the Panama Canal . ( Negotiations for the canal continued under President Carter , who eventually signed the Torrijos – Carter Treaties . ) Reagan launched his campaign in autumn of 1975 and won numerous primaries , including North Carolina , Texas , Indiana , and California , but failed to get a majority of delegates ; Regan withdrew from the race at the Republican Convention in Kansas City , Missouri . The conservative insurgency did lead to Ford dropping the more liberal Vice President Nelson Rockefeller in favor of U.S. Senator Bob Dole of Kansas .
In addition to the pardon dispute and lingering anti @-@ Republican sentiment , Ford had to counter a plethora of negative media imagery . Chevy Chase often did pratfalls on Saturday Night Live , imitating Ford , who had been seen stumbling on two occasions during his term . As Chase commented , " He even mentioned in his own autobiography it had an effect over a period of time that affected the election to some degree . "
Ford 's 1976 election campaign benefitted from his being an incumbent president during several anniversary events held during the period leading up to the United States Bicentennial . The Washington , D.C. fireworks display on the Fourth of July was presided over by the President and televised nationally . On July 7 , 1976 , the President and First Lady served as hosts at a White House state dinner for Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip of the United Kingdom , which was televised on the Public Broadcasting Service network . The 200th anniversary of the Battles of Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts gave Ford the opportunity to deliver a speech to 110 @,@ 000 in Concord acknowledging the need for a strong national defense tempered with a plea for " reconciliation , not recrimination " and " reconstruction , not rancor " between the United States and those who would pose " threats to peace " . Speaking in New Hampshire on the previous day , Ford condemned the growing trend toward big government bureaucracy and argued for a return to " basic American virtues " .
Democratic nominee and former Georgia governor Jimmy Carter campaigned as an outsider and reformer , gaining support from voters dismayed by the Watergate scandal and Nixon pardon . After the Democratic National Convention , he held a huge 33 @-@ point lead over Ford in the polls . However , as the campaign continued , the race tightened , and , by election day , the polls showed the race as too close to call . There were three main events in the fall campaign . Most importantly , Carter repeated a promise of a " blanket pardon " for Christian and other religious refugees , and also all Vietnam War draft dodgers ( Ford had only issued a conditional amnesty ) in response to a question on the subject posed by a reporter during the presidential debates , an act which froze Ford 's poll numbers in Ohio , Wisconsin , Hawaii , and Mississippi . ( Ford had needed to shift just 11 @,@ 000 votes in Ohio plus one of the other three in order to win . ) It was the first act signed by Carter , on January 20 , 1977 . Earlier , Playboy magazine had published a controversial interview with Carter ; in the interview Carter admitted to having " lusted in my heart " for women other than his wife , which cut into his support among women and evangelical Christians . Also , on September 24 , Ford performed well in what was the first televised presidential debate since 1960 . Polls taken after the debate showed that most viewers felt that Ford was the winner . Carter was also hurt by Ford 's charges that he lacked the necessary experience to be an effective national leader , and that Carter was vague on many issues .
Televised presidential debates were reintroduced for the first time since the 1960 election . As such , Ford became the first incumbent president to participate in one . Carter later attributed his victory in the election to the debates , saying they " gave the viewers reason to think that Jimmy Carter had something to offer " . The turning point came in the second debate when Ford blundered by stating , " There is no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe and there never will be under a Ford Administration . " Ford also said that he did not " believe that the Poles consider themselves dominated by the Soviet Union " . In an interview years later , Ford said he had intended to imply that the Soviets would never crush the spirits of eastern Europeans seeking independence . However , the phrasing was so awkward that questioner Max Frankel was visibly incredulous at the response . As a result of this blunder , and Carter 's promise of a full presidential pardon for political refugees from the Vietnam era during the presidential debates , Ford 's surge stalled and Carter was able to maintain a slight lead in the polls .
In the end , Carter won the election , receiving 50 @.@ 1 % of the popular vote and 297 electoral votes compared with 48 @.@ 0 % and 240 electoral votes for Ford . The election was close enough that had fewer than 25 @,@ 000 votes shifted in Ohio and Wisconsin – both of which neighbored his home state – Ford would have won the electoral vote with 276 votes to 261 for Carter . Though he lost , in the three months between the Republican National Convention and the election Ford had managed to close what was once an alleged 33 @-@ point Carter lead to a 2 @-@ point margin . Ford carried 27 states versus 23 carried by Carter .
Had Ford won the election , the provisions of the 22nd Amendment would have disqualified him from running in 1980 , because he had served more than two years of Nixon 's remaining term .
= = Post @-@ presidential years , 1977 – 2006 = =
= = = Activity = = =
The Nixon pardon controversy eventually subsided . Ford 's successor , Jimmy Carter , opened his 1977 inaugural address by praising the outgoing President , saying , " For myself and for our Nation , I want to thank my predecessor for all he has done to heal our land . "
Ford remained relatively active in the years after his presidency . He continued to make appearances at events of historical and ceremonial significance to the nation , such as presidential inaugurals and memorial services . In January 1977 , he became the president of Eisenhower Fellowships in Philadelphia , then served as the chairman of its board of trustees from 1980 to 1986 . Later in the 1977 , he reluctantly agreed to be interviewed by James M. Naughton , a New York Times journalist who was given the assignment to write the former President 's advance obituary , an article that would be updated prior to its eventual publication . In 1979 , Ford published his autobiography , A Time to Heal ( Harper / Reader 's Digest , 454 pages ) . A review in Foreign Affairs described it as , " Serene , unruffled , unpretentious , like the author . This is the shortest and most honest of recent presidential memoirs , but there are no surprises , no deep probings of motives or events . No more here than meets the eye . "
During the term of office of his successor , Jimmy Carter , Ford received monthly briefs by President Carter 's senior staff on international and domestic issues , and was always invited to lunch at the White House whenever he was in Washington , D.C. Their close friendship developed after Carter had left office , with the catalyst being their trip together to the funeral of Anwar el @-@ Sadat in 1981 . Until Ford 's death , Carter and his wife , Rosalynn , visited the Fords ' home frequently . Ford and Carter served as honorary co @-@ chairs of the National Commission on Federal Election Reform in 2001 and of the Continuity of Government Commission in 2002 .
Like Presidents Carter , George H.W. Bush , and Clinton , Ford was an honorary co @-@ chair of the Council for Excellence in Government , a group dedicated to excellence in government performance , which provides leadership training to top federal employees .
In retirement Ford also devoted much time to his love of golf , often playing both privately and in public events with comedian Bob Hope , a longtime friend . In 1977 , he shot a hole in one during a Pro @-@ am held in conjunction with the Danny Thomas Memphis Classic at Colonial Country Club in Memphis , Tennessee .
Ford considered a run for the Republican nomination in 1980 , foregoing numerous opportunities to serve on corporate boards to keep his options open for a rematch with Carter . Ford attacked Carter 's conduct of the SALT II negotiations and foreign policy in the Middle East and Africa . Many have argued that Ford also wanted to exorcise his image as an " Accidental President " and to win a term in his own right . Ford also believed the more conservative Ronald Reagan would be unable to defeat Carter and would hand the incumbent a second term . Ford was encouraged by his former Secretary of State , Henry Kissinger as well as Jim Rhodes of Ohio and Bill Clements of Texas to make the race . On March 15 , 1980 , Ford announced that he would forgo a run for the Republican nomination , vowing to support the eventual nominee .
After securing the Republican nomination in 1980 , Ronald Reagan considered his former rival Ford as a potential vice @-@ presidential running mate , but negotiations between the Reagan and Ford camps at the Republican National Convention were unsuccessful . Ford conditioned his acceptance on Reagan 's agreement to an unprecedented " co @-@ presidency " , giving Ford the power to control key executive branch appointments ( such as Kissinger as Secretary of State and Alan Greenspan as Treasury Secretary ) . After rejecting these terms , Reagan offered the vice @-@ presidential nomination instead to George H.W. Bush . Ford did appear in a campaign commercial for the Reagan @-@ Bush ticket , in which he declared that the country would be " better served by a Reagan presidency rather than a continuation of the weak and politically expedient policies of Jimmy Carter " .
After his presidency , Ford joined the American Enterprise Institute as a distinguished fellow . He founded the annual AEI World Forum in 1982 . Ford was awarded an honorary doctorate at Central Connecticut State University on March 23 , 1988 .
After leaving the White House , Ford and his wife moved to Denver , Colorado . Ford successfully invested in oil with Marvin Davis , which later provided an income for Ford 's children .
In 1987 , Ford testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee in favor of District of Columbia Circuit Court judge and former Solicitor General Robert Bork after Bork was nominated by President Reagan to be an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court . Bork 's nomination was rejected by a vote of 58 @-@ 42 .
In 1987 Ford 's Humor and the Presidency , a book of humorous political anecdotes , was published .
By 1988 , Ford was a member of several corporate boards including Commercial Credit , Nova Pharmaceutical , The Pullman Company , Tesoro Petroleum , and Tiger International , Inc . Ford also became an honorary director of Citigroup , a position he held till his death .
In 1977 , Ford established the Gerald R. Ford Institute of Public Policy at Albion College in Albion , Michigan , to give undergraduates training in public policy . In April 1981 , he opened the Gerald R. Ford Library in Ann Arbor , Michigan , on the north campus of his alma mater , the University of Michigan , followed in September by the Gerald R. Ford Museum in Grand Rapids .
In April 1991 , Ford joined former presidents Richard Nixon , Ronald Reagan , and Jimmy Carter , in supporting the Brady Bill . Three years later , he wrote to the U.S. House of Representatives , along with Carter and Reagan , in support of the assault weapons ban .
In October 2001 , Ford broke with conservative members of the Republican party by stating that gay and lesbian couples " ought to be treated equally . Period . " He became the highest ranking Republican to embrace full equality for gays and lesbians , stating his belief that there should be a federal amendment outlawing anti @-@ gay job discrimination and expressing his hope that the Republican Party would reach out to gay and lesbian voters . He also was a member of the Republican Unity Coalition , which The New York Times described as " a group of prominent Republicans , including former President Gerald R. Ford , dedicated to making sexual orientation a non @-@ issue in the Republican Party " .
On November 22 , 2004 , New York Republican Governor George Pataki named Ford and the other living former Presidents ( Carter , George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton ) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the World Trade Center .
In a pre @-@ recorded embargoed interview with Bob Woodward of The Washington Post in July 2004 , Ford stated that he disagreed " very strongly " with the Bush administration 's choice of Iraq 's alleged weapons of mass destruction as justification for its decision to invade Iraq , calling it a " big mistake " unrelated to the national security of the United States and indicating that he would not have gone to war had he been President . The details of the interview were not released until after Ford 's death , as he requested .
= = = Health problems = = =
Ford suffered two minor strokes at the 2000 Republican National Convention , but made a quick recovery after being admitted to Hahnemann University Hospital . In January 2006 , he spent 11 days at the Eisenhower Medical Center near his residence at Rancho Mirage , California , for treatment of pneumonia . On April 23 , 2006 , President George W. Bush visited Ford at his home in Rancho Mirage for a little over an hour . This was Ford 's last public appearance and produced the last known public photos , video footage , and voice recording .
While vacationing in Vail , Colorado , Ford was hospitalized for two days in July 2006 for shortness of breath . On August 15 he was admitted to St. Mary 's Hospital of the Mayo Clinic in Rochester , Minnesota , for testing and evaluation . On August 21 , it was reported that he had been fitted with a pacemaker . On August 25 , he underwent an angioplasty procedure at the Mayo Clinic . On August 28 , Ford was released from the hospital and returned with his wife Betty to their California home . On October 13 , he was scheduled to attend the dedication of a building of his namesake , the Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy at the University of Michigan , but due to poor health and on the advice of his doctors he did not attend . The previous day , Ford had entered the Eisenhower Medical Center for undisclosed tests ; he was released on October 16 . By November 2006 , he was confined to a bed in his study .
= = Death and legacy = =
Ford died on December 26 , 2006 , at his home in Rancho Mirage , California , of arteriosclerotic cerebrovascular disease and diffuse arteriosclerosis . He had end @-@ stage coronary artery disease and severe aortic stenosis and insufficiency , caused by calcific alteration of one of his heart valves . Ford died on the 34th anniversary of President Harry Truman 's death ; he was the last surviving member of the Warren Commission .
On December 30 , 2006 , Ford became the 11th U.S. President to lie in state . A state funeral and memorial services was held at the National Cathedral in Washington , D.C. , on January 2 , 2007 . After the service , Ford was interred at his Presidential Museum in Grand Rapids , Michigan .
Scouting was so important to Ford that his family asked that Scouts participate in his funeral . A few selected Scouts served as ushers inside the National Cathedral . About 400 Eagle Scouts were part of the funeral procession , where they formed an honor guard as the casket went by in front of the museum .
Ford selected the song to be played during his funeral procession at the U.S. Capitol . After his death in December 2006 , the University of Michigan Marching Band played the school 's fight song for him one final time , for his last ride from the Gerald R. Ford Airport in Grand Rapids , Michigan .
The State of Michigan commissioned and submitted a statue of Ford to the National Statuary Hall Collection , replacing Zachariah Chandler . It was unveiled on May 3 , 2011 in the Capitol Rotunda . On the proper right side is inscribed a quotation from a tribute by Thomas P. " Tip " O 'Neill , Speaker of the House at the end of Ford 's presidency : " God has been good to America , especially during difficult times . At the time of the Civil War , he gave us Abraham Lincoln . And at the time of Watergate , he gave us Gerald Ford — the right man at the right time who was able to put our nation back together again . " On the proper left side are words from Ford 's swearing @-@ in address : " Our constitution works . Our great republic is a government of laws and not of men . Here the people rule . "
Ford 's wife , Betty Ford , died on July 8 , 2011 . Like her husband , she was 93 years old when she died .
= = = Longevity = = =
On November 12 , 2006 , upon surpassing Ronald Reagan 's lifespan , Ford released his last public statement :
The length of one 's days matters less than the love of one 's family and friends . I thank God for the gift of every sunrise and , even more , for all the years He has blessed me with Betty and the children ; with our extended family and the friends of a lifetime . That includes countless Americans who , in recent months , have remembered me in their prayers . Your kindness touches me deeply . May God bless you all and may God bless America .
Ford 's age at the time of his death was 93 years and 165 days , making him the longest @-@ lived U.S. President , his lifespan being 45 days longer than Ronald Reagan 's . He was the third @-@ longest @-@ lived Vice President , falling short only of John Nance Garner , 98 , and Levi P. Morton , 96 . Ford also had the third @-@ longest post @-@ presidency ( 29 years and 11 months ) after Jimmy Carter ( 35 years , 6 months and counting ) and Herbert Hoover ( 31 years and 7 months )
= = = Public image = = =
Ford was the only person to hold the presidential office without being elected as either president or vice @-@ president . The choice of Ford to fulfill Spiro Agnew 's vacated role as vice president was based on Ford 's reputation for openness and honesty . " In all the years I sat in the House , I never knew Mr. Ford to make a dishonest statement nor a statement part @-@ true and part @-@ false . He never attempted to shade a statement , and I never heard him utter an unkind word , " said Martha Griffiths .
The trust the American people had in him was rapidly and severely tarnished by his pardon of Nixon . Nonetheless , many grant in hindsight that he had respectably discharged with considerable dignity a great responsibility that he had not sought . His subsequent loss to Carter in 1976 has come to be seen as an honorable sacrifice he made for the nation .
In spite of his athletic record and remarkable career accomplishments , Ford acquired a reputation as a clumsy , likable , and simple @-@ minded Everyman . An incident in 1975 , when he tripped while exiting the presidential jet in Austria , was famously and repeatedly parodied by Chevy Chase , cementing Ford 's image as a klutz . Pieces of Ford 's common Everyman image have also been attributed to Ford 's inevitable comparison to Nixon , as well as his perceived Midwestern stodginess and self @-@ deprecation . Ridicule often extended to supposed intellectual limitations , with Lyndon B. Johnson once joking , " He 's a nice fellow but he spent too much time playing football without a helmet . "
= = Honors = =
Ford received the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award in May 1970 , as well as the Silver Buffalo Award , from the Boy Scouts of America . In 1985 he received the 1985 Old Tom Morris Award from the Golf Course Superintendents Association of America , GCSAA 's highest honor . In 1992 , the U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation awarded Ford its Lone Sailor Award for his naval service and his subsequent government service . In 1999 , Ford was honored with a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars . Also in 1999 , Ford was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Bill Clinton . In 2001 , he was presented with the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award for his decision to pardon Richard Nixon to stop the agony America was experiencing over Watergate .
The following were named after Ford :
The Ford House Office Building in the U.S. Capitol Complex , formerly House Annex 2 .
Gerald R. Ford Freeway ( Nebraska )
Gerald R. Ford Freeway ( Michigan )
Gerald Ford Memorial Highway , I @-@ 70 in Eagle County , Colorado
Gerald R. Ford International Airport in Grand Rapids , Michigan
Gerald R. Ford Library in Ann Arbor , Michigan
Gerald R. Ford Museum in Grand Rapids , Michigan
Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy , University of Michigan
Gerald R. Ford Amphitheater in Vail , Colorado , in Ford Park , also named after him
Gerald R. Ford Institute of Public Policy , Albion College
USS Gerald R. Ford ( CVN @-@ 78 )
Gerald R. Ford Elementary School , Indian Wells , California
Gerald Ford Boys and Girls Club , La Quinta , California
Gerald R. Ford Middle School , Grand Rapids , Michigan
Gerald Ford Drive , Coachella Valley , California ( Cathedral City , Rancho Mirage , Palm Desert )
President Gerald R. Ford Park in Alexandria , Virginia , located in the neighborhood where Ford lived while serving as a Representative and Vice President
President Ford Field Service Council , Boy Scouts of America The council where he was awarded the rank of Eagle Scout . Serves 25 counties in Western and Northern Michigan with its headquarters located in Grand Rapids , Michigan .
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= Italian battleship Giulio Cesare =
Giulio Cesare was one of three Conte di Cavour @-@ class dreadnought battleships built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the 1910s . She served in both World Wars , although she was little used and saw no combat during the former . The ship supported operations during the Corfu Incident in 1923 and spent much of the rest of the decade in reserve . She was rebuilt between 1933 and 1937 with more powerful guns , additional armor and considerably more speed than before .
Both Giulio Cesare and her sister ship , Conte di Cavour , participated in the Battle of Calabria in July 1940 , when the former was lightly damaged . They were both present when British torpedo bombers attacked the fleet at Taranto in November 1940 , but Giulio Cesare was not damaged . She escorted several convoys to North Africa and participated in the Battle of Cape Spartivento in late 1940 and the First Battle of Sirte in late 1941 . She was designated as a training ship in early 1942 , and escaped to Malta after Italy surrendered . The ship was transferred to the Soviet Union in 1949 and renamed Novorossiysk . The Soviets also used her for training until she was sunk when an old German mine exploded in 1955 . She was salvaged the following year and later scrapped .
= = Description = =
Named after Julius Caesar , Giulio Cesare was 168 @.@ 9 meters ( 554 ft 2 in ) long at the waterline , and 176 meters ( 577 ft 5 in ) overall . The ship had a beam of 28 meters ( 91 ft 10 in ) , and a draft of 9 @.@ 3 meters ( 30 ft 6 in ) . She displaced 23 @,@ 088 long tons ( 23 @,@ 458 t ) at normal load , and 25 @,@ 086 long tons ( 25 @,@ 489 t ) at deep load . She had a crew of 31 officers and 969 enlisted men . The ship 's machinery consisted of four Parsons steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft . Steam for the turbines was provided by 24 Babcock & Wilcox boilers , half of which burned fuel oil and the other half burning both oil and coal . Designed to reach a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) from 31 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 000 kW ) , Giulio Cesare failed to reach this goal on her sea trials , despite generally exceeding the rated power of her turbines . The ship only made a maximum speed of 21 @.@ 56 knots ( 39 @.@ 93 km / h ; 24 @.@ 81 mph ) using 30 @,@ 700 shp ( 22 @,@ 900 kW ) . She had a cruising radius of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship was armed with a main battery of thirteen 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in three triple @-@ gun turret and two twin @-@ gun turrets , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' Q ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . The secondary battery comprised eighteen 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns , all mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull . Giulio Cesare was also armed with fourteen 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she was equipped with three submerged 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . She was protected with Krupp cemented steel manufactured by Terni . The belt armor was 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) thick and the main deck was 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The conning tower and main battery turrets were protected with 280 mm ( 11 in ) worth of armor plating .
= = Modifications and reconstruction = =
Shortly after the end of World War I , the number of 50 @-@ caliber 76 mm guns was reduced to 13 , all mounted on the turret tops , and six new 40 @-@ caliber 76 mm anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns were installed abreast the aft funnel . In addition two license @-@ built 2 @-@ pounder AA guns were mounted on the forecastle deck . In 1925 – 26 the foremast was replaced by a four @-@ legged mast , which was moved forward of the funnels , the rangefinders were upgraded , and the ship was equipped to handle a Macchi M.18 seaplane mounted on the center turret . Around that same time , either one or both of the ships was equipped with a fixed aircraft catapult on the port side of the forecastle .
Giulio Cesare began an extensive reconstruction in October 1933 at the Cantieri del Tirreno shipyard in Genoa that lasted until October 1937 . A new bow section was grafted over the existing bow which increased her length by 10 @.@ 31 meters ( 33 ft 10 in ) to 186 @.@ 4 meters ( 611 ft 7 in ) and her beam increased to 28 @.@ 6 meters ( 93 ft 10 in ) . The ship 's draft at deep load increased to 10 @.@ 02 meters ( 32 ft 10 in ) . All of the changes made increased her displacement to 26 @,@ 140 long tons ( 26 @,@ 560 t ) at standard load and 29 @,@ 100 long tons ( 29 @,@ 600 t ) at deep load . The ship 's crew increased to 1 @,@ 260 officers and enlisted men . Two of the propeller shafts were removed and the existing turbines were replaced by two Belluzzo geared steam turbines rated at 75 @,@ 000 shp ( 56 @,@ 000 kW ) . The boilers were replaced by eight Yarrow boilers . On her sea trials in December 1936 , before her reconstruction was fully completed , Giulio Cesare reached a speed of 28 @.@ 24 knots ( 52 @.@ 30 km / h ; 32 @.@ 50 mph ) from 93 @,@ 430 shp ( 69 @,@ 670 kW ) . In service her maximum speed was about 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) and she had a range of 6 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 900 km ; 7 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) .
The main guns were bored out to 320 millimeters ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) and the center turret and the torpedo tubes were removed . All of the existing secondary armament and AA guns were replaced by a dozen 120 mm guns in six twin @-@ gun turrets and eight 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 0 in ) AA guns in twin turrets . In addition the ship was fitted with a dozen Breda 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) light AA guns in six twin @-@ gun mounts and twelve 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) Breda M31 anti @-@ aircraft machine guns , also in twin mounts . In 1940 the 13 @.@ 2 mm machine guns were replaced by 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) AA guns in twin mounts . Giulio Cesare received two more twin mounts as well as four additional 37 mm guns in twin mounts on the forecastle between the two turrets in 1941 . The tetrapodal mast was replaced with a new forward conning tower , protected with 260 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 2 in ) thick armor . Atop the conning tower there was a fire @-@ control director fitted with two large stereo @-@ rangefinders , with a base length of 7 @.@ 2 meters ( 23 @.@ 6 ft ) .
The deck armor was increased during the reconstruction to a total of 135 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) over the engine and boiler rooms and 166 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) over the magazines , although its distribution over three decks , each with multiple layers , meant that it was considerably less effective than a single plate of the same thickness . The armor protecting the barbettes was reinforced with 50 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) plates . All this armor weighed a total of 3 @,@ 227 long tons ( 3 @,@ 279 t ) . The existing underwater protection was replaced by the Pugliese torpedo defense system that consisted of a large cylinder surrounded by fuel oil or water that was intended to absorb the blast of a torpedo warhead . It lacked , however , enough depth to be fully effective against contemporary torpedoes . A major problem of the reconstruction was that the ship 's increased draft meant that their waterline armor belt was almost completely submerged with any significant load .
= = Construction and service = =
Giulio Cesare , named after Julius Caesar , was laid down at the Gio . Ansaldo & C. shipyard in Genoa on 24 June 1910 and launched on 15 October 1911 . She was completed on 14 May 1914 and served as a flagship in the southern Adriatic Sea during World War I. She saw no action , however , and spent little time at sea . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and minelayers could operate too effectively in the narrow waters of the Adriatic . The threat from these underwater weapons to his capital ships was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement a blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the battle fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS torpedo boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Meanwhile , Revel 's battleships would be preserved to confront the Austro @-@ Hungarian battle fleet in the event that it sought a decisive engagement .
Giulio Cesare made port visits in the Levant in 1919 and 1920 . Both Giulio Cesare and Conte di Cavour supported Italian operations on Corfu in 1923 after an Italian general and his staff were murdered on Corfu ; Benito Mussolini was not satisfied with the Greek government 's response so he ordered Italian troops to occupy the island . Cesare became a gunnery training ship in 1928 , after having been in reserve since 1926 . She was reconstructed at Cantieri del Tirreno , Genoa , between 1933 and 1937 . Both ships participated in a naval review by Adolf Hitler in the Bay of Naples in May 1938 and covered the invasion of Albania in May 1939 .
= = = World War II = = =
Early in World War II , the ship took part in the Battle of Calabria ( also known as the Battle of Punto Stilo ) , together with Conte di Cavour , on 9 July 1940 , as part of the 1st Battle Squadron , commanded by Admiral Inigo Campioni , during which she engaged major elements of the British Mediterranean Fleet . The British were escorting a convoy from Malta to Alexandria , while the Italians had finished escorting another from Naples to Benghazi , Libya . Admiral Andrew Cunningham , commander of the Mediterranean Fleet , attempted to interpose his ships between the Italians and their base at Taranto . Crew on the fleets spotted each other in the middle of the afternoon and the battleships opened fire at 15 : 53 at a range of nearly 27 @,@ 000 meters ( 29 @,@ 000 yd ) . The two leading British battleships , HMS Warspite and Malaya , replied a minute later . Three minutes after she opened fire , shells from Giulio Cesare began to straddle Warspite which made a small turn and increased speed , to throw off the Italian ship 's aim , at 16 : 00 . At that same time , a shell from Warspite struck Giulio Cesare at a distance of about 24 @,@ 000 meters ( 26 @,@ 000 yd ) . The shell pierced the rear funnel and detonated inside it , blowing out a hole nearly 6 @.@ 1 meters ( 20 ft ) across . Fragments started several fires and their smoke was drawn into the boiler rooms , forcing four boilers off @-@ line as their operators could not breathe . This reduced the ship 's speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Uncertain how severe the damage was , Campioni ordered his battleships to turn away in the face of superior British numbers and they successfully disengaged . Repairs to Giulio Cesare were completed by the end of August and both ships unsuccessfully attempted to intercept British convoys to Malta in August and September .
On the night of 11 November 1940 , Giulio Cesare and the other Italian battleships were at anchor in Taranto harbor when they were attacked by 21 Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers from the British aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious , along with several other warships . One torpedo sank Conte di Cavour in shallow water , but Giulio Cesare was not hit during the attack . She participated in the Battle of Cape Spartivento on 27 November 1940 , but never got close enough to any British ships to fire at them . The ship was damaged in January 1941 by splinters from a near miss during an air raid on Naples by Vickers Wellington bombers of the Royal Air Force ; repairs at Genoa were completed in early February . On 8 February , she sailed from to the Straits of Bonifacio to intercept what the Italians thought was a Malta convoy , but was actually a raid on Genoa . She failed to make contact with any British forces . She participated in the First Battle of Sirte on 17 December 1941 , providing distant cover for a convoy bound for Libya , again never firing her main armament . She also provided distant cover for another convoy to North Africa in early January 1942 . Giulio Cesare was reduced to a training ship afterwards at Taranto and later Pola . The German submarine U @-@ 596 unsuccessfully attacked the ship in the Gulf of Taranto in early March 1944 . After the Italian surrender on 9 September 1943 , she steamed to Taranto , putting down a mutiny and enduring an ineffective attack by five German aircraft en route . She then sailed for Malta where she arrived on 12 September to be interned . The ship remained there until 17 June 1944 when she returned to Taranto where she remained for the next four years .
= = = Soviet service = = =
After the war , Giulio Cesare was allocated to the Soviet Union as part of the war reparations and she was moved to Augusta , Sicily on 9 December 1948 where an unsuccessful attempt was made to sabotage the ship . The ship was stricken from the naval register on 15 December and turned over to the Soviets on 6 February 1949 under the temporary name of Z11 in Vlorë , Albania . She was renamed by them as Novorossiysk , after the Soviet city on the Black Sea . The Soviets used her as a training ship when she was not undergoing one of her eight refits in their hands . In 1953 , all remaining Italian light AA guns were replaced by eighteen 37 mm 70 @-@ K AA guns in six twin mounts and six singles . They also replaced her fire @-@ control systems and added radars , although the exact changes are unknown . The Soviets intended to rearm her with their own 305 mm guns , but this was forestalled by her loss . While at anchor in Sevastopol on the night of 28 / 29 October 1955 , she most likely detonated a large German mine left over from World War II . The explosion blew a hole completely through the ship , making a 4 @-@ by @-@ 14 @-@ meter ( 13 by 46 ft ) hole in the forecastle forward of ' A ' turret . The flooding could not be controlled and she later capsized with the loss of 608 men , including men sent from other ships to assist .
The cause of the explosion is still unclear . The officially named cause , regarded as the most probable , was a magnetic RMH or LMB bottom mine , laid by the Germans during World War II and triggered by the dragging of the battleship 's anchor chain before mooring for the last time . Subsequent searches located 32 mines of these types , some of them within 50 meters ( 160 ft ) of the explosion . The damage was consistent with an explosion of 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 200 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 200 – 2 @,@ 600 lb ) of TNT and more than one mine may have detonated . Nonetheless , other explanations for the ship 's loss have been proposed and the most popular of these is that she was sunk by Italian frogmen of the wartime special operations unit Decima Flottiglia MAS who — more than ten years after the cessation of hostilities — were either avenging the transfer of the former Italian battleship to the USSR or sinking it on behalf of NATO . Novorossiysk was stricken from the naval register on 24 February 1956 , salvaged on 4 May 1957 , and subsequently scrapped .
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= Hugh Mason =
Hugh Mason ( 30 January 1817 – 2 February 1886 ) was an English mill owner , social reformer and Liberal politician . He was born in Stalybridge and brought up in Stalybridge and Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne until he entered the family cotton business in 1838 after a seven year period working in a bank . Having originally opposed trade unions , Mason became a paternalistic mill owner , creating a colony for his workers with associated facilities and ensuring that they experienced good conditions . During the Lancashire Cotton Famine of the 1860s he refused to cut workers ' wages although it was common practice .
Mason became the first Liberal to be elected councillor for Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne in 1856 . He was mayor of the council from 1857 to 1860 and retired from local politics in 1874 due to conflict with his own party . Mason returned to the Liberals in 1878 when he stood for election as Member of Parliament for Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne . He was voted in and supported progressive policies , which included women 's suffrage , making him unpopular within his own party . He was MP from 1880 to 1885 . When he died in 1886 , aged 69 , Hugh Mason had amassed £ 290 @,@ 933 ( now about £ 17 million ) .
= = Early life and business career = =
Hugh Mason was born in Stalybridge , Cheshire , on 11 May 1817 and christened there . He was the youngest of four children of Thomas Mason , a former textile manager , and Mary , the daughter of John Holden , Esq . The family had moved to Stalybridge from Derbyshire in 1776 . After working as the manager of a mill in Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , Thomas established his own business in 1815 in partnership with James Booth and Edward Hulton at Currier Slacks Mill in the town . Rapid growth in their enterprise saw them expand into the Bank Mill and Royal George Mills in the 1820s and Albion Mill in the 1830s . At the age of 10 , Hugh was working in the mill , and his education consisted of attending Methodist Sunday schools in Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne and Stalybridge and spending three years at a private school in Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne .
After leaving school at the age of 14 , Mason got a job with the district bank while he attended night school in his spare time . He worked there until 1838 , when he left at the age of 21 to join the family 's cotton business . He became the driving force behind the business . The business thrived : by the early 1850s the Mason family had built two state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art cotton mills in the Ryecroft area of Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , known as the Oxford Mills . He was able to purchase Groby Hall , in Ashton , the ancestral seat of the former Lord Greys of Groby .
In 1845 , to house the workers for the mills , Mason began construction of a " workers ' colony " . The colony not only provided 150 terrace houses ( housing an estimated 691 people in 1872 ) but also leisure facilities such as a library , a swimming pool , a gymnasium , and a reading room . Mason built up what he saw as a model industrial community , and according to Mason himself , the annual death rate was significantly lower than in the rest of Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne . Residents were expected to adhere to his strict moral code and he discouraged the use of public houses . He estimated that establishing the settlement cost him around £ 10 @,@ 000 and a further £ 1 @,@ 000 per year to maintain ( about £ 600 @,@ 000 today and a further £ 60 @,@ 000 to maintain ) .
Under Hugh Mason 's leadership , the company prospered . The number of mule spindles in use at the mills increased from 20 @,@ 000 in 1846 to 75 @,@ 000 in 1887 . His two brothers , Henry and Booth , also worked in the company until retired in 1848 and 1853 respectively . Their father remained active in the company until 1860 when he retired , leaving Hugh as the sole owner . The Manchester Cotton Company was set up in 1860 and Mason 's success in the cotton industry led him to become its chairman from the beginning until its winding up , which began in 1864 , but was not concluded until 1867 . The purpose of the company was to increase the number of producers of cotton ; this was important as the American market was closed off during the American Civil War , causing the Lancashire Cotton Famine . Mason served as President of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce from 1871 to 1874 , and came to hold interests in the Bridgewater Canal Navigation Company , the Midland Railway Company , the Mersey Dock Board , and various other coal and iron companies .
Having initially opposed trade unions and factory legislation , Mason changed his mind around the 1850s regarding how workers should be treated , believing that the welfare of the employees impacted on the welfare of the employer . He became popular among workers for such things as becoming the first local employer to give his workers Saturday afternoons off . During the Lancashire Cotton Famine of 1861 – 1865 he refused to cut workers ' wages as was common during the period . He stated :
I will keep my work people employed , and if there is no work , lend them money from my own pocket rather than have them apply for relief . The poor rate is only 1s 6d in the pound . I will pay as high a poor rate as the Poor Law Guardians deem necessary .
As well as this , he contributed £ 500 ( about the equivalent of £ 30 @,@ 000 today ) to the Ashton borough cotton famine relief . During the tumultuous 1870s and 1880s , Mason kept his workforce fully employed and continued to invest in his mills . By 1884 , wages in his mills were 25 % higher than they had been in 1870 even though his employees were working fewer hours . The Manchester Guardian noted :
Hugh Mason is one of the first amongst those wealthy manufacturers of Lancashire who devote the hours which are not occupied by business to the service of their fellow men . He has been accustomed to take a leading part in the various public improvements , and he has long been a political chief . At Ashton he is unpopular : the ruggedness which mars his virtues , and the self assertion which stamps his conduct , do not invite the affection of his fellow . Although he has done more than any other millowner on securing the physical and social well @-@ being of his employees , he is not highly esteemed . He has built for his workpeople admirable cottages , swimming baths , gymnasiums and lecture halls , but beneficent acts do not suffice to secure popularity unless there is a suavity of manner and sympathy of nature in the benefactor , and these are qualities which Mr Mason lacks . Mr Mason is a staunch liberal , and is reckoned to be one of the oracles of the local party . His figure is a familiar one at free trade meetings where the citizens of Manchester never fail to receive him with the utmost enthusiasm . The working men hail his appearance with tempestuous applause , and invariable reward his rhetorical efforts with frequent and deafening cheers .
= = Political career = =
= = = Local = = =
Hugh Mason was influenced by his father 's Liberal politics and strongly opposed to injustice and prejudice . Thomas Mason was a supporter of political representation for Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne and supported the repeal of the Corn Laws . In the early 19th century , the area was poorly represented in Parliament . The major urban centres of Manchester , Salford , Bolton , Blackburn , Rochdale , Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , Oldham and Stockport – with a combined population of almost one million – were represented by either the two county MPs for Lancashire ( or the two for Cheshire in the case of Stockport ) . By comparison , more than half of all MPs were elected by a total of just 154 voters . These inequalities in political representation led to calls for reform and eventually the Peterloo Massacre in 1819 . Hugh said of his father that " To his life of honest industry , to his example of commercial probity , to his high Christian character , to his training , of me in my early years , to his wise consuls , I owe under God my position in society . "
Although he claimed he was reluctant to enter politics , Hugh Mason became the first Liberal elected councillor for Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne in November 1856 . He represented the Portland Place ward from 1856 until his retirement from politics in 1874 . Mason quickly made an impression and was elected mayor for three consecutive years between 1857 and 1860 , which had never happened before . He supported progressive measures such as opening a public park , providing public libraries , and addressing unsanitary conditions in parts of Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne .
Mason 's policies led him to come into constant clashes with the Conservative members of the council . He was not always popular within his own party either and he even financed his own newspaper , the Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne News , to convey his views and provide competition for the pro @-@ Liberal Ashton Reporter . Conflict with the Liberals drove Mason into early retirement from local politics in 1874 at the age of 57 .
As well as being a councillor , Mason was also elected a local magistrate for Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne in 1857 . During his time in office he had to deal with the bread riots of 21 – 22 March 1863 ( caused by the cotton famine ) and the Murphy Riots in May 1868 . The Murphy Riots were anti @-@ Catholic demonstrations , fueled by Fenianism ( an Irish nationalist organisation ) , across Lancashire led by William Murphy . He personally went to one mob during the Murphy Riots to read them the riot act face @-@ to @-@ face . He was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant of the County Palatine of Lancaster on 21 June 1862 . Such was his significance in Manchester he was appointed President of the Chamber of Commerce for two years from 1871 . At the same time he was a Governor of Owen 's College in the city . Mason was appointed a member of the Board of the Mersey Docks and Harbour .
= = = National = = =
Mason , along with a group of other Advanced Liberals supporting John Morley , the gladstonian , was one of the founding members of the Reform Club in Manchester , a political club founded in 1867 for Liberals and their supporters . Despite retiring from local politics because of conflict with the Liberals , by 1878 he was back in favour and Liberal councillors were encouraging Mason to stand for parliamentary election . Although he was a popular candidate , he was initially reluctant to put himself forward . However , he stood for Parliament in the 1880 General Elections . His campaign in March and April 1880 involved vitriolic attacks on the local Conservative Party and on 3 April 1880 he was elected MP for Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , beating his opponent , John Ross Coulthart , by 2 @,@ 966 votes to 2 @,@ 586 .
As an MP he lived at 33 Onslow Square , Kensington , and was a member of the Reform Club . Mason supported many reformist bills and became a spokesman of the Women 's Suffrage Association in 1881 . He proposed motions for women 's suffrage in 1881 and again in 1883 but was defeated on both occasions . He led the women 's suffrage movement until 1883 when illness forced him to retreat from public life temporarily . His defeat in the 1885 General Elections was ascribed to his support of William Ewart Gladstone over the issue of Irish Home Rule and to his illness . He lost to the Conservative John Wentworth Addison by 3 @,@ 152 votes to 3 @,@ 104 . Mason demanded a recount , but this increased the majority by one vote ; he succumbed to illness and died before the result was announced .
= = Personal life = =
In 1846 Hugh Mason married Sarah Buckley , the daughter of Abel Buckley , Esq , who was also the father of Abel Buckley Businessman and MP , another cotton mill owner who went on to be a millionaire businessman and landowner . They had one child , Arnold , who was born in 1851 . Sarah died in 1852 at the age of 29 . Mason next married Sarah 's sister , Betsy , though it was illegal to marry one 's sister @-@ in @-@ law in England at the time . To overcome this problem they married in Denmark on 7 June 1854 . Their marriage was approved by special licence from the King of Denmark and was held at the Evangellic Reform Church , Altona in the Duchy of Holstein . They had four children : Bertha , born in 1855 , Edith in 1857 , Rupert in 1859 and Sydney in 1861 . Betsy died after the birth of Sydney and Mason then married for a third time Annie , daughter of George Ashworth , Esq , of Rochdale in 1864 .
Hugh Mason died three days after his 69th birthday on 2 February 1886 at his home , Groby Hall . At his death , he had amassed a fortune worth £ 290 @,@ 933 ( now worth about £ 17M ) . He was the first person to have a statue ( now protected as a Grade II listed building ) erected in his honour in Tameside ; it was financed by public subscription immediately after Mason 's death .
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= Kepler @-@ 11g =
Kepler @-@ 11g is an exoplanet discovered in the orbit of the sunlike star Kepler @-@ 11 by the Kepler spacecraft , a NASA satellite tasked with searching for terrestrial planets . Kepler @-@ 11g is the outermost of the star 's six planets . The planet orbits at a distance of nearly half the mean distance between Earth and the Sun . It completes an orbit every 118 days , placing it much further from its star than the system 's inner five planets . Its estimated radius is a little over three times that of Earth , i.e. comparable to Neptune 's size . Kepler @-@ 11g 's distance from the inner planets made its confirmation more difficult than that of the inner planets , as scientists had to work to exhaustively disprove all reasonable alternatives before Kepler @-@ 11g could be confirmed . The planet 's discovery , along with that of the other Kepler @-@ 11 planets , was announced on February 2 , 2011 . According to NASA , the Kepler @-@ 11 planets form the flattest and most compact system yet discovered .
= = Name and discovery = =
Kepler @-@ 11 was originally called KOI @-@ 157 when NASA 's Kepler spacecraft flagged the star for possible transit events , which exhibit tiny and roughly periodic decreases in the star 's brightness are measured as it passes in front of its star as seen from Earth . Kepler @-@ 11 's name is incorporated into Kepler @-@ 11g 's name because it is the host star . As Kepler @-@ 11g and its five sister planets were discovered and announced at the same time , its planets were sorted alphabetically by distance from the host star , starting with the letter b . Because Kepler @-@ 11g was the furthest of the six , it was given the designation " g . "
The Kepler team 's scientists conducted follow @-@ up observations to confirm or reject the planetary nature of the detected object . To do so , they used the Keck 1 telescope at the W.M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii ; the Shane and Hale telescopes in California ; telescopes at the WIYN ( including MMT ) and Whipple observatories in Arizona ; Nordic Optical Telescope in the Canary Islands ; the Hobby @-@ Eberly and Harlan J. Smith telescopes in Texas ; and NASA 's Spitzer Space Telescope . Because Kepler @-@ 11g orbits its star at a far greater distance than the inner five planets , fewer transits were observed , and radial velocity ( the observation of a Doppler effect ) interactions could not be easily discerned . As with the discovery of Kepler @-@ 9d , the Kepler team ran the information through numerous models to see if Kepler @-@ 11g 's light curve could fit the profile of some other object , including an eclipsing binary star in the background that may have contaminated the data . The probability that Kepler @-@ 11g is not a planet but instead a false positive was determined to be 0 @.@ 18 % , effectively confirming its existence .
Kepler @-@ 11g , along with its five sister planets , were announced at a NASA press conference on February 2 , 2011 . The findings were published in the journal Nature a day later .
= = Host star = =
Kepler @-@ 11 is a G @-@ type star in the Cygnus constellation . It is located approximately 613 parsecs away . Kepler @-@ 11 is .95 ( ± 0 @.@ 1 ) times the mass and 1 @.@ 1 ( ± 0 @.@ 1 ) times the radius of the Sun . The star has an iron content ( metallicity ) of 0 ( ± 0 @.@ 1 ) , similar to that of the Sun . Metallicity plays a vital role in the formation of planets , as a more metal @-@ rich star tends to form more dense planets . Kepler @-@ 11 has an effective temperature of 5680 ( ± 100 ) K , only slightly cooler than the Sun ( 5778 K ) . Kepler @-@ 11 hosts six known planets : Kepler @-@ 11b , Kepler @-@ 11c , Kepler @-@ 11d , Kepler @-@ 11e , and Kepler @-@ 11f , all of which form a tight group well within the orbit of Mercury . Kepler @-@ 11g is considerably farther away from Kepler @-@ 11 than its five sister planets . According to NASA , the planets orbiting Kepler @-@ 11 form the flattest and most compact system known .
Kepler @-@ 11 has an apparent magnitude of 14 @.@ 2 , and thus cannot be seen with the naked eye .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 11g , the sixth planet of six from its star , it 's mass is estimated to be at most 25 times that of Earth . Its exact mass could not be determined through transit observations because , while gravitational interactions of Kepler @-@ 11 's five inner planets were used to determine their masses , Kepler @-@ 11g 's comparatively large distance prevented it from affecting , or being affected by , the other five planets . As a result , only an upper limit can be placed on the mass , which is based on the assumption that if it were above this limit , gravitational effects on the other planets would be observed . Nonetheless , tighter constraints were placed on Kepler @-@ 11g 's mass by formation and evolution calculations , which indicated that the planet mass is not much greater than about 7 ME .
Its radius is estimated to be 3 @.@ 33 times that of Earth , somewhat smaller than Neptune 's radius . Kepler @-@ 11g has an estimated surface equilibrium temperature of 400 K , over 1 @.@ 5 times ( 50 % higher ) that of Earth 's equilibrium temperature . Kepler @-@ 11g orbits Kepler @-@ 11 every 118 @.@ 37774 days ( over 2 @.@ 5 times that of the fifth planet from Kepler @-@ 11 , Kepler @-@ 11f ) at a distance of 0 @.@ 462 AU , almost half of the distance from which Earth orbits the Sun . Its eccentricity is unknown . In comparison , planet Mercury orbits the Sun every 87 @.@ 97 days at a distance of 0 @.@ 387 AU . With an orbital inclination of 89 @.@ 8 ° , Kepler @-@ 11g is seen almost edge @-@ on with respect to Earth .
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= Regenbald =
Regenbald ( sometimes known as Regenbald of Cirencester ) was a priest and royal official in Anglo @-@ Saxon England under King Edward the Confessor . His name suggests that he was not a native Englishman , and perhaps was German or Norman . He first appears in history as a witness to a royal document in 1050 , and remained a royal chaplain and clerk throughout the rest of King Edward 's reign . Many royal documents give Regenbald the title of " chancellor " but whether this means that he acted in a manner similar to the later Lord Chancellor is unclear , as some of the documents may be forgeries or have been tampered with . Whatever Regenbald 's actual title , King Edward rewarded him with lands and also granted him the status , but not the actual office , of bishop . Regenbald continued to serve the English kings after the Norman Conquest of England , although whether he served King Harold II of England is unclear . His date of death is unknown , but it was probably during the reign of either King William I or William II . After his death , some of his lands became part of the endowment of Cirencester Abbey in 1133 .
= = Early life = =
His origins are unknown , but he was probably not a native Englishman . He may have been German or Norman . The historian Katharine Keats @-@ Rohan suggests that he was possibly the nephew of Peter , who was the Bishop of Chester and a Norman . His name was a German or French name , which suggests that Regenbald was one of the foreigners that gained favour with King Edward the Confessor .
= = Service to Edward the Confessor = =
Regenbald first appears in the historical record in 1050 , when he witnesses a charter of King Edward . King Edward gave him large estates as a reward for his service to the king as a royal chaplain . The Domesday Book records him owning at least seven churches , but only two of them have any indication that he performed any ecclesiastical services personally . Another royal reward was the grant to Regenbald of the status , without the actual office , of a bishop . He probably was unable to be promoted to a bishopric , either because he was married or because his style of life was known to be unchaste .
In royal charters he is often given the title " royal chancellor " , as he is styled in a 1062 charter in Latin regis cancellarius , but this does not necessarily mean that there was an official office known as chancellor similar to the later Lord Chancellor 's office . Regenbald was probably in charge of Edward 's royal clerks and scribes , but his position in the witness lists argues against his holding an actual office , as he is not listed early in the witness lists along with the magnates . He probably performed some of the duties that later were done by the chancellor , but the first chancellor in England is usually held to be Herfast , who held office from around 1069 . Some historians , including David Bates , hold that Regenbald was chancellor , however . Some support for that position is the fact that Domesday Book lists Regenbald as " chancellor " . The entire issue of whether Regenbald was a " true " chancellor or not is bound up in the debate amongst medievalists about whether there was a recognisable chancery in England prior to the Norman Conquest . One school of thought , led by Pierre Chaplais , argues that no such office existed prior to the Conquest . Another group argues that there was , and among this group is the historian Simon Keynes . In Regenbald 's case , a number of the documents that give him the title " chancellor " are either forgeries or have been altered in the copying process . Others , however , are not easily shown to be spurious .
Besides his scribal duties , he also served as a royal judge , as he is recorded as passing judgement in a case late in Edward 's or early in William 's reign , along with Wulfstan , Bishop of Worcester , and Æthelwig , Abbot of Evesham . A thirteenth @-@ century source says that he was dean of the church at Cirencester during William 's reign .
Regenbald remained at the royal court throughout Edward 's reign and into the reign of King William the Conqueror . His lands and possessions were confirmed by King William after the Norman Conquest . Whether he served King Harold in the period after King Edward 's death is unknown , as no royal charters and only one royal writ survive from Harold 's reign .
Regenbald 's lands are recorded in a charter from the reign of King Henry I of England which dealt with the gift of those lands after Regenbald 's death . This charter lists a number of estates as owned by Regenbald that were also listed in Domesday Book as Regenbald 's , but there are a few other possessions that did not get recorded in Domesday . The lands listed include lands in Gloucestershire , Berkshire , Wiltshire , Somerset , Northamptonshire , Worcestershire , and Dorset . Domesday lists the value of Regenbald 's lands at £ 40 per year . His estates totalled about 90 hides , although some of the estates were given to him after the Norman Conquest .
= = Death and legacy = =
Presumably , he died either during the reign of William I or during the following reign of William II . Possibly , he was buried at Cirencester , where a stone tomb in the crypt of the Saxon @-@ era church still exists and may be his . After his death , a group of his lands became the basis for the foundation of Cirencester Abbey by King Henry I of England in 1133 . Regenbald 's brother held land near him in Cirencester . Regenbald had a son named Edward who also held lands in Gloucester .
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= Elixir ( perfume ) =
Elixir is a women 's fragrance by Colombian singer songwriter Shakira , developed in a collaboration with international fashion company Puig . After the release of her first two fragrances , Puig enlisted several perfumers to work on Shakira 's third fragrance , which she claimed would capture her " most sensual and exotic side . " The final product was Elixir , an oriental perfume based on various spicy and woody sources . The flacon of the perfume is inspired by apothecary bottles and is made to resemble a magical potion , featuring a light golden colour scheme .
Shakira launched the fragrance at a press release in São Paulo , Brazil , in July 2012 . Additionally , Jaume de Laiguana directed a commercial for the fragrance , which was filmed in the Sahara desert in Morocco . In August 2013 , Wild Elixir was released as a flanker fragrance to Elixir . The floral oriental perfume is similar to the original one in appearance but features a variation in the colour scheme . It was promoted through a commercial which features Shakira encountering two cheetahs in an arid landscape .
= = Development = =
= = = Background = = =
In 2008 , international fashion and fragrance company Puig announced that it had formed a partnership with Shakira and had signed an agreement " to develop a line of signature products produced with and inspired by the artist " . The first product to appear was S by Shakira , which was released in September 2010 , followed by S by Shakira Eau Florale .
After developing her first two fragrances , Puig began working on Shakira 's third perfume and enlisted Alexandra Kosinski and Sonia Constant , perfumers from Swiss fragrance manufacturer Givaudan , to collaborate with Elisabeth Vidal , a perfumer from Puig . Vidal had previously worked with Shakira on S by Shakira Eau Florale . The perfumers came up with the concept of a " second skin , " described by Shakira as a " fragrance that becomes a part of you . " In an interview with Women 's Wear Daily , the singer claimed that the scent would display her " most sensual and exotic side " and had seemingly been inspired by the deserts of Morocco .
= = = Scent and packaging = = =
Elixir belongs to the oriental olfactive family , which is known to contain intense and long lasting fragrances . The top notes of the perfume were described by Shakira as " floral and spicy " and include neroli , white pepper , and white flower ; the heart notes were said to be " velvety and fruity " and are based on the scents of flowers like freesia and paeonia , and apricot ; the base notes contain amber , benzoin , musk , sugar cane and white cedar wood . The ingredients of the perfume are mostly based on spicy and woody elements which overbear the sweeter floral elements . Shakira herself stated that the " sweetness " in Elixir was kept to a limited amount .
German packaging company Gerresheimer was hired to produce the flacon of Elixir . It is made of clear moulded glass and has a slender gold @-@ tinted neck . According to Jose Manuel Albesa , chief brand officer of Puig , it is inspired by the bottles used in the historic medical practice of apothecary . In an interview with Latina , Shakira revealed that she wanted to " depict the kind of bottle that was used in ancient times , but that looked modern and chic as well " and come up with a design similar to a magical potion , which is the definition of the word ' elixir ' . As the scent is inspired by the desert , she chose the tint of the bottle to be golden so that it can " evoke the memories of sands and sunsets " . The packaging of the fragrance was designed by Colombian artist Catalina Estrada and features colourful illustrations of various birds and leaves printed on a pale background .
= = Release = =
Released in late @-@ July 2012 , Elixir was made available for purchase exclusively in American department store chains Kohl 's and Sears . The two stores served as exclusive retailers of the fragrance for two months , after which it was released to mass market stores like CVS Caremark and Walgreens . Elixir was released in approximately 19 @,@ 000 stores in the United States alone . Elsewhere , Elixir was released in Eastern Europe , Italy , and Latin America . The perfume was aimed at a younger demographic , according to Albesa . Elixir was made available as an eau de toilette , and its prices ranged from US $ 17 @.@ 50 to US $ 36 with respect to the size .
Shakira launched Elixir at a press release in São Paulo , Brazil , on 17 July 2012 , where she discussed her inspiration behind the fragrance and its development process . The commercial for the fragrance was shot in the Sahara desert in Morocco by Jaume de Laiguana , who had previously directed music videos for various songs by Shakira , like " Loca " and " Rabiosa " . The advertisement features Shakira in the middle of the desert wearing a long skirt ; she opens a bottle of Elixir and performs a dance routine , attracting an eagle towards her which perches on her arm . A competition was held on the official website of the perfume to determine a winner who would be rewarded the long skirt Shakira wore in the commercial .
= = = Products = = =
Elixir was produced in the following range :
Eau de toilette spray - 15 ml / 0 @.@ 5 oz
Eau de toilette spray - 30 ml / 1 oz
Eau de toilette spray - 50 ml / 1 @.@ 7 oz
Deodorant spray - 150 ml / 5 @.@ 1 oz
Body lotion - 101 ml / 3 @.@ 4 oz ( available only in gift sets )
Lip balm - 15 @.@ 7 ml / 0 @.@ 53 oz ( available only in gift sets )
= = Reception = =
Samantha Lea from Latina praised the perfume 's versatility , saying it is suitable for use " whether you prefer fruity to floral scents or want your scent to transport you to a tropical beach " . She chose the usage of freesia and peony as the highlight of Elixir and included the perfume in her list of " Five Amazing Summer Scents and Perfumes " . Miranda Noland , an editor of the magazine , opined the Elixir gift set would " please any Shakira lover . " At the 2011 Academia Del Perfume Award ceremony sponsored by the Fragrance Foundation , Elixir won the award for " Best Female Perfume General Public Category " .
Industry analysts predicted that the perfume would make $ 14 million through global retail sales in its first year . Twenty percent of this amount was credited to sales in the United States . In April 2013 , Puig released a press statement mentioning that Elixir had performed well commercially .
= = Wild Elixir = =
= = = Background and scent = = =
Wild Elixir was released as a flanker fragrance to Elixir on 25 August 2013 . Categorised as a floral oriental perfume , Wild Elixir features top notes of cassis and mandarin ; heart notes of honeysuckle flower , orange blossom , and peach fruit accord ; the base notes consist of benzoin resin , patchouli , and sandalwood . The flacon of the perfume is similar to the original one , but instead features a contrasting colour scheme of golden and black . The packaging was again designed by Estrada and features illustrations of flowers and wild cats set on a brownish orange background and is similar to the look of the African savannah .
The Russian edition of Cosmopolitan gave Wild Elixir a positive review , praising its packaging and the choice of ingredients in the notes .
= = = Promotion = = =
On 23 June 2013 , Shakira released a teaser of the commercial for the fragrance along with a photo of her posing with two cheetahs . A full version of the commercial was released later . It begins with Shakira , dressed in a dark burgundy gown , coming across a pair of cheetahs in an arid desert region . The two animals , alarmed , commence running towards her in an effort to attack her . Shakira responds by raising her hand , which prompts the cheetahs to abruptly stop in their tracks . They are later seen prowling around her while she is standing atop a rock and a bottle of Wild Elixir is then shown placed on a log of wood . The official website of the perfume also features a game made to promote the fragrance and Shakira 's Barefoot Foundation .
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= M @-@ theory =
M @-@ theory is a theory in physics that unifies all consistent versions of superstring theory . The existence of such a theory was first conjectured by Edward Witten at a string theory conference at the University of Southern California in the spring of 1995 . Witten 's announcement initiated a flurry of research activity known as the second superstring revolution .
Prior to Witten 's announcement , string theorists had identified five versions of superstring theory . Although these theories appeared at first to be very different , work by several physicists showed that the theories were related in intricate and nontrivial ways . In particular , physicists found that apparently distinct theories could be unified by mathematical transformations called S @-@ duality and T @-@ duality . Witten 's conjecture was based in part on the existence of these dualities and in part on the relationship of the string theories to a field theory called eleven @-@ dimensional supergravity .
Although a complete formulation of M @-@ theory is not known , the theory should describe two- and five @-@ dimensional objects called branes and should be approximated by eleven @-@ dimensional supergravity at low energies . Modern attempts to formulate M @-@ theory are typically based on matrix theory or the AdS / CFT correspondence .
According to Witten , M should stand for “ magic ” , “ mystery ” , or “ membrane ” according to taste , and the true meaning of the title should be decided when a more fundamental formulation of the theory is known .
Investigations of the mathematical structure of M @-@ theory have spawned important theoretical results in physics and mathematics . More speculatively , M @-@ theory may provide a framework for developing a unified theory of all of the fundamental forces of nature . Attempts to connect M @-@ theory to experiment typically focus on compactifying its extra dimensions to construct candidate models of our four @-@ dimensional world , although so far none have been verified to give rise to physics as observed at , for instance , the Large Hadron Collider .
= = Background = =
= = = Quantum gravity and strings = = =
One of the deepest problems in modern physics is the problem of quantum gravity . The current understanding of gravity is based on Albert Einstein 's general theory of relativity , which is formulated within the framework of classical physics . However , nongravitational forces are described within the framework of quantum mechanics , a radically different formalism for describing physical phenomena based on probability . A quantum theory of gravity is needed in order to reconcile general relativity with the principles of quantum mechanics , but difficulties arise when one attempts to apply the usual prescriptions of quantum theory to the force of gravity .
String theory is a theoretical framework that attempts to reconcile gravity and quantum mechanics . In string theory , the point @-@ like particles of particle physics are replaced by one @-@ dimensional objects called strings .
String theory describes how strings propagate through space and interact with each other . In a given version of string theory , there is only one kind of string , which may look like a small loop or segment of ordinary string , and it can vibrate in different ways . On distance scales larger than the string scale , a string will look just like an ordinary particle , with its mass , charge , and other properties determined by the vibrational state of the string . In this way , all of the different elementary particles may be viewed as vibrating strings . One of the vibrational states of a string gives rise to the graviton , a quantum mechanical particle that carries gravitational force .
There are several versions of string theory : type I , type IIA , type IIB , and two flavors of heterotic string theory ( SO ( 32 ) and E8 × E8 ) . The different theories allow different types of strings , and the particles that arise at low energies exhibit different symmetries . For example , the type I theory includes both open strings ( which are segments with endpoints ) and closed strings ( which form closed loops ) , while types IIA and IIB include only closed strings . Each of these five string theories arises as a special limiting case of M @-@ theory . This theory , like its string theory predecessors , is an example of a quantum theory of gravity . It describes a force just like the familiar gravitational force subject to the rules of quantum mechanics .
= = = Number of dimensions = = =
In everyday life , there are three familiar dimensions of space : height , width and depth . Einstein 's general theory of relativity treats time as a dimension on par with the three spatial dimensions ; in general relativity , space and time are not modeled as separate entities but are instead unified to a four @-@ dimensional spacetime . In this framework , the phenomenon of gravity is viewed as a consequence of the geometry of spacetime .
In spite of the fact that the universe is well described by four @-@ dimensional spacetime , there are several reasons why physicists consider theories in other dimensions . In some cases , by modeling spacetime in a different number of dimensions , a theory becomes more mathematically tractable , and one can perform calculations and gain general insights more easily . There are also situations where theories in two or three spacetime dimensions are useful for describing phenomena in condensed matter physics . Finally , there exist scenarios in which there could actually be more than four dimensions of spacetime which have nonetheless managed to escape detection .
One notable feature of string theory and M @-@ theory is that these theories require extra dimensions of spacetime for their mathematical consistency . In string theory , spacetime is ten @-@ dimensional , while in M @-@ theory it is eleven @-@ dimensional . In order to describe real physical phenomena using these theories , one must therefore imagine scenarios in which these extra dimensions would not be observed in experiments .
Compactification is one way of modifying the number of dimensions in a physical theory . In compactification , some of the extra dimensions are assumed to " close up " on themselves to form circles . In the limit where these curled up dimensions become very small , one obtains a theory in which spacetime has effectively a lower number of dimensions . A standard analogy for this is to consider a multidimensional object such as a garden hose . If the hose is viewed from a sufficient distance , it appears to have only one dimension , its length . However , as one approaches the hose , one discovers that it contains a second dimension , its circumference . Thus , an ant crawling on the surface of the hose would move in two dimensions .
= = = Dualities = = =
Theories that arise as different limits of M @-@ theory turn out to be related in highly nontrivial ways . One of the relationships that can exist between these different physical theories is called S @-@ duality . This is a relationship which says that a collection of strongly interacting particles in one theory can , in some cases , be viewed as a collection of weakly interacting particles in a completely different theory . Roughly speaking , a collection of particles is said to be strongly interacting if they combine and decay often and weakly interacting if they do so infrequently . Type I string theory turns out to be equivalent by S @-@ duality to the SO ( 32 ) heterotic string theory . Similarly , type IIB string theory is related to itself in a nontrivial way by S @-@ duality .
Another relationship between different string theories is T @-@ duality . Here one considers strings propagating around a circular extra dimension . T @-@ duality states that a string propagating around a circle of radius R is equivalent to a string propagating around a circle of radius 1 / R in the sense that all observable quantities in one description are identified with quantities in the dual description . For example , a string has momentum as it propagates around a circle , and it can also wind around the circle one or more times . The number of times the string winds around a circle is called the winding number . If a string has momentum p and winding number n in one description , it will have momentum n and winding number p in the dual description . For example , type IIA string theory is equivalent to type IIB string theory via T @-@ duality , and the two versions of heterotic string theory are also related by T @-@ duality .
In general , the term duality refers to a situation where two seemingly different physical systems turn out to be equivalent in a nontrivial way . If two theories are related by a duality , it means that one theory can be transformed in some way so that it ends up looking just like the other theory . The two theories are then said to be dual to one another under the transformation . Put differently , the two theories are mathematically different descriptions of the same phenomena .
= = = Supersymmetry = = =
Another important theoretical idea that plays a role in M @-@ theory is supersymmetry . This is a mathematical relation that exists in certain physical theories between a class of particles called bosons and a class of particles called fermions . Roughly speaking , fermions are the constituents of matter , while bosons mediate interactions between particles . In theories with supersymmetry , each boson has a counterpart which is a fermion , and vice versa . When supersymmetry is imposed as a local symmetry , one automatically obtains a quantum mechanical theory that includes gravity . Such a theory is called a supergravity theory .
A theory of strings that incorporates the idea of supersymmetry is called a superstring theory . There are several different versions of superstring theory which are all subsumed within the M @-@ theory framework . At low energies , the superstring theories are approximated by supergravity in ten spacetime dimensions . Similarly , M @-@ theory is approximated at low energies by supergravity in eleven dimensions .
= = = Branes = = =
In string theory and related theories such as supergravity theories , a brane is a physical object that generalizes the notion of a point particle to higher dimensions . For example , a point particle can be viewed as a brane of dimension zero , while a string can be viewed as a brane of dimension one . It is also possible to consider higher @-@ dimensional branes . In dimension p , these are called p @-@ branes . Branes are dynamical objects which can propagate through spacetime according to the rules of quantum mechanics . They can have mass and other attributes such as charge . A p @-@ brane sweeps out a ( p + 1 ) -dimensional volume in spacetime called its worldvolume . Physicists often study fields analogous to the electromagnetic field which live on the worldvolume of a brane . The word brane comes from the word " membrane " which refers to a two @-@ dimensional brane .
In string theory , the fundamental objects that give rise to elementary particles are the one @-@ dimensional strings . Although the physical phenomena described by M @-@ theory are still poorly understood , physicists know that the theory describes two- and five @-@ dimensional branes . Much of the current research in M @-@ theory attempts to better understand the properties of these branes .
= = History and development = =
= = = Kaluza – Klein theory = = =
In the early 20th century , physicists and mathematicians including Albert Einstein and Hermann Minkowski pioneered the use of four @-@ dimensional geometry for describing the physical world . These efforts culminated in the formulation of Einstein 's general theory of relativity , which relates gravity to the geometry of four @-@ dimensional spacetime .
The success of general relativity led to efforts to apply higher dimensional geometry to explain other forces . In 1919 , work by Theodor Kaluza showed that by passing to five @-@ dimensional spacetime , one can unify gravity and electromagnetism into a single force . This idea was improved by physicist Oskar Klein , who suggested that the additional dimension proposed by Kaluza could take the form of a circle with radius around 10 − 30 cm .
The Kaluza – Klein theory and subsequent attempts by Einstein to develop unified field theory were never completely successful . In part this was because Kaluza – Klein theory predicted a particle that has never been shown to exist , and in part because it was unable to correctly predict the ratio of an electron 's mass to its charge . In addition , these theories were being developed just as other physicists were beginning to discover quantum mechanics , which would ultimately prove successful in describing known forces such as electromagnetism , as well as new nuclear forces that were being discovered throughout the middle part of the century . Thus it would take almost fifty years for the idea of new dimensions to be taken seriously again .
= = = Early work on supergravity = = =
New concepts and mathematical tools provided fresh insights into general relativity , giving rise to a period in the 1960s and 70s now known as the golden age of general relativity . In the mid @-@ 1970s , physicists began studying higher @-@ dimensional theories combining general relativity with supersymmetry , the so @-@ called supergravity theories .
General relativity does not place any limits on the possible dimensions of spacetime . Although the theory is typically formulated in four dimensions , one can write down the same equations for the gravitational field in any number of dimensions . Supergravity is more restrictive because it places an upper limit on the number of dimensions . In 1978 , work by Werner Nahm showed that the maximum spacetime dimension in which one can formulate a consistent supersymmetric theory is eleven . In the same year , Eugene Cremmer , Bernard Julia , and Joel Scherk of the École Normale Supérieure showed that supergravity not only permits up to eleven dimensions but is in fact most elegant in this maximal number of dimensions .
Initially , many physicists hoped that by compactifying eleven @-@ dimensional supergravity , it might be possible to construct realistic models of our four @-@ dimensional world . The hope was that such models would provide a unified description of the four fundamental forces of nature : electromagnetism , the strong and weak nuclear forces , and gravity . Interest in eleven @-@ dimensional supergravity soon waned as various flaws in this scheme were discovered . One of the problems was that the laws of physics appear to distinguish between clockwise and counterclockwise , a phenomenon known as chirality . Edward Witten and others observed this chirality property cannot be readily derived by compactifying from eleven dimensions .
In the first superstring revolution in 1984 , many physicists turned to string theory as a unified theory of particle physics and quantum gravity . Unlike supergravity theory , string theory was able to accommodate the chirality of the standard model , and it provided a theory of gravity consistent with quantum effects . Another feature of string theory that many physicists were drawn to in the 1980s and 1990s was its high degree of uniqueness . In ordinary particle theories , one can consider any collection of elementary particles whose classical behavior is described by an arbitrary Lagrangian . In string theory , the possibilities are much more constrained : by the 1990s , physicists had argued that there were only five consistent supersymmetric versions of the theory .
= = = Relationships between string theories = = =
Although there were only a handful of consistent superstring theories , it remained a mystery why there was not just one consistent formulation . However , as physicists began to examine string theory more closely , they realized that these theories are related in intricate and nontrivial ways .
In the late 1970s , Claus Montonen and David Olive had conjectured a special property of certain physical theories . A sharpened version of their conjecture concerns a theory called N = 4 supersymmetric Yang – Mills theory , which describes particles similar to the quarks and gluons that make up atomic nuclei . The strength with which the particles of this theory interact is measured by a number called the coupling constant . The result of Montonen and Olive , now known as Montonen – Olive duality , states that N = 4 supersymmetric Yang – Mills theory with coupling constant g is equivalent to the same theory with coupling constant 1 / g . In other words , a system of strongly interacting particles ( large coupling constant ) has an equivalent description as a system of weakly interacting particles ( small coupling constant ) and vice versa .
In the 1990s , several theorists generalized Montonen – Olive duality to the S @-@ duality relationship , which connects different string theories . Ashoke Sen studied S @-@ duality in the context of heterotic strings in four dimensions . Chris Hull and Paul Townsend showed that type IIB string theory with a large coupling constant is equivalent via S @-@ duality to the same theory with small coupling constant . Theorists also found that different string theories may be related by T @-@ duality . This duality implies that strings propagating on completely different spacetime geometries may be physically equivalent .
= = = Membranes and fivebranes = = =
String theory extends ordinary particle physics by promoting zero @-@ dimensional point particles to one @-@ dimensional objects called strings . In the late 1980s , it was natural for theorists to attempt to formulate other extensions in which particles are replaced by two @-@ dimensional supermembranes or by higher @-@ dimensional objects called branes . Such objects had been considered as early as 1962 by Paul Dirac , and they were reconsidered by a small but enthusiastic group of physicists in the 1980s .
Supersymmetry severely restricts the possible number of dimensions of a brane . In 1987 , Eric Bergshoeff , Ergin Sezgin , and Paul Townsend showed that eleven @-@ dimensional supergravity includes two @-@ dimensional branes . Intuitively , these objects look like sheets or membranes propagating through the eleven @-@ dimensional spacetime . Shortly after this discovery , Michael Duff , Paul Howe , Takeo Inami , and Kellogg Stelle considered a particular compactification of eleven @-@ dimensional supergravity with one of the dimensions curled up into a circle . In this setting , one can imagine the membrane wrapping around the circular dimension . If the radius of the circle is sufficiently small , then this membrane looks just like a string in ten @-@ dimensional spacetime . In fact , Duff and his collaborators showed that this construction reproduces exactly the strings appearing in type IIA superstring theory .
In 1990 , Andrew Strominger published a similar result which suggested that strongly interacting strings in ten dimensions might have an equivalent description in terms of weakly interacting five @-@ dimensional branes . Initially , physicists were unable to prove this relationship for two important reasons . On the one hand , the Montonen – Olive duality was still unproven , and so Strominger 's conjecture was even more tenuous . On the other hand , there were many technical issues related to the quantum properties of five @-@ dimensional branes . The first of these problems was solved in 1993 when Ashoke Sen established that certain physical theories require the existence of objects with both electric and magnetic charge which were predicted by the work of Montonen and Olive .
In spite of this progress , the relationship between strings and five @-@ dimensional branes remained conjectural because theorists were unable to quantize the branes . Starting in 1991 , a team of researchers including Michael Duff , Ramzi Khuri , Jianxin Lu , and Ruben Minasian considered a special compactification of string theory in which four of the ten dimensions curl up . If one considers a five @-@ dimensional brane wrapped around these extra dimensions , then the brane looks just like a one @-@ dimensional string . In this way , the conjectured relationship between strings and branes was reduced to a relationship between strings and strings , and the latter could be tested using already established theoretical techniques .
= = = Second superstring revolution = = =
Speaking at the string theory conference at the University of Southern California in 1995 , Edward Witten of the Institute for Advanced Study made the surprising suggestion that all five superstring theories were in fact just different limiting cases of a single theory in eleven spacetime dimensions . Witten 's announcement drew together all of the previous results on S- and T @-@ duality and the appearance of two- and five @-@ dimensional branes in string theory . In the months following Witten 's announcement , hundreds of new papers appeared on the Internet confirming that the new theory involved membranes in an important way . Today this flurry of work is known as the second superstring revolution .
One of the important developments following Witten 's announcement was Witten 's work in 1996 with string theorist Petr Hořava . Witten and Hořava studied M @-@ theory on a special spacetime geometry with two ten @-@ dimensional boundary components . Their work shed light on the mathematical structure of M @-@ theory and suggested possible ways of connecting M @-@ theory to real world physics .
= = = Origin of the term = = =
Initially , some physicists suggested that the new theory was a fundamental theory of membranes , but Witten was skeptical of the role of membranes in the theory . In a paper from 1996 , Hořava and Witten wrote
As it has been proposed that the eleven @-@ dimensional theory is a supermembrane theory but there are some reasons to doubt that interpretation , we will non @-@ committally call it the M @-@ theory , leaving to the future the relation of M to membranes .
In the absence of an understanding of the true meaning and structure of M @-@ theory , Witten has suggested that the M should stand for " magic " , " mystery " , or " membrane " according to taste , and the true meaning of the title should be decided when a more fundamental formulation of the theory is known .
= = Matrix theory = =
= = = BFSS matrix model = = =
In mathematics , a matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or other data . In physics , a matrix model is a particular kind of physical theory whose mathematical formulation involves the notion of a matrix in an important way . A matrix model describes the behavior of a set of matrices within the framework of quantum mechanics .
One important example of a matrix model is the BFSS matrix model proposed by Tom Banks , Willy Fischler , Stephen Shenker , and Leonard Susskind in 1997 . This theory describes the behavior of a set of nine large matrices . In their original paper , these authors showed , among other things , that the low energy limit of this matrix model is described by eleven @-@ dimensional supergravity . These calculations led them to propose that the BFSS matrix model is exactly equivalent to M @-@ theory . The BFSS matrix model can therefore be used as a prototype for a correct formulation of M @-@ theory and a tool for investigating the properties of M @-@ theory in a relatively simple setting .
= = = Noncommutative geometry = = =
In geometry , it is often useful to introduce coordinates . For example , in order to study the geometry of the Euclidean plane , one defines the coordinates x and y as the distances between any point in the plane and a pair of axes . In ordinary geometry , the coordinates of a point are numbers , so they can be multiplied , and the product of two coordinates does not depend on the order of multiplication . That is , xy = yx . This property of multiplication is known as the commutative law , and this relationship between geometry and the commutative algebra of coordinates is the starting point for much of modern geometry .
Noncommutative geometry is a branch of mathematics that attempts to generalize this situation . Rather than working with ordinary numbers , one considers some similar objects , such as matrices , whose multiplication does not satisfy the commutative law ( that is , objects for which xy is not necessarily equal to yx ) . One imagines that these noncommuting objects are coordinates on some more general notion of " space " and proves theorems about these generalized spaces by exploiting the analogy with ordinary geometry .
In a paper from 1998 , Alain Connes , Michael R. Douglas , and Albert Schwarz showed that some aspects of matrix models and M @-@ theory are described by a noncommutative quantum field theory , a special kind of physical theory in which the coordinates on spacetime do not satisfy the commutativity property . This established a link between matrix models and M @-@ theory on the one hand , and noncommutative geometry on the other hand . It quickly led to the discovery of other important links between noncommutative geometry and various physical theories .
= = AdS / CFT correspondence = =
= = = Overview = = =
The application of quantum mechanics to physical objects such as the electromagnetic field , which are extended in space and time , is known as quantum field theory . In particle physics , quantum field theories form the basis for our understanding of elementary particles , which are modeled as excitations in the fundamental fields . Quantum field theories are also used throughout condensed matter physics to model particle @-@ like objects called quasiparticles .
One approach to formulating M @-@ theory and studying its properties is provided by the anti @-@ de Sitter / conformal field theory ( AdS / CFT ) correspondence . Proposed by Juan Maldacena in late 1997 , the AdS / CFT correspondence is a theoretical result which implies that M @-@ theory is in some cases equivalent to a quantum field theory . In addition to providing insights into the mathematical structure of string and M @-@ theory , the AdS / CFT correspondence has shed light on many aspects of quantum field theory in regimes where traditional calculational techniques are ineffective .
In the AdS / CFT correspondence , the geometry of spacetime is described in terms of a certain vacuum solution of Einstein 's equation called anti @-@ de Sitter space . In very elementary terms , anti @-@ de Sitter space is a mathematical model of spacetime in which the notion of distance between points ( the metric ) is different from the notion of distance in ordinary Euclidean geometry . It is closely related to hyperbolic space , which can be viewed as a disk as illustrated on the left . This image shows a tessellation of a disk by triangles and squares . One can define the distance between points of this disk in such a way that all the triangles and squares are the same size and the circular outer boundary is infinitely far from any point in the interior .
Now imagine a stack of hyperbolic disks where each disk represents the state of the universe at a given time . The resulting geometric object is three @-@ dimensional anti @-@ de Sitter space . It looks like a solid cylinder in which any cross section is a copy of the hyperbolic disk . Time runs along the vertical direction in this picture . The surface of this cylinder plays an important role in the AdS / CFT correspondence . As with the hyperbolic plane , anti @-@ de Sitter space is curved in such a way that any point in the interior is actually infinitely far from this boundary surface .
This construction describes a hypothetical universe with only two space dimensions and one time dimension , but it can be generalized to any number of dimensions . Indeed , hyperbolic space can have more than two dimensions and one can " stack up " copies of hyperbolic space to get higher @-@ dimensional models of anti @-@ de Sitter space .
An important feature of anti @-@ de Sitter space is its boundary ( which looks like a cylinder in the case of three @-@ dimensional anti @-@ de Sitter space ) . One property of this boundary is that , within a small region on the surface around any given point , it looks just like Minkowski space , the model of spacetime used in nongravitational physics . One can therefore consider an auxiliary theory in which " spacetime " is given by the boundary of anti @-@ de Sitter space . This observation is the starting point for AdS / CFT correspondence , which states that the boundary of anti @-@ de Sitter space can be regarded as the " spacetime " for a quantum field theory . The claim is that this quantum field theory is equivalent to the gravitational theory on the bulk anti @-@ de Sitter space in the sense that there is a " dictionary " for translating entities and calculations in one theory into their counterparts in the other theory . For example , a single particle in the gravitational theory might correspond to some collection of particles in the boundary theory . In addition , the predictions in the two theories are quantitatively identical so that if two particles have a 40 percent chance of colliding in the gravitational theory , then the corresponding collections in the boundary theory would also have a 40 percent chance of colliding .
= = = 6D ( 2 @,@ 0 ) superconformal field theory = = =
One particular realization of the AdS / CFT correspondence states that M @-@ theory on the product space AdS7 × S4 is equivalent to the so @-@ called ( 2 @,@ 0 ) -theory on the six @-@ dimensional boundary . Here " ( 2 @,@ 0 ) " refers to the particular type of supersymmetry that appears in the theory . In this example , the spacetime of the gravitational theory is effectively seven @-@ dimensional ( hence the notation AdS7 ) , and there are four additional " compact " dimensions ( encoded by the S4 factor ) . In the real world , spacetime is four @-@ dimensional , at least macroscopically , so this version of the correspondence does not provide a realistic model of gravity . Likewise , the dual theory is not a viable model of any real @-@ world system since it describes a world with six spacetime dimensions .
Nevertheless , the ( 2 @,@ 0 ) -theory has proven to be important for studying the general properties of quantum field theories . Indeed , this theory subsumes many mathematically interesting effective quantum field theories and points to new dualities relating these theories . For example , Luis Alday , Davide Gaiotto , and Yuji Tachikawa showed that by compactifying this theory on a surface , one obtains a four @-@ dimensional quantum field theory , and there is a duality known as the AGT correspondence which relates the physics of this theory to certain physical concepts associated with the surface itself . More recently , theorists have extended these ideas to study the theories obtained by compactifying down to three dimensions .
In addition to its applications in quantum field theory , the ( 2 @,@ 0 ) -theory has spawned important results in pure mathematics . For example , the existence of the ( 2 @,@ 0 ) -theory was used by Witten to give a " physical " explanation for a conjectural relationship in mathematics called the geometric Langlands correspondence . In subsequent work , Witten showed that the ( 2 @,@ 0 ) -theory could be used to understand a concept in mathematics called Khovanov homology . Developed by Mikhail Khovanov around 2000 , Khovanov homology provides a tool in knot theory , the branch of mathematics that studies and classifies the different shapes of knots . Another application of the ( 2 @,@ 0 ) -theory in mathematics is the work of Davide Gaiotto , Greg Moore , and Andrew Neitzke , which used physical ideas to derive new results in hyperkähler geometry .
= = = ABJM superconformal field theory = = =
Another realization of the AdS / CFT correspondence states that M @-@ theory on AdS4 × S7 is equivalent to a quantum field theory called the ABJM theory in three dimensions . In this version of the correspondence , seven of the dimensions of M @-@ theory are curled up , leaving four non @-@ compact dimensions . Since the spacetime of our universe is four @-@ dimensional , this version of the correspondence provides a somewhat more realistic description of gravity .
The ABJM theory appearing in this version of the correspondence is also interesting for a variety of reasons . Introduced by Aharony , Bergman , Jafferis , and Maldacena , it is closely related to another quantum field theory called Chern – Simons theory . The latter theory was popularized by Witten in the late 1980s because of its applications to knot theory . In addition , the ABJM theory serves as a semi @-@ realistic simplified model for solving problems that arise in condensed matter physics .
= = Phenomenology = =
= = = Overview = = =
In addition to being an idea of considerable theoretical interest , M @-@ theory provides a framework for constructing models of real world physics that combine general relativity with the standard model of particle physics . Phenomenology is the branch of theoretical physics in which physicists construct realistic models of nature from more abstract theoretical ideas . String phenomenology is the part of string theory that attempts to construct realistic models of particle physics based on string and M @-@ theory .
Typically , such models are based on the idea of compactification . Starting with the ten- or eleven @-@ dimensional spacetime of string or M @-@ theory , physicists postulate a shape for the extra dimensions . By choosing this shape appropriately , they can construct models roughly similar to the standard model of particle physics , together with additional undiscovered particles , usually supersymmetric partners to analogues of known particles . One popular way of deriving realistic physics from string theory is to start with the heterotic theory in ten dimensions and assume that the six extra dimensions of spacetime are shaped like a six @-@ dimensional Calabi – Yau manifold . This is a special kind of geometric object named after mathematicians Eugenio Calabi and Shing @-@ Tung Yau . Calabi – Yau manifolds offer many ways of extracting realistic physics from string theory . Other similar methods can be used to construct models with physics resembling to some extent that of our four @-@ dimensional world based on M @-@ theory .
Partly because of theoretical and mathematical difficulties and partly because of the extremely high energies ( beyond what is technologically possible for the foreseeable future ) needed to test these theories experimentally , there is so far no experimental evidence that would unambiguously point to any of these models being a correct fundamental description of nature . This has led some in the community to criticize these approaches to unification and question the value of continued research on these problems .
= = = Compactification on G2 manifolds = = =
In one approach to M @-@ theory phenomenology , theorists assume that the seven extra dimensions of M @-@ theory are shaped like a G2 manifold . This is a special kind of seven @-@ dimensional shape constructed by mathematician Dominic Joyce of the University of Oxford . These G2 manifolds are still poorly understood mathematically , and this fact has made it difficult for physicists to fully develop this approach to phenomenology .
For example , physicists and mathematicians often assume that space has a mathematical property called smoothness , but this property cannot be assumed in the case of a G2 manifold if one wishes to recover the physics of our four @-@ dimensional world . Another problem is that G2 manifolds are not complex manifolds , so theorists are unable to use tools from the branch of mathematics known as complex analysis . Finally , there are many open questions about the existence , uniqueness , and other mathematical properties of G2 manifolds , and mathematicians lack a systematic way of searching for these manifolds .
= = = Heterotic M @-@ theory = = =
Because of the difficulties with G2 manifolds , most attempts to construct realistic theories of physics based on M @-@ theory have taken a more indirect approach to compactifying eleven @-@ dimensional spacetime . One approach , pioneered by Witten , Hořava , Burt Ovrut , and others , is known as heterotic M @-@ theory . In this approach , one imagines that one of the eleven dimensions of M @-@ theory is shaped like a circle . If this circle is very small , then the spacetime becomes effectively ten @-@ dimensional . One then assumes that six of the ten dimensions form a Calabi – Yau manifold . If this Calabi – Yau manifold is also taken to be small , one is left with a theory in four @-@ dimensions .
Heterotic M @-@ theory has been used to construct models of brane cosmology in which the observable universe is thought to exist on a brane in a higher dimensional ambient space . It has also spawned alternative theories of the early universe that do not rely on the theory of cosmic inflation .
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= Smooth Radio ( 2010 ) =
From 2010 to 2014 , Smooth Radio was an independent , commercial , national radio station in the United Kingdom . Owned by Real and Smooth — a company formerly known as GMG Radio — the station was aimed at the over @-@ 40 demographic , and competed for its audience with BBC Radio 2 . It was broadcast on the DAB Digital Radio Digital 1 national multiplex , Sky , Freesat , Freeview , Virgin Media , online and on regional FM and DAB frequencies in the North West , London , North East , West Midlands , Scotland and East Midlands . Nationally the station attracted a weekly average audience of 3 million .
The station opened in 1990 as 102 @.@ 2 Jazz FM in London , and a second Jazz FM branded station was launched four years later in Manchester . The Manchester station became Smooth FM 100 @.@ 4 in 2004 , and was the first in the network of independent local radio stations to use the Smooth brand . The London station followed suit a year later . The network 's parent company , GMG Radio – a subsidiary of the Guardian Media Group – acquired the Saga Radio Group in the mid @-@ 2000s , and all Saga stations were given the Smooth name . After the publication of John Myers ' recommendations of a regulatory overhaul in commercial radio , and the passing of the 2010 Digital Economy Act allowing stations to co @-@ locate or discontinue local shows and broadcasts , Smooth Radio merged its five English stations into a single , quasi @-@ national station in October 2010 ; local news feeds were produced at GMG Radio 's headquarters in Salford Quays . 105 @.@ 2 Smooth Radio in Scotland produced its own breakfast and drivetime shows , but carried networked programming at other times . As part of their licence agreement , the London and Manchester stations were required to continue their commitment to jazz music after dropping the Jazz FM name , and the UK 's broadcasting industry regulator Office of Communications ( Ofcom ) stipulated they must broadcast 45 hours of jazz programming per week , but this requirement was ended shortly before the merger took place .
Smooth recruited many well @-@ known British radio personalities to its line @-@ up . Presenters on the network included Emma B , Simon Bates , Tony Blackburn , Mark Goodier , David Jensen and Chris Tarrant . The station 's flagship breakfast show was presented by Simon Bates , who left Classic FM after more than a decade . It broadcast occasional documentaries on subjects relating to music , news and media events ; some of these won the station radio industry awards . In November 2011 Smooth launched a second station on the Digital One platform dedicated to Christmas music , and later replaced this with " Smooth 70s " , which played music from the 1970s . The Christmas station returned in 2012 , and Smooth 70s closed in September 2013 . Along with its sister station , Real Radio , Smooth was an official host of the Blackpool Illuminations switch @-@ on ceremony from 2010 , and staged regular , free live music events . The station signed a number of sponsorship deals with companies such as Tetley Tea and ATS Euromaster , and held annual fundraising events in aid of the charities Help for Heroes and Macmillan Cancer Support .
GMG Radio was taken over by rival Global Radio in June 2012 . Global 's purchase of the company was referred to Ofcom , the Office of Fair Trading and the Competition Commission amid concerns that Global 's market share may be disproportionately large as a result of the deal , and consequently not in the public interest . GMG Radio subsequently changed its name to Real and Smooth Radio Ltd . A report issued by the Competition Commission in May 2013 highlighted competitiveness issues and recommended a full or partial sale of Real and Smooth . Real and Smooth Radio Ltd and Global continued to operate as separate companies while the takeover was investigated . Smooth moved its operations from Manchester to Global 's London headquarters in October 2013 . In February 2014 , Global were given permission to remove Smooth from the Digital One platform and replace it with another station . Global also sold eight of its regional stations , including three operated under the Smooth brand , and announced that Smooth would replace much of its Gold network on the medium wave frequency . The Smooth brand was relaunched as a network of regional stations in March 2014 .
= = History = =
= = = Early years as Jazz FM = = =
London station 102 @.@ 2 Jazz FM was launched on 4 March 1990 with a concert performed by Ella Fitzgerald at the Royal Albert Hall . Jazz FM played mainly soul and jazz music and was broadcast to the London area . A sister station in Manchester called 100 @.@ 4 Jazz FM was launched on 1 September 1994 . The Jazz FM stations were purchased by the Guardian Media Group in 2002 , and became part of the company 's radio division , GMG Radio Holdings Ltd .
In 2003 , GMG radio conducted market research into the type of music that listeners in the north @-@ west of England wanted to hear on the radio . The study concluded that many people were dissuaded by the name Jazz , and as a result , 100 @.@ 4 Jazz FM closed on 13 February 2004 and relaunched as Smooth FM on 1 March . In 2005 , GMG rebranded the London station 102 @.@ 2 Smooth FM . The two renamed stations played middle of the road music , soul and R & B during the day and as part of their licence requirements , jazz music at night .
On 20 October 2006 , GMG Radio announced that it was requesting a change of format for 102 @.@ 2 and 100 @.@ 4 Smooth FM from Ofcom , to remove the stations ' daytime soul and R & B licence commitments . GMG Radio proposed an easy listening music service mixed with speech for the over 50s , and an improved local news service . Ofcom approved the changes on 8 December 2006 , with the condition that GMG retained the 45 hours of jazz per week that constituted part of the former licence requirement . As a result of the format change and to distance the station from its London rivals Magic and Heart 106 @.@ 2 , GMG Radio agreed that a minimum of 20 % of its daytime music output would be over 40 years old .
= = = Change of identity and expansion = = =
In December 2006 , GMG Radio acquired the Saga Radio Group , which owned stations in the West Midlands , East Midlands and Scotland , and a licence to begin broadcasting to the North East , and expanded the Smooth Network . Along with the Smooth FM stations in London and Manchester , all Saga stations were relaunched under the Smooth Radio brand on 26 March 2007 . Saga 105 @.@ 7 FM in the West Midlands became 105 @.@ 7 Smooth Radio , Saga 106 @.@ 6 FM in the East Midlands became 106 @.@ 6 Smooth Radio and Glasgow based Saga 105 @.@ 2 FM became 105 @.@ 2 Smooth Radio . A service for the north @-@ east of England , 97 @.@ 5 Smooth Radio , was launched in January 2008 . To begin with , most programming for these stations was produced locally and some shows were networked from London . However , Smooth gradually increased its networked programming until most content was originated in London or Manchester .
In March 2008 , GMG Radio requested that Ofcom remove the 45 @-@ hour jazz commitment for its London and Manchester stations . The company planned to relaunch Jazz FM from the jazzfm.com service which broadcast on DAB in Glasgow , online and on a DAB multiplex in London . In a meeting on 22 April 2008 , Ofcom declined the request . GMG relaunched Jazz FM despite having to retain the jazz commitment .
The decrease of local output lead to criticism from Norman Quirk , the former managing director of Saga 105 @.@ 2 FM in Glasgow , after GMG Radio dismissed six Scottish presenters in August 2008 in favour of increased networked content from its stations in London and Manchester . The station had operated a 24 @-@ hour schedule of local programming . Quirk labelled the dismissals " disgraceful " and expressed his fears that the station would not be able to serve the needs and interests of the Scottish people as well as Saga had done .
= = = Further expansion = = =
After John Myers ' recommendations of a regulatory overhaul in commercial radio were published , and the Digital Economy Act allowing stations to co @-@ locate or discontinue local shows and to broadcast on national DAB was passed , Smooth Radio merged its five English stations into one quasi @-@ national station , and local news feeds were produced from GMG Radio 's headquarters in Salford Quays . GMG Radio announced on 29 June 2010 that it wanted to compete with BBC Radio 2 by broadcasting on the Digital One multiplex on DAB to the whole of England and Wales , and Sky , Freesat , Freeview , Virgin Media and online . Regional content would be kept ; split news , travel and weather bulletins would be broadcast on the FM and regional DAB stations in the North East , North West , West Midlands and East Midlands . Listeners in London and those tuning to the national output would hear national information . 105 @.@ 2 Smooth Radio in Scotland would keep its local breakfast and drivetime programmes because of the rules governing its broadcast licence , but networked content would be broadcast the rest of the time . The jazz commitments for London and the North West were also ended . The new Smooth Radio was launched on 4 October 2010 with most of the output originating from Salford Quays , and other programming coming from London .
On 1 November 2011 , GMG Radio launched " Smooth Christmas " on the Digital One multiplex , a dedicated station playing only Christmas music with no news or advertisements . It promoted Smooth Radio and broadcast until 27 December 2011 . Smooth Christmas was replaced on a trial basis by Smooth 70s , playing tracks from the 1970s . The station was warmly received by listeners , and in January 2012 GMG Radio confirmed a deal with US syndication firm Premiere Networks to air 1970s editions of the American Top 40 show presented by Casey Kasem , which would be broadcast at weekends . Smooth 70s ' weekday programming included Disco Lunch and Late Night Love Songs . Due to its popularity , Smooth Christmas was relaunched in November 2012 on the Digital One multiplex alongside Smooth 70s .
= = = New ownership = = =
In June 2012 it was reported that Guardian Media Group was seeking to sell GMG Radio in order to restructure itself to stem losses being made by The Guardian and The Observer newspapers . Several offers were received for the subsidiary , valuing it at £ 50 million . GMG Radio was sold to Global Radio on 25 June , at an estimated price of between £ 50 million and £ 70 million . Global renamed GMG Radio " Real and Smooth Radio Ltd . " Several rival radio groups expressed their concerns over the takeover and the effect it could have on commercial radio in the UK . The deal prompted speculation about the possible disappearance of the Smooth Radio brand as a result of a possible merger with Global 's Gold network , which was aimed at a similar audience . It was announced that in the short term GMG Radio and Global would continue to operate as separate entities while a review of the sale was carried out by Ofcom .
On 3 August the Culture Secretary Jeremy Hunt instructed Ofcom and the Office of Fair Trading ( OFT ) to examine Global Radio 's purchase of GMG , which gave Global over 50 % of the UK radio market because of concerns the takeover may not be in the public interest . On 11 October , the OFT agreed to fast @-@ track the investigation . Hunt 's successor Maria Miller said the deal would not be investigated for media plurality . The OFT concluded that the merger could lead to a rise in local advertising costs because of the decrease in competitors , and forwarded the matter to the Competition Commission , which oversees business mergers and takeovers . On the same day the Competition Commission announced it would publish its findings into the takeover by 27 March 2013 .
On 21 February 2013 , the Competition Commission confirmed it would delay its decision until May , and issued a statement in which it said , " The range of possible remedies to be considered in this case is complex and that all possible remedies need to be explored with the parties to the merger and third parties " . The Commission published its final report into the acquisition on 21 May , requiring Global to sell radio stations in seven locations . On 14 June , it was reported that Global would appeal against the Commission 's decision . A date for the appeal was subsequently scheduled for October . Following the hearing , in November , the Competition Appeal Tribunal rejected Global 's appeal , meaning it would have to sell some stations in order to complete the takeover . Global announced in December that it would not appeal the decision , and would instead begin the process of selling the assets as directed by the Commission .
Global announced on 12 August 2013 that Real and Smooth would relocate their London and West Midlands offices to Global premises . Smooth Radio 's output was relocated to Global 's Leicester Square headquarters from 1 October , a move that coincided with a major overhaul of its schedule , and the closure of Smooth 70s after 21 months on air . On 4 February 2014 , the Radio Today website reported that Ofcom had given Global Radio permission to remove Smooth from the Digital One platform , and to replace it with a service playing music from the 1970s , 80s and 90s . Under this agreement , Smooth would continue to broadcast on its regional frequencies , but would be required to provide seven hours of local output per day . On 6 February , Global confirmed the sale of eight of its regional stations — including those with the Smooth Radio brand in the North West , North East and East Midlands — to the Irish media holdings company Communicorp . Under a franchising agreement between the two firms , these stations would retain the Smooth Radio name , but relaunch airing a mixture of both regional content and networked programming from London . Smooth would also take over Gold 's medium wave frequencies , except in London , Manchester and the East Midlands . Global announced later that month that Smooth would be relaunched from 3 March , and subsequently confirmed the Gold changes would take effect from 24 March , when the stations would begin simulcasting with Smooth Radio London . This also coincided with the return of local programming at breakfast and drivetime .
= = Audience and ratings = =
Smooth Radio catered mainly for listeners over the age of 40 , a similar audience to that of BBC Radio 2 . Official quarterly audience figures collated by Radio Joint Authority Research Limited ( RAJAR ) show that the station had an average weekly audience of just over 3 million listeners . Figures for the third quarter of 2010 , released in October 2010 showed that collectively , the six regional Smooth stations had a weekly audience of 3 million at the time Smooth became a national broadcaster . John Simons , Group Programme Director for GMG Radio said , " The scope for Smooth Radio is huge and we 're looking forward to seeing this growth continue as more and more people discover the station across the UK . We firmly believe Smooth has the potential to become the UK 's biggest national commercial station and these figures show it 's heading in the right direction ! "
During the final quarter of 2010 – the station 's first as a national broadcaster – listening figures rose to 3 @.@ 08 million , which remained unchanged in the first quarter of 2011 , although listenership in London increased by 29 % , largely because of the arrival of Simon Bates on the breakfast show in January 2011 . Smooth continued to increase its audience share in the second quarter of 2011 , with an average weekly total of 3 @.@ 2 million , which rose once again in the third quarter to 3 @.@ 328 million , meaning that for the first time Smooth 's figures overtook those of one of its national rivals , talkSPORT . The station had an audience of 3 @.@ 3 million in the final quarter of 2011 , making it the second most listened to national commercial radio station in the UK . 3 @,@ 317 @,@ 000 listeners were tuning in during the first quarter of 2012 , which dropped slightly in the second quarter to 3 @.@ 2 million . The third quarter of 2012 saw another small drop to 3 @.@ 19 million , but in the same period Smooth 70s recorded its first audience figures of 749 @,@ 000 . Collectively 3 @.@ 7 million listeners were tuning into Smooth @-@ branded stations . That figure rose to 3 @.@ 8 million in the final quarter of the year . The first quarter of 2013 saw an average weekly audience of 3 @.@ 6 million , which fell to 3 @.@ 1 million for the second quarter . However , figures rose again through the second half of the year , with 3 @.@ 26 million in the third quarter of 2013 , and 3 @.@ 38 million in the fourth .
= = Marketing and sponsorship = =
When Smooth Radio launched as a national network , GMG launched a hoarding and television advertising campaign featuring eight " Smooth Ambassadors " – listeners chosen to represent the station 's " zest for life " . Each advertisement included a piece of information about one of the ambassadors , and something they were currently doing . The campaign ran throughout October and November 2010 . A later campaign featured Simon Bates , whose breakfast show attracted increased listening figures in London in early 2011 .
The station signed a number of sponsorship deals with advertisers , often for a particular show or for competitions associated with the advertiser . Its first major sponsorship deal was with Honda , which sponsored the drivetime show upon the station 's launch . In July 2011 GMG signed a 13 @-@ week deal with gaming website Foxy Bingo to sponsor Smooth Radio 's afternoon show , and a three @-@ month deal with ATS Euromaster to sponsor the drivetime show began in September 2012 . Real and Smooth announced a three @-@ month deal with Sky Movies to sponsor Smooth 's weekend film show , Smooth Radio at the Movies from February 2013 .
As part of a three @-@ month deal with Tetley Tea announced in October 2011 , Smooth Radio 's logo appeared on Tetley products sold in British supermarkets . In August 2011 , GMG announced a deal with the magazine publisher IPC whereby Smooth Radio would sponsor the TV Times Awards . A trip to Kenya was given away in association with the Kenya Tourist Board in the lead up to the 2011 wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton ; the winners would stay at the Lewa Wildlife Conservancy , where the royal couple became engaged . High Street retailer Boots UK launched The Feel Good Forum , a health and beauty lifestyle programme that began airing for an eight @-@ week run on Real and Smooth from March 2013 . The show , presented by Kate Thornton was a collaboration between the broadcaster , Boots and other partners , including the Mumsnet website . Some online content was also produced to supplement the programme . In July 2013 , Real and Smooth secured a deal with the organisers of the 2014 Commonwealth Games to be the Official Media Partner for its Ticketing Campaign .
= = Presenters and shows = =
= = = Presenters = = =
Presenters on the station include many notable British radio personalities . The breakfast show was hosted by Simon Bates , who joined the network in January 2011 . Bates revived The Golden Hour and Our Tune , two popular features from his Radio 1 days . Emma B presented a Sunday afternoon show from March 2011 . The actress Tina Hobley became a Sunday morning presenter from October 2013 . Others to join the station at that time include Paul Hollins who presented Smooth Radio 's Movie Songs and Smooth Soul Sunday , Gary King who hosted a Sunday lunchtime show , and David Andrews with a Soul and Motown show on Sunday evenings . Former LBC 97 @.@ 3 presenter Anthony Davis joined the station as its Drivetime presenter from January 2014 .
Mark Goodier hosted a weekday mid @-@ morning show from 2007 to 2012 . Chris Tarrant was a Saturday morning presenter whose show was networked across several GMG stations in 2008 . Also in 2008 , Tony Blackburn presented a syndicated weekend breakfast show for Smooth . He left the station in October 2010 to present Pick of the Pops on BBC Radio 2 because the BBC would not allow him to continue working for a rival broadcaster . Andy Peebles was also a presenter with the station , having hosted his Andy Peebles Soul Train from 2004 to 2013 , before moving the programme to Gold , another station owned by Global Radio . David " Kid " Jensen was a weekday presenter from April 2011 to December 2013 .
= = = Special programming and events = = =
In September 2011 , Simon Bates presented a week of programmes from South Australia as part of a promotion in which the station gave away a holiday to the state . In December 2011 , Bates travelled to Afghanistan to present a series of shows with British troops at Camp Bastion , which featured Christmas messages from British soldiers serving there to their friends and relatives . Bates discussed the possible future of Afghanistan as coalition forces prepared to hand over control to the Afghan National Army . On 8 April 2012 , Easter Sunday , the forces broadcaster BFBS simulcast a two @-@ hour show presented jointly by Bates and BFBS 's Rachel Cochrane , with Smooth , allowing family and friends of serving troops to connect with their loved ones . On 27 May 2012 , Bates presented a special programme ahead of the Thames Diamond Jubilee Pageant , previewing Elizabeth II 's journey along the River Thames on the royal barge , Spirit of Chartwell . He was given special access to the vessel and spoke to the boat 's owner , Philip Morrell and to composer Debbie Wiseman who was commissioned to write the music for the event . To commemorate the 30th anniversary of the end of the 1982 Falklands War , Bates broadcast the breakfast show from the Falkland Islands for a week ; he explored the lives and experiences of Islanders and reflected on the conflict .
From 2010 , Smooth and Real Radio were the official broadcaster of the switch @-@ on ceremony for the Blackpool Illuminations , the broadcast rights to which it won from BBC Radio 2 , which had aired it since 1997 . 2010 was the first time the event was broadcast on commercial radio . The annual event was compered by presenters from the two stations at a purposely @-@ built arena , and featured a music concert by popular artists . Performers in 2010 included Alesha Dixon , Gabriella Cilmi , The Wanted , Olly Murs , and Robbie Williams , who switched on the lights that year . The 2012 switch @-@ on was performed by Greg Rutherford , Luke Campbell and Beth Tweddle — British Olympians who won gold medals at the 2012 Summer Olympics .
Smooth Radio hosted a series of free live music gigs titled Love Live Music held at venues around the UK . Featured artists included Adele , Beverley Knight , Eliza Doolittle , Katie Melua , Will Young , Nell Bryden , Honey Ryder , Paul Carrack , The Pierces , Roachford , Jack Savoretti and Leddra Chapman . On 4 October 2011 the station celebrated its first anniversary as a national broadcaster with a concert at London 's Cafe de Paris . An evening of music and entertainment was held at Liverpool 's Waterfront on 21 July 2012 , which was attended by 20 @,@ 000 people . A similar event was held in June 2013 . Paul Carrick played at an event at Nottingham 's Glee Club on 26 September 2012 .
In December 2012 Real and Smooth secured exclusive broadcast rights to the " Christmas Hit Factory Live " concert , a show featuring artists and groups who achieved success with the Stock Aitken and Waterman and PWL record labels . Those appearing at the concert on 21 December included Kylie Minogue , Jason Donovan , Dead or Alive and Pat and Mick . It aired on New Year 's Eve .
= = = Charity fundraising = = =
From 2009 GMG Radio stations , including Smooth Radio , held an annual fundraising day for Help for Heroes , a UK charity which provides help and support to injured British service personnel . The first " Help for Heroes Day " took place on 10 November 2009 , and collectively the stations raised £ 200 @,@ 000 . The 18 @-@ hour special featured Ronan Keating , Simon Cowell , Spandau Ballet and The Soldiers , and Chris Tarrant returned to the network for the event . The second " Help for Heroes Day " in 2010 raised £ 350 @,@ 000 , bringing the accumulated total to £ 750 @,@ 000 . £ 255 @,@ 000 was raised for the charity in 2012 .
During the fundraising event " Smooth Radio Starlight Supper " , listeners were encouraged to hold dinner parties at which guests donated money to a cancer charity . The event began in 2010 when the six stations in the Smooth network raised money for Breast Cancer Care in London , Macmillan Cancer Support in the North West , North East and West Midlands , the Rainbows Hospice for Children and Young People in the East Midlands and Marie Curie 's Big Build in Glasgow . The 2011 , 2012 and 2013 events raised money exclusively for Macmillan Cancer Support .
= = = Documentaries = = =
Smooth Radio occasionally broadcast documentaries about music and historic events , usually at weekends . Its first series of documentaries , broadcast in 2008 , included a six @-@ part series about music from America 's Mississippi River region , titled Rolling River of Rock . A second series broadcast the following year included Live Fast Die Young about famous musicians who died before the age of 30 , Legendary Labels about major record labels and From Cleethorpes to California about record producer Rod Temperton . The station 's documentaries won a bronze award in the Programmes and Series Promotion category at the 2009 New York Festivals International Radio Program Awards .
In December 2010 , the station celebrated the 50th anniversary of the television soap opera Coronation Street with a documentary titled Coronation Street at 50 and the station 's Fallen Heroes won a Gold at the 2011 New York Festivals International Radio Awards . In March 2011 GMG Radio reporter Katie Collins travelled to Norway to interview Prince Harry as he prepared to join a group of injured ex @-@ servicemen on a walk to the North Pole in aid of the charity Walking with the Wounded . The station also covered the walk ; Collins was the only commercial radio journalist to interview the Prince on that occasion . The documentary won a Gold award for Best Documentary at the 2012 Sony Radio Academy Awards .
On the 10th anniversary of the September 11 attacks on the United States , Smooth aired a documentary featuring British people who were living in New York City at the time of the attacks . This was followed by live coverage of the remembrance service from Ground Zero , the former site of the World Trade Center , which was destroyed in the attacks .
In November 2012 , Smooth confirmed it would air a documentary celebrating the life of Dusty Springfield over the Christmas period to mark the upcoming 50th anniversary of her debut as a solo artist . In January 2013 , a Saturday programme dedicated to films and a regular documentary slot for Sunday afternoons were announced as part of an overhaul of the station 's schedule . Mark Goodier returned to the network in June 2013 to present Rolling Home : The Summer of the Stones — a one @-@ hour documentary about The Rolling Stones .
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= Touch My Body =
" Touch My Body " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , taken from her eleventh studio album , E = MC ² ( 2008 ) . It was written by Carey , along with Crystal " Cri $ tyle " Johnson , Terius " The Dream " Nash and Christopher " Tricky " Stewart and produced by Mariah Carey and " Tricky " Stewart , and was released as the album 's lead single on February 12 , 2008 . Lyrically , the song features a double message , with the first describing sexual fantasies with her lover , while also jokingly warning him against recording or releasing information regarding their rendezvous .
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , with many highlighting the song 's light pop melody and hook ; however , it also garnered some backlash from certain music reviewers , who felt the song did not properly represent the singer 's acclaimed 5 @-@ octave vocal range . " Touch My Body " became Carey 's eighteenth chart topper on the Billboard Hot 100 , making Carey the solo artist with the most number one singles in United States history , surpassing the record held by Elvis Presley . Additionally , it gave Carey her 79th week atop the chart , tying Presley for most weeks at number one . Throughout Europe , the song also achieved high charting , peaking within the top five on the charts in Italy , Japan , New Zealand , Switzerland , and the United Kingdom .
Carey performed " Touch My Body " on several live televised events and programs , debuting it on Saturday Night Live as a two @-@ piece performance . Similarly , Carey opened the Good Morning America " Summer Concert Series " on April 25 , 2008 , singing the song , as well as two other singles from E = MC ² . Similar renditions took place at the season premiere party of The Hills , as well as a mash @-@ up of the song with " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " at the Teen Choice Awards . Aside from reprising performances of the British programs The Sunday Night Project and The Paul O 'Grady Show , and German talent show Deutschland sucht den Superstar , the song was included on the set @-@ list of Carey 's North American Angels Advocate Tour , held throughout 2009 and 2010 .
The song 's music video was directed by filmmaker Brett Ratner , who had previously worked with Carey on five other music videos . It follows around a story revolving around a computer employee 's fantasy as he visits Carey 's home . As he fixes her computer , he enters a fantasy in which the pair perform several activities together , including pillow fights , laser tag , Guitar Hero , slot cars , and frisbee throwing , all while Carey shows off her figure in several revealing outfits . The music video won in the category of " Best Comedic Video " at the 2008 BET Awards , and won the " MTV Video Vanguard Award " at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards Japan . Additionally , the video was nominated for " Best Female Video " at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards .
= = Background and release = =
Carey achieved critical and commercial success with her tenth studio album , The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) . and the second best @-@ seller around the world , It earned a myriad of music industry awards , and brought Carey back to the top of pop music following her decline in 2001 . After completing The Adventures of Mimi Tour , Carey began working on material for her eleventh studio effort , the yet untitled E = MC ² ( 2008 ) . E = MC ² was hailed as one of the most anticipated albums of 2008 , with many critics weighing their opinions on whether Carey would be able to deliver significant success , following her achievements with The Emancipation of Mimi . " Touch My Body " was eventually chosen as the lead single through a vote in between the record executives at Island Records , with the final choices being the former and " I 'm That Chick " ( titled " I 'm That Chick You Like " at that point ) . After choosing the former , the song was sent to radio stations worldwide on February 12 , 2008 and to digital outlets on March 24 , 2008 .
= = Composition = =
" Touch My Body " is a mid @-@ tempo song , which draws influence from R & B and pop music genres . The song 's hook is built around a piano melody and " circular keyboard line " , and features " a stuttering mid @-@ tempo beat that 's accented by finger snaps and electronic synthesizers " as its instrumentation . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe described it as a " standard @-@ issue mid @-@ tempo jam " , while The New York Sun 's Jayanthi Daniel wrote " It 's a smooth , mid @-@ tempo song with a swaying , melodic beat , and serves as a simple and mellow introduction to the material . " Writing for The Guardian , Alex Macpherson felt the song was very " girly " , and expressed how the " cushioned " track incorporates " all tactile bass bumps and tinkling music box motifs " into its production . Written by Mariah Carey , The @-@ Dream , Tricky Stewart and Cristyle , the song drew comparisons to several musical arrangements featured throughout " We Belong Together " . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Touch My Body " is set in common time with a tempo of 80 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of B minor , with Carey 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of F ♯ 3 to the belting range of E5. and the high @-@ note of B5 . The song follows in the chord progression of Bm7 – Am7 – Gmaj7 .
Lyrically , the song describes the protagonist revealing several bedroom fantasies in which she would like to engage , asking her lover playfully to " touch her body " . Though the song features sexually oriented lyrics , critics deemed that the melody and playful tone of the song made them less explicit . The song 's lyrics find Carey maintaining the duo keep the relationship private from the media , as she threatens to " hunt him down " if he shall record anything of their private life . According to Ben Ratliff from The New York Times , " Touch My Body " is a " questionably sexy striptease : a goofy @-@ sleazy tryst vignette " , with Carey singing " If there 's a camera up in here then I best not catch this flick on YouTube . " Critic Rodman felt the song 's lyrics describe the protagonist 's sexual fantasies , but also serves as a warning to " potential touchers : ' If you run your mouth and brag about our secret rendezvous / I will hunt you down . ' Yikes ! " In an interview with Fox News , journalist Hollie McKay asked Carey if there was any literal interpretation regarding the lyrics " Touch My Body / Put Me on the Floor / Wrestle Me Around / Play With Me Some More " , to which she replied " There is no full @-@ blown meaning ; it is just cute and it 's one of those songs that makes me happy . I wasn 't taking it that seriously . It was just fun experience . " Evan Sawdey from PopMatters wrote that in the song " Mariah coos soft @-@ core phone sex fantasies over plinked piano notes , all while referencing YouTube in what appears to be a desperate grab for relevance . " In his review of the song 's parent album , Los Angeles Times critic Richard Hartog described the song 's production , Carey 's vocals and its overall mixing :
" Touch My Body " rides a relatively restrained slow @-@ dance groove , with some light , orchestral @-@ synth flourishes thrown in . The rhythm is almost completely carried by an effortless keyboard bump , the easygoing repetitiveness of which eventually wears the listener down , and sets up a delicate frame for Carey to sing around . She pulls back when the song picks up the pace , and Carey keeps it simple here , playing with tempos rather than range . Indeed , she almost quietly slides into the chorus . " If you run around and brag about this secret rendezvous , I will hunt you down " , she sings , letting the last line trail off . But you don 't necessarily believe her , as the feel is more playful that sinful .
= = Critical reception = =
" Touch My Body " garnered generally positive reviews from music critics . While most reviewers complimented the song 's hook and production , as well as its playful lyrics , some were critical of Carey 's vocal performance , which they felt didn 't properly demonstrate her " The Voice " . Billboard 's Chuck Taylor gave the song a positive review , writing " this sensual jam is 100 % Mariah , packed with satisfying harmonic layers and hooky background ' oh 's , ' supersonic verses and a chorus as catchy as a winter sniffle , " Bill Lamb from About.com rated the song four out of five stars , stating that the single " is simple , sexy elegance from one of the most enduring of pop stars . " Additionally , Lamb complimented the songs " clever and sexy lyrics " , and wrote " The gentle finger @-@ snapping beat will send countless fans dancing in private reveries . " Newsday critic , Glenn Gamboa , named it as the " Song of the Week " , commenting that it was " the best opening single she 's had since ' Heartbreaker ' . " Nick Levine of Digital Spy was also impressed with the song , writing , " its cooing , sensual charms soon take hold , suggesting the wind 's still very much behind the Carey comeback bandwagon . " It was described as a " cheeky hit " by Margeaux Watson of Entertainment Weekly , and " playful " by Los Angeles Times 's Chuck Philips .
Aside from common criticism aimed at Carey 's lack of vocal bombast , many made heavy comparisons to its predecessor , " We Belong Together " . Freedom Du Lac from The Washington Post compared the two heavily , while PopMatters 's Evan Sawdey felt it was " stealing the structure that made ' We Belong Together ' such a great song . " In his critique , he continued " For being an album from one of the world 's biggest pop stars , its amazing how hook @-@ free and dated if feels a mere two weeks after its release . " Slant Magazine 's critic and writer , Sal Cinquemani , wrote that the single " isn 't exactly filled with combustible energy and it lacks the full @-@ throttle belting that accompanied the Return of the Voice three years ago , but it features all of the characteristics one expects from a latter @-@ day Mariah track . " Rachel Devitt of Rhapsody expressed a desire to see Carey " show off those legendary five octaves a bit more " , while also noting the song 's " slightly paranoid / just @-@ this @-@ side @-@ of @-@ crazy lyrics threatening to hunt down her lover if he videos their tryst . " New York Daily News critic , David Hinckley , was critical on the song 's simplicity , and wrote " [ It 's ] a single that could have been cut by any one @-@ hit diva @-@ ette today – has scored a chart grand slam . There 's just one small price to pay for all this : the singer 's soul . "
= = Chart performance = =
After only a few hours worth of airplay , " Touch My Body " entered the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs Chart at number seventy @-@ eight the chart week of February 23 , 2008 . In its second week within the chart , it leaped to number twenty , before reaching its peak of number two . In its first complete week of radio airplay , the song garnered 46 million audience impressions , making its debut at number twenty @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay . The song made its debut at number fifty @-@ seven on the Billboard Hot 100 as the " Hot Shot " of the week . The following week , " Touch My Body " jumped twenty @-@ three spots to number thirty @-@ four , making it Carey 's 31st top @-@ forty hit on the chart . It placed Carey as the woman with the fifth most top @-@ forty entries on the Hot 100 in Billboard history . " Touch My Body " reached the top position on the Hot 100 in its fourth week , and became Carey 's eighteenth chart topper , selling 286 @,@ 000 digital downloads . The song 's opening week broke several records , first making Carey the solo artist with the most number one singles in United States history , surpassing the record held by Elvis Presley . Additionally , it gave Carey her 79th week atop the Hot 100 , tying her with Presley as the artist with the most weeks at number one in the Billboard chart history . " The song also sold the highest amount of digital records in one week , surpassing Rihanna 's " Umbrella " ( 2007 ) , which sold 277 @,@ 000 units . The following week , the song stayed at number one , and according to Mediabase , received over 400 @,@ 000 spins in the United States within its second week at number one . By the song 's sixth week of digital availability , " Touch My Body " had sold 879 @,@ 000 units , and was eventually certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of over one million units throughout the United States . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Touch My Body " has sold over 1 @,@ 459 @,@ 000 copies in the United States as of August 15 , 2010 . It entered the Canadian Hot 100 at number ninety @-@ seven , based on airplay alone , and peaked at number two . The song also peaked at number two on the Hot Canadian Digital Singles chart , and spent a total of thirteen weeks within the singles chart . In an interview with Fox News , Carey described her feelings regarding surpassing Presley 's record , as well as her general sentiments following her success :
For me , in my mind the accomplishment is just that much sweeter . In terms of my ethnicity , always feeling like an outsider , always feeling different ... for me it 's about saying , ' Thank you Lord , for giving me the faith to believe in myself when other people had written me off . ' I 've gone through enough of my life worrying about that kind if thing . I want to encourage anyone else out there who feels like maybe they can 't overcome an obstacle , I feel like I 'm living proof ... never lose your faith . I 'm seriously a grateful individual right now .
Throughout Australasia and Europe , the song managed to peak within the top five in several countries . In Australia , " Touch My Body " debuted at number twenty on the singles chart , during the week of April 4 , 2008 . The following week , the song reached its peak of number seventeen , where it spent two weeks , and had a total chart trajectory of ten weeks . On April 11 , 2008 , " Touch My Body " debuted at number forty @-@ five on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 chart . The song peaked at number ten , and fell out of the chart in its tenth week , while it was at fifty @-@ seven . The song achieved moderate success in both the Flemish and Wallonian territories in Belgium , peaking at numbers fourteen and thirty @-@ three , respectively . Making its debut at its peak position of number sixteen , " Touch My Body " charted for a total of nineteen weeks in France , before falling out on October 4 , 2008 . " Touch My Body " became one of Carey 's strongest charting singles in Germany , debuting at number ten on the Media Control Charts . The following week , the song moved up three places to number seven , before completing its ten @-@ week run on the singles chart . On the Dutch Top 40chart , the song made its debut at number twenty @-@ seven . Seven weeks later , the song peaked at number fourteen , before dropping outside the top 40 three weeks later , ending its eleven @-@ week trajectory . " Touch My Body " entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at number eleven , during the week dated March 31 , 2008 . In total , the song spent two weeks at its peak position of number three , and a total of ten weeks on the chart . In both Norway and Sweden , the song saw moderate success , peaking at numbers ten and fourteen , and lasting on the chart for five and six weeks , respectively . On April 20 , 2008 , " Touch My Body " debuted and peaked at number three on the Swiss Music Charts , spending a total of twelve weeks on the chart . On the Japan Hot 100 , the song peaked at number two , and the full @-@ length ringtone was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . On the UK Singles Chart , " Touch My Body " debuted at number ninety @-@ nine , from just one day of release . The following week , the song leapt to number six on the chart , before peaking at number five in its third week . In total , " Touch My Body " spent thirteen weeks within the UK charts , and has estimated sales of over 120 @,@ 000 units .
= = Remixes = =
The official remix , " Touch My Body ( Love / Hate Remix ) " ( aka " Touch My Body ( Tricky Remix ) " ) , was produced by Carey , Christopher " Tricky " Stewart and The @-@ Dream , and feature Def Jam labelmate rapper Rick Ross on the first verse and R & B singer The @-@ Dream , who co @-@ produced the song , on the fourth verse . Aside from both their verses , Carey 's are intermingled , and featured in between and after both of the male parts .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The song 's music video was directed by film @-@ maker Brett Ratner in Los Angeles , and features a cameo appearance from 30 Rock 's Jack McBrayer . Prior to filming the video , or releasing the single , Carey had toned her body , and lost a reported twenty pounds . Due to her slim @-@ down , she and Ratner wanted to flaunt Carey 's new figure as much as possible throughout the video : " Mariah looks better than she has ever looked . It 's ridiculous . Mariah has an incredible body , but she was always kind of very voluptuous . Now she 's just like , fit . And we were like , we 've got to show this body . " As the pair came up with the video 's plot , Ratner contacted McBrayer to play a male leading role , alongside Carey . After receiving the call , McBrayer claimed he was so shocked by the proposal , that he didn 't believe it at first . He only met with the producers after Ratner personally called him and assured him the authenticity of the offer . In an interview with MTV News , McBrayer joked " I 'm always worried now that somebody is pranking me , so at first I was very leery . But when I heard it was legit , and then later on we got a phone call from Brett Ratner , who directed it . I was like , ' This is either a very elaborate prank , or this is the real deal . ' " In the fantasy @-@ themed story , he recalled what he considered the video 's most memorable scene , in which he and Carey , dressed in medieval attire , were walking with a unicorn . Additionally , he described the filming process as very simple , as they were given very loose directions and pointers . McBrayer claimed that during one take , they were meant to play Frisbee on the mansion lawn , and he accidentally threw it at Carey 's face , jokingly adding " by the time she spins back around — bonk , right in her face . I threw a Frisbee in Mariah Carey 's face ! I 'm like , I 'm fired ! . " When questioned by critics regarding the song and video , Carey responded " Have you seen the ' Touch My Body ' video ? C 'mon . Clearly you must see the humour in that . Even the lyrics , ' I will hunt you down ' . If anyone doesn 't get the joke by this time then they are an idiot . " In an interview with Reuters , Carey described working with Ratner , and her experience filming the video :
I love Brett because he is like me . If I 'm eternally 12 -- because he 's a little bit more naughty than I am -- he 's eternally 15 . He has a great sense of humor , obviously , and he knows that I have a sense of humor and he feels that people don 't recognize that about me . And I 'll do stuff that I 'm totally joking and they 're like ( uses mean girl voice ) , " Why is she doing that ? Why is she doing the treadmill with her high heels on ? " I 'm like , " It 's a freakin ' joke ! It 's ' Cribs ' ! Hello ! It 's a freakin ' joke ! "
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video revolves around the fantasy of a computer store employee , as he dreams about a relationship with Carey . Throughout the video , the pair is seen to have a pillow fight ; play laser tag , Guitar Hero and slot cars ; and throw a frisbee . The video also features Carey in various revealing outfits . The video begins with a small Compu Nerd Volkswagen , parodying Geek Squad , pulling up into the driveway of Carey 's large manor . As the employee introduces himself , Carey flippantly refers to him as a " CompuNerd " , and asks him to follow her to the broken computer . As he attends to it , Carey removes her robe , and enters her large closet , leaving McBrayer to begin his fantasy with her . The first scene is of Carey wearing a tight pink number , laying seductively on the bed , as the computer employee plays with an electric guitar . He joins her on the bed , and she begins playfully spanking him as the two enter a pillow fight . Another scene is interspersed , of Carey sporting a mini silver dress , with tall socks and heels , flaunting her body . The fantasy then adapts to a new scenery , of the pair dressed in medieval clothing , while walking a unicorn , followed by the duo in a large room in the mansion , racing electronic cars . As they proceed to play laser tag , they are shown outside , laying on a picnic bed , with Carey dressed in a " naughty school girl outfit " . They both get up , and begin to throw a frisbee , before relocating in front of the main stairwell in the mansion . The final scenes of the fantasy are of Carey , wearing a shortened red gown , standing atop the staircase , and McBrayer climbing on his knees while carrying flowers . All the scenes begin to fade , with the last being Carey feeding him by hand by the refrigerator , as he wakes up with Carey , now dressed , poking him . She tells the employee that security will let him out when he is finished , and leaves him while he is still fantasizing about her .
= = = Promotion and reception = = =
The music video won in the category of " Best Comedic Video " at the 2008 BET Awards , and won the " MTV Video Vanguard Award " at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards Japan . Additionally , the video was nominated for " Best Female Video " at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards in the United States . As the MTV Video Music Award is the only industry award for which Carey has not yet received even one trophy , she jokingly expressed to MTV News her feelings regarding the video for " Touch My Body " :
I have faith in my fans . I believe they will come through for me , because they always have . My house is not complete without an American Moonman , and I would say ' Touch My Body ' deserves one . Brett Ratner directed it , I have a unicorn in there , I have [ ' Guitar Hero ' ] in there — who else has that ? "
Carey appeared on several music video programs in promotion for the video 's debut . She appeared on MTV 's Total Request Live and BET 's 106 & Park on February 27 , 2008 , to premiere the video for " Touch My Body " ; BET also played the video all day , every hour on the hour , until 106 & Park aired . VH1 posted a 45 @-@ second sneak peek on their blog on February 26 , and subsequently posted the video in its entirety at midnight on February 27 , 2008 .
= = Live performances = =
Following the song 's digital release , Carey promoted the song on several live televised appearances and programs throughout the world . Only days prior to being released digitally , Carey was announced as the musical guest on an episode of Saturday Night Live , taking over for Janet Jackson who caught the flu and was unable to perform . Hosted by Jonah Hill , Carey performed both " Touch My Body " , as well as live rendition of " Migrate " alongside T @-@ Pain . Following the set , Carey and her manager at the time , Benny Medina , met with Lee Daniels , who then offered Carey a role in his film adaptation of Precious ( 2008 ) , in which Carey would later star and earn acclaim for her acting . After reaching the top of the Billboard charts , the Empire State Building was lit up in Carey 's motif colors , white , pink and lavender , for the entire week . On March 25 , 2008 , Carey was featured as the special guest performer at The Hills season premiere party , an event marking the start of a span of ten episodes airing in between season three and four . Carey , dressed in a black skirt and gold top , performed " Touch My Body " , " I 'm That Chick " and " We Belong Together " , before exiting the stage to a standing ovation . After the performance , Carey received strong praise from the program 's cast members , with Lauren Conrad saying " I 've always been a huge Mariah fan , and she 's just so beautiful and talented ' , while Whitney Port and Audrina Patridge referred to Carey as " an amazing singer " , while claiming to have listened to her music from a young age .
On April 25 , 2008 , Carey opened the Good Morning America " Summer Concert Series " with a live performance in Times Square . Carey , wearing a pink mini @-@ skirt , began the set with " Touch My Body " in front of thousands of fans . During the song , Carey 's backing vocals began to malfunction , causing it to repeat phrases and play during her main vocal moments . In order to let the sound engineer know of the problem , she substituted part of the lyrics for " stop singing my part now baby " , and completed the final chorus . She continued on with " I 'm That Chick " , and completed the three @-@ song set @-@ list with her follow @-@ up single , " Bye Bye " . After marking the album 's stateside launch with her appearance on Good Morning America , Carey took to Europe to perform on several programs . She began with an interview on the British radio station , BBC Radio 1 , and continued onto a live rendition of " Touch My Body " on both The Sunday Night Project and The Paul O 'Grady Show . Similarly , Carey performed the song live on the popular German talent show , Deutschland sucht den Superstar ( Germany searches for the superstar ) , in April 2008 .
On August 8 , 2008 , Carey performed a mash @-@ up of the song at the 2008 Teen Choice Awards . She began with her single at the time , " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " , and worked into the bridge of " Touch My Body " , before reverting to the former song . At the Fashion Rocks ceremony in 2009 , Carey performed " Touch My Body " and her current single , " Obsessed " , as well as the remix to her 1995 song " Fantasy " . During the set @-@ list , Carey was accompanied by six men in black ties , who hoisted her into the air in front of over 6 @,@ 000 people during " Obsessed " , and rigorous dance routines throughout " Touch My Body " . Following the release of Carey 's twelfth studio album Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel ( 2009 ) , she held four concerts at The Pearl Concert Theatre , where she included the song on the set @-@ list . Similar to the performance at the Fashion Rocks ceremony , Carey was hoisted into the air several times by four to six male dancers , each of whom circled her with intricate dancing throughout the song . Carey featured similar choreography for the song during her Angels Advocate Tour ( 2009 – 2010 ) , where it was included throughout the entire span of the tour .
= = Cover versions = =
R. Kelly , portraying " The Remix Killer " , released an unofficial remix of the song in April 2008 . During most of his section of the song , Kelly sings of shining , drinking and two @-@ stepping in a club , and he promises to kiss any place on Mariah 's body she wants : " Girl , if you let me , I 'm gonna touch it / But if I touch it , I 'm gonna wanna hit it . " Later , he mimics Carey 's bridge : " If some honies up in here that want me to touch her body / Touch it / Let me hear you say , ' I @-@ i @-@ i @-@ i do . ' " According to Kelly , the remix is unofficial , and his lyrics are freestyle rap .
During a concert in Washington , D.C. , soul singer Aretha Franklin performed a live rendition of the song . Following a piano introduction for her song , " The House That Jack Built " , Franklin segued into " Touch My Body " , and jokingly referred to the lyrics , telling the audience " As far as I 'm concerned , what starts on the floor stays on the floor . " A writer from Rap @-@ Up commented on the performance , calling it " absolutely priceless " . Similarly , a writer from the Chicago Tribune complemented Franklin 's live rendition of " Touch My Body " , calling it " simple , enjoyable and sweet " .
Producer Cyril Hahn released a remix / cover version of " Touch My Body " in 2012 that garnered positive critical attention .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for E = MC ² adapted from the album 's liner notes .
Mariah Carey – songwriting , producer , vocals , background vocals
Terius Nash – songwriting , producer
Christopher Stewart – songwriting , producer
Crystal Johnson – songwriting , producer
David Pensado – audio mixing
Jaysen Joshua – audio mixing
Bernie Grundman – mastering
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= 76th Infantry Division ( United Kingdom ) =
The 76th Infantry Division of the British Army was raised during the Second World War to defend the Norfolk coast against a possible German invasion , before being transformed into a training division in late 1942 . New recruits to the Army were assigned to the division to complete their training . Once fully trained , the recruits were allocated to formations fighting overseas . The formation was used as a source of reinforcements for the 21st Army Group , that was fighting in Normandy . After all available British army troops left the United Kingdom for France , the division was disbanded in September 1944 .
In addition to the actual formation , a phantom 76th Infantry Division was formed for deception . The phantom division was part of the notional British Fourth Army , to be used for the fictitious Operation Trolleycar . This operation aimed to deceive the Germans into believing that an Allied landing would occur along the northern German coast . While the deception effort was not a complete success , it managed to divert German attention to the northern flank for the remainder of the war .
= = Background = =
In the early stages of the Second World War following the Battle of France in 1940 , the United Kingdom was under threat of invasion from Nazi Germany but during the summer , the Battle of Britain dampened this threat . As the year progressed , the size of the British Army increased dramatically as 140 new infantry battalions were raised . In late 1940 , with the possibility of a German invasion during 1941 , these new battalions were formed into independent infantry brigades that were then loaned to newly created County Divisions .
The County Divisions , including the Norfolk County Division , were around 10 @,@ 000 men strong and assigned to defend the coast of threatened sections of the country , undertaking defensive tasks including the manning of coastal artillery . These divisions were largely static , lacking mobility and also divisional assets such as artillery , engineers and reconnaissance forces . Using the new formations in this manner allowed the pre @-@ war regular infantry divisions to undertake training and form an all @-@ important reserve that could be used to counter @-@ attack any possible German landing .
On 22 June , Germany launched Operation Barbarossa the invasion of the Soviet Union ; this attack all but removed the German threat to the United Kingdom . The British still had to consider the threat of an invasion , due the possibility that the Soviet Union could collapse under the German onslaught , after which Germany could easily transfer troops back to the west . With the arrival of winter in late 1941 , the threat of invasion subsided . This , coupled with the production of new equipment for the British army , allowed the War Office to begin steps to better balance the army , due to the large number of infantry units formed during the preceding year and a half ; as part of this reform , the County Divisions were disbanded .
= = History = =
= = = Home defence = = =
During the war , the divisions of the British Army were divided between " Higher Establishment " and " Lower Establishment " formations . The former were intended for deployment overseas and combat , whereas the latter were strictly for home defence in a static role . On 18 November 1941 , the Norfolk County Division was abolished and reformed as the 76th Infantry Division , a " Lower Establishment " division . The division , like its predecessor , comprised the 213th , the 220th and the 222nd Infantry Brigades . That day , the division was assigned artillery , an anti @-@ tank regiment , engineers and signallers ; reconnaissance troops joined the division in January 1942 . The paper strength of an infantry division at this time was 17 @,@ 298 men . Major @-@ General William Maingay Ozanne , who had commanded the Norfolk County Division since its inception , retained command of the division . The 76th Division was assigned to II Corps and maintained its previous mission of defending the Norfolk coastline . The Imperial War Museum comments that the division insignia , a " red Norfolk wherry , under sail " , underscored " the association of the Division with Norfolk " . After the division became a training formation , the insignia was only worn by the permanent division members .
The division was involved in establishing the ability of the Abwehr ( German military intelligence ) . A German @-@ published order of battle of the British army based within the United Kingdom , dated 10 April 1942 , was captured . This document included the division and had a near perfect listing of its subordinate units , with one exception . Rather than including the 1st Battalion , Leicestershire Regiment , the Germans believed the 18th Battalion , Welch Regiment had already replaced it . This and similar errors led the British to understand the capability of the Germans to intercept wireless communications in the United Kingdom . In 1943 , this , in part , led to the Operation Fortitude a plan to exploit the German ability and deceive their intelligence community about future Allied operations like Operation Overlord .
= = = Training formation = = =
During the winter of 1942 – 43 , the army overhauled the training of recruits . The 76th Division , along with the 48th Infantry and 77th Infantry divisions , was changed from a " Lower Establishment " unit to a " Reserve Division " . On 20 December , the division was renamed the 76th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division , becoming a training formation in the process . These three divisions were supplemented by a fourth training formation , the 80th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division , which was raised on 1 January 1943 . The 76th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division was assigned to Eastern Command , and moved to Norwich . Soldiers who had completed their corps training , were sent to these training divisions . The soldiers were given five weeks of additional training at the section , platoon and company level , before undertaking a final three @-@ day exercise . Troops would then be ready to be sent overseas to join other formations . Training was handled in this manner to relieve the " Higher Establishment " divisions from being milked for replacements for other units and to allow them to intensively train without the interruption of having to handle new recruits . For example , the 9th Battalion , Dorsetshire Regiment provided recruits to other battalions within the regiment as well as the Royal Norfolk Regiment . During this period , command of the division changed several times . On 21 December 1943 , Ozanne was replaced by Major @-@ General Colin Callander who in turn was replaced by Major @-@ General John Edward Utterson @-@ Kelso on 13 March 1944 .
On 30 June 1944 , the 76th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division , along with the other training divisions , had a combined total of 22 @,@ 355 men . Of this number , only 1 @,@ 100 were immediately available as replacements for the 21st Army Group . The remaining 21 @,@ 255 men were considered ineligible for service abroad , due to a variety of reasons , ranging from medical , not being considered fully fit or not yet fully trained . Over the following six months , up to 75 per cent of these men would be deployed to reinforce the 21st Army Group , following the completion of their training and having met the required fitness levels . Stephen Hart comments that , by September , the 21st Army Group " had bled Home Forces dry of draftable riflemen " , due to the losses suffered during the Normandy Campaign , leaving the army in Britain , with the exception of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Infantry Division , with just " young lads , old men , and the unfit " . On 1 September 1944 , the division was disbanded . Utterson @-@ Kelso assumed command of the 47th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division , which took over the role of the 76th Division .
= = = Deception = = =
The creation of the fictitious division arose from an actual reorganisation of British forces . During 1944 , the British Army was facing a manpower crisis . The army did not have enough men to replace the losses to front line infantry . While efforts were made to address this ( such as transferring men from the Royal Artillery and Royal Air Force to be retrained as infantry ) , the War Office began disbanding divisions to reduce the size of the army and to transfer the surplue men to other units to help keep those as close to full strength as possible . The 76th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division was one of several " Lower Establishment " divisions in the United Kingdom , chosen to be disbanded .
R Force , the Fortitude deception staff , seized upon this opportunity to retain the division as a phantom unit . A cover story was established to explain the change in the division 's status . It was claimed that with the war nearing an end , several Territorial Army divisions would revert to their peacetime recruiting role and release their equipment and resources to other units . For the 76th , this was the 47th Division . With the transfer of equipment , the 76th was notionally raised to the " Higher Establishment " and assigned to reinforce the 21st Army Group .
As a deception unit , the division was assigned to the bogus Operation Trolleycar . Trolleycar was initially envisioned as a fictitious amphibious assault upon the coast of the Netherlands , by the phantom British Fourth Army , to exploit the success of the authentic Operation Market Garden . When the Battle of Arnhem failed , the notional invasion plan was temporarily scrapped . Trolleycar was revived to convince the Germans that the Fourth Army would land near Emden , in support of an imaginary assault by the First Canadian Army , that would be launched west of Arnhem and through the Netherlands . The deception effort was kept up until 1945 , being wound down in January . Despite the British ceasing their attempts to deceive the Germans about this possible landing and the Germans not believing all that had been reported to them , the Germans remained anxious about a landing along the northern coast for the remainder of the war .
= = General officer commanding = =
Commanders included :
= = Order of Battle = =
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= SS Iowan =
SS Iowan was a cargo ship built in 1914 for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company . During World War I she was taken over by the United States Navy and commissioned as USS Iowan ( ID @-@ 3002 ) . During World War II , the ship was transferred to the Soviet Union and renamed SS Tashkent ( or Ташкент in Cyrillic ) .
Iowan was built by the Maryland Steel Company as one of eight sister ships for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company . In October 1914 , five months after she was delivered to American @-@ Hawaiian , Iowan rammed and sank the United Fruit Company steamer Metapan near the entrance to New York Harbor . After repairs , Iowan resumed inter @-@ coastal service via the Panama Canal . When the canal was temporarily closed by landslides in late 1915 , Iowan sailed via the Straits of Magellan until the canal reopened in mid 1916 . During World War I , USS Iowan carried cargo , animals , and a limited number of passengers to France , and returned nearly 10 @,@ 000 American troops after the Armistice .
After her Navy service ended in 1919 , she was returned to her original owners , who , at least once , chartered her to another shipping company . In May 1922 , Iowan rammed and sank the Furness @-@ Prince Line steamer Welsh Prince in the Columbia River near Astoria , Oregon , killing seven men in the process . In June 1941 , Iowan ran aground on a reef near Point Conception , California , and suffered $ 500 @,@ 000 in damages while buffeted by waves on the reef . She was freed from the reef after two weeks , towed to Los Angeles , and repaired .
In 1942 , the ship was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration , which transferred her to the Soviet Union under the terms of Lend @-@ Lease in December 1942 . She was assigned to the Far East Shipping Company under her new name of SS Tashkent , but sailed with the Soviet Pacific Fleet throughout the war . She delivered cargo and troops in support of the Soviet invasion of Japanese @-@ held territories in August 1945 . After the war , the ship remained a part of the Soviet merchant fleet until 1966 . She was transferred to North Korea at that time to become a fish processing facility , and was scrapped in 1969 .
= = Design and construction = =
In May 1912 , the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company placed an order with the Maryland Steel Company of Sparrows Point , Maryland , for two new cargo ships — Iowan and Ohioan . The contract cost of the ships was set at the construction cost plus an 8 % profit for Maryland Steel , but with a maximum cost of $ 640 @,@ 000 per ship . The construction was financed by Maryland Steel with a credit plan that called for a 5 % down payment in cash with nine monthly installments for the balance . Provisions of the deal allowed that some of the nine installments could be converted into longer @-@ term notes or mortgages . The final cost of Iowan , including financing costs , was $ 71 @.@ 95 per deadweight ton , which came out to just over $ 732 @,@ 000 .
Iowan ( Maryland Steel yard no . 132 ) was the first ship built under the contract . She was launched on 24 January 1914 , and delivered to American @-@ Hawaiian on 16 May . The ship was 6 @,@ 529 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 407 feet 7 inches ( 124 @.@ 23 m ) in length ( between perpendiculars ) and 53 feet 6 inches ( 16 @.@ 31 m ) abeam . She had a deadweight tonnage of 10 @,@ 175 LT DWT , and her cargo holds , which had a storage capacity of 490 @,@ 859 cubic feet ( 13 @,@ 899 @.@ 6 m3 ) , were outfitted with a complete refrigeration plant so that she could carry perishable products from the West Coast — like fresh produce from Southern California farms — to the East Coast . Iowan had a single steam engine powered by oil @-@ fired boilers that drove a single screw propeller at a speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ) .
= = Early career = =
When Iowan began sailing for American @-@ Hawaiian , the company shipped cargo from East Coast ports via the Straits of Magellan to West Coast ports and Hawaii , and vice versa . Eastbound shipments were primarily sugar and pineapple from Hawaii , while westbound cargoes were more general in nature . With the opening of the Panama Canal on 15 August 1914 , American @-@ Hawaiian ships switched to taking that route .
At 15 : 20 on 15 October 1914 , the outbound Iowan rammed the United Fruit Company passenger and cargo steamer Metapan at the entrance of Ambrose Channel outside New York . Metapan had stopped in the dense fog , but Iowan was traveling at a rapid pace . When Iowan had appeared out of the fog some 200 to 300 yards ( 180 to 270 m ) from Metapan , the United Fruit ship sounded three blasts on the ship 's whistle — warning Iowan of the impending collision . Iowan 's captain did not alter the ship 's course , but did drop her anchor to try and slow the fully laden ship . Nevertheless , Iowan gashed the bow of Metapan and traveled almost halfway through the passenger ship . When Iowan pulled out three minutes later , Metapan began to sink rapidly . Metapan 's captain ordered his ship to sail at full speed for shoals some 200 yards ( 180 m ) distant , on which the ship grounded in 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) of water . A variety of craft — including the nearby British Royal Navy cruiser Lancaster — responded to Metapan 's SOS . Even though the ship was resting on the bottom and the passengers in no immediate danger , most of the 78 passengers and 90 crewmen evacuated the ship in lifeboats and were picked up by rescue craft . Iowan , which suffered no casualties among her crew , attempted to return to her pier in Brooklyn , but was unable and instead anchored in Ambrose Channel . Iowan 's damage was restricted to her bow , which was crushed above the waterline . Two days later , The Wall Street Journal reported that Iowan was anchored off Clifton , Staten Island , and awaiting inspection from surveyors .
After repairs and return to service , Iowan resumed her inter @-@ coastal service . In May 1915 , she was delayed by a large Pacific storm that was responsible for the sinking of the steamer Victoria , and also damaged Northern Pacific and Harvard . In mid @-@ September the same year , Iowan sailed from Boston for the West Coast . She arrived at Cristóbal , the Atlantic terminus of the Panama Canal , to find the canal closed by a major landslide — more than 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 760 @,@ 000 m3 ) of mud and dirt had collapsed into the Gaillard Cut . Initially , American @-@ Hawaiian had Iowan wait in case the canal would soon reopen , but when it became apparent that the closure would last some time , perhaps as long as ten months , Iowan was sent around South America to her destinations , Los Angeles and San Francisco . The Los Angeles Times reported that one portion of Iowan 's delayed cargo consisted of Christmas toys for Los Angeles merchants . The newspaper went on to predict that the delay would be " very disastrous " for the holiday season .
The balance of Iowan 's activities over the next two years are unclear . She may have been in the half of the American @-@ Hawaiian fleet that was chartered for transatlantic service . She may also have been in the group of American @-@ Hawaiian ships chartered for service to South America , delivering coal , gasoline , and steel in exchange for coffee , nitrates , cocoa , rubber , and manganese ore .
= = World War I = =
On 23 December 1917 , some seven months after the United States declared war on Germany , the United States Navy acquired Iowan from American @-@ Hawaiian . USS Iowan was commissioned the same day with Lieutenant Commander Frank L. Dow , USNRF , in command .
Iowan loaded a cargo of 800 horses , along with flour , iron , and machinery at Newport News , Virginia and sailed for New York on 9 February 1918 . There she joined a convoy that sailed for France on 11 February and arrived at its destination on 28 February ; Iowan discharged her equine passengers — less seven that died or were destroyed during the voyage — at Remount Depot No. 3 on 5 March . Iowan continued carrying livestock and food products to France through the rest of the war . On 9 November , Iowan took on 72 officers and men , and headed for France with cargo ship Charlton Hall two days before the Armistice .
With the fighting at an end , the task of bringing home American soldiers began almost immediately . Iowan was selected for conversion to a troop transport and transferred to the Cruiser and Transport Force , but before she could begin returning troops , Iowan had to undergo conversion from a cargo and animal ship . Though sources do not indicate the specific modifications Iowan underwent , typical conversions for other ships included the installation of berths for troops , and adding greatly expanded cooking and toilet facilities to handle the large numbers of men aboard . Similar modifications on Iowan 's sister ship Minnesotan took three months , but it is not known how long Iowan 's refit took . By the time Iowan had completed her sixth and final trooping voyage on 29 August 1919 , Iowan had carried home 9 @,@ 876 healthy and wounded men . USS Iowan was decommissioned on 22 September 1919 , and returned to American @-@ Hawaiian .
= = Interwar years = =
Iowan resumed cargo service with American @-@ Hawaiian after her return from World War I service . Though the company had abandoned its original Hawaiian sugar routes by this time , Iowan continued inter @-@ coastal service through the Panama Canal . For a time in the early 1920s , Iowan was chartered to the United American Line . In May 1922 , the Associated Press reported that Iowan , sailing under the United American banner , was loading wheat , flour , and lumber at Tacoma , Washington , for England and European ports . Later that same month , on 29 May , Iowan rammed and sank the Furness @-@ Prince Line cargo ship Welsh Prince in the Columbia River near Astoria , Oregon . Seven men aboard Welsh Prince were killed and three were injured in the crash and subsequent fire .
On 11 June 1941 , Iowan departed Los Angeles with a cargo of 4 @,@ 500 long tons ( 4 @,@ 600 t ) of steel and iron pipe destined for San Francisco ; Portland , Oregon ; and Seattle , on her last voyage before she was to be handed over to the United States Maritime Commission . At 04 : 20 on 12 June , Iowan ran aground on a reef a few hundred yards ( meters ) off shore from Government Point , — 117 nautical miles ( 217 km ) northwest of Los Angeles , — near Point Conception . Salvage operations took some two weeks , but the ship was towed back to Los Angeles and placed in drydock at the Bethlehem Shipyard on Terminal Island . Approximately 100 feet ( 30 m ) of the ship 's hull had been damaged while the ship was buffeted by waves on the reef , which had opened numerous holes in her hull . The ship 's drive shaft had broken , and her boilers and engines had shifted . The Los Angeles Times reported that estimates for Iowan 's repair ranged up to $ 500 @,@ 000 . In an inquiry held by the Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation , Iowan 's captain , S. A. Gates , a Californian with 25 years of sailing experience along the coast , blamed unusual tides for the grounding .
= = World War II and later career = =
In 1942 , after Iowan was repaired and after the United States had entered World War II , the ship was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration ( WSA ) . On 6 December 1942 , Iowan was transferred to the Soviet Union under Lend @-@ Lease , and renamed Tashkent ( Ташкент Russian pronunciation : [ tɐʂˈkʲɛnt ] ) after the capital of Uzbekistan . Near the end of World War II , the WSA offered a payment of $ 694 @,@ 743 to American @-@ Hawaiian for the former Iowan as part of a $ 7 @.@ 2 million settlement for eleven American @-@ Hawaiian ships that had been requisitioned by the WSA .
Tashkent was assigned to the Far East Shipping Company ( FESCO ) , but sailed with the Pacific Fleet of the Soviet Navy throughout the war . Tashkent was photographed at San Francisco at some point during the war , but most of her other movements are not known . However , in August 1945 , Tashkent delivered troops and cargo in support of the Soviet invasions of Japanese @-@ held Manchuria , Korea , Sakhalin , and the Kurile Islands . After the war 's end , Tashkent returned to merchant operation with FESCO through 1966 , when she was transferred to North Korea for use as a fish processing facility . The former Tashkent was scrapped in 1969 .
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= Wales Millennium Centre =
Wales Millennium Centre ( Welsh : Canolfan Mileniwm Cymru ) is an arts centre located in the Cardiff Bay area of Cardiff , Wales . The site covers a total area of 4 @.@ 7 acres ( 1 @.@ 9 ha ) . Phase 1 of the building was opened during the weekend of the 26 – 28 November 2004 and phase 2 opened on 22 January 2009 with an inaugural concert . The centre has hosted performances of Opera , Ballet , Dance , Theater , comedy and Musicals .
The Centre comprises one large theatre and two smaller halls with shops , bars and restaurants . It houses the national orchestra and opera , dance , theatre and literature companies , a total of eight arts organisations in residence . It is also home to the Cardiff Bay Visitor Centre .
The main theatre , the Donald Gordon Theatre , has 1 @,@ 897 seats , the BBC Hoddinott Hall 350 and the Weston Studio Theatre 250 .
In 2001 Lord Rowe @-@ Beddoe was appointed chairman of Wales Millennium Centre , a company limited by guarantee . Board members include Sir Michael Checkland .
= = Background = =
= = = The failed Cardiff Bay Opera House project = = =
The Centre replaced an earlier project for the site , the Cardiff Bay Opera House , a plan supported by the Cardiff Bay Development Corporation to construct a permanent home for the Welsh National Opera . The project failed to win financial support from the Millennium Commission , the body which distributed funds from the UK National Lottery .
An international design competition attracted 268 international applicants , and was won by Iraq @-@ born architect Zaha Hadid . Her avant @-@ garde design was so radical that she and a selection of other applicants were asked to submit revised designs for a second round of competition — which she again won with " a sleek and dazzling complex of sharp lines and surfaces that she compared to an ' inverted necklace ' " .
In December 1995 , the Millennium Commission decided against lottery @-@ money funding for the project . It was suggested that the bid failed because of " the unpopular Conservative government 's fear of controversy , " favouring the funding of projects perceived as more populist , such as the Millennium Stadium .
= = = Origins of Wales Millennium Centre = = =
After the Cardiff Bay Opera House project was rejected , a new project was conceived that included more than opera and was felt to be a better reflection of Welsh culture . The change of name symbolised this , but the project still had to overcome many hurdles . Funding from the Welsh Assembly and Millennium Commission took years to obtain . Cardiff Council had to buy the land after the previous owners , Grosvenor Waterside ( Associated British Ports property division ) threatened to build a retail centre there due to the delays . Further boosts were given by large donations from South African businessman Donald Gordon and a loan from the international bank , HSBC . The GB £ 20 million donation from Donald Gordon was split evenly between the Royal Opera House and Wales Millennium Centre and was spread over five years . This is believed to be the largest single private donation ever made to the arts in the UK .
= = Phase 1 – Donald Gordon Theatre and Weston Studio Theatre = =
In addition to the two main theatres of the Donald Gordon Theatre and Weston Studio Theatre , the 37 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 400 @,@ 000 sq ft ) phase 1 of the Wales Millennium Centre also has six function rooms : the Victor Salvi Room , the David Morgan Room , the Sony Room , the Seligman Room , the Japan Room , and the Lloyds Enterprise Suite . The Urdd Gobaith Cymru has a hostel with accommodations for 153 people overnight in en @-@ suite bedrooms , called the Urdd City Sleepover . It also has performance and teaching space in the Urdd Hall / Theatre , with 153 retractable seats .
The building also includes rehearsal rooms , orchestral facilities for the Welsh National Opera , dance studios for Diversions , called The Dance House , and the Blue Room , with seating for up to 100 .
The foyer has three bars ; the Penderyn Awen Foyer Bar on level 2 , the Horizons Foyer Bar on level 4 , and the Stones Foyer Bar on level 5 @.@ ffresh restaurant is also situated in the foyer , along with Crema , which is a coffee shop , Hufen , which is an Ice cream parlour and One , which is a wine bar . Free performances also take place during the day in the foyer on the Glanfa Stage .
= = = Design and construction = = =
The Centre was designed by Jonathan Adams , of local practice Percy Thomas Architects ( taken over by Capita Group in 2004 ) , with Arup Acoustics providing the acoustic design and Arup as building engineer . His first concept drawings were made in early 1998 , by 1999 his design was starting to look more like the building it is today .
Construction began on 25 February 2002 , the main contractor being Sir Robert McAlpine Ltd and Kelsey Roofing Industries Ltd being the roofing contractor . Carr and Angier were the theatre consultants . Other contractors included Stent ( foundations ) , Swansea Institute of Higher Education , now part of University of Wales Trinity Saint David ( glass ) , GH James Cyf ( stonemasonry ) , Rimex ( stainless steel ) , Alfred McAlpine ( slate ) , Coed Cymru ( wood ) , Ann Catrin Evans ( door furniture ) , Amber Hiscott ( etchings on glass walls ) .
The architect 's concept of the building was a building that expressed " Welshness " and was instantly recognisable . The building was designed to reflect the many different parts of Wales with local Welsh materials that dominate its history : slate , metal , wood and glass . All the materials used come from Wales ; the Centre was built from 1 @,@ 350 tonnes of Welsh slate , 300 @,@ 000 concrete blocks , and a million metres of electric cable .
Slate
The exterior of the building is clad in multi @-@ coloured slate collected from Welsh slate quarries . Narrow windows are built into the layers of slate to give the impression of rock ; strata they depict the different stone layers in sea cliffs . The purple slate came from the Penrhyn Quarry , the blue from Cwt y Bugail Quarry , the green from the Nantlle Valley , the grey from Llechwedd quarry , and the black from the Corris Quarry .
I always loved going to Ogmore and Southerndown . I thought the cliffs there looked like a building anyway . A building capable of withstanding the roughest weather for hundreds of years . The older they get , the better they look . I wondered if it would be possible to make a building which had the same qualities as these magnificent cliffs . To do that I needed a lot of stone . Normal stone for buildings has to be specially cut into blocks ; it takes a long time to make and costs a fortune . But in north Wales the historic slate industry has left behind whole mountains of waste stone that no @-@ one wants . This was stone cut from the mountainside for nearly two hundred years but which wasn ’ t good enough to make roof slates . Over 90 % was thrown away . But it was ideal for making walls like the one I had in mind ... — architect Jonathan Adams
Metal
The Centre 's main feature , the bronze coloured dome which covers the Donald Gordon Theatre , is clad in steel that was treated with copper oxide . It was designed to withstand the weather conditions on the Cardiff Bay waterfront and will look increasingly better with age . The architect , Jonathan Adams , decided not to use copper and aluminium as they would both change colour with age and weather conditions .
We all know that steel making has been important to south Wales , just as slate making has changed the landscape of the north . We have to use a special type of steel that won ’ t go rusty near to the salt @-@ laden , maritime air of Cardiff Bay . This stainless steel will be made near to Pontypool . For the Wales Millennium Centre I thought it was important that the materials should have a " natural " texture , and that they should be instantly recognisable to anyone seeing them , even from a distance . For this reason I felt it was important that the steel of the shell should have the rough grain and the riveted pattern that we think of as more typical of old industrial structures , such as those that used to be commonplace around the landscape of the industrial south . — architect Jonathan Adams
Wood
Both inside and outside the building , including the main Donald Gordon Theatre , the balconies and the rear of the building , is dominated by bands of hardwood lining the walls .
Like the exterior of the building , the principal internal spaces are designed to make the best use of natural materials in their natural state . The structure and detail of the concourse galleries echo the form of the exterior , with the curving strata formed in native hardwoods . Oak , ash , beech , sycamore , alder , birch , chestnut and cherry woods from renewable sources in mid @-@ Wales will be used together in proportions that reflect their relative availability from the forest . The design of the concourse galleries is intended to evoke the image of the edge of the forest , partly as a counterpoint to the coastal nature of the exterior , and partly because the edge of the forest in folklore and mythology represents a line between the real world and the magical world , a line which resembles the front edge of the theatre stage . The form of trees is created by the interweaving curvature of the gallery edges , and by the random positioning of the supporting columns . — architect Jonathan Adams
Glass
Glass was used to incorporate into the bands of slate . The glass is 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick and was cut and installed by the Architectural Glass Department at Swansea Institute of Higher Education . Glass is not used in the contemporary British architectural style of the glass curtain .
Jonathan Adams said , " The glass veins in the external walls of the Wales Millennium Centre make use of conventional glass in a unique way : the sheets of glass are stacked together and fused in a kiln to form solid blocks . "
Calligraphy
Inscribed on the front of the dome , above the main entrance , are two poetic lines , written by Welsh poet Gwyneth Lewis in the Welsh and English languages . The lettering is formed by windows in the upstairs bar areas and is internally illuminated at night .
The idea of this monumental inscription comes from Roman classical architecture . The Romans brought Christianity to these islands , along with the custom of engraving stone . The form of the Celtic cross embodies the cross @-@ fertilisation of indigenous and Roman cultures , from which the Welsh nation first emerged . The monumental inscription is a familiar feature of Roman architecture . The inscription over the entrance of the Wales Millennium Centre is a revival of this classical tradition , and also a recognition of the formative influence of Roman culture upon our nation . We ’ re lucky to have two languages ; one that we share with half the world and one which belongs just to us . Words in songs , stories and poems have helped to make Wales the proud country that it is . — architect Jonathan Adams
Gwyneth Lewis said of the inscription :
I wanted the words to reflect the architecture of the building . Its copper dome reminded me of the furnaces from Wales 's industrial heritage and also Ceridwen 's cauldron , from which the early poet Taliesin received his inspiration ( ' awen ' ) . Awen suggests both poetic inspiration and the general creative vision by which people and societies form their aspirations . [ ... ] It was important to me that the English words on the building should not simply be a translation of the Welsh , that they should have their own message . The strata of the slate frontage of the Wales Millennium Centre reminded me of the horizons just beyond Penarth Head . The sea has , traditionally , been for Cardiff the means by which the Welsh export their best to the world and the route by which the world comes to Cardiff . The stones inside the theatre literally sing with opera , musicals and orchestral music , and I wanted to convey the sense of an international space created by the art of music . — Gwyneth Lewis
" In These Stones Horizons Sing " is also an orchestral work , which was composed by Karl Jenkins , and commissioned by the Wales Millennium Centre for the opening of the Centre .
= = = Opening weekend ceremony = = =
The building was officially opened on the weekend of the 26 , 27 and 28 November 2004 . The ceremony was organised by Bryn Terfel , the creative director of the whole opening weekend .
Day 1 – 26 November 2004
The day started with a speech from Lord Rowe @-@ Beddoe , chairman of Wales Millennium Centre , who declared to the crowd that the proceedings were under way . This was followed by a speech from Rhodri Morgan , the First Minister , who stressed that the new arts centre belonged to the whole nation , that it was for all of the people of Wales and not just for the elite .
The building was opened by Janet Thickpenny , a young mother from Barry , who was chosen because her 40th birthday coincided with that of the opening day . A human chain delivered the symbolic key , designed and cast by Ann Catrin Evans , to Janet with a fanfare from the National Youth Brass Band of Wales to a Karl Jenkins specially commissioned work In These Stones Horizons Sing and the Centre was open .
The evening celebrations began with Cymru for the World , which celebrated the achievements of five leading Welsh artists ; Gwyneth Jones , Shirley Bassey , Siân Phillips , Alun Hoddinott and Richard Burton , represented by his daughter Kate Burton . This included tributes from Robert Hardy , Jonathan Pryce , Derek Jacobi , Nana Mouskouri , Catrin Finch , Ruth Madoc and Ian McKellen . The concert was directed by Ken Caswell and conducted by David Charles Abell .
Bryn Terfel started off with a short speech and introduced the Wales Millennium Centre singers and dancers , who in hard hats and donkey jackets sang and danced the story of the construction of the building . They were later joined by all 322 participants in a chorus , including Gwyn Hughes Jones , Bryn Terfel and Dennis O 'Neill sang a duet from Pearl Fishers . Diversions performed a new ballet based on one of Alun Hoddinott ’ s works . The Welsh National Opera performed the final scene of Beethoven 's Fidelio in their new home . The evening ranged across all musical types from popular to classical .
Day 2 – 27 November 2004
The second day was an open door for the public to explore the Centre with a continuous stream of people filling through the building from early morning until the fireworks display out in the Roald Dahl Plass .
Day 3 – 28 November 2004
The final day of the opening weekend began with the arrival of Queen Elizabeth II , Prince Philip , and the Prince of Wales who met First Minister Rhodri Morgan and Lord Rowe @-@ Beddoe , and marked the event by unveiling a plaque . Philip Madoc , Siân Phillips , Gaby Roslin , Michael Ball , Charlotte Church , Catrin Finch and Only Men Aloud ! were among the artists that entertained the audience during the first act . The second act was opened by the Welsh National Opera and later the Kirov Ballet and Cirque Éloize entertained the audience . Bryn Terfel ended the celebrations .
= = Phase 2 ( C Bay ) – BBC Hoddinott Hall = =
Phase 2 of the Centre is home to the BBC National Orchestra of Wales ( BBC NOW ) and the BBC National Chorus of Wales . BBC NOW moved from Studio 1 at Broadcasting House in Llandaff , which the orchestra had outgrown since the late 1960s . Phase 2 opened on 22 January 2009 with an inaugural concert performed by the BBC NOW and conducted by Thierry Fischer . Phase 2 includes the 350 seater BBC Hoddinott Hall ( Welsh : Neuadd Hoddinott y BBC ) , also known simply as Hoddinott Hall , which is named after the late Welsh classical composer Alun Hoddinott CBE ( August 11 , 1929 – March 12 , 2008 ) , and the Grace Williams Studio , which is named after another Welsh composer , Grace Williams ( February 19 , 1906 – February 10 , 1977 ) , and is used as a centre for education and outreach work . Phase 2 also has space for practice rooms , a music library , backstage facilities , it also provides a four @-@ storey office space for Wales Millennium Centre and the Arts Council of Wales .
= = = Design and construction = = =
The original plans for the Centre were that it would have a concert hall , however the final design of phase 1 did not include one . Space had been left , though , for a concert hall to be built in the future when phase 1 of the Centre was opened in 2004 , and construction on phase 2 was then due to begin early in 2005 . However , construction of phase 2 did not actually begin until April 2007 . Phase 2 was designed to fit into the Centre ’ s curved slate frontage , with an upper part constructed from timber .
Phase 2 of the Centre was designed by the then newly qualified Tim Green and Keith Vince of Capita Architecture , formerly called Capita Percy Thomas and now part of Capita Symonds , with Arup Acoustics again providing the acoustic design . The main contractor was again Sir Robert McAlpine Ltd , with MJN Colston Ltd responsible for the design and installation of all the mechanical , electrical and public health services in the building . Other subcontractors on the project included URS Corporation , Davis Langdon and Hulley & Kirkwood .
Tim Green said of the building that the exterior of the building was designed to be in keeping with the existing Wales Millennium Centre , while the interior had a theme all its own . " The concept behind the design of the interior of Hoddinott Hall was that of a traditional Welsh chapel . " " The timber treatment at low level is very reminiscent of Victorian chapels and the masonry above . The stonework you would normally get in a stone chapel has been replaced by concrete . "
During the design and construction period , the project name for phase 2 was C Bay . Construction of phase 2 began in April 2007 , and ended when the keys to the building were handed over at an official ceremony in September 2008 , and the beginning of the fitting out of the BBC Hoddinott Hall by BBC Wales .
= = = Opening Festival = = =
To commemorate the opening of the BBC Hoddinott Hall an inaugural concert took place on 22 January 2009 . It was part of the Opening Festival which took place between 22 January and 1 February 2009 . The concert was performed by the BBC National Orchestra of Wales and was conducted by Thierry Fischer . The concert included the world premiere of St Vitus in the Kettle by Simon Holt , the orchestra ’ s composer in association , who took over from Michael Berkeley . The BBC Hoddinott Hall was officially opened by the Prince of Wales on 31 January 2009 , where he unveiled a plaque .
= = Resident organisations = =
The Wales Millennium Centre is home to nine arts organisations :
Literature Wales - The Welsh National Literature Promotion Agency and Society For Writers
National Dance Company Wales - previously known as Diversions - the Dance Company of Wales
Hijinx Theatre - a theatre company that promotes community work , aiming to bring together people of all ages
Touch Trust - providing educational touch and movement therapies to people with profound disabilities and autism
Tŷ Cerdd - music information centre for amateur and professional musicians , including the Welsh Music Information Centre , Welsh Amateur Music Federation , National Youth Arts Wales and Cyfansoddwyr Cymru ( Composers of Wales )
Urdd Gobaith Cymru ( The Welsh League of Youth ) - the Welsh language youth movement
Welsh National Opera - an international touring opera company
BBC National Orchestra of Wales - The only professional national symphony orchestra for Wales
Arts Council of Wales - The body responsible for funding and developing the arts in Wales
It is also home to the Cardiff Bay Visitor Centre .
= = Corporate financing and rebranding = =
The total cost of phase 1 of the project was £ 106 @.@ 2 million . The National Lottery Millennium Fund provided £ 31 @.@ 7 million , a further £ 37 million came from The National Assembly for Wales and £ 10 @.@ 4 million was donated by the Arts Council of Wales . In addition a private investor , South African businessman Donald Gordon donated £ 20 million to be shared equally between the Royal Opera House and the Wales Millennium Centre . The Centre also received a £ 13 @.@ 5 million loan from HSBC . The remaining funds for the project came from a major sponsorship deal with the Principality Building Society . Today the Centre has many corporations and public bodies who provide sponsorship to the Centre .
The National Assembly for Wales announced on 6 November 2007 that it was to pay off the outstanding loan of £ 13 @.@ 5 million from HSBC and also increase the annual funding . From April 2008 , the National Assembly for Wales have given a grant to the Wales Millennium Centre with £ 3 @.@ 5 million per annum for 3 years . This would only repay the capital debt and not any ongoing operating loss as the Centre remains profitable . The money used to pay the debt came from unallocated funds from the Assembly 's previous budget and it was said by the Minister for Heritage , Rhodri Glyn Thomas , that the new money allocation would not come at the expense of other art projects from other parts of Wales .
The cost of phase 2 of the project was approximately £ 18 million , however the BBC does not own the building , they have leased it for 25 years from the Lime Property Fund , which is a subsidiary of Aviva Investors . The building was built by Concert Bay Ltd , which is a subsidiary of Sir Robert McAlpine Enterprises Ltd who co @-@ funded the scheme along with Lime Property Fund .
In November 2006 , Wales Millennium Centre announced that they would begin a two phase rebranding project . The project was won by a local Cardiff company , Sweet . The first phase of the project involved a new corporate logo , the second phase included the complete redesign of other marketing tools , such as brochures and advertisements .
= = In popular culture = =
Doctor Who and Torchwood
The Centre has made numerous appearances in film and television including Doctor Who , whose modern era is produced locally by BBC Wales . It has appeared seven times to date : as itself from outside in the episode " Boom Town " , its marquee momentarily at the end of the episode " Bad Wolf " , its lobby as a hospital lobby in the far future in the episode " New Earth " , and again in " The Girl Who Waited " , . It also appeared briefly in the episodes " Utopia " and " The Stolen Earth " , and also in the final episode of series 3 , " Last of the Time Lords " .
The spin @-@ off series Torchwood , has its headquarters , known as " The Hub " , set underneath the Water Tower , Roald Dahl Plass , with the Wales Millennium Centre 's frontage featuring heavily through the show .
Jones Jones Jones
On 3 November 2006 , a record breaking attempt to gather the most people with the same surname , Jones , took place in the Centre under the show banner Jones Jones Jones , filmed for television by S4C . The record was broken with 1 @,@ 224 Joneses filling the Donald Gordon Theatre . The previous record was set in Sweden in 2004 when 583 people gathered who had the same surname of Norberg .
Gavin & Stacey
Episode 1 of the second series of BBC TV show Gavin & Stacey was filmed in the Wales Millennium Centre . The centre was supposed to be an airport .
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= 2008 French Grand Prix =
The 2008 French Grand Prix ( formally the XCIV Grand Prix de France ) was a Formula One motor race held on 22 June 2008 at the Circuit de Nevers Magny @-@ Cours , France . This race is ( to date ) the last French Grand Prix . It was the eighth race of the 2008 Formula One season . The 70 @-@ lap race was won by Felipe Massa for the Ferrari team after starting from second position . Kimi Räikkönen , who started from pole position , finished second in the other Ferrari car ; Jarno Trulli was third in a Toyota .
Räikkönen and Massa both made a clean start . Renault 's Fernando Alonso , who started third , was overtaken by Trulli and BMW Sauber driver Robert Kubica . The front three of Räikkönen , Massa and Trulli maintained their positions through the first round of pit stops . On lap 30 , Räikkönen led Massa by six and a half seconds , and Trulli by 30 seconds . Just before half distance , Räikkönen 's right exhaust pipe broke , which caused the engine to lose power . Massa , in second place , began lapping quicker than Räikkönen , and he caught and passed him on lap 39 . Massa maintained his lead through the second round of pit stops , and won the race ; Räikkönen finished almost 18 seconds behind . Trulli fended off McLaren 's Heikki Kovalainen , who challenged him in the latter stages , to take third .
Massa 's win promoted him into the lead of the Drivers ' Championship for the first time in his career , overtaking Kubica . Kubica was second , two points behind Massa , while Räikkönen was third . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari increased their lead to 17 points ahead of BMW Sauber , McLaren a further 16 points behind in third .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Grand Prix was contested by 20 drivers , in ten teams of two . The teams , also known as " constructors " , were Ferrari , McLaren @-@ Mercedes , Renault , Honda , Force India @-@ Ferrari , BMW Sauber , Toyota , Red Bull @-@ Renault , Williams @-@ Toyota and Toro Rosso @-@ Ferrari . Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought two different tyre compounds to the race ; the softer of the two marked by a single white stripe down one of the grooves .
Before the race , Robert Kubica of BMW led the Drivers ' Championship , with 42 points , ahead of McLaren 's Lewis Hamilton and Ferrari 's Felipe Massa , who each had 38 points . Massa 's teammate Kimi Räikkönen was fourth , ahead of Kubica 's teammate Nick Heidfeld in fifth . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari were leading with 73 points ; three points ahead of BMW Sauber with 70 points ; McLaren were a further 17 points behind them in third .
Ferrari came into the race with a long series of success at the track , having won seven of the last ten races held at Magny @-@ Cours . In 2007 , Ferrari had taken a one @-@ two , Räikkönen ahead of Massa . Massa said that it was important not to discount McLaren and BMW :
In recent years , people would say that Canada and Monaco suited McLaren better than Ferrari , while it was the other way round in France and Britain , but I don 't think that is really the case this year , as apart from any other factors , we have to consider the BMW team in this equation . This year in Monaco , Ferrari had the whole front row of the grid , even though I think we had more fuel than McLaren and in Canada our race pace was very good too . In other races we have all been very close .
In March 2007 , the Fédération Française du Sport Automobile ( FFSA ) stated their intention to rest the Magny @-@ Cours circuit from the Formula One world championship for the 2008 season . Despite this , the race was held in 2008 , but the race was dropped from the Formula One calendar for 2009 . As of 2015 , the Formula One World Championship had not returned to France since .
At the previous race in Canada , Hamilton had crashed into Räikkönen in the pit lane , when Raikkönën braked to stop in front of the red light at the end of the pit lane . Williams ' driver Nico Rosberg then collided into the back of Hamilton . Hamilton later said that he saw the light too late and could not avoid hitting the Ferrari . Hamilton and Rosberg were both given ten place grid penalties for the French Grand Prix , meaning that whatever their qualifying position , they could start no better than 11th . After the penalty was given , McLaren 's CEO , Martin Whitmarsh , said that he thought the penalty was " severe " , citing a similar incident at Monaco where Raikkönën had crashed into the back of Force India 's Adrian Sutil . There , no penalty had been given . However , Rosberg said that the penalties from Canada were " deserved " . When Hamilton was asked whether the penalty would force him to change his approach , Hamilton said that " it doesn 't really . It 's a race , I 'm here to win and so I approach it the same . " " It 's going to be harder , " he added , " coming from the back , but I don 't have any doubts or any worries , I think we 're going to have a very strong package this weekend , and I think the car will be as good if not better than it was in the last race . With that pace , as long as we stay out of trouble we should be able to score some good points . "
Renault driver Nelson Piquet Jr . , who was in his first year in Formula One and had scored no points prior to this race , said that he thought that the track suited him and the car much better than previous races . BMW Sauber had taken their first victory at the previous race , but team principal Mario Theissen said that a second win was unlikely at Magny @-@ Cours .
In technical developments , BMW Sauber , Ferrari , McLaren and Toyota all revised their front wings . BMW brought both their new wing as well as the version they had used for the previous race to Magny @-@ Cours , but decided to use the revised wing , as it offered better levels of downforce . Ferrari 's wing changes aimed at improving the performance of the car 's nose hole . The nose hole , which had been introduced at the Spanish Grand Prix , aimed at creating greater levels of downforce , by channelling the airflow . Williams changed their front sidepod winglets . At the previous race , Red Bull modified their RB4 's bridge wing to prevent it from flexing , to comply with the latest rule clarifications . For Magny @-@ Cours , the team revised the central section of this element , with the aim of generating greater downforce levels .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — two on Friday , and a third on Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted 90 minutes . The third session was held on Saturday morning and lasted an hour . In the first practice session , which was held in dry conditions , Ferrari 's Felipe Massa was quickest , ahead of the McLarens of Hamilton and Kovalainen in second and third . Massa 's teammate , Räikkönen , was fourth quickest . The afternoon session , which was held in very hot conditions , saw Renault 's Fernando Alonso record the fastest lap , ahead of the two Ferrari drivers . The hot weather conditions posed several problems for the drivers , as many of the cars ran off the road , sliding through the gravel or across the asphalt . At the end of the session , a new system — designed to limit the cars ' speeds in potentially hazardous situations — was tested . In the third practice session , again held in dry conditions , Renault continued their strong practice performance with Piquet leading the final practice session . Red Bull 's Mark Webber was next quickest while Sebastian Vettel of Toro Rosso was third . As was the pattern for the season , the McLaren and Ferrari drivers ran heavier fuel loads in this session in preparation for the final section of qualifying .
Saturday afternoon 's qualifying session was divided into three parts . In the first 20 @-@ minute period , cars finishing 16th or lower were eliminated . The second qualifying period lasted for 15 minutes , at the end of which the fastest ten cars went into the final period , to determine their grid positions for the race . Cars failing to make the final period were allowed to be refuelled before the race but those competing in it were not , and so carried more fuel than they had done in the earlier qualifying sessions .
Räikkönen clinched Ferrari 's 200th pole position , with a time of 1 : 16 @.@ 449 . He was joined on the front row of the grid by teammate Massa . Alonso qualified third after Hamilton 's penalty moved the quicker McLaren driver to 13th ; Toyota 's Jarno Trulli qualified fourth . Kovalainen would have started from fifth , but was given a five @-@ place grid penalty for blocking Webber during qualifying and would start from 10th on the grid . Kubica , Webber , David Coulthard , Timo Glock and Piquet rounded off the top ten . Heidfeld qualified 11th , with Vettel ahead of Hamilton in 12th , and Bourdais behind in 14th . Rosberg was next quickest , but after his penalty demoted him to the back of the grid his teammate Kazuki Nakajima took his place . The final four places went to the Honda and Force India teams , with Button qualifying ahead of Barrichello , Fisichella and Sutil . Barrichello , however , was given a penalty for changing his gearbox , meaning that he started 20th on the grid , one place behind Rosberg .
= = = Race = = =
The conditions on the grid were dry before the race , although the sky was overcast ; weather forecasts predicted rain near the end of the race . Most of the frontrunners began the race on the harder compound tyre . Rain that had fallen earlier that morning had removed some of the rubber on the track , meaning that graining , when small grains of rubber come off a tyre , was likely to be a problem ; out of the two tyre types , the harder would better cope with this . Räikkönen made a good start , retaining his first position ; Massa behind him maintained his second place . Alonso , who started third , was passed by both Trulli and Kubica , but re @-@ passed Kubica at the hairpin turn exit . Glock also made a good start , taking sixth after passing Webber . Going into the first corner , Button touched Bourdais , resulting in damage to the Honda 's front wing . Hamilton , who started 13th , passed several drivers to move into 10th by the end of lap one .
At the end of the first lap , Räikkönen led from Massa , Trulli , Alonso , Kubica , Glock and Webber . On lap five , Hamilton overtook Kovalainen to move into ninth . On the same lap , Button was forced to make an unscheduled pit stop , due to the damage he had sustained in his first corner incident with Bourdais . This dropped him to the back of the field . By the end of lap 10 , Räikkönen led Massa by 3 @.@ 2 seconds , Trulli a further 8 @.@ 5 seconds behind . On lap 13 , Hamilton was given a drive @-@ through penalty for cutting the corner of Turn Seven on lap one , and gaining an advantage . He took the penalty immediately , and re @-@ emerged in 13th position . Over the next few laps , the Ferrari drivers continued to pull out a gap on Trulli in third , lapping at around a second per lap quicker than the Toyota . On lap 16 , Räikkönen set the fastest lap of the race , a 1 : 16 @.@ 630 , stretching his lead over his teammate . Further back , Alonso , who had been running fourth , made the first scheduled pit stop , resuming 12th . Button was lapped by several drivers , due to the damage his car had sustained in his first corner incident with Bourdais , and eventually retired on lap 17 .
On lap 20 , Trulli and Kubica , then in fourth , pitted . Over the next two laps , both Räikkönen and Massa pitted . By lap 30 , Räikkönen had opened his lead to 6 @.@ 6 seconds over Massa , while Trulli was over half a minute behind him in third . Just before half distance , Räikkönen 's pace became slower , and Massa behind him caught up , passing his teammate on lap 39 . After the race , Räikkönen explained that his lack of pace was due to his car 's right exhaust pipe breaking , causing the engine to lose power . Further back , Kovalainen , who was running seventh , passed Webber to take sixth .
By lap 46 , Massa had a 10 second lead over his teammate . On the same lap , Kubica pitted from fourth , starting the next round of pit stops . Trulli pitted from third on lap 50 , and Räikkönen and Kovalainen two laps later . Massa pitted on lap 54 , and emerged 13 @.@ 4 seconds ahead of Räikkönen . Trulli kept his third position , but Kovalainen , who made up several places through the pit stops to move to fourth , was closing behind him . On lap 55 , light rain started to fall . Although it would continue to rain lightly for the next few laps , it was never heavy enough to be a problem to the drivers . By lap 58 , Kovalainen was right behind Trulli . A few laps later , the exhaust pipe which had broken earlier on Räikkönen 's car came off completely , but Räikkönen continued to race with similar lap times . Kovalainen , meanwhile , continued to try to find a way past Trulli . One lap before the end of the race , Kovalainen attempted to pass Trulli , but ran wide as Trulli defended his position .
Massa crossed the line to win the race , with Räikkönen nearly eighteen seconds behind . Trulli retained third , and took his first podium since the 2005 Spanish Grand Prix , and Toyota 's first podium since the 2006 Australian Grand Prix . Kovalainen finished fourth , ahead of Kubica , Webber and Piquet , who took his first ever points in Formula One . Alonso , Coulthard , Hamilton , Glock , Vettel , Heidfeld and the lapped Barrichello , Nakajima , Rosberg , Bourdais , Fisichella and Sutil were the last of the finishing drivers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Massa was delighted with his race victory , saying , " A great race , a fantastic result . The win came my way because Kimi had a problem with his car and at the pace he was running , it would have been hard for me to beat him on the track . I would have been happy with second place but of course , the win makes me even happier . " After the race , Räikkönen said ,
Obviously I am a bit disappointed because I had hoped to win . Unfortunately , the right exhaust pipe broke just before half @-@ distance and the engine lost a lot of power , especially on the straight after the slow corners . After a few laps , the situation seemed better , but towards the end of the race , I ran the risk of stopping . This sort of thing can happen in racing and I have to try and look on the bright side : eight points are still a good amount and the one @-@ two finish is a great result for the team . Luckily , I had built up quite a good lead in the first part thanks to a car that was really very competitive .
Trulli said , " Today was a great race , hard and tough . We had a good pace , even if we had to battle with some cars that were quicker than us . I had to fight really hard but that is what people should expect both from myself and from Toyota . " Hamilton commented on his drive @-@ through penalty : " My drive @-@ through penalty was an extremely close call : I felt I 'd got past Vettel fairly and was ahead going into the corner . But I was on the outside and couldn 't turn @-@ in in case we both crashed , then I lost the back @-@ end and drove over the kerb . "
After BMW Sauber 's victory at the previous race , their director , Mario Theissen , said that " over the entire weekend here our package did not work perfectly " , while driver Heidfeld said that it was a " disappointing result " . Alonso said that he felt disappointed after his poor start to the race . Red Bull 's director , Christian Horner , said that their problems lay in the bad starts their drivers had made . Button , who retired during the race , commented on his collision : " I got a good start and was alongside Bourdais . I thought he was going to turn in at turn one and close the door so I pulled in behind him and then unfortunately hit him in the rear as everything slowed down for the corner . I could feel that there was something broken at the front of the car as there was an air coming in from the front , but the car was driveable and I was staying with the back of the pack so I continued . We replaced the nose but the bargeboards had been pulled off and the car had become undriveable so I had to retire . " Piquet scored his first points in Formula One in the race , having failed to score up to that point . He said that he was happy , and hoped that the team could " continue like this for the rest of the season " .
After the race , Massa moved into the lead of the Drivers ' Championship , on 48 points , taking the Championship lead for the first time in his Formula One career . Kubicia lost the lead of the Drivers ' Championship , falling two points behind Massa . Räikkönen moved ahead of Hamilton , on 43 points , while Hamilton was five points further behind . Heidfeld remained fifth . Before the race , Ferrari had been just three points ahead of BMW in the Constructors ' Championship ; after the race , Ferrari moved into a comfortable 17 point advantage . McLaren made up one point on BMW , although they were still 16 points behind .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
^ 1 Nico Rosberg and Lewis Hamilton docked ten places on the grid for the race after causing a collision with Kimi Räikkönen in the previous round , the Canadian Grand Prix .
^ 2 Heikki Kovalainen docked five places for blocking Mark Webber in qualifying .
^ 3 Rubens Barrichello penalised five places on the grid for gearbox change .
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
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= Maya Sita =
In some adaptations of the Hindu epic Ramayana , Maya Sita ( Sanskrit : माया सीता , " illusional Sita " ) or Chaya Sita ( छाया सीता , " shadow Sita " ) is the illusionary duplicate of the goddess Sita ( the heroine of the texts ) , who is abducted by the demon @-@ king Ravana of Lanka instead of the real Sita .
In the Ramayana , Sita – the consort of Rama ( the prince of Ayodhya and an avatar of the god Vishnu ) – is seized by Ravana and imprisoned in Lanka , until she is rescued by Rama , who slays her captor . Sita undergoes Agni Pariksha ( an ordeal of fire ) by which she proves her chastity before she is accepted by Rama . In some versions of the epic , the fire @-@ god Agni creates Maya Sita , who takes Sita 's place and is abducted by Ravana and suffers his captivity , while the real Sita hides in the fire . At Agni Pariksha , Maya Sita and the real Sita exchange places again . While some texts mention that Maya Sita is destroyed in the flames of Agni Pariksha , others narrate how she is blessed and reborn as the epic heroine Draupadi or the goddess Padmavati . Some scriptures also mention her previous birth being Vedavati , a woman Ravana tries to molest .
The Maya Sita motif saves Sita – the chief goddess of Rama @-@ centric sects – from falling prey to Ravana 's plot of abduction and safeguards her purity . Similar doubles or surrogates of Sita and other goddesses are found in various tales of Hindu mythology .
= = Original plot of the Ramayana = =
The Ramayana ( 5th to 4th century BCE ) by Valmiki does not mention Maya Sita . Sita , the princess of Mithila , is married to Rama , the prince of Ayodhya . Rama is forced to go on a 14 @-@ year exile and is accompanied by Sita and his brother Lakshmana . Ravana , the demon @-@ king of Lanka , plots to abduct Sita , aided by Maricha , who transforms into a magical golden deer ( Maya mriga , an illusional deer ) , that entices Sita . While in exile in Dandaka forest , Rama goes after the deer and slays it . The magical deer gives a call of help in Rama 's voice . Sita forces Lakshmana to go and help Rama , leaving her alone . Ravana comes disguised as an ascetic and kidnaps her . He imprisons her in the Ashoka Vatika grove of Lanka , until she is rescued by Rama , who slays Ravana in war . When Rama doubts Sita 's chastity , she undergoes a trial by fire ( Agni Pariksha ) . Sita enters a burning pyre declaring that if she has been faithful to Rama let the fire not harm her ; she comes out unscathed with the fire @-@ god Agni as proof of her purity . Rama accepts Sita back and returns to Ayodhya , where they are crowned as king and queen .
= = Development = =
The Maya Sita motif is considered as the " most important instance of an addition " in the Ramayana . The Kurma Purana ( c . 550 – 850 CE ) is the first text where Maya Sita appears . The key event of the Ramayana story – the kidnapping of Sita by Ravana – was replaced with the abduction of Maya Sita ( an unreal Sita ) by Ravana ; meanwhile Sita is protected in the refuge of Agni , the fire god . This " important ideological development " in Vaishnavism ( Vishnu @-@ centric sect ) protected Sita 's chastity . Some versions of the Ramayana such as the ones in the Mahabharata ( 5th to 4th century BCE ) , the Vishnu Purana ( 1st century BCE – 4th century CE ) , the Harivamsa ( 1 – 300 CE ) and several Puranas ( the suffix Purana denotes that the text is part of this genre ) omit the Agni Pariksha altogether to avoid questioning Sita 's purity . In contrast , this very Agni Pariksha became a device for the return of the unblemished Sita , as Sita and Maya Sita switch places again , in some later versions .
With the growing popularity of Rama bhakti movement in the 12th century , numerous works adopted the concept of Maya Sita . Devotees could not bear that Sita – the consort of Rama and the chief goddess of Rama @-@ centric sects – was kidnapped by the demon Ravana and had to suffer his imprisonment and was defiled by his touch . The Maya Sita concept saves Sita from suffering Ravana 's custody and succumbing to the temptation of acquiring the illusory deer . Instead , the texts create an illusory Sita , who does not recognize the illusory deer . The illusory deer motif in the Ramayana may have inspired the Maya Sita concept too . Maya Sita also excuses Sita from rebuking Lakshmana when she forces him to leave her and aid Rama in the illusory deer tale .
Though the Maya Sita motif was found earlier in the Kurma Purana and the Brahma Vaivarta Purana ( 801 – 1100 CE ) where Sita 's purity is safeguarded , it is the Adhyatma Ramayana ( a part of the Brahmanda Purana , c . 14th century ) , where Maya Sita plays a much greater role in the plot . The concept of maya ( illusion ) is an integral part of the narrative ; the best examples being Maya Sita and Maya mriga ( illusory deer ) . Though Adhyatma Ramayana originated in Varanasi in North India , it influenced Malayam ( South India ) and Oriya ( East India ) renditions of the Ramayana , but most importantly influenced the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas ( c.1532 – 1623 ) .
The Ramcharitmanas expands on the Agni Pariksha narrative . Since no one knows about the replacement of the real Sita by Maya Sita , Sita 's chastity is in question . The text explicitly states that the Agni Pariksha destroys the Maya Sita as well as the " stigma of public shame " , that Sita would have had to otherwise endure . Rama is exculpated from using harsh words to " Sita " at the time of Agni Pariksha as he knows it is the false Sita he is accusing . Sita is saved from public humiliation as her chastity is proven by Agni Pariksha . The moral status of Rama as well as Sita is protected by the Maya Sita motif .
In many versions of the tale , the omniscient Rama knows about Sita 's impending abduction and creates Maya Sita . Such versions assert Rama 's divine status , a departure from Valmiki 's portrayal of Rama as a human hero .
The motif also appears in the Devi Bhagavata Purana ( 6th – 14th century CE ) and the Adbhuta Ramayana , ( c . 14th century CE ) as well as Oriya works like Balarama Dasa 's Jagamohana Ramayana , Upendra 's Vaidehisha Vilasa and the Oriya Ramlila , dramatic folk re @-@ enactment of the Ramayana .
= = Legend = =
In the Kurma Purana , Sita prays to Agni just when Ravana arrives to kidnap her . Agni creates Maya Sita – an exact double of Sita – who takes the place of Sita and is abducted by the demon . While Sita is taken by Agni to heaven , Maya Sita is confined in Lanka . After Ravana 's death , when Maya Sita enters the fire at Agni Pariksha , Agni restores the real undefiled Sita to Rama ; meanwhile Maya Sita is destroyed in the blaze . The Chaitanya Charitamrita , a biography of the Vaishnava saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu ( 1486 – 1533 ) , by Krishnadasa Kaviraja ( b . 1496 ) alludes to the Kurma Purana tale . Chaitanya meets a brahmin Rama devotee in Madurai . The brahmin is devastated after learning that " mother Sita , mother of the universe and the supreme goddess of fortune " was stained by Ravana 's touch and gives up food . The saint consoles the brahmin saying that Sita 's spiritual form can not be touched by the demon ; it was Maya Sita that was taken away by Ravana . The brahmin feels better and accepts food . Chaitanya then travels to Rameswaram , where he listens to the Kurma Purana and obtains the authoritative proof to comfort the brahmin . He returns to Madurai with the Kurma Purana manuscript , leaving that brahmin overjoyed .
While Agni is the saviour in the Kurma Purana , the Rama @-@ centric Adhyatma Ramayana replaces Agni with the omniscient Rama as the mastermind . Rama knows of Ravana 's intentions and orders Sita to place her chaya ( shadow ) outside the hut for Ravana to abduct and go inside the hut and live hidden in the fire for a year ; after Ravana 's death , she would unite with him again . Sita complies and creates her illusionary form , Maya Sita , and enters the fire . After Maya Sita 's seizure , Rama grieves for Sita . It is unclear if Rama pretends to grieve or forgets that Maya Sita is the one actually kidnapped . After Ravana 's death , Maya Sita has to face the Agni Pariksha and vanishes in the fire . Agni reinstates Sita and declares that Rama created the illusionary Sita to bring about Ravana 's annihilation and with that purpose served , the true Sita returns to Rama . Inspired by Adhyatma Ramayana , the Ramacharitmanas has a very similar narrative ; however , Agni Pariskha narrative is longer and Maya Sita is explicitly stated to be destroyed in the fire . The Nepali Bhanubhakta Ramayana by Bhanubhakta Acharya ( 1814 – 1868 ) portrays Rama creating the illusionary Sita from the sacred Kusha grass and entrusting Sita to Agni ; at Agni Pariksha , the grass Maya Sita turns into ashes while the true Sita reappears before the world . A popular Indian television series Ramayan ( 1987 – 88 ) by Ramanand Sagar reveals that Maya Sita had replaced Sita only in the Agni Pariksha scene and uses flashback to narrate about the exchange .
The Brahma Vaivarta Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana narratives are similar to each other and divulge about Maya Sita 's life after Agni Pariksha . The Devi Bhagavata Purana states : Agni comes , disguised as a brahmin , to Rama and informs him that he had been sent by the gods to warn Rama about the future , when Rama will fulfil the purpose of his birth on earth and slay Ravana ; Sita would be abducted by Ravana and would lead to his downfall . Agni requests Rama to hand over Sita to him for safekeeping and substitute her with Maya Sita ; after Ravana 's destruction when Sita would be asked to prove her chastity by entering fire , Maya Sita will be replaced with the real Sita again . Rama consents . Agni mediates and creates Maya Sita , who looks perfectly like the original Sita . Maya Sita and Sita switch places and Agni disappears with the real Sita , extracting the promise from Rama that the replacement of Sita remains secret ; not even Lakshmana should know . Maya Sita longs for the illusional deer and is consequently kidnapped . As per the plan , Maya Sita vanished in the fire at Agni Pariksha and real Sita comes out .
When Rama abandons the young Maya Sita at Agni Pariksha , she – worried about her uncertain future – questions Rama and Agni about what should she do now . They advise her to go to Pushkar and perform austerities ( Tapas ) and prophesy that she will be become Svargalakshmi ( " Lakshmi of the heaven " ) as the result of her asceticism . Shiva is pleased with her penance and promises to grant her desired boon . Maya Sita , who is transformed into Svargalakshmi by practising austerities for three lakh years , anxiously repeats five times that she get a husband . Shiva blesses her that she will be born as Draupadi , the princess of Pancala , who will have five husbands . Draupadi , the heroine of the Mahabharata , is born out of the flames of a yajna ( fire sacrifice ) of Drupada ( King of Panchala ) and later becomes the common wife of the five Pandava brothers , princes of Kuru kingdom . The text also declares that in previous birth , Maya Sita was Vedavati , a woman Ravana tries to rape and who curses Ravana that she will be the cause of his ruin . Since she has taken birth in three yugas ( ages ; a cycle of four ages is believed to repeat ) – Vedavati in Satya yuga , Maya Sita in Treta Yuga and Draupadi in Dwapara yuga , she is known as Trihayani , the one who appears in the three ages .
The Tamil text Sri Venkatachala Mahatyam relates Maya Sita to Vedavati , but her next birth is Padmavati , not Draupadi . After Ravana tries to molest Vedavati , she curses him that she would destroy his clan . She seeks the protection of Agni . Agni consoles her and gives her not only shelter but also the opportunity to take her vengeance . He disguises Vedavati as Sita , who is going to be kidnapped by Ravana and hides the real Sita in his refuge . At the time of Agni Pariksha , Vedavati enters the fire and Agni accompanies Sita and Vedavati out in public . Rama is perplexed seeing the two Sitas . The real Sita informs Rama that Vedavati was abducted in her place and suffered the incarceration in Lanka . She demands Rama to marry Vedavati , however Rama refuses citing his vow to have only one wife in this birth . He promises that in Kali yuga ( the present and final age ) , when he appear on earth as Venkateshwara , Vedavati will be born as Padmavati , whom he will marry . Unlike Sanskrit texts , Agni plans the whole thing and Sita conspires with him to protect herself , but also safeguards the surrogate Sita 's interests .
In the Malayalam Adhyatma Ramayana by Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan ( 16th century ) , Vedavati – disguised as Sita – appears before Sita from the latter 's kitchen fire and volunteers to be kidnapped in Sita 's place . As per Vedavati 's advice , Sita hides in fire and lives in Agni 's protection . After Agni Pariksha when Sita is reunited with Rama , Vedavati is blessed to marry Vishnu in Kali yuga .
Sometimes , Sita replaces Maya Sita temporarily before the Agni Pariksha . The Ramayana narrates that the monkey @-@ god Hanuman , a devotee of Rama , was sent by Rama to seek Sita and eventually succeeds in discovering her whereabouts in Lanka ; where she meets with him . Sundd 's Sri Sankat Mochan Hanuman Charit Manas ( 1998 ) , a devotional text attributed to Tulsidas and devoted to Hanuman , uses the Maya Sita motif , but raises the question how Hanuman could interact with such devotion with a false Sita . Sita takes the place of Maya Sita in captivity temporarily to meet the great devotee .
= = Divine doubles : inspiration and influences = =
Though the tale of Maya Sita told in the Ramayana adaptations is absent from the original , the concept of Maya Sita first appears in the epic itself . In the battle between Rama and Ravana , Indrajit – the son of Ravana – creates an illusionary Sita ( Maya Sita ) and kills her in front of Rama 's monkey general Hanuman , as a war tactic to dampen the spirits of Rama 's army . The fooled Hanuman reports it to Rama , who is also dejected by the news . However , they soon realise that it must be an illusion of Indrajit . Another surrogate Sita appears in a later interpolation of the epic . At the end of the Ramayana , a golden image of Sita is subsisted for the real Sita to be on side of Rama in sacrifices , after Sita 's abandonment by Rama when her chastity is questioned by his subjects .
The Ananda Ramayana does have the Maya Sita , who is kidnapped by Ravana , but has an illusory Sita called rajatamomayi chaya ( " shadow of Rajas and Tamas elements " ) of Sita , who is abandoned by Rama while the sattva @-@ rupa ( " sattva form " ) – the real Sita – remains unseen by her husband 's left side , the traditional place of a Hindu wife . Kamban 's Ramavataram ( 12th century ) narrates that Shurpanakha – the sister of Ravana – impersonates Sita to seduce Rama , but her trickery is exposed by him . In a 14th @-@ century Nepalese drama , Shurpanakha disguises as Sita , but Rama is fooled by her appearance . When real Sita also appears , Rama is perplexed . However , Lakshmana tests the two Sitas and rightly judges the real one . The Ramcharitmanas narrates that the goddess Sati , wife of the god Shiva , tries to test Rama by appearing before him disguised as Sita when he is searching for his kidnapped wife . However , Rama sees through her disguise ; Shiva abandons her , angry with her action .
In some adaptations of the Ramayana , other characters also use surrogates to save themselves from Ravana . A Tamil text narrates how Ravana once asks for Parvati as boon from her husband Shiva , however Vishnu – disguised as a sage – deludes Ravana into believing Shiva granted him an illusionary Parvati . Ravana entrusts Parvati to Vishnu and mediates again to compel Shiva to give him the real Parvati . This time , Shiva gives an illusionary Parvati , which he accepts as the real one and returns to Lanka with her . In the Malay Ramayana , Ravana sets his eyes on Rama 's mother , however she transforms a frog into her image and sends this surrogate to be Ravana 's wife .
Other divinities also employ surrogates to meet their own needs . In the Puranas , Sati commits suicide by immolating herself when Shiva is insulted and is reborn as Parvati and becomes Shiva 's consort again . In a later Sanskrit text , Sati creates a surrogate who burns herself , while the real Sati is reborn as Parvati . In the Mahabharata , the goddess Svaha assumes the form of six of the wives of the Saptarishi ( seven great sages ) , with whom Agni is in love with , and has coitus with him . Later , Svaha marries Agni .
Other cultures also employ surrogates to save protagonists from pain . Christian Gnostic traditions suggest that Simon of Cyrene as the man who was crucified , instead of Jesus , a concept deemed heretical . Unlike Christianity , " divine doubles " are accepted in Hindu and Greek tales . In some retellings of the Trojan War saga , a phantom Helen of Troy is kidnapped by Paris which brings upon the great war ; a story parallel to the story of abduction of Maya Sita by Ravana .
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= Tarakeswar affair =
The Tarakeswar affair ( also known as the Tarakeswar scandal or the Mahant @-@ Elokeshi affair ) refers to a public scandal in 19th @-@ century Bengal during the British Raj . It resulted from an illicit love affair between Elokeshi , the wife of a government employee Nobin Chandra , and the Brahmin head priest ( or mahant ) of the Tarakeswar Shiva temple . Nobin subsequently decapitated his wife Elokeshi because of the love affair . A highly publicised trial followed , dubbed the Tarakeswar murder case of 1873 , in which both the husband and the mahant were found guilty in varying degrees .
Bengali society considered the mahant 's actions as punishable and criminal , while justifying Nobin 's action of killing an unchaste wife . The resulting public outrage forced authorities to release Nobin after two years . The scandal became the subject of Kalighat paintings and several popular Bengali plays , which often portrayed Nobin as a devoted husband . The mahant was generally presented as a womaniser , who took advantage of young women . The murder victim Elokeshi was sometimes blamed as a seductress and the root cause of the affair . In other plays , she was absolved of all guilt and was portrayed to have been tricked and raped by the mahant .
= = Summary = =
Elokeshi , the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old housewife of the Bengali government employee Nobin Chandra ( Nobinchandra / Nabinchandra / Nobin Chandra ) Banerjee , lived in the village of Tarakeswar with her parents , while Nobin was away for work in a military press in Calcutta . She approached Madhavchandra Giri , the " powerful " mahant of the popular and prosperous Tarakeswar temple , seeking fertility medication ; however the mahant allegedly seduced and raped her . An affair began with the " connivance " of Elokeshi 's parents .
When Nobin returned to the village , he learned about the affair from village gossip . Nobin was publicly humiliated following the discovery of the affair . He confronted Elokeshi , who confessed and begged him for forgiveness . Not only did Nobin forgive her but he decided to run away with her from Tarakeswar . However , the mahant did not allow the couple to escape ; his goons blocked their way . Overcome with anger and jealousy , Nobin slit his wife 's throat with a fish knife , decapitating her , on 27 May 1873 . Full of remorse , Nobin surrendered to the local police station and confessed his crime .
The Tarakeswar murder case of 1873 ( Queen vs Nobin Chandra Banerjee ) first stood in the Hoogly Sessions Court at Serampore in south @-@ west Bengal . The Indian jury acquitted Nobin , accepting his plea of insanity , but the British judge Field overruled the jury 's decision and forwarded the matter to the Calcutta High Court . However , Judge Field accepted that there was an adulterous relationship between Elokeshi and the mahant , with whom she was seen " joking and flirting " . Judge Markby , who presided over the case in the High Court , also accepted the evidence proving adultery . The High Court convicted both Nobin and the mahant . Nobin was sentenced to life imprisonment ; the mahant got 3 years rigorous imprisonment and a fine of 2000 rupees .
= = Public reaction = =
The newspaper Bengalee remarked : " People flock to the Sessions Court as they would flock to the Lewis Theatre to watch Othello being performed " . The courtroom drama became a public spectacle . Authorities had to charge an entrance fee to control the crowds at the Hoogly Sessions Court . The right of admission was also restricted to those literate in English , citing that the mahant 's British lawyer and the judge only spoke in English .
The overruling of the Indian jury 's decision by the Sessions Court judge was heavily debated . According to Swati Chattopadhyay ( author of Representing Calcutta : Modernity , Nationalism and the Colonial Uncanny ) , the court proceedings were seen as an interference by the British in local matters . The court represented a conflict between village and city , the priest and bhadralok ( Bengali gentleman class ) and the colonial state and nationalist subjects . The court proceedings were disturbed several times by crowds demanding clemency for Nobin or stringency for the mahant . The mahant and his English lawyer were often attacked outside the court . The mahant 's punishment was termed lenient by the Bengali public . Nobin was released in 1875 , following several public petitions for pardon . Such pleas came from members of the Calcutta elite and district town notables , local royals and " acknowledged leaders of native society " , as well as from the " lower middle class " — from whom a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ signature mercy plea was received .
The 1873 mahant – Elokeshi incident was not the first incident against a mahant of Tarakeswar . Mahant Shrimanta Giri was executed in 1824 for the murder of his mistress 's lover . However , according to Sarkar ( author of Hindu wife , Hindu nation ) , while the 1824 scandal hardly created any public outrage and faded quickly from public memory , the 1873 affair was embedded in public memory and created a huge sensation in contemporary Bengal . When a satyagraha was organised against the reigning mahant of Tarakeswar , Satish Giri , in 1974 for his sexual and financial misconduct , the 1873 affair was alluded to several times .
A regional daily reported that the mahant 's affair with Elokeshi was still discussed by the common people of Bengal , who did not know of other current affairs , even six months after the murder . Bengali newspapers followed the court trial on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis , often reporting it verbatim and capturing the responses of all parties involved : judges , jury , lawyers and the common man . The " culpability " of each of the characters of the scandal was debated , and British justice and Hindu norms were analysed , especially by British @-@ owned newspapers . While Missionaries interpreted the public outcry against the mahant as the " disenchantment " of the Hindus , British @-@ owned newspapers also pondered over the question of asserting more control on Hindu temples and organisations . In an era when Hindu reform movements were blossoming in Bengal , the scandal led the reformist as well as orthodox society to re @-@ examine " the relationship between Hindu norms , leaders and women " .
Many products were specially manufactured to commemorate the event . Saris , fish knives , betel @-@ leaf boxes and other memorabilia with Elokeshi 's name printed or inscribed on them were made . A balm for headache was advertised as using the oil made by the mahant in the jail oil press . Such commemorative items were still in sale in as late as 1894 . These items were unique in the sense that they were the only such commemorative items modelled on an event .
= = In the arts = =
At least 34 farces were published by the " popular press " on the events of the Tarakeswar affair — the rape , the murder and the trial . At least four of these were reprinted several times . This is the largest number of 19th @-@ century farces in Bengal created in response to a contemporary event . Farces and plays of the era were often inspired by the real courtroom drama . At least 19 plays were also based on the scandal , all of which became very popular and big money @-@ makers ; especially Mohanter Ei ki Kaj ! became a huge hit on stage . Plays written as late as 1924 referred to the affair as if it was common public knowledge .
Numerous Kalighat paintings and Battala woodwork prints — created in the decade after the scandal — depicted the " immoral " affair , the gruesome murder and the resultant trial . According to Chattopadhyay ( author of Representing Calcutta : modernity , nationalism , and the colonial uncanny ) , it was the popularity of the plays combined with " the rhetoric of sin and morality " that inspired Kalighat painters to present this " tragedy as a spectacle " . Kalighat painters often chose to paint mythological themes and Bengali day @-@ to @-@ day life ; the paintings on the Tarakeswar affair were a unique exception .
Often painted as a series , the Kalighat paintings depict various scenes related to the affair : the mahant riding on an elephant howdah ; The Meeting of Elokeshi and the mahant — Elokeshi goes to the temple with her sister and meets the mahant ; The Seduction — Elokeshi offering paan ( betel nut leaf ) , the mahant fans Elokeshi and / or the mahant offering her childbirth medicine in order to drug her before raping her ; Elokeshi embracing Nobin and asking his forgiveness ; the three stages of the murder such as The Fatal / First Blow ( Nobin about to decapitate Elokeshi with a fish knife ) and After the murder ( Nobin with the decapitated body of Elokeshi ) . The Kalighat paintings also depict a courtroom scene of the trial of the mahant followed by the mahant in jail , enduring rigorous labour turning an oil press or working as a jail gardener , while jail guards or the superintendent watch over him .
The plays and the paintings suggested the theme of loss of traditional Indian culture in the face of colonialism .
= = Assessment and portrayal of the characters = =
Most accounts agree that Nobin loved his wife dearly , evidenced by the fact that he was ready to accept his wife at first and run away with her , even after knowledge of the affair . In an era where the chastity of a wife was highly valued , Nobin 's blind love and acceptance of a guilty wife were deemed inappropriate by a large section of society . Her murder was considered justifiable . Some songs criticise Nobin 's stupidity of trying to save his adulterous wife and thereby risking his own life . Police reports , confirming Nobin 's love , read that after the murder , Nobin rushed to the police saying : " Hang me quick . This world is wilderness to me . I am impatient to join my wife in the next [ world / life ] " , a line reported verbatim in newspapers as well as used in plays and songs . Some public petitions argued that given a choice to leave Elokeshi in the arms of the mahant to live a life of dishonour — which was worse than death — and to kill her , like a true husband , Nobin chose the latter to end her misery . However , some plays portray that Nobin has a mistress in town so leaves his wife in the village .
Most of the plays were named to suggest the main crime was not Elokeshi 's murder by Nobin , but the immoral activities of the mahant . The mahant is portrayed as the root cause of Elokeshi 's death , which was an " inevitable conclusion " of the mahant ' s activities . Elokeshi , " the object of desire " , had to be killed by Nobin to restore his honour . Titles of such plays reinforce the theme and focus on the mahant 's crime . Examples include : Mohanter Chakrabhraman , Mohanter Ki Saja , Mohanter Karabash and Mohanter Ei Ki Dasha .
The Kalighat paintings and Battala woodcuts often depict the mahant as a womaniser and the temple as " a haven for pimps " . He was also described as " a vile seducer " . The Tarakeswar shrine was a famed cure for barren women . The mahant was rumoured to seduce women like Elokeshi who came to him for childbirth medicine and appropriate them with the help of his goons . After being raped , the women could not return to their family and languished in the brothels of Tarakeswar . In most plays , the mahant is described as drugging Elokeshi — by offering fake childbirth medicine — and then raping her . In the play Mohanter Dafarafa , a rare exception to the general theme of immorality in plays where the mahant misuses Elokeshi , his love is portrayed to be genuine and her seduction by him a resultant after @-@ effect . However , later he is repentant .
The Bengalee , a reformist newspaper , presents a rare view of the true victim Elokeshi being forgotten in the debate of the trial and sympathy towards Nobin . In the First Meeting painting , Elokeshi is sometimes depicted as a courtesan , indicating that she is the one who seduces the mahant . She is often described as unchaste and to have developed the adulterous affair and even lived with him for some time despite the fact that he first rapes her . In one play , Elokeshi 's character is debated by village wives and prostitutes . The wives vilify Elokeshi as an unchaste woman , question her devotion for Nobin and express the belief that a woman cannot be raped without her consent . The prostitutes empathise with Elokeshi , another victim of male lust and lament her fall from grace , which for them illustrates the brittle status of a wife . Some plays depict Elokeshi as having no choice but to surrender to the mahant 's lust on her father 's command . Such plays concentrate more on scenes where Elokeshi gives in to her father 's orders than on the depiction of rape .
One farce depicts a divine trial of not only Elokeshi and the mahant , but also of her parents , who are portrayed as being equally guilty . Elokeshi is condemned for seducing the mahant and tarnishing the name of the holy shrine of Tarakeswar . The mahant is punished for misusing the authority and money of the temple . One newspaper describes Elokeshi 's father as " the still worse scoundrel ( worse than the mahant ) who bartered his daughter 's virtue " . In many plays , Elokeshi 's father , who is now sexually incompetent , is driven by the greed of Elokeshi 's young stepmother and he resorts to pleasing his wife by giving gifts like jewellery , for which he sells off his daughter to the mahant . Elokeshi 's staying at her parents ' home — and not with her husband — is also blamed for their excessive control over her .
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= NAD 3020 =
The NAD 3020 is an iconic stereo integrated amplifier by NAD Electronics , considered to be one of the most important components in the history of high fidelity audio . Launched circa 1978 , this highly affordable product delivered a good quality sound , which acquired a reputation as an audiophile amplifier of exceptional value . By 1998 , the NAD 3020 had become the most well known and best @-@ selling audio amplifier in history .
= = History = =
Launched circa 1978 – 79 in an era where the principal preoccupation of hi @-@ fi manufacturers was power output , the sub- £ 80 ( US $ 135 ) low @-@ powered solid state amplifier , created and marketed by a then little @-@ known manufacturer , very rapidly acquired a reputation for excellent sound quality and exceptional value . Stereophile magazine called the NAD 3020 " ridiculously inexpensive " . It was the first integrated amplifier built with convincing ability to drive difficult loudspeaker loads , and a sound quality that far exceeded other integrated amplifiers at its price point for the time .
In an era when the NAD 's rated power output of 20 watts per channel continuous into 8 ohms was considered anaemic , the manufacturer claimed it could deliver much stronger power output into lower impedances under dynamic conditions ( music or peak power output ) . Indeed , it is capable of delivering 40 watts into 8 ohm , 58 watts into 4 ohm , and 72 watts into 2 ohm loads for a limited time if pushed . The amplifier 's main appeal was its inherent musicality , its ability to drive difficult speaker loads , and to allow audiophile grade source components to excel . Launching the product in the US at the Consumer Electronics Show , the company wired up a battery of loudspeakers in a way which presented an impedance of 1 @.@ 1 ohm , and the amplifier experienced no problems . Similarly , at its London launch , NAD successfully demonstrated it driving the Linn Isobarik , whose impedance characteristics are known to be very challenging for amplifiers . It was the best @-@ known and best @-@ selling amplifier in the annals of hi @-@ fi . The NAD 3020 revolutionised the amplifier segment of the hi @-@ fi industry .
= = = Design principles = = =
Bjørn Erik Edvardsen , NAD 's director of advanced development , set out to create an " inexpensive amplifier ... easily capable of driving the very best loudspeakers " . NAD eschewed the laboratory test equipment thinking , which was prevalent at the time , and instead aimed to make their amplifiers capable of properly driving " real loudspeakers " under realistic conditions . This paradigm shift gave rise to an amplifier that cost less and sounded better . NAD was able to achieve a low cost base by foreign manufacture . The company designed the product in Europe and had it produced in factories in Taiwan – it was one of the first manufacturers to de @-@ localise production to Asia .
The design , and models following it , included " soft @-@ clipping circuitry " that protects against over @-@ driven signals , connections that allow splitting of the power amplifier section from the preamplifier , a button to bypass tone controls , and " Full Disclosure " power ratings measuring output power under real @-@ world loads .
= = = = Audio circuitry = = = =
The NAD 3020 has four inputs that can be switched via the front panel – Aux , Tuner , Phono , Tape . The manufacturer claims the phono input , which can also be used with high @-@ output moving coil cartridges , contains a 6 @-@ transistor circuit " engineered for extremely low noise and nearly distortion @-@ free performance " . Reviewers note the pre @-@ amplifier 's " decent moving @-@ magnet phono stage " . The amplifier is bandwidth @-@ limited , incorporating infrasonic and ultrasonic filters to supposedly reduce the effects of non @-@ musical signals such as acoustic feedback , disc warps and electromagnetic interference on the musical signals .
The amplifier has bass and treble tone controls which , according to the manufacturer , are " tailored for musically effective response in the high and low frequencies without altering the critical mid @-@ range tonal balance " . A loudness switch – de rigueur in that era – boosts upper and lower frequencies ; a " mute " switch reduces volume by 20 dB for low @-@ level listening . There is also a headphone socket mounted onto the front panel .
According to the manufacturer , the NAD 3020 is a high voltage design that uses the same large powerful output transistors that " other manufacturers employ in their ' 60 @-@ watt ' amplifiers " , enabling the amplifier to deliver power headroom for musical transients . Although the " Soft Clipping " circuitry limits the output voltage so that the transistors do not distort when driven beyond its rated power , Lucio Cadeddu of TNT considers this protection and the tone @-@ shaping circuitry to be unnecessary and advises users to avoid them " like the plague " .
The innovative split of pre- and power @-@ amplifier sections allows the use of the pre @-@ amp stage to drive multiple power amplifiers in parallel , or use long signal cables to connect to remote power amplifiers or powered speakers . This faculty became hugely popular with audiophiles , who would seek to isolate this " remarkably fine @-@ sounding preamp section " , to use with one or more external power amplifiers .
= = = = Power source = = = =
The amplifier has what the manufacturer calls a " dual @-@ mode power supply " , where the output stage is only loosely regulated , so it is free to supply the high voltages needed for musical transients and the large currents at lower voltages needed for driving low @-@ impedance loads in the power amplifier circuitry . The design also incorporates a separate regulated power supply circuit , fed from a secondary winding on the transformer , dedicated to the pre @-@ amplifier and tone control stages . It is thus claimed that intermodulation distortion and blurring of the stereo image due to power supply functioning cannot occur .
= = = = Styling = = = =
The styling of the NAD 3020 resembled that of other budget amplifiers of the time , and it was available in charcoal grey or silver . Stereophile commented that it was " inexpensive and looked it " . Although Cadeddu criticised the amplifier as " ugly , cheap and with a poor level of finishing " , he said that " the components used were fair but , clearly , the man behind its design knew what he was doing pretty well " .
= = = Reception = = =
The highly popular NAD 3020 is considered one of the most important hi @-@ fi components in the history of home audio . Sonically , it benefited from a design error where crosstalk between left and right channels presented better detail and more ambiance ; the error was corrected in a later guise . Its sound is described by reviewers as dark and warm , with a " sweet and sensual midrange " ; some reviewers observed a very noticeable rolling off at frequency extremes that may detract from sonic neutrality , and that its soundstage lacked precision but it was universally praised for its value for money . The amplifier was a hot seller , and the NAD 3020 alone achieved a record 1 @.@ 1 million units in its lifetime . The figure would be much higher if the sales of other amplifiers derived directly from its design are included . The quality made possible at a £ 79 ( US $ 133 ) price tag opened up the market for budget yet quality amplifiers , and spawned similarly low @-@ priced competitors such as ARCAM Alpha , Rotel 840 , Mission Cyrus I , Pioneer A400 , Denon PMA 350 and Marantz PM40 SE . In 2002 it ranked No. 19 in list of " The Hot 100 Products " by Stereophile . In 2011 , The Absolute Sound placed it at No. 9 in their list of " The Ten Most Significant Amplifiers of All Time " . The Absolute Sound remarked that this " iconic gem could embarrass amplifiers costing 10 times more with its big , warm and detailed sound and best of all , its affordable price made it available to a wider audience . "
A retrospective review by Chris Martens said that the 3020 was not perfect , and while it may have been surpassed by other components according to other performance criteria individually , it was " better than any $ 200 integrated amp had any right to be " . Martens complimented the quality of the electronic circuit design , noting in particular that the phono stage " sounded clearer and better balanced than many dedicated phonostages of the day " .
= = = Spin @-@ offs and legacy = = =
The NAD 3020 sold half a million units in the first three years of its life , and the second @-@ generation NAD 3020A replacing it , which corrected some minor design errors , proved even more popular than its predecessor .
Variants included NAD 3020B , NAD 3020E . An " almost identical " audiophile version dubbed NAD 3120 , stripped of tone controls and with higher quality loudspeaker binding posts , was released . The NAD 3020i is an " improved " version of the NAD 3020 that retailed at £ 149 ( US $ 250 ) when it was launched in 1991 . The NAD 7020 receiver ( tuner @-@ amplifier ) , that included the amplification circuitry of the NAD 3020 , received a mixed reception due to severe reliability issues . Following its release , and upon realisation that the product was much sought after for its pre @-@ amplifier section , a preamp version of the NAD 3020 was released under the name NAD 1020 .
In 2013 , the 40th year of the company , NAD launched a range of digital products , including a digital amplifier bearing the name NAD D 3020 .
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= Stanisław Żółkiewski =
Stanisław Żółkiewski ( 1547 – 1620 ) was a Polish nobleman of the Lubicz coat of arms , magnate and military commander of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , who took part in many campaigns of the Commonwealth and on its southern and eastern borders . He occupied a number of high @-@ ranking posts in the administration of the Commonwealth , including castellan of L 'viv ( from 1590 ) , voivod of the Kiev Voivodeship and Great Chancellor of the Crown ( from 1618 ) . From 1588 he was also a Field Crown Hetman , and in 1613 was promoted to Grand Hetman of the Crown . During his military career he won major battles against Sweden , Muscovy , the Ottoman Empire and the Tatars .
Żółkiewski 's best @-@ known victory was against combined Russian and Swedish forces at the battle of Klushino in 1610 , in the aftermath of which the Poles seized and occupied Moscow . He died in the 1620 battle of Cecora against the Ottomans , after allegedly refusing to retreat . Already renowned as a military leader , Żółkiewski 's heroic death further boosted his fame . He is seen as one of the most accomplished military commanders in the history of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth .
= = Biography = =
= = = Youth = = =
Stanisław Żółkiewski was born in the village of Turynka in 1547 to Stanisław Żółkiewski of the Lubicz coat of arms , voivode of Ruthenia , and Zofia Lipska . The exact date of his birth is unknown , and even the year is disputed : most sources agree on 1547 , although a few suggest 1550 .
Żółkiewski attended a cathedral school in Lwów ( now L 'viv , Ukraine ) . Unlike many of his peers he had no higher education and did not travel abroad . However , he pursued studies on his own and was particularly interested in history and historical literature . In 1566 he joined the court of King Sigismund II Augustus , as an aid to the king 's secretary Jan Zamoyski . There he became familiar with the executionist movement , which advocated numerous reforms including military ones . In 1573 he took part in the diplomatic mission to France , sent to meet a newly elected king Henry III of France , and on his way back he was sent to Vienna to appease the Habsburgs .
= = = Early career = = =
Żółkiewski gained his first military experience under King Stefan Batory during the Danzig rebellion in which he commanded a rota of Polish hussars . He subsequently participated in Batory 's Livonian campaign , fighting at Polotsk , Rossony ( Sokół ) , Velizh and at the Siege of Pskov . Żółkiewski maintained his political alliance with the Zamoyski family after those campaigns ended , particularly in their conflict with the Zborowscy . On the night of 11 to 12 May 1584 he captured Samuel Zborowski , whose subsequent execution caused much controversy . Żółkiewski became notorious for his role in the incident , and was the subject of heated debates during the Sejm of 1585 .
In 1588 , during the War of the Polish Succession between factions of Sigismund III Vasa and Maximilian III , Żółkiewski supported Sigismund . Żółkiewski commanded the right flank of Commonwealth forces in the battle of Byczyna , during which he received a knee wound that lamed him for the remainder of his life . For his part in the battle he was appointed a Field Crown Hetman , and became the starost of Hrubieszów .
= = = As Field Crown Hetman = = =
Soon after becoming a Hetman , Żółkiewski was sent to Ukraine to repel a Tatar invasion . In 1590 he became the castellan of Lwów , but his requests for military reinforcements against the Tatars went unheeded .
In 1595 Żółkiewski participated in the Moldavian campaign and the battle of Cecora near the Prut river . The following year he defeated the Cossack uprising of Severyn Nalivaiko . Żółkiewski was a known supporter of Cossack grievances , and generally favored peaceful negotiations with them . When the Cossacks surrendered Nalivaiko and other leaders of the uprising to him he guaranteed their fair treatment . But Nalivaiko was subsequently executed in Warsaw , and a mob of Polish soldiers massacred the other prisoners , which led to a deterioration in Polish @-@ Cossack relations . In 1600 Żółkiewski returned to Moldova , where he took part in the victorious battle of Bukowo .
In 1601 Żółkiewski operated in the north , in Livonia ( Inflanty ) , during the Polish – Swedish War . He also took part in the successful siege of Wolmar , and in 1602 the taking of Fellin . That same year he led Polish forces at the battle of Reval , which led to a Swedish capitulation at the siege of Biały Kamień . Żólkiewski became ill near the end of the campaign and had to relinquish command of his forces to Hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz .
In 1606 Żółkiewski returned to Ukraine , where he defeated the Tatars at the battle of Udycz . Later that year he decided to support the king during the Zebrzydowski 's Rebellion . His decision was not an obvious one , as his mentor Zamoyski opposed the king . Additionally , Żółkiewski was related to the Zebrzydowski family and was sympathetic to some of the rebels ' arguments . In the battle of Guzów he commanded the left flank of the royal forces , but his troops took relatively little part in the battle . Unimpressed with Żółkiewski 's performance , the king did not give him not the Grand Crown Hetmanship that he coveted , although he was appointed to the office of the voivode of Kiev .
In the second half of 1609 Żółkiewski took part in the Polish – Muscovite War ( also known as the Dymitriads ) . He supported the election of Władysław IV Vasa for the tsar of Russia and the idea of a personal union between the Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia ( the Polish @-@ Muscovite union ) . During the De la Gardie Campaign in 1610 he achieved another significant victory against combined Russian and Swedish forces at the battle of Klushino . As a result of his successful campaign Żółkiewski seized Moscow and captured the tsar Vasiliy Shuyskiy and his brothers , Ivan Shuyskiy and Dmitri Shuyskiy . Zygmunt rejected Żółkiewski 's political plan however , which would have required Władysław to convert to Orthodoxy .
Żółkiewski began to write his memoirs after his return from Muscovy . The Początek i progres wojny moskiewskiej ( The beginning and Progress of the Muscovy War ) , published in 1612 , is a critique of Zygmunt 's policies . In 1612 he became a teacher and tutor of Stanisław Koniecpolski , future hetman and military commander . Also that year he returned to Ukraine to defend against continuing Tatar and Moldovan incursions , as well as Cossack unrest . In 1616 during a Sejm he presented a project O chowaniu żołnierza kwarcianego ( On the raising of the kwarciane soldiers ) , in which he argued for the need to raise a larger army to deal with the Tatars and the Cossacks . The project was however not approved by the parliament .
= = = Final years = = =
Żółkiewski 's popularity waned in the latter years of his career . He was accused of not supporting Samuel Korecki during the battle of Sasowy Róg in 1616 , of signing the Treaty of Jaruga ( Busza ) in 1617 which relinquished influence in some borderlands to Moldova and the Ottoman Empire ; and of failing to stop the Tatars at the battle of Orynin in 1618 . But in 1618 he finally received his coveted buława of the Grand Crown Hetman , and shortly afterwards the office of Grand Crown Chancellor . He was thus for a brief period the most powerful individual in the Commonwealth after the king , a position he reached not through wealth or family but by military achievement and reputation .
Despite being more than 70 years old , Żółkiewski continued in active service as a military commander until the very end . He died on 7 October 1620 , during the Commonwealth 's retreat after the battle of Cecora against the Turks , during the Polish – Ottoman War ( 1620 – 1621 ) which marked the end of the Moldavian campaigns . The battle comprised several engagements , in which Polish forces were routed . During the last rout Żólkiewski was killed ; according to an anecdote he refused to retreat , preferring to stay with the rear guard till the very end . Before his death he received the blessing of his confessor , Father Szymon Wybierski ( Wyberski , Wyberek ) of the Society of Jesus , who stood fearlessly at his side ( 7 October ) . { see painting " Battle of Cecora ( 1620 ) " by Walery Eljasz Radzikowski }
After the battle Żółkiewski 's corpse was desecrated by the removal of its head and sent to Constantinople as a trophy of war . His widow bought his body from the Turks and ransomed their son , who had been captured during the battle . Żółkiewski was buried in St Lawrence Church in Żółkiew ( now Zhovkva , Ukraine ) , the town he enlarged and where he built the Żółkiew Castle .
= = Remembrance = =
Żółkiewski 's heroic death – portrayed in several works of art by contemporaries such as Teofil Szemberg and Stanisław Witkowski – boosted his reputation and guaranteed him a place among the pantheon of the most famous of Polish military commanders . In the years following his death he was mentioned in the works of writers such as Stefan Żeromski , Józef Szujski , Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz and Maria Konopnicka . Up to the present day , the story of his death is the best remembered aspect of his life , with a number of sources discussing the " legend of Żółkiewski " .
A monument was built at the site of Żółkiewski 's death ( now in Berezovca in Ocnița District , Moldova ) by his son Jan , in 1621 . It is inscribed with a motto from Horace : " Quam dulce et decorum est pro patria mori " ( How sweet and fitting it is to die for one 's country ) . The monument was destroyed in 1868 , rebuilt in 1912 , and renovated in 2003 . It is a venue for events organized by the Polish minority in Moldova .
In 1903 a statue of Żółkiewski was built in Źółkiew , but it was demolished in 1939 by Soviet troops in the aftermath of the Soviet invasion of Poland . In modern Poland Źółkiewski is celebrated as a military hero , but modern Russia 's Unity Day instead celebrates the anniversary of the surrender of the Polish forces he installed in the Moscow garrison . As of 2011 , the St. Lawrence 's Church and castle in Źółkwia were being renovated by a team of Polish and Ukrainians conservators .
= = Family and assets = =
Żółkiewski was married to Regina Herbutówna ; they had a son , Jan , and two daughters , Katarzyna and Zofia . Over the course of his career Żółkiewski amassed a large fortune , and acquired lands near Boryspil , Brody , Vinnytsia and Żółkiew . His annual income of more than 100 @,@ 000 złotys made him one of the wealthiest magnates in the Commonwealth . Żółkiewski 's assets were eventually inherited by Jakub Sobieski , whose son Jan became a Polish king and another renowned Polish commander .
= = Works = =
Początek i progres wojny moskiewskiej ( On the Beginning and the End of the Muscovite War , also known as The Beginning and Progress of the Muscovy War ) – Żółkiewski 's memoires describing his campaigns and diplomatic activity , written in the third person , and presenting a concise account of the Polish @-@ Muscovite War ( 1605 – 1618 ) .
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= Keating ! =
Keating ! is a musical which portrays the political career of former Australian Prime Minister Paul Keating . Keating was Prime Minister between 1991 to 1996 ; the musical follows him from his ascent to the leadership through to his eventual electoral defeat by John Howard . It was written by Casey Bennetto , who was inspired to write the show by his disappointment at the results of the 2004 federal election , which saw Howard 's Coalition government returned for a fourth term . The musical takes a humorous , satirical tone and presents a positive image of Keating while frequently criticising the Howard government . Bennetto describes the show as " ridiculously pro @-@ Paul Keating " .
Originally performed by musical group the Drowsy Drivers , the show achieved rapid success from its low @-@ budget premiere at the 2005 Melbourne International Comedy Festival where it enjoyed a sold @-@ out run and won an unprecedented three festival awards . In 2006 , Neil Armfield directed an extended Company B production of Keating ! , now with two acts and six new songs written by Bennetto . The Company B production toured Australia , receiving favourable reviews and winning Helpmann Awards for Best Musical and Best Regional Touring Production . In 2008 a live recording of the show was broadcast nationally on ABC2 ; it was released on DVD in November 2008 , through Madman Entertainment .
= = Background = =
Paul Keating was a Labor Prime Minister of Australia from 1991 to 1996 , ascending to the office after two leadership challenges against his predecessor , Bob Hawke . As Prime Minister , he was interested in a " big picture " approach to government , engaging with issues such as a closer relationship with Asia , Aboriginal reconciliation and the formation of an Australian republic . His government was defeated in the 1996 federal election by the Liberal @-@ National coalition under John Howard . Writer Casey Bennetto was inspired to write a musical about Keating following his disappointment at the result of the 2004 federal election , which saw the Howard government returned for a fourth term . " It was time to have a laugh at it , " he said . He says Keating 's story appealed to him because of its classic dramatic structure , that of a man who struggles , " makes it to the top " and must compete against " three bad guys " — successive Opposition leaders John Hewson , Alexander Downer and John Howard . Bennetto believed Keating 's colourful personality made him an " ideal " character for musical theatre , citing the former Prime Minister 's reputation for being sharp @-@ tongued , wearing Zegna suits and collecting antique clocks . Bennetto wrote the show in eight weeks , drawing on Keating biography Recollections of a Bleeding Heart by Don Watson . He describes it as a " ridiculously pro @-@ Paul Keating " piece which ultimately aims to be funny and entertaining .
= = Production history = =
Originally performed by musical group the Drowsy Drivers , Keating ! premiered at the 2005 Melbourne International Comedy Festival as a low @-@ budget , single @-@ act show in a 100 @-@ seat venue at the Melbourne Trades Hall . Mike McLeish played the lead role , with Bennetto as " the three Hs – Hawke , Hewson and Howard " , Enio Pozzebon as Gareth Evans and Cam Rogers as Alexander Downer . Despite the musical 's success in Melbourne , Bennetto did not have any plans for Keating ! after the end of the comedy festival . However , producer Catherine Woodfield ( Bennetto 's partner and Trades Hall publican ) insisted they develop it further . Between 2005 and 2006 they took it on tour across Australia , including a week of shows in the Sydney Opera House , a return season at Melbourne 's Trades Hall , a two @-@ week season at the Adelaide Cabaret Festival , a week of shows at the Brisbane Powerhouse and two nights in Darwin .
Also in 2006 , renowned director Neil Armfield offered to direct a production of Keating ! at Sydney 's Belvoir St Theatre with Company B. For the Company B production Bennetto reworked the musical into a two @-@ act piece , writing six new songs for the show . Of the original cast , only McLeish , Pozzebon and Bennetto were retained ; McLeish returned as Keating and Pozzebon as Evans , while Bennetto took on the roles of Hewson and Downer . Terry Serio joined the cast as Hawke and Howard . Bennetto says that both he and McLeish were worried that Armfield would turn " relatively simply staged , roughly hewn " musical into " the Amadeus version " without the original show 's sense of fun , but instead felt it became a " more accomplished , buffed @-@ up version of the original show " .
The Company B version of Keating ! enjoyed sold @-@ out seasons in Melbourne , Sydney , Adelaide , Brisbane , Perth , Canberra , Wollongong , Albany and elsewhere ( including a run of shows at the 2007 Melbourne International Comedy Festival ) before coming to a close on 31 August 2008 . On 20 August 2008 , ABC2 broadcast a live performance of the show from Sydney 's Seymour Centre . The recording was released on DVD by Madman Entertainment in November 2008 .
= = Response = =
The premiere of the Drowsy Drivers ' production at the 2005 Melbourne International Comedy Festival was met with enthusiastic reviews . Comedian Chris Addison praised the musical as " the best show I 've seen at this festival in five years " and The Age 's Daniel Ziffer described it as " clever and superbly funny " . Within the first week it had become one of the most popular shows of the festival , having sold out by the fifth show . By the end of its Melbourne run , the show had won three major festival awards — the Barry , The Age Critics ' Award and the Golden Gibbo — the first time any production had ever done so . For the songs of Keating ! , Bennetto won both the 2006 Helpmann and Green Room Awards for best original musical score .
The Company B version also received strong reviews , with a writer in Brisbane 's Courier @-@ Mail describing it as " brilliantly satirical " and a reviewer in Melbourne 's Age awarding it the top rating of five stars . However Paul Sheehan , writing for the Sydney Morning Herald , criticised the musical 's pro @-@ Keating bias , calling the script " preachy and safe " and an insult to those who voted for Howard . In 2007 it won the Helpmann Award for Best Musical , as well as the awards for best direction for Armfield and best actor in a supporting role for Serio . The following year it won another Helpmann for best regional touring production . By the end of its 2007 Sydney season , it had taken $ 500 @,@ 000 in box office earnings , and by its final show in 2008 its total audience had reached over 223 @,@ 000 people across Australia .
Keating , who has attended the show multiple times , believes that it is popular because politics and public life today are without humour . " The game is very dour , " he says , " But satire can get a lot across . It can cut out the humbug . " He believes another reason is an increased interest in the unsettled issues in the national debate , such as the question of a republic . Downer has also seen the show and commented afterwards that he enjoys satire and thought " Keating ! the musical was far better than Keating the prime minister . "
= = Synopsis = =
The following summary refers to the extended , two @-@ act version of the musical .
= = = Act One = = =
Sung @-@ through , the production begins with Bob Hawke introducing the political situation of 1990 and the contrasting personalities of Hawke — with his enthusiasm for " footy " and cricket — and his deputy , Paul Keating , who is fond of " the works of Mahler " ( " My Right Hand Man " ) . While Hawke admires Keating 's economic prowess , he is perplexed by the other man 's " un @-@ Australian " interests . Keating emerges and shares some of his life story and his hopes to gain the leadership from Hawke as they had agreed to in a deal known as the Kirribilli Accord for the venue at which it was reached ( " Do It In Style " ) . However , Hawke reneges on the deal and Keating returns to the back bench . In a rock ballad , vaguely in the style of Queen , he sings of his desolation before resolving to challenge for the Prime Ministership ( " I Remember Kirribilli " ) . He confronts Hawke with the blue @-@ eyed soul @-@ style " It 's Time " ; the song refers to the name of former Prime Minister Gough Whitlam 's famous 1970s campaign and uses Keating 's fondness for collecting antique clocks as a motif for his belief that it is indeed time for a change of leadership . Keating becomes Prime Minister and sings of his ambitions for the nation — including a treaty with Australian Aborigines , an Australian republic and improved relationships with Australia 's Asian neighbours — in a reggae song ( " Ruler Of The Land " ) .
As Keating celebrates his success , Gareth Evans cautions that the political life of a Prime Minister is limited in the minor @-@ key Latin tune " The Beginning Is The End " . Both he and the ghost of Gough Whitlam counsel Keating to " maintain your rage " . Keating then faces off against Opposition Leader John Hewson in a freestyle rap battle , arguing over the merits of Hewson 's " Fightback ! " policy platform , with Keating winning the battle due to his superior command of colourful invective , much of which is drawn from actual Keating quotes ( " On The Floor " ) . Angered , Hewson challenges Keating to call an early election , but Keating refuses in the song " I Wanna Do You Slowly " . The song 's title again refers to a well @-@ known Keating quote , but takes on a sexual interpretation in the slow , Barry White @-@ style funk number . The Keating government contests the 1993 federal election , and in an animated video Kerry O 'Brien , Michael Kroger , Robert Ray and Antony Green report on the incoming results in scat over ukulele ( " Antony Green " ) . Labor wins , and Keating sings about the unexpected victory as " the sweetest victory of all " , using a famous phrase from his actual election night speech ( " Sweet " ) .
= = = Act Two = = =
In the ska tune " The Arse End Of The Earth " , which refers to Keating 's private description of Australia , both Keating and Evans complain about the day @-@ to @-@ day issues of the economy and their unfavourable portrayal in the commercial media getting in the way of their larger agenda , including republicanism , a new flag , and Aboriginal reconciliation . Alexander Downer replaces Hewson as Opposition Leader for a short and unsuccessful period . In a costume of fishnets , corsetry and lipstick that alludes to a photograph of the actual Downer posing in fishnet stockings for a competition , he sings his belief that he is just " too freaky " for the leadership ( " Freaky " ) . Meanwhile , Evans has an extramarital affair with Australian Democrats leader Cheryl Kernot ( typically played by a male ) ( " Heavens , Mister Evans " ) . In an understated minor @-@ key bossa nova song , Keating sings of the need to recognise and apologise for the damage done by white colonisation and subsequent subjugation of the Australian Aboriginal population ( " Redfern " ) , before segueing into a more upbeat mambo about the Mabo decision by the High Court of Australia and his attempts to use the decision to promote a reconciliation agenda ( " Ma ( m ) bo " ) .
John Howard becomes leader of the Opposition , presenting a new threat to Keating . Howard describes his intense desire for power and his thirst for revenge against the petty humiliations put on him as a child in a menacing minor @-@ key march ( " Power " ) . However , in the media he presents himself as " a normal bloke and nothing more " ( " The Mateship " ) . Through various costume changes , he attempts to cast himself as a sports fan , a friend of the Australian soldier and a farmer , though the song implies that these are only costumes . The song also refers to the " children overboard " affair , his criticism of political correctness , and his use of immigration as a political issue , some of which occurred after the actual Howard 's subsequent election to Prime Minister . In a slow rock duet , Keating and Howard both beseech voters to " Choose Me " . However , as the 1996 electoral polls close , Keating concludes that he is doomed electorally . He sings of his unachieved dreams and with some bitterness at what he sees as the backward @-@ looking message of his opponent in a country @-@ influenced ballad referring to former Labor Prime Minister Ben Chifley 's description of Labor 's overarching goals ( " The Light On The Hill " ) .
In the final number , " Historical Revisionism " , the election tightens dramatically and the results come to hang on a single polling booth — the theatre in which the musical is playing . Keating wins and Howard concedes with the line " Well , I 'm sorry ... that I lost ! " ( a reference to his unwillingness to support a formal apology to the Aboriginal people ) . As the song 's title indicates , the actual Keating did not win the 1996 election . The song segues into a reprise of " Ruler Of The Land " .
= = Music = =
The songs of Keating ! employ a wide range of musical styles , including bossa nova , blues , rap , reggae , soul , swing and beer @-@ barrel waltz . Mara Lazzarotto Davis has written a highly readable and entertaining academic study of Casey Bennetto 's " Keating ! " as a generic hybrid - deftly blending vaudeville , theatre and musical comedy ( " " Flicking the Switch : Vaudeville Traditions and Myth @-@ Making in Keating ! " in Sydney Undergraduate Journal of Musicology , Vol . 5 , December 2015 ) . The lyrics frequently draw on quotes from the real Keating and other political figures , particularly in " On The Floor " which contains numerous verbatim quotes from Keating 's debates with Hewson . In expanding the show for the Company B production Bennetto wrote six new songs , adding an Act One " curtain " number ( " Sweet " ) , an exploration of Keating 's time in office ( " The Arse End Of The Earth " ) , two songs on Aboriginal reconciliation and native title ( " Redfern " and " Ma ( m ) bo " ) and another song for Howard ( " The Mateship " ) . " Dogs Of Damnation " , a song from the original version in which Evans warns Keating that his political life is limited , was replaced by the similarly themed " The Beginning Is The End " .
A live recording of the original single @-@ act version played at the Sydney Opera House was released in 2006 by Bella Union Enterprises and is available through the Drowsy Drivers ' Keating ! website . In 2007 Company B released a cast recording of the extended show containing all of the musical numbers featured on stage except for " Antony Green " . The CD features the Company B production 's original cast , with McLeish as Keating , Serio as Hawke and Howard , Bennetto as Hewson and Downer , Pozzebon as Evans and Mick Stuart as Kernot . The band consists of Alon Ilsar ( drums ) , Eden Ottignon ( bass ) , Pozzebon ( keyboards ) , Guy Strazz ( acoustic guitar ) and Mick Stuart ( electric guitar ) . By 2008 , the CD had sold over 5 @,@ 000 copies . Also that year , a live recording of the extended version was performed at Sydney ’ s Seymour Centre . Among the audience members who attended the recording , the real @-@ life Keating and Cheryl Kernot made an appearance . The recording is currently available on DVD .
= = = Musical numbers = = =
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= Robert White ( attorney general ) =
Robert White ( February 7 , 1833 – December 12 , 1915 ) was an American military officer , lawyer , and politician in the U.S. state of West Virginia . White served as Attorney General of West Virginia ( 1877 – 1881 ) and served two terms in the West Virginia House of Delegates , representing Ohio County in 1885 and 1891 .
Born in 1833 in Romney , Virginia ( present @-@ day West Virginia ) , White was the son of Hampshire County Court Clerk John Baker White and his second wife , Frances Ann Streit White . He was educated at the Romney Classical Institute , worked in his father 's clerking office for six years , and studied jurisprudence under John White Brockenbrough at his Lexington Law School . White was admitted to the bar in 1854 and practiced law in Romney .
Prior to the outbreak of the American Civil War , White was commissioned a Captain of the Frontier Riflemen , which later became Company I of the 13th Virginia Volunteer Infantry Regiment , commanded by Colonel A. P. Hill in 1861 . In 1864 , he was commissioned as a Colonel in command of the 23rd Virginia Volunteer Cavalry Regiment and served in that capacity until the unit disbanded in April 1865 . Following the war , White returned to Romney and practiced law with John Jeremiah Jacob . He devoted his efforts to bringing economic development to the South Branch Potomac River Valley , which had been desolated during the war . White was one of nine members to revive the Romney Literary Society following the war , and in 1870 , the organization successfully secured the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind for Romney . He served three terms on the school 's Board of Regents . White also established the South Branch Railway Company and was its president until 1877 .
White was elected as West Virginia 's attorney general in 1876 and served from 1877 until 1881 . He was charged with several important lawsuits , among the most prominent being the state 's pursuance of tax liabilities from railroad companies . White argued the case before the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia , which ruled in White 's favor and ultimately enriched the West Virginia state treasury . He successfully secured the extradition of Elihu Gregg from Pennsylvania after Gregg was accused of burning the Preston County courthouse and fled . In Kitzmiller v. Williams , White argued in favor of the rights of former Confederate soldiers before the Supreme Court of the United States and secured a favorable verdict . Following his tenure as attorney general , White served two terms in the West Virginia House of Delegates . In 1885 , he represented the state at the Washington Monument 's dedication . White subsequently served two terms as the city solicitor of Wheeling , and was later counsel for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company .
In his later life , White was involved in Confederate memorial activities . He was a member of the Confederate Memorial Association board of trustees , the chief officer of the West Virginia Division of the United Confederate Veterans , and served as commander with the rank of major @-@ general in the national organization . White was chairman of the construction committee for the Confederate Memorial Institute 's Battle Abbey in Richmond . He was a Freemason and served as Grand Master of the state of West Virginia in 1875 . White attended the 100th anniversary of the burial of George Washington in 1899 and was chosen by the Grand Lodge of Virginia as the Grand Marshal of the Masonic ceremonies while attending the observance at Mount Vernon . He also became a noted lecturer and orator in his later years . Following a prolonged illness , White died in Wheeling in 1915 .
= = Early life and education = =
Robert White was born on February 7 , 1833 , in Romney , Virginia , part of present @-@ day West Virginia . White was the eldest son and child of Hampshire County court clerk John Baker White ( 1794 – 1862 ) and his second wife Frances Ann Streit White ( c . 1809 – 1879 ) and a grandson of prominent Virginia judge Robert White ( 1759 – 1831 ) . He was likely named for his grandfather , Judge Robert White .
White had three older half sisters from his father 's first marriage to Alcinda Louisa Tapscott : Susan J. White Armstrong , Juliet Opie White Tabb , and Arabella White Thompson . Through his father 's second marriage to his mother Frances Ann Streit , White had nine siblings , including five brothers and four sisters :
White obtained his primary education in local common schools , including the Romney Classical Institute , which was presided over by Dr. William Henry Foote . Beginning at the age of 14 , he worked in his father 's Clerk of the County Court office for about six years . Following his law apprenticeship under his father , White studied jurisprudence under John White Brockenbrough at his Lexington Law School in Lexington . Following the completion of his legal studies , White was admitted to the bar on March 30 , 1854 , and immediately began practicing law in Romney . Along with his relative Alfred P. White , his father , and his brother Christian Streit White , Robert White became an active and influential member of the Hampshire County bar . Prior to the American Civil War , White was enrolled as a member of the Romney Literary Society .
= = Military career = =
In 1860 , following John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry in October 1859 , a Virginia uniformed volunteer military company known as the Frontier Riflemen was formed with White as commanding officer in the rank of Captain . Following the outbreak of the Civil War , Governor John Letcher ordered the Frontier Riflemen to report to Lieutenant General Stonewall Jackson at Harpers Ferry . White and his unit marched to Harpers Ferry on May 18 , 1861 . He and his unit traveled north on the Moorefield and North Branch Turnpike to the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad mainline at Green Spring , then to Harpers Ferry . Following their arrival , White 's company was reassigned as Company I of the 13th Virginia Volunteer Infantry Regiment commanded by Colonel A. P. Hill . The company marched from Harpers Ferry to Winchester and returned to Romney in June 1861 , at which time they occupied the town for several days .
A detachment under White 's command , consisting of White 's Company I , Company K , and the 1st Tennessee , were then sent to New Creek to destroy railroad bridges . The detachment successfully burned the bridges , after which it engaged in a skirmish with the Cumberland Home Guards . White 's forces defeated the guards and captured two cannons , their first trophies of war . Colonel Hill marched to Winchester , and Company I then came under the command of General Joseph E. Johnston .
During the Winter of 1861 – 62 , White was reassigned to the ordnance department and served in that capacity until 1863 , when he was authorized to raise and command a battalion of cavalry . White formed the 41st Battalion Virginia Cavalry in September 1863 and continued to serve as the battalion 's commanding officer until seven of its companies were consolidated with two companies of O 'Ferrall 's Battalion Virginia Cavalry to form the 23rd Virginia Volunteer Cavalry Regiment in April 1864 . White was then commissioned as a Colonel in command of the cavalry regiment and served in that capacity until the unit disbanded in April 1865 . White remained in the service of the Confederate States Army until May 14 , 1865 . White had served with ability throughout the war , and saw action across Virginia .
During the war , White 's father left Romney with his wife and youngest children and traveled to Richmond . There he served in the Confederate States Department of the Treasury within the government of the President of the Confederate States of America , Jefferson Davis . White 's father , John Baker White , died soon after his arrival in Richmond on October 9 , 1862 .
= = Reconstruction efforts = =
Following the war , White returned to Romney . On account of his father 's death during the war and White being the eldest son , he became his family 's patriarch and resumed practicing law to provide for them . In 1865 , he entered into a practice with John Jeremiah Jacob until Jacob began his tenure as Governor of West Virginia in 1871 . White then expanded his law practice and it became the largest of its kind in the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia . He continued his law practice until 1877 , when he became Attorney General of West Virginia .
White devoted his efforts to bringing economic development to the South Branch Potomac River Valley , which had been devastated during the course of the American Civil War and remained undeveloped during the Reconstruction Era . In an effort to rebuild his hometown , Romney , following the war , White sought to first memorialize the Confederate war dead . Early in the Spring of 1866 , a meeting was held at White 's home in Romney with his wife Ellen E. Vass White , his brother Christian Streit White , Elizabeth " Bessie " Jane Schultze ( later Mrs. Christian Streit White ) , and his sister Frances " Fannie " Ann Armstrong White ( later Mrs. Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy ) . Following this meeting , an inspired group of Hampshire County women assembled and adopted a constitution for the Confederate Memorial Association , of which White 's wife served as a president . Through the association 's efforts , the first decoration of Confederate graves at Indian Mound Cemetery took place on June 1 , 1866 . The association sponsored the construction of the Confederate Memorial at Indian Mound Cemetery , which was dedicated on September 26 , 1867 .
On May 15 , 1869 , nine members of the Romney Literary Society , including White , commenced an effort to revive the society 's activities and reconstitute its library , which had been destroyed during the war . When the state of West Virginia first founded an institution for deaf and blind students , White helped to pass the legislative act that established the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind . On April 20 , 1870 , during a meeting of the schools ' Board of Regents , in Wheeling , White and Andrew Wodrow Kercheval were sent by the Romney Literary Society to make a formal offer of the Romney Classical Institute buildings and grounds to the board . Through White 's efforts , the school was established on the former campus of the Romney Classical Institute in Romney , where it remains as of 2015 .
White was subsequently appointed to serve three terms on the schools ' Board of Regents . White was appointed to the Board of Regents ' first ( 1870 ) , second ( 1871 – 1873 ) , and third ( 1874 – 1876 ) terms , and served as its secretary each time . In his report to Governor William E. Stevenson at the close of the institutions ' first school year , in 1871 , White wrote : " The board has to express its entire satisfaction with the present flourishing condition of the institution . The discipline , the progress of the pupils in their studies and their general improvement , deserve the highest commendation and entitle our deaf and dumb and blind institution to the unstinted patronage of the state . "
In addition to his appointments to the schools ' Board of Regents , White was also appointed by the West Virginia Legislature to the state boards of trustees of Capon Springs and Berkeley Springs . He resigned his position on the board of trustees of Berkeley Springs , but he remained a member of Capon Springs 's board until at least 1897 .
White also created a railway line linking Romney with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad mainline at Green Spring . He established the South Branch Railway Company to accomplish this and served as the company 's president for several years until relocating to Wheeling in 1877 . Through his efforts , the means and finances were raised to construct the railway .
= = Political career = =
= = = Attorney General of West Virginia = = =
White was a lifelong member of the Democratic Party . In 1876 , White was nominated at the West Virginia Democratic Party Convention held in Charleston as the party 's candidate for Attorney General of West Virginia despite not expressing interest in the position . That November , White was elected to the office by the largest majority won by politician in West Virginia up until that time . At the time of his election , the state 's capital was Wheeling and on April 1 , 1877 , he relocated there with his family to serve in his post . On the morning of his departure from Romney , the residents of the community bid White farewell by turning out with two brass bands and escorting White and his family to the outskirts of town . There , an address was delivered by one of Romney 's elder residents , and the White family left for Wheeling .
During his tenure as attorney general , White was in charge of several important lawsuits , among the most prominent being the state 's pursuance of tax liabilities from railroad companies . Prior to his election as attorney general , railroads had never paid taxes in the state of West Virginia . White instituted proceedings to tax all the railroads within the state . The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway Company obtained an injunction against the levying of the taxes , leading to a judicial test case . White argued the case first in the lower courts , and then before the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia , which ruled in White 's favor . The Supreme Court of the United States affirmed the ruling of the state supreme court , which compelled the railroads to pay taxes to the state , ultimately enriching the West Virginia state treasury .
White also played prominent role in his position as attorney general during the case of Elihu Gregg . Gregg had been convicted by the Preston County Circuit Court of burning the county courthouse and the public records therein , and also of burning the janitress who had been sleeping in the courthouse at the time of the fire . Gregg was sentenced to death for these crimes , but following his sentence , he escaped to Greene County , Pennsylvania to the company of his friends and supporters , as the Gregg family was prominent in the region .
Requisition was made by West Virginia Governor Henry Mason Mathews , and White was subsequently requested to appear before Pennsylvania Governor John F. Hartranft to argue for Gregg 's extradition back to West Virginia . White was successful in his argument and Governor Hartranft issued an order of extradition . Gregg immediately obtained writ of habeas corpus and was brought before the Green County Court presided over by Judge Wilson of Fayette County , Pennsylvania .
White traveled to the Green County Courthouse where he was met by an infuriated mob of Gregg 's friends and supporters who had been awaiting the attorney 's appearance . The mob then threatened to lynch White for attempting to return Gregg to West Virginia to carry out his sentence . White was informed of these threats by a friend , and was advised to leave town quietly . White responded by stating that he had a duty to perform and would perform it " if it were the will of a higher power , " and if not , he would die in his attempt to secure right and justice . White made his way to the courthouse , and by a few well @-@ chosen remarks , secured the attention of the crowd . White depicted Gregg 's crime in detail , during which time he was reportedly on his feet for five hours and twenty minutes . After which , Gregg was extradited back to West Virginia .
White was associated with another high profile case , Kitzmiller v. Williams , which involved the belligerent rights of former Confederate soldiers . The case was on appeal from the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia , and White argued the case before the United States Supreme Court , securing a favorable verdict . The case was significant as even though hundreds of similar cases had been previously fought , it was not until this point that the rights of former Confederate soldiers were recognized .
During his term as attorney general , White maintained a private law office on Chapline Street in Wheeling . White declined to accept a reelection to the office of West Virginia Attorney General .
= = = West Virginia House of Delegates = = =
Following his tenure as West Virginia Attorney General , White served two terms in the West Virginia House of Delegates representing Ohio County , first in 1885 , and again in 1891 . According to a 1903 biography , White was described as an " able , incorruptible and active legislator . " During both sessions , he served as chairman of the Finance Committee and also served in other important capacities , including on the Judiciary Committee .
The West Virginia Legislature of 1891 was composed largely of members of the West Virginia Democratic Party , of which White was a member . In 1891 , White 's colleagues in the legislature delivered a testimonial to White in gratitude for his service . It stated :
" SIR : – Among the members of the Legislature of West Virginia there is a general desire to express to you in some formal way their appreciation of the great zeal , ability and untiring industry that have marked your course in the Legislature this session . As chairman of the Finance Committee and one of the Judiciary Committee of the House , the duties incumbent upon you have been exceeding [ sic ] important and exacting , both in committee room and on the floor of the House . In the performance of these duties you have been so zealous , industrious , painstaking and conservative as to attract the attention and win the respect and confidence of the entire legislature and to deserve thanks and gratitude not only of your fellow members but of the people of the state at large . Permit us , therefore , to tender to you some expression of our appreciation of the benefit of the State derived from your earnest labors to say that we all feel that you have fully deserved not only our commendation but a right to the gratitude and respect of your fellow citizens throughout the State of West Virginia . "
= = = Subsequent political positions = = =
In 1885 , White was appointed by Governor Jacob B. Jackson to represent the state of West Virginia at the dedication of the Washington Monument in Washington , D.C. During the dedication ceremony on February 21 , 1885 , White acted as one of the assistants to the grand marshal .
White served two terms as the city solicitor of Wheeling , and for many years , he served as a counsel for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company . During his tenure there , White was charged with some of the most important cases that were tried the courts of West Virginia at the time . He was also twice @-@ elected as president of the Ohio County Bar Association . During this time , White also served as the legal advisor on the board of directors of the Ohio Valley Life Company .
= = Later life and death = =
White was an adherent of the Presbyterian faith , and for many years he served as a ruling elder of the First Presbyterian Church of Wheeling . He also represented the presbytery at the centennial session of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church , which met in Philadelphia .
White was a member of the arbitration convention of the Sons of the American Revolution which was held in Washington , D.C. in May 1896 , and also served as the president of the West Virginia Society of that organization . White was a member of the board of trustees of the Confederate Memorial Association , and on September 4 , 1896 , he was made a member of the organization 's executive committee in Chattanooga , Tennessee . White also served as the chief officer of the West Virginia Division of the United Confederate Veterans . In that organization , White held the position of commander and rank of major @-@ general . On May 30 , 1903 , White was the orator at the Confederate memorial ceremony held at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond .
Following United Confederate Veterans ' September 1909 meeting in Charleston , White was reelected to his post as commander . By 1896 , White led a local endeavor to establish a West Virginia Home for Confederate Veterans . In 1911 , he was on the chairman of the committee for the construction of the Confederate Memorial Institute 's Battle Abbey in Richmond .
On May 20 , 1912 , a ceremony was held in Richmond for the laying of the cornerstone of the Confederate Memorial Institute 's Battle Abbey . White gave the ceremony 's principal address , in which he delivered an exhaustive history of the movement for the construction of the abbey and spoke on the importance of the abbey being built in the former Confederate capital . He also called for the cooperation of the Southern states in providing artifacts to the abbey .
From his early adulthood until his death , White was a Freemason and served as Grand Master of the state of West Virginia in 1875 . In that capacity , he laid the cornerstone of the capitol building at Wheeling . Prior to his relocation to Wheeling , he was also Master of the Clinton Lodge of Masons in Romney . On October 26 , 1899 , he gave an address according to Grand Lodge ritual at the cornerstone laying ceremony of the new school in Wellsburg . White attended the 100th anniversary of the interment of George Washington on December 14 , 1899 and was chosen by the Grand Lodge of Virginia as the chief Grand Marshal of the Masonic ceremonies while attending the observance . He and his staff had full charge of the procession and all matters of the celebration . A reproduction of Washington 's funeral services were held at Mount Vernon , and White served as a commander of the occasion , where he stood beside President William McKinley during his address to those in attendance . Prior to the anniversary , in November 1899 , the National Christian Association published sheets in the anti @-@ secret society publication Christian Cynosure in which they denied Washington 's Freemasonry affiliations . White released a statement in which he remarked : " This attack is the meanest thing I ever saw in a Christian publication . " He further went on to illustrate a historic narrative citing the dates of Washington 's Masonic activities and affiliations .
White was also called upon to serve as Grand Marshal during the visit of Admiral Dewey to Wheeling on February 22 , 1900 . He was remembered by Dewey , who subsequently sent White his picture with his compliments and signature at the top .
In his later life , White became a noted lecturer . One of his more popular lectures was entitled " The Old Foundation Stands , " which was prepared and delivered by White in response to Robert G. Ingersoll 's lecture " The Foundation of Faith , " in which Ingersoll criticized the Old Testament of the Bible . White delivered the lecture in several states . During the summer of 1900 , White traveled throughout Europe . He visited the village of Oberammergau in Germany , after which , he created a lecture illustrating the Oberammergau Passion Play .
White was an active member of the West Virginia Bar Association for many years , and served as its president in 1914 . When he celebrated his 82nd birthday in February 1915 , he enjoyed dinner with his close friends at his Bae Mar Place home . He suffered from a prolonged illness throughout 1915 , which caused him to miss a number of high profile engagements . For example , White was to have been the guest of James Taylor Ellyson , Lieutenant Governor of Virginia during the United Confederate Veterans Reunion Week in Richmond , but cancelled his visit on May 30 , 1915 on account of his ill health . He was also slated to give the address at the commencement exercises of the Richmond Academy on June 4 , 1915 , but was unable to attend due to his declining health . White died of " old age " on December 12 , 1915 in his residence on Bae Mar Place in Wheeling , after having been ill for six months prior . White was interred at Greenwood Cemetery in Wheeling on December 14 , 1915 . White was survived by his daughter Kate White Ferrell , his brother Christian Streit White , and his wife Ellen . His wife died in Richmond on December 17 , 1921 , and was interred beside him at Greenwood Cemetery .
= = Personal life and family = =
In 1859 , White married Ellen E. Vass ( July 23 , 1839 – December 17 , 1921 ) , the daughter of James C. Vass . James C. Vass was an influential banker at the old Bank of Virginia in Richmond . Through her mother , Ellen Vass was related to Chief Justice of the United States John Marshall and Robert E. Lee , and her paternal grandfather was a wealthy merchant in Fredericksburg . White and his wife Ellen had six children together : John Baker White , who died at the age of four ; James C. White , who died in infancy ; Robert White , who died after the war ; Marshall V. White ( July 5 , 1867 – 1894 ) , a businessman in Philadelphia ; Eleanor " Nellie " R. White ( February 28 , 1868 – September 18 , 1881 ) , who died in a railroad collision near Grafton ; and Katherine " Kate " White Ferrell Hancher ( February 13 , 1870 – July 29 , 1950 ) , who married first to Chiles M. Ferrell of Richmond , and later married a Mr. Hancher .
Upon relocating to Wheeling in 1877 , White and his wife resided at 7 13th Street , and they later relocated to 125 14th Street . The latter house became a contributing property to the East Wheeling Historic District upon its addition to the National Register of Historic Places on November 22 , 1999 . The couple made their final residence together at Bae Mar Place in Wheeling .
= = Legacy = =
In a biography of White published in Men of West Virginia , Volume 2 in 1903 , White was described as " one of the most brilliant lawyers produced by the State of West Virginia . " In his 1915 obituary published in both the Charleston Daily Mail and The Wheeling Intelligencer , White was described as " always kind , courteous , but at the same time strictly exact . " In May 1915 Virginia Lieutenant Governor Ellyson said that Richmond owed more to White than any other man for his efforts in securing the location of the Confederate Memorial Institute .
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= Pretty Much Dead Already =
" Pretty Much Dead Already " is the seventh episode of the second season of the post @-@ apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead . It originally aired on AMC in the United States on November 27 , 2011 . In the episode , Glenn ( Steven Yeun ) reveals to the group that there are walkers in the Greenes ' barn , dividing the group on what to do . Hershel Greene ( Scott Wilson ) sets a deadline for the group to leave , unless Rick Grimes ( Andrew Lincoln ) does a difficult task . Meanwhile , Shane Walsh ( Jon Bernthal ) slowly loses his sanity after many secrets around him are revealed and Carol Peletier begins to question whether her daughter , Sophia will be found .
The episode was written by Scott M. Gimple and directed by Michelle MacLaren . The death of Sophia Peletier is a prominent theme in " Pretty Much Dead Already " ; she was killed by Grimes following her conversion into a walker . Robert Kirkman felt that killing Sophia off would add more dimension to the show , and create more flexibility in regards to the progression of the storylines , as well as leading to very different storylines , with Carol outliving her daughter , as opposed to the other way around . " Pretty Much Dead Already " generated critical acclaim , who praised the episode 's conclusion and the development of the characters . Upon airing in the United States , the episode attained 6 @.@ 62 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 5 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . It became the highest @-@ rated cable telecast of the day , as well as the fourth most @-@ viewed cable program of the week .
= = Plot = =
During breakfast at the camp , Glenn ( Steven Yeun ) , at the urging of Dale ( Jeffrey DeMunn ) , finally tells the group that the Greene family 's barn is full of walkers . The survivors inspect the structure and debate what they should do . Shane ( Jon Bernthal ) furiously demands they clear the barn of the walkers , while Rick ( Andrew Lincoln ) reminds him that they 're guests on Hershel ( Scott Wilson ) ' s property and they cannot leave without Sophia ( Madison Lintz ) . Shane believes Sophia is long gone , prompting Daryl ( Norman Reedus ) to react furiously . Rick agrees the barn needs to be cleared , but insists on getting Hershel 's blessing first .
Maggie Greene ( Lauren Cohan ) is upset with Glenn because he betrayed her confidence by telling the group about the barn . Glenn confronts her and says that her personal well @-@ being is more important than her affections . As Daryl readies to search for Sophia , Sophia 's mother , Carol ( Melissa McBride ) insists that he not go out into the woods . He responds angrily , but later apologizes by taking her to a pond where another Cherokee rose is blooming ; this restores her faith in finding her daughter . Rick interrupts Hershel 's lunch to discuss the barn , and Hershel demands that the group leave his farm within a week . Rick argues that going " out there " would be a death sentence for the group . Rick finds Shane brooding by the barn , where Shane defends his opinion about clearing it of zombies . The two argue until Rick finally blurts out that Lori ( Sarah Wayne Callies ) is pregnant . As Rick leaves , Shane congratulates him , albeit with a look of fear and shock on his face .
After being confronted by Maggie , Hershel and Jimmy ( James Allen McCune ) bring Rick to a forest swamp , where they find two walkers stuck in the mud . Hershel explains that if Rick 's group wants to stay , they have to treat walkers like people . Meanwhile , Shane confronts Lori about her family 's well @-@ being , adding that he is the father of her baby . Lori denies his sentiments , which causes Shane to storm off the premises . Carl ( Chandler Riggs ) stops him , insisting that they stay and search for Sophia . Shane says he will do whatever is necessary to make it possible to stay . Lori watches from a distance as Shane conspires with her son . Dale unsuccessfully warns Andrea ( Laurie Holden ) about Shane 's erratic behavior . After distracting Glenn , Dale steals the weapons and leaves the RV . Shane realizes that the guns are missing , and locates them with Dale in the swamps . Dale threatens to shoot Shane if he takes the guns , but Shane calls his bluff . Dale backs down but warns Shane that he is losing his humanity . Shane utters the episode 's titular line in this confrontation .
Shane brings the guns back to the farmhouse and arms the rest of the group . T @-@ Dog ( IronE Singleton ) spots Rick and Hershel emerging from the forest with two walkers attached to snare poles . Shane , distraught to brink of insanity , screams that walkers aren 't people and that Sophia is gone , and shoots one of the captured zombies despite Rick 's pleas to calm down . He then breaks the locks off the barn door . Walkers start to file out , and Shane , Andrea , T @-@ Dog , Daryl , and Glenn execute the zombies while the others watch . At the last moment , Sophia emerges from the barn , dead and zombified . The group is paralyzed with shock and sadness , unable to act as Sophia walks towards them . Only Rick is able to step forward and shoot her .
= = Production = =
" Pretty Much Dead Already " was written by Scott M. Gimple and directed by Michelle MacLaren . It features recurring appearances from Lauren Cohan , Scott Wilson , IronE Singleton , Madison Lintz , Emily Kinney , Jane McNeill , James Allen McCune , and Amber Chaney . Following the initial broadcast of the previous installment , " Secrets " , writer Robert Kirkman teased the following episode " Pretty Much Dead Already " . He stated : " There 's a lot of big stuff out there that we will be wrapping up to a certain extent . In the writers ' room we were fully aware that we were coming up on this hiatus , so we definitely wrote to it . I think people are going to be a little shocked . "
The death of Sophia Peletier is a major incident in " Pretty Much Dead Already " , largely affecting the themes of the episode . After the group has shot the walkers housed in Hershel Greene 's barn , Sophia appears from the barn as a walker , much to the groups ' dismay . A disturbed and distraught Rick Grimes pulls out his weapon and makes the decision to shoot her . Despite being initially surprised about her character 's being killed off , Madison Lintz concluded that she understood its aftermath for the show . Lintz affirmed that portraying a walker was a welcoming experience for her , and stated that she was " going to look back on and say that was amazing . " Robert Kirkman felt that killing Sophia would add more dimension to the show , as well as add more flexibility to its storyline progression . " When a good idea comes up , you have to go with it , " he articulated . " Sophia is a character who is still alive in the comic book series and who has contributed quite a bit to the overall narrative and informed a lot of story lines for a lot of different characters . Having Carol [ ... ] survive her daughter as opposed to the other way around as it is in the comics is going to lead to interesting but different stories . " Although Kirkman was not on set during production of the sequence , Gimple retrieved shell casings from the blanks that were fired on set . Referred to as " Barnageddon " by the writers , Kirkman asserted that he emphasized unpredictability while creating the scene .
It 's good to know people didn 't see it coming . That 's a big concern when you have this kind of story line and you are leading to that kind of reveal . You don 't want people to be expecting it , especially in the Walking Dead . I pride myself in the fact that , when you pick up an issue of the comic , you don 't know what 's going to happen at any time . So any time we can work that into the show and maintain that in a television environment , it 's very exciting for me . I ’ m glad people are being caught off guard .
Other themes prevalent in the episode include Lori 's pregnancy . After getting into a heated argument , Rick reveals to Shane about her pregnancy . Although he didn 't question who the biological father was , Robert Kirkman felt that Rick was " smart enough to know that the kid 's either his or Shane 's and there may not be any way of ever finding out that definitively . " He continued : " Bringing that up to his wife , who he loves , is only going to be painful for her . I think that ’ s him being a good husband and him showing his tremendous leadership ability in that he can put his self aside for the betterment of someone else . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Pretty Much Dead Already " was initially broadcast in November 27 , 2011 in the United States on AMC . Upon airing , it garnered 6 @.@ 62 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 5 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode became the highest @-@ rated cable program of the day , obtaining significantly higher ratings than Kourtney and Kim Take New York on E ! and Real Housewives of Atlanta on Bravo . " Pretty Much Dead Already " received the show 's highest ratings since " Bloodletting " , which obtained 6 @.@ 7 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 6 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . In addition , the episode became the fourth highest @-@ rated cable telecast of the week , and the highest @-@ rated non sport cable telecast of the week dated November 27 . Total viewership and ratings for the episode significantly increased from the preceding installment , " Secrets " , which garnered 6 @.@ 08 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 1 rating amongst adults in the 18 – 49 demographic . In the United Kingdom , " Pretty Much Dead Already " received 666 @,@ 000 viewers , subsequently becoming the most @-@ watched cable program on FX of the week dated December 4 .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Pretty Much Dead Already " was critically acclaimed by television critics . Eric Goldman of IGN evaluated the episode as " completely depressing " , and added that the dark nature made the series excel . Goldman ultimately gave the episode an eight out of ten , signifying a " great " rating . Aaron Rutkoff of The Wall Street Journal felt that the episode was the series ' best installment . Writing for The Grand Rapids Press , John Serba opined that " Pretty Much Dead Already " was a delightful ending to the first portion of the season . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club stated that prior to its ending , the episode was " the usual mix of pretty good and deeply irritating . " Handlen lauded the character development in the installment ; " The episode puts a lot of effort into heightening the tensions between Hershel and Rick 's people , and while it ’ s not exactly subtle , it makes enough sense to be effective . This is conflict that should 've been building for a few episodes now , instead of arriving fully formed right before it explodes , but I 'm willing to take what I can get . " Concluding his review , he issued the episode an A – grade . Digital Spy 's Morgan Jeffrey avouched that " Pretty Much Dead Already " was " excellent " , and added that the tension " slowly ratchets up to an almost unbearable level . " Some critics were divided with the episode . Time journalist Nate Rawlings felt that while the writers put a lot of substance into the characters , many of them are still underdeveloped . Gina McIntyre of Los Angeles Times felt that some parts of the episode lacked cohesion and direction .
The episode 's concluding scene involving Sophia 's death was cited as the episode highlight . Janet Turley of The Huffington Post asserted that the sequence was " fiction not afraid to provoke " , while Goldman described it as an " absolutely horrific scenario " . CNN 's Henry Hanks opined that the sequence " left [ them ] with a final scene that we 'll be talking about until then . " New York 's Starlee Kine asserted that it contained cinematic qualities , and felt that the scene was " satisfying , sad , and fun " . She wrote : " It was everything you 've ever wanted this show to be . Zombies plus no dialogue , such a winning combination ! And how great was it that Sophia was dead instead of impossibly alive somewhere , holed up with Merle or Morgan or those warmhearted gang members in Atlanta . And because she was granted more screen time than she ever was when she was alive , we were finally able to care about the loss of her short , young life . " Jen Chaney of The Washington Post echoed synonymous sentiments ; " Really , the final moments of the last episode before the AMC series ' December / January hiatus played like a fireworks finale on the Fourth of July , assuming your Fourth of July celebrations typically involve zombies and a pile of corpses . " Rawlings concluded that it was the perfect resolution for what he called " television 's slowest subplot " . McIntyre felt that the concluding sequence was the most eventful moment of the episode , and stated that it was difficult to watch .
Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly affirmed that the scene reestablished The Walking Dead to full form , as well as redeemed the season 's " general gutlessness thus far . " HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall reflected similar thoughts , and observed that it was effective enough to keep the viewers chattering until the succeeding episode . Handlen summated : " The Sophia reveal is a punch in the gut , because narrative fiction teaches us the longer someone stays missing , the better the chance they 'll turn up alive ; otherwise , where would the drama be ? By using the little girl in this way , the show transforms what should 've been anti @-@ climax into a reinvention of an entire storyline . It 's not enough to make the bad parts of the earlier episodes great , but it does show that the writers had more on their mind than stalling . " Mark Maurer of The Star @-@ Ledger felt that albeit predictable , the segment was " well executed " . Josh Wigler of MTV said that the storyline ended in " a much darker way than anyone could have imagined . "
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= Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam =
The Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam ( 1784 – 1799 ) was a 15 @-@ year imprisonment of Mangalorean Catholics and other Christians at Seringapatam in the Indian region of Canara by Tipu Sultan , the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore . Estimates of the number of captives range from 30 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 but the generally accepted figure is 60 @,@ 000 , as stated by Tipu in the Sultan @-@ ul @-@ Tawarikh . The captivity was the most disconsolate period in the community 's history . Its cause is disputed , although most historians consider it happened for political rather than religious reasons , owing to the alliance between the Mangalorean Catholics and the British during the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War ( 1780 – 1784 ) .
The Mangalorean Catholic community in Mangalore flourished during the regime of Tipu 's father , Hyder Ali . Soon after Tipu inherited the territory in January 1784 , he issued orders to seize the Christians in Canara , confiscate their estates , and deport them to Seringapatam . His orders were carried out on 24 February 1784 . Twenty thousand Christians died during the journey from Mangalore to Seringapatam . During captivity they suffered extreme hardships , torture , death , and persecutions with many Christians forcibly converted to Islam . Their captivity led to a near disintegration of the community and ended only when Tipu was killed by the British at the Battle of Seringapatam on 4 May 1799 , during the Fourth Anglo @-@ Mysore War . Of the 60 @,@ 000 – 80 @,@ 000 Christians taken captive , only 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 both made it out alive and retained their original faith . The episode had a deep impact on the Literature of Mangalorean Catholics . The bi @-@ centennial anniversary of the Christians ' release from captivity was celebrated across the region on 4 May 1999 .
= = Background = =
Roman Catholics from the South Canara district on the south @-@ western coast of India , under the jurisdiction of the Mangalore Diocese , are generally known as Mangalorean Catholics . They are Konkani people who speak the Konkani language . All earlier records of South Canara 's Christians were lost at the time of their deportation by Tipu in 1784 and it is not known when Christianity was introduced in South Canara . It is possible that Syrian Christians settled in South Canara as they had in Malabar , a region south of Canara . During the 13th century Italian traveller Marco Polo recorded that there were considerable trading activities between the Red Sea and the Canara coast . Scholars have surmised that foreign Christian merchants were visiting the coastal towns of South Canara during that period for commerce , and that some Christian priests possibly accompanied them in their evangelical work . In 1321 , the French Dominican friar Jordanus Catalani of Severac in south @-@ western France , arrived in Bhatkal , North Canara . According to historian Severine Silva , no concrete evidence has yet been found that there were any permanent settlements of Christians in South Canara before the 16th century .
Propagation of Christianity in the region only began after the arrival of the Portuguese in 1498 , when Vasco da Gama 's landed on St Mary 's Islands in South Canara and planted a cross there on his voyage from Portugal to India . In 1500 , the Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral arrived at Anjediva in North Canara with eight Franciscan missionaries under the leadership of Frei Henrique Soares de Coimbra . On arrival they converted 22 or 23 natives to Christianity in the Mangalore region . In 1526 , during the viceroyship of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio , the Portuguese took possession of Mangalore whereupon Portuguese Franciscans began slowly spreading Christianity in Mangalore .
Contemporary Mangalorean Catholics are descended mainly from the Goan Catholic settlers , who migrated to Canara from Goa , a state north of Canara , between 1560 and 1763 in three major waves . The first wave of immigrants came to Mangalore to escape the trials of the Goa Inquisition of 1560 . These migrants were welcomed by the native Bednore rulers of Canara for their agricultural skills . They were followed by a second major wave precipitated by the Portugal – Adil Shahi wars between 1570 and 1579 . A final influx of immigrants arrived during the Portugal – Maratha wars in Goa during the late 17th and early 18th centuries . According to Mangalorean historian Alan Machado Prabhu , the Mangalorean Catholics numbered about 58 @,@ 000 by the time of the capture of Canara by Hyder Ali in 1765 .
= = Under the Wodeyar Rajas and Hyder Ali = =
According to writer K.M.George , by 1686 , Seringapatam , capital of the Kingdom of Mysore , was home to a community of more than 400 Catholics who were severely harassed in the following two decades when their churches were destroyed and the priest 's house confiscated . This destruction was undertaken in the name of the Wodeyar king , Kanthirava Narasaraja I by his finance minister . The priest 's house was eventually returned to the church in 1709 . Sometime between 1700 and 1717 , another church was built in Rampura , a suburb of Seringapatam , in the face of local opposition . Relations between the Wodeyars and the Mangalorean Catholics improved until 1717 , when an anti @-@ Christian outburst led to the expulsion of the resident priest who was thereafter forbidden to preach . Several more anti @-@ Christian demonstrations followed , but by 1736 relations had once more improved between the two groups .
But , it was during the period of Chikka Devaraja ( 1673 – 1704 ) , 400 priests who protested against the taxes that were punished . As per a legend they were strangled by the wrestlers of his court .
Hyder Ali , born in 1721 or 1722 at Budikote in the northern part of Mysore State , joined the Mysorean Army and distinguished himself in the 1749 Siege of Devanahalli . He took part in the Carnatic wars of ( 1751 – 1755 ) and gained in @-@ depth experience of warfare . Hyder Ali rapidly rose to power at the Mysore court and soon became prime minister and general of the king . From 1761 onwards , he took de facto control of the throne of the Mysore Kingdom through the Wodeyar dynasty . In 1763 , he occupied Mangalore and Canara , but maintained amicable relations with the Christians . Historian Severine Silva states , " the general relations between Hyder and Christians form a chapter which has been entirely lost . " Hyder was close friends with two Goan Catholic priests , Bishop Noronha , and Fr . Joachim Miranda . Sehwarts , a Protestant missionary , also lived at the court of Hyder . However , Hyder was also involved in suppressing the Jesuit order .
Hyder 's army included several Catholic soldiers and he allowed Christians to build a church within the Seringapatam Fort where French generals offered prayers and priests visited . Mangalorean historian A.L.P. D 'Souza mentions that Hyder had also used Canara Christians for administrative purposes . In accordance with the two treaties concluded with Portugal , Hyder allowed Portuguese priests to settle disputes among the Christians . Despite this , the Christians in general hated Hyder Ali because of the heavy taxes they were made to pay to the king 's treasury .
In February 1768 , the British captured Mangalore and Canara from Hyder . At the end of the same year , Hyder , along with his son Tipu Sultan , defeated the British and recaptured Mangalore . After the conquest , Hyder was informed that the Mangalorean Catholics had helped the British in their conquest of Mangalore . Hyder believed that this behaviour amounted to treachery against the sovereign . Summoning a Portuguese officer and several Christian priests from Mangalore , he asked for suggestions as to how the Mangalorean Catholics should be punished . The Portuguese officer suggested the death penalty for those Catholics who had helped the British , as it was the standard punishment for betraying a sovereign . Rather than follow this advice , Hyder chose a diplomatic stance and imprisoned Christians found guilty of treachery instead of executing them . Later , he opened negotiations with the Portuguese . Agreement was reached and suspicions against the clergy and the Christians were removed and they were no longer chastised . During Hyder 's regime , Roman Catholicism in Mangalore and the Mangalorean Catholic community continued to flourish .
Historians claim that Hyder was extremely tolerant towards the Christians . According to historian Severine Silva , he followed the same policy of religious tolerance towards Christians as he had from the beginning , even though the Christians had revolted against him . The Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War began in 1780 and led to Hyder 's death on 7 December 1782 , at Arcot . Afterwards the British recaptured the fort at Mangalore .
= = Causes = =
Tipu Sultan succeeded his father at the age of 31 . He had also taken part in the conquest of Mangalore in 1768 , and accused the Mangalorean Catholics of treachery towards the sovereign , as well as their having helped the British . He was aware of the treatment of Canara Muslims by the Portuguese clergy , and had always resented his father 's favourable policy towards the Mangalorean Catholics .
The British army under Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Brigadier @-@ General Richard Matthews , landed in Canara on 9 March 1783 , and captured the Mangalore fort on the orders of the Bombay Government . Many Christians were allegedly recruited into the army of General Matthews . Tipu became infuriated with the Christians of Canara for two reasons . Firstly , when French soldiers laid down their arms because of the Peace of Paris ( 1783 ) treaty , the Christians refused to fight for Tipu . Secondly , the Christians lent the sum of Rs . 330 @,@ 000 to General Matthews , which led Tipu to believe that the Mangalorean Catholics were helping the British .
In May 1783 , General Matthews was accused of procrastination and suspended by the Bombay Government . Thereafter Colonel John Campbell received provisional command of the strategic fort of Mangalore on 5 May 1783 . Tipu made several assaults on the Mangalore fort up until January 1784 , all of which resulted in failure . Looking at the wounded embattled garrison , Colonel Campbell considered it futile to hold out any longer . He finally delivered the Mangalore fort to Tipu when the British capitulated on 30 January 1784 . On 11 March 1784 , Tipu and the British East India Company signed the Treaty of Mangalore , thus bringing an end to the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War .
Historian Ahmad Saeed states that the Christians acted as spies and guided the British whilst historian Praxy Fernandes points out that the Christians helped Colonel Campbell in the Mangalore fort and adjoining towns by providing them with rice , vegetables , meat , men , and money . In a letter to his superiors , Colonel Campbell strongly commended the role of the Bombay Natives regiment . This was led by a native major named Francis Pinto who put up a brave defence of the fort . He also refers to these troops as the " Native Christians " . Fernandes further points out that the Christians had entered into a league with Mysore traitors Kasim Ali and Mohammed Ali , who were enemies of Tipu , and had plotted with the English to overthrow him . He also states that the Head of the Congregation of Monte Mariano Church at Farangipet , near Mangalore , provided the British garrison with 1 @,@ 000 bags of rice .
Severine Silva points out that the Christians of Canara were eager to get rid of Tipu . The History of the Diocese of Mangalore by J. Moore and Angelus Francis Xavier Maffei also purports to show that the Christians of Canara were charged with assisting the British during the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War . Tipu made a number of accusations against the Christians , including that they had invited the British to invade Canara in 1781 – 82 , furnished supplies to and otherwise assisted General Matthews ' army when it landed and took possession of Onore , accompanied the British detachment to Mangalore , provided it with supplies both before and after the march , aided the British in repairing breaches made when the fort was besieged by Tipu and plundered the state treasury at Nuggur when that fortress fell to General Matthews .
After receiving highly exaggerated reports about the role of the Christians and their help to the British during the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War , Tipu decided to minimise the threat to his kingdom from the British and banish the Christians of Canara . According to Severine Silva , this decision was the logical outcome of the plans he had nurtured since the time of the conquest of Mangalore with his father Hyder in 1768 .
It is generally believed that the propaganda of the Goan priests and the alliance of the Christians with the English cause Tipu to banish the community from Canara . The main political reason for this decision was Tipu 's belief that if he banished the Christians , he could keep the British at bay . However , Alan Machado Prabhu dismisses the idea of large @-@ scale Christian support for the British during the Second Mangalore War as a myth which is not based on any concrete evidence .
Prabhu states that the charge that the Christians constituted a united front cannot be sustained . Apart from divergent viewpoints among the Christian community at the time , he argues that difficulties in communication for a minority Christian population spread over a 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) forested coastline broken by numerous streams and rivers , would have made united action practically impossible . He further states that the majority of Mangalorean Catholics were agriculturists farming land capable of growing three crops a year . The idea of neglecting their fields in the cause of a small band of British isolated in the confines of a fort besieged by a large Mysorean army would have sounded insane . Even if the British had made promises , they would have had little effect on the militarily inexperienced Christians , who would then have had to fight a large and well @-@ trained army in support of a beleaguered army which was not even successful .
On the basis of Colonel Campbell 's letter , Prabhu concludes that the " Native Christian " soldiers present in the fort were probably all East Indian infantry and artillery experts , belonging to the Bombay Natives . He believes that at best , any assistance was of a limited nature and restricted to purely individual enterprise . Prabhu points out that European troops , both English and French , including those from Tipu 's own mercenaries , did receive some assistance although this was more humanitarian than military . He also states that claim of the Christians paying the British Rs . 330 @,@ 000 is an utter fabrication . To make his point , Prabhu points out that the annual revenue of the Portuguese province of Goa itself amounted to over three to four lakh rupees . Payment of the huge sum claimed by Tipu would have required a large number of wealthy donors — which the Mangalorean Catholics were not .
= = Execution of orders = =
Soon after Tipu gained possession of Mangalore in January 1784 , he issued orders for the seizure of the Christians in Canara , confiscation of their estates , and their subsequent deportation to his capital at Seringapatam along the Jamalabad fort route . Tipu expelled the 13 Goan priests from his kingdom . They were issued with orders of expulsion to Goa , fined Rs . 200 @,@ 000 , and threatened with death by hanging if they ever returned . He also banished Fr . Joachim Miranda , a close friend of his father Hyder Ali . In a letter to the Portuguese Government , Tipu wrote that he had commuted the priests ' sentences of capital punishment and ordered a fine of 30 million rupees instead . According to a report of 1784 , Tipu had driven 26 missionaries out of his state , three of whom secretly went to join the captives . Two died en route and one was killed by a soldier . The missionaries were warned that they faced the death penalty if they re @-@ entered Tipu 's kingdom .
On 24 February 1784 , ( Ash Wednesday ) , in a secret and well planned move , Tipu arrested a large number of Christians across the province of Canara and other parts of his kingdom . Accounts of the number of captives range from 30 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 . According to historian Kranti Farias , all arrests may not have been made on a single day , but instead carried out in stages .
When Tipu issued his orders to seize the Christians , the British , who had entered into a treaty with him on 11 March 1784 , were helpless . Captives also included Malayali Christians , and Tamil Christians from the Tamil @-@ countries . The Portuguese , guardians of the Christian faith in Canara , intervened and requested Tipu not to imprison the priests . They suggested that he let the Christians live peacefully as his father Hyder Ali had done . But Tipu paid no heed to their request . Estimates suggest that about 7 @,@ 000 people remained in hiding . Many were actively assisted by the Hindus whilst the few Christians in Canara who escaped Tipu 's initial captivity fled to Coorg and Malabar , where they were protected by the native rulers .
= = Confiscation of property and destruction of churches = =
On Tipu 's orders , all estates and properties of the Christians were seized , and distributed among his soldiers . Churches and historical records were also destroyed . The seizures were so sudden that the Christians had no time to prepare for their departure or to dispose of what little property they possessed . The value of property confiscated is estimated by Fr . Angelus Francis Xavier Maffei , an Italian Jesuit , at Rs . 500 @,@ 000 .
Tipu then ordered the destruction of all 27 churches in Canara . According to oral tradition , the Idgah mosque in Mangalore was constructed with stones from the destroyed Milagres Church . Other Christian establishments that were spared were converted to storehouses , offices , or homes for wealthy Muslims . A popular fortification in Mangalore , the Sultan Battery , built in 1784 by Tipu Sultan to prevent English warships from entering the Gurupura river , was constructed with stones taken from destroyed churches . The bells from the demolished churches eventually found their way into a number of temples in the area . After being informed of the impending roundup by a friend in Tipu 's government , Fr . Joachim Miranda disbanded St. Joseph 's Seminary and sent the seminarians to Verapoly , from where some proceeded to Goa while some joined the Augustinian order .
A few buildings escaped destruction , including a small chapel at Shantigramma near Hassan , built in 1768 and said to have been saved by Tipu 's Muslim officers on the pretext that it was used to store cotton . Tipu also spared the Monte Mariano church at Farangipet , on account of his father 's friendship with Fr . Joachim Miranda .
Tipu is said to have given orders to preserve the church at Baleguli , near Ancola , in gratitude for a cure by a Christian woman while at Ancola . The Igreja da Santa Cruz ( Portuguese : Church of Holy Cross ) at Hospet was saved through the intercession of the local Jain chiefs . In Seringapatam , a whole battalion of Catholics under an officer named Michael Surappa , upon hearing of Tipu 's order to destroy the Seringapatam church , called their fellow soldiers to arms . Surappa , a veteran of Hyder 's army , is credited with telling the assembled Christians , " I shall remain a Christian in spite of all the orders of Tipu Sultan . " The church at Kirangur was spared , although the battalion gradually dispersed .
= = Journey from Mangalore to Seringapatam = =
According to the Barcoor Manuscript , written in Kannada by a Mangalorean Catholic from Barcoor on his return from Seringapatam , the Christians were interned in holding camps at Mangalore , Manjeshwar , Cundapore , Onore , Ancola , and Sunquerim , with the more rebellious Christians brought in in chains . They were then forced to climb nearly 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) through the dense jungles and gorges of the Western Ghat mountain ranges along two routes , one of which was along the Bantval @-@ Belthangadi @-@ Kulshekar @-@ Virajpet @-@ Coorg @-@ Mysore route , and the other along the Gersoppa falls ( Shimoga ) route . On the 200 miles ( 320 km ) journey from Mangalore to Seringapatam the Christians were accompanied by three priests , who had secretly joined them despite threats of expulsion by Tipu .
Trouble arose when guards began molesting captive Christian women at their first camp at Bantwal , although able @-@ bodied captives were able to resist the guards . At the next camp at Jamalabad fort , the rebel Christian leaders were thrown down from the fort . The town of " Nettrekere " or " Netterkedu " in Tulu , on the cross roads from Maripalla to Kalpane , derives its name from the large pool of blood which resulted from the execution of rebellious Mangalorean Catholics on their march to Mysore .
According to a captive from Barcoor , pregnant women often gave birth en route , and their babies had to be borne bundled about them . When they rested , the infants were suspended in cradles from the branches of trees . If anyone happened to die they were buried on the spot . Captives were not given any rations , and when the time came to move on , those who had not finished cooking had to leave behind their rice and the cooking pots . The Barcoor Manuscript along with other British Government records suggest that 20 @,@ 000 captives ( one @-@ third of the total ) died on the march to Seringapatam due to hunger , disease , and ill treatment by soldiers . The journey to Seringapatam took six weeks . By 1787 , some 30 @,@ 000 captives , half the original number , had perished .
= = Fifteen @-@ year captivity = =
On arrival at Seringapatam the Christian captives were forced to embrace Islam . All those who complied were freed . Those who refused were tied to the feet of the elephants to be dragged and trampled on Tipu 's orders .
One English prisoner related that two risalas ( regiments of soldiers ) arrived daily in Seringapatam to select girls they could take as prizes to join their harems . Often when girls were seized , their young men would offer resistance and smash their dhoolies ( palanquin ) . Officers would capture the attackers and administer five hundred strokes with whips and canes , from whose effects many men died . Historian Lewin Bentham Bowring reports that , " Tipu demanded the surrender of the daughters of some of these Christians in order to have them placed in his seraglio , and that , on the refusal of their parents , the latter had their noses , ears and upper lips cut off , and were paraded through the streets on asses , with their faces towards the tails of the animals . "
Such treatment of the Christians for refusals by the girls is also confirmed in the accounts of British officer James Scurry , who was held captive along with the Mangalorean Catholics . In his book The Captivity , Sufferings , and Escape of James Scurry , who was Detained a Prisoner During Ten Years , in the Dominions of Hyder Ali and Tippoo Saib ( 1824 ) , Scurry also reports that Tipu relented on his demand for captive girls , after one captive fell from her beast and expired on the spot through loss of blood . About 200 young women , the prettiest and fairest , were selected for Tipu 's seraglio . The rest of the women were distributed as wives to Muslim officers and favourites living there . The future Christian progeny of these young girls and women were lost , and their descendants are fully Islamic as of today .
As the food in the camp was sub @-@ standard , Balthazar of Belthangadi , a Mangalorean Catholic nobleman , offered to make a chutney for the captured Mangalorean Catholics . This came to be known as the legendary " Balthazar Chutney " . The jemadars , subedars , and havildars meted out more an ignominious punishment to those who refused to accept Islam , slitting off their ears and noses . They were seated on asses , paraded through the city , and thrown into the dungeons of Seringapatam . Able @-@ bodied young Christian men were drafted into the army after being circumcised and converted to Islam .
The Barcoor Manuscript records , " On four occasions the young able @-@ bodied Christian men were thus drafted for the Army . Some of them were appointed jemadars , subedars , and havildars . The Sircar supplied them with ghee , butter , curds , firewood , etc . One hundred men were formed into one company , four companies into a risala , four risalas into a sufedar , and four sufedars were placed under a bakshi . Out of every company twenty @-@ five men were taken and circumcised at the end of every month . When the wounds were healed , another twenty @-@ five were taken and circumcised , and so on , until the whole company was initiated into Islamism . "
British general Kirkpatrick arrives at a figure of 15 @,@ 000 young men capable of bearing arms , formed into 30 risalas . They were drafted into the Ahmedy Corps in 1785 and went on to serve in Tipu 's campaigns against the Marathas , the Nizam , and the British during 1786 and 1787 . Casualties were heavy and only a few survived captivity .
Those who remained , such as the lame , the blind and the aged , employed themselves in cultivating the land and doing other manual work . Many were made to carry baskets filled with gobra ( cowdung ) for three days as a public warning to others . The stubborn Christians were given the most menial tasks , and made to work in the paddy fields . They were underfed , and immediately imprisoned for fighting . Completely isolated from any women , the idea was for the captive men to die of old age without creating any progeny .
Tipu appointed some Christian captives to posts in his household . He made Salu ( Salvadore ) Pinto Deputy Vizier and Anthony Gagialgar ( clockmaker ) Saldanha House Chamberlain . One of his most faithful servants , a Mangalorean Catholic named Manuel Mendes , saved Tipu 's life in Travancore when he donned his master 's robes and sat in his palanquin . Tipu escaped in the general panic whilst Mendes was captured and killed by the Nairs , who mistook him for Tipu .
In 1783 , the Kodava Hindus erupted in revolt against Tipu and threw their forces out of Coorg ( Kodagu ) . In 1785 , he marched into Madikeri ( Mercara ) the capital of Kodagu and addressed them . He showed racial and religious bias by stating that the Coorgs ( Kodavas ) were guilty of polyandry in a speech before a gathering of Kodavas . He mistook the patrilineal patriarchal Kodavas to be a sub @-@ group of matriarchal Nairs . He threatened that he would not revile or molest a single individual among them , but instead make Ahmadis ( Muslims ) out of the whole of them ; transplanting them from their homeland in the Coorg to Seringapatam . This inflammatory speech with false accusations of polyandry and with an open threat angered the Kodavas who thereafter hated Tipu and again revolted against him . Tipu seized nearly 70 @,@ 000 Hindus of Coorg and held them captive at Seringapatam . They were also forcibly converted to Islam and received the same harsh treatment as the Mangalorean Catholics . From 1786 until 1789 , even the Nair Hindus of Malabar were captured and deported to Seringapatam .
By 1787 , half of the Christians had perished through disease and starvation . Tipu attempted to preach to the remaining Christians in Canara , and took them into custody . As the Christians settled down in Seringapatam , they slowly reorganised themselves with the elders forming a secret group named the " Council of Ten " , to help keep their faith alive . According to Balthazar of Belthangadi , in the " Council of Ten " , the Christians met from time to time to deliberate on issues concerning the community . In 1789 , Tipu came to know of the group through one of his officers and thereafter banned any political gathering of the Christians .
The Christians , believing that this tribulation came upon them for their neglect of the Law of God and their religious duties , began to fervently read the Krista Purana , an epic poem on the life of Jesus Christ written by the English Jesuit Thomas Stephens ( 1549 – 1619 ) . On discovering this , some Muslims destroyed the books , but the Christians constructed subterranean refuges in which to perform their religious devotions , read the books , and strengthen their faith . According to Mr. Silva of Gangollim , a survivor of the captivity , if a person who had escaped from Seringapatam was found , the punishment ordered by Tipu was amputation of the ears , nose , feet and one hand .
Reports by Joachim Miranda and the Portuguese Government confirm that the Christians were forcibly circumcised and converted to Islam . These Christians then openly practised Islam . Some writers hold the view that the Christians did not voluntary submit to these conversions . Other Christian missionaries also appealed to the Roman Catholic Church to intervene on behalf of the captive Christians . A priest also wrote a letter to the Holy See to put pressure on Tipu to allow the priests .
When Tipu 's embassy visited the court of the French King Louis XVI in 1788 , Pope Clement XIV 's representative conveyed the appeal to the embassy . In the Third Anglo @-@ Mysore War ( 1789 – 92 ) , the British and their allies defeated Tipu . Desperate to break the alliance of powers surrounding him on all sides , Tipu sought to make peace with Portugal , the Marathas , and other powers . According to Severine Silva , he consequently gave up the persecution of Christians , opened negotiations with the Portuguese Government and with the Archbishop of Goa , with a promise that he would stop molesting the Christians , further asserting that he would rebuild all destroyed churches at his own cost . The Christians found their supervision relaxed and Tipu became more conciliatory in his attitude . The Christians now escaped from the camps of Seringapatam and gradually began to enter the neighbouring kingdoms of Coorg and Malabar .
At this time many Christians performed daring feats to rescue captives from Seringapatnam and take them to places of safety . A captive named Domingo Pinto ( brother of Salvador Pinto , who rose to high rank in the services of Tipu ) , was particularly proficient in this . He rescued many people and took them secretly to Mangalore or Tellicherry . He proposed that those anxious to regain their liberty could be rescued on payment to him of a certain sum of money . He fixed the rescue price per captive at 8 hoons ( Rs . 32 ) for a male , and 4 hoons ( Rs . 16 ) for a female .
In 1792 , the King of Coorg , Dodda Vira @-@ Rajendra , managed to escape from captivity at Seringapatnam , and , with the aid of the British armies under Lord Cornwallis , was able to regain Coorg for himself through the treaty of 1792 between the English , their allies and Tipu . Anxious to repopulate a kingdom depopulated by Tipu , Dodda welcomed the fugitive Konkani Christians . As an inducement to remain permanently in his territory , he granted them several privileges , obtained a priest from Goa , and built a chapel for them . After the relaxation of policies from 1792 onwards , the Christians began to resettle in Canara . Many Mangalorean Catholic students , who had studied for the priesthood in Goa returned to Mangalore .
After considering the changed circumstances , the Archbishop of Goa , by a provision issued on 20 February 1795 , appointed Minguel José Louis Mendes interim vicar of the four sub @-@ districts of Mangalore , Barcoor , Onore and Moolki . Some other priests also came to Canara with the new vicar . Those from Goa retained their old prejudices and could not accept the rule of Tipu , openly advocating rebellion against him , writing offensive letters and making offensive speeches . As a result , in 1797 , the brief repite enjoyed by the Christians ceased and their persecution recommenced .
= = End of captivity and re @-@ establishment = =
In the Battle of Seringapatam on 4 May 1799 , the British army under officers George Harris , David Baird , and Arthur Wellesley stormed the fortress , breached the town of Seringapatam , and killed Tipu . After Tipu 's death in the Fourth Anglo @-@ Mysore War , the Mangalorean Catholics were freed from captivity . Of the 60 @,@ 000 – 80 @,@ 000 Christians taken captive , only 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 made it out as Christians . British general Arthur Wellesley helped 10 @,@ 000 of them return to Canara . Of the remaining Christians freed , about a thousand went to Malabar , and some hundreds settled in Coorg .
According to Francis Buchanan , 15 @,@ 000 of them returned to Mangalore and its environs , whilst 10 @,@ 000 of them migrated to Malabar . The Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency ( 1883 ) mentions that 15 @,@ 000 persons returned , of whom 12 @,@ 000 were from South Canara and 3 @,@ 000 from North Canara . According to the Mangalorean Catholic genealogist Michael Lobo , the present Mangalorean Catholic community is descended almost entirely from the small group of survivors who returned to South Canara . Soon after the death of Tipu , a detachment from the Bombay army under Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Wiseman took possession of Mangalore on 4 June 1799 , as well as the entire province of Canara , with the exception of the fortress of Jamalabad .
Thomas Munro was appointed the first collector of Canara in June 1799 and remained in the post until October 1800 . He was accompanied by officers John Goldsborough Ravenshaw and Alexander Reade who were to take control and reorganise the administration . Munro issued three edicts regarding Christian estates that had been taken over by non @-@ Christians during the captivity . In determining ownership of land , he sent two Mangalorean Hindus , Muthsuddy Vencappah and Saly Purvoe Dur Shetty along with other Christians to investigate and report back to him about these estates . Through the assistance of the Church , and with the support of Munro , the Christians were able to recover their lands and estates .
In 1800 , the British took a census of the region . Of the 396 @,@ 672 people living in South Canara , 10 @,@ 877 were Christians residing in 2 @,@ 545 houses . According to the same census , in the entire province of Canara , out of the 592 @,@ 000 people , the Christian population was recorded as 10 @,@ 877 in South Canara , and 2 @,@ 380 in North Canara . Padre José Miguel Luis de Mendes , a Goan Catholic priest , was appointed Vicar of Our Lady of Rosary at Mangalore on 7 December 1799 . He took a lot of interest in the re @-@ establishment of the community from 1799 to 1808 . Later , John Goldsborough Ravenshaw was appointed collector of South Canara , whilst Alexander Reade became collector of North Canara . Ravenshaw took an active part in the re @-@ establishment of their former possessions and recovery of their estates . He constructed a church for them , which was completed in 1806 . Churches destroyed by Tipu were rebuilt by the Christians .
After relocation , the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Goa recommenced . The Christian population almost doubled in 1818 when their total in North and South Canara was estimated to be 21 @,@ 280 out of a total population of 670 @,@ 355 . According to various parish books dating to the time , Mangalorean Catholics numbered 19 @,@ 068 in South Canara ( 12 @,@ 877 in Mangalore and Bantval , 3 @,@ 918 in Moolki , 2 @,@ 273 in Cundapore and Barcoor ) , whilst Christians in North Canara numbered 2 @,@ 749 ( 1 @,@ 878 in Onore , 599 in Ancola , and 272 in Sunquerim ) . Before long the Mangalorean Catholics became a prosperous and influential community consisting mainly of planters , tile manufacturers , and agriculturists . They also competed with the local Brahmins for offices in the services of the British , under whose rule the community prospered .
= = Criticism of Tipu = =
Many Roman Catholic and British writers have severely criticised Tipu for his policies and treatment of Christians . British general Kirkpatrick referred to Tipu as , " the intolerant bigot and the furious fanatic . " British Colonel Mark Wilks in his Historical Sketches of the South of India , cites an account in which Tipu mentions that , " the cause arose from the rage of Islam began to boil in his breast when informed of the circumstances of the spread of Christianity in Goa and Canara . "
According to historian Thomas Paul , Tipu shifted his hatred for the British to the Mangalorean Catholics and other South Indian Christian communities . Sita Ram Goel mentions that Tipu 's justification for the conversion was that during the Portuguese domination , many Muslims were forcibly converted to Christianity . Tipu proclaimed his actions as a punishment for the conversion of Muslims to Christianity .
According to historian Alan Machado Prabhu , Tipu 's reasons for the captivity were primarily religious . He found the social customs of the Christians distasteful , such as their fondness for pork and the social acceptance of alcohol . Tipu therefore saw them as a community deserving of his religious zeal as a Padishah . As evidence of this , Prabhu states that Tipu does not mention a large scale Christian conspiracy in his writings in the Sultan @-@ ul @-@ Tawarikh , where he justifies his action instead as arising from the " rage of Islam that began to boil in his breast . "
Prabhu further asserts that Tipu 's hatred of Christians was compounded by fears that as they shared the same faith as their European co @-@ religionists , the Christians were viewed as a potential fifth column in the event of a British attack . To this , he adds that Tipu also had future territorial ambitions in Goa and wanted to rid himself of any potential dissent from the Christians within his domain . Therefore , according to Prabhu , through coerced confessions of prominent Mangalorean Catholics , Tipu fabricated evidence of a large @-@ scale Christian conspiracy against him , even though he knew it wasn 't true .
Contemporary scholars like Surendranath Sen , Mohibbul Hasan , N. K. Sinha , and B. Sheik Ali , who have analysed Tipu 's religious policies on Christians , conclude that he was not a religious bigot . They argue that forcible conversions to Islam were done purely for political , not religious reasons . Forced conversions were carried out as a punishment for Christians who supported the British against their own native suzerain . The conversions came after many warnings by Tippu .
Irrespective of these views , the Mangalorean Catholic community still considers Tipu as a bitter religious bigot and a ferocious conquistadore . He remains a hated personality among the community . More than a century after the Captivity ended , Jerome Saldanha , a Mangalorean Catholic historian and civil servant during the British Raj at the Bombay Presidency , wrote an article in Mangalore Magazine , published by St. Aloysius College , which chronicled contemporary developments and views from the closing decades of the 19th century :
" People of all classes belonging to Canara , especially the Christians , had suffered so dreadfully from Tipu 's regime of terror that they welcomed the British with a sense of relief and joy , and a hope of future peace and prosperity , that perhaps nowhere else was felt in India on the advent of the British . Nor were our ancestors disappointed , for they found that the main object of British rule in India was to secure the happiness of the people over whom it was held . "
= = Criticism of the Christians = =
Thirty years after the event the apparent lack of resistance from the Christian captives drew criticism from the French priest Abbe Dubois . In one of his letters dated 1815 , Dubois commented , " not a single individual among so many thousands had courage enough to confess his faith under this trying circumstance , and become a martyr to his religion . " Various writers have concluded that the acceptance and practise of Islam by the Christians amounted to partial apostasy .
= = Remembrance of captivity = =
During the mid @-@ 19th century , Victor Fernandes , Bishop of Mangalore ( 1931 – 1955 ) , erected a large cross on the former outskirts of Mangalore in Nanthoor near the Padav hills in honour of the memory of those Mangalorean Catholics who died on the march to Seringapatam during the Captivity . The bicentenary of the release from captivity was widely celebrated on 4 May 1999 by the Mangalorean Catholic community . Five Catholics walked from Seringapatam to Mangalore to retrace the 278 @-@ kilometre ( 173 mi ) route that Tipu Sultan forced the Christians to follow in 1784 . The commemorative march ended on 11 May at the Rosario Cathedral , Mangalore .
= = Accounts of the captivity = =
= = = Arabic and Farsi Inscriptions Record = = =
The treatment of the prisoners of Tippu Sultan 's Coorg and Mangalore campaigns is recorded in the Arabic and Farsi inscriptions on the south wall of the mosque at Seringapatam , dated 1787 AD
= = = = Inscriptions = = = =
( Arabic ) Khaulahu Ta 'ala : — va anzalallazina zaharuhum min ahhlkitabi min syasihim va khazafa fi khulu @-@ bihimurroba farikhan takhtaliin va tusiruna farikhan va avarasakum arzahum va diyarahum va amvalahum va arzan lam tatavha va kanallahu ' ala kuUi shayin khadira .
( Persian ) B 'adaz fararl kuffar hukm shud ki baharbi Bani Khuraiza ravand ki ' ahad shikasta madadgariahzab namudand : lashkari Islani ishanra panzda shaban roz mahasaru kardand va kar bar ishan tang shud va bar hukrai S 'ad @-@ bin @-@ M 'aaz farod amadand . Va Sad hukra kavd ki mardani ishanra bakushand va zanan va kodakani ishanrA Itarda girand va amvali ishanra bar Musalmanan khismat kuuand . Hazrat risalat , salairahii ' alailii va sallani , farmiid ki ai S 'acl M 'aaz hukm karJi ki Khiiclai T 'aala bar balai haft asman hukm karda biid : va Hakh Subhanahu azin vakh 'aa khabar midehad : va farmud farod avard Khuda ananra ki yiiri dadand ahzabra va ham pushti ishan gashtand az ahl Tavarait y 'ani Yahud kharizara farod avard az kharahai ishan va afgand dar dilhai ishan tars az paighambar va lashkari u giirohera ki kushidande noh @-@ sad tan bekushtand ya haft @-@ sad tan va barda migired gurohera y 'ani farzandan va zauani ishanra va miras dad shumara zamini ishan y 'ani mazar 'ay va hadaikh va sarahai ishan y 'ani liusun va khaVa va malhai ishan az nak 'aud va amt 'aa va niav 'ashi va arazi va bashaina dLid zamin ra ki berafta aid daian ya maUki an buded murad Khaiber ast ya dayaro Piiun ya mumahki Faris : va gufta and har zaminke bahavze Islam darayed ta khiyamat dariu dakhil ast : va hast Khuda bar har chiz khadir va tuvana .
= = = = English Translation = = = =
God Almighty hath said : — " And he caused such of those who have received tho Scriptures , and assisted the confederates , to come down out of their fortresses , and he cast into their hearts terror and dismay : a part of them you slew , and a part you made captives ; and God caused you to inherit their land , and their houses , and their wealth , and a land on which you had not trodden ; for God is Almighty . " After the flight of the infidels it was ordered that war should be continued with the Bani Khuraiza , ^ as they had assisted the confederates , breaking their league with the Muslims . The Muslim army besieged them for fifteen days and nights and reduced them to distress . They came down at the order given them by Saad bin Maaz , who adjudged that the males should be put to the sword , the women and children made slaves , and their goods divided among the Muslims . The Prophet ( the blessing and peace of God be on him ! ) addressing Saad , said , " 0 Saad Maaz — you have pronounced that which the Most High had ordered above the seven skies . " God refers to this event when He says that He brought them out of their fortresses as they had assisted the confederates and protected them . These were believers in the Old Testament , namely , Jews . God cast into their hearts terror of the Prophet and his army , and those who were killed numbered between seven and nine hundred , and their women and children were made slaves . You inherited their land , gardens , fields and houses , their fortified places , and their property consisting of money and cattle . All these were given you by God . And this saying likewise applies to the Kliaiber , to Turkey , or to Persia . It is also spoken in order that whatever country the Muslims may hereafter be in possession of , until the last day , may also be included in the above passage . God is almighty .
= = = James Scurry = = =
= = = Mr. Silva of Gangollim , a survivor of the captivity = = =
= = In popular culture = =
Many of Konkani littérateur V. J. P. Saldanha 's Konkani historical novels such as Belthangaddicho Balthazar ( Balthazar of Belthangadi ) , Devache Krupen ( By the Grace of God ) , Sardarachi Sinol ( The sign of the Knights ) and Infernachi Daram ( The gates of Hell ) deal with the captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam . In these novels , the Mangalorean Catholic community of the eighteenth century are portrayed as brave , hardworking and selfless , while Tipu is portrayed as cunning , haughty , hard @-@ hearted , revengeful , yet full of self @-@ control .
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= Double burden =
Double burden is a term used to describe the workload of people who work to earn money , but who are also responsible for significant amounts of unpaid domestic labor . This phenomenon is also known as the The Second Shift as in Arlie Hochschild 's book of the same name . In heterosexual couples where both partners have paid jobs , women often spend significantly more time than men on household chores and caring work , such as childrearing or caring for sick family members . This outcome is determined in large part by traditional gender roles that have been accepted by society over time . Labor market constraints also play a role in determining who does the bulk of unpaid work .
Efforts have been made to document the effects of this double burden on couples placed in such situations . Many studies have traced the effects of the gendered division of labor , and in most cases there was a notable difference between the time men and women contribute to unpaid labor .
= = Etymology = =
The term double burden arises from the fact that many women , as well as some men , are responsible for both domestic labor and paid labor . However , due to the thinking that a woman 's time spent in domestic work is more valuable than a woman 's time spent doing paid work , and that a man 's time spent doing paid work is more valuable than a man 's time spent doing domestic work , there is the issue of women having to do a large amount of both paid and unpaid work , leading to the double burden . Some alternative terms for double burden include : double day , second shift , and double duty .
= = Unequal work burdens around the world = =
= = = In the industrialized world = = =
= = = = Pre @-@ World War II = = = =
The traditional female homemaker – male breadwinner model characterized female employment prior to World War II . At the turn of the 20th century in the continental United States , only 18 percent of women over the age of 15 reported receiving income non @-@ farm employment . These women were typically young , single , white , and native @-@ born . In contrast , married women in the non @-@ farm labor force were " predominantly blacks or immigrants and very poor . " Working mothers often exited the labor force once their children were old enough to earn money .
The outpouring of occupational opportunities in the early 1920s , such as in " cafeterias , nurseries , laundries and other facilities seemed to release women from domestic chores and freed them to participate fully in the sphere of production . "
This migration of women into the workforce shook the traditional ideology of gender roles , but importantly , it was the catalyst to the double burden becoming noticeable . The 1930s " encouraged women to fulfill what Stalin termed the " great and honorable duty that nature has given " them . Evident in the Soviet Union , " an officially sponsored cult of motherhood , buttressed by anti @-@ abortion legislation " accompanied by a " depression of living standards " led to industry 's immense demand for laborers which got women into the industrial workforce in unprecedented numbers . " Urban women thus found themselves assuming the " double burden " ( also known as the " double shift " ) of waged work outside the home and the lion 's share of unpaid labor within it . " The Second World War is typically seen as a catalyst for increasing female employment . Best exemplified by Rosie the Riveter propaganda of an efficient , patriotic , woman worker , World War II increased demand for female labor to replace that of the " 16 million men mobilized to serve in the Armed Forces " . While a substantial number of women worked in war factories , the majority of jobs were in the service sector . This caused the gendered expectations for that time to be altered and roles to be both tested and reassigned for the incoming decades .
= = = = Post @-@ World War II = = = =
The post @-@ World War II period is marked by relatively high levels of female participation in the workforce , particularly in industrialized countries . Although a large proportion of women exited the workforce immediately following World War II , the idea of working class women was able to take root and normalize . " In 2001 , 47 percent of U.S. workers were women , and 61 percent of women over the age of 15 were in the labor force . " Besides an increased demand for women 's labor , other factors contributed to the growth of their participation , such as more educational opportunities and later marriage and childbearing ages .
The idea of the double burden is more evolved with the times concerning both sexes and their newfound roles . The role of a provider and caregiver is sometimes expected of women , but as more women enter the workforce , an ' independent ' ideology seems to take effect and forces some women to decide between a career and family . Some may choose strictly one or the other , others may choose to carry the burden of both lifestyles . Some " modern men tend to believe in the principle of equal sharing of domestic labor , but fail to actually live up to that belief . " The constant tug of war regarding one 's time and where it could , should but will be spent creates a new speed bump that is a little bit higher than the previous ones . Modern times illuminate the dilemma that many dual @-@ income couples face when trying to reconcile unpaid domestic work and paid employment . The burden of encompassing both ideologies plays a toll on both sexes in today 's societies .
= = = South America = = =
Due to globalization in the past thirty years , the power of the unskilled worker has diminished , and thus , the informal economy has flourished . In Latin America , there is an abundant amount of workers to help out with domestic work , and consequently , domestic service is cheap , diminishing the family tensions surrounding the issue of domestic work . Currently , about half of the working population is employed in the informal sector , leading to " unemployment , underemployment , and social exclusion " . Because of this , there has been a serious delay in providing welfare for the care of children and the elderly , because the pressure to provide aid for working families is minimal . In addition , domestic workers , many of them women , often leave their countries to work in the informal sector in northern countries in order to increase income for their families , also delaying the pressure for governments to provide aid to these families . However , there has been a change since the 2000s in thinking about unpaid work due to the influx of paid jobs for women and the shortage of people available to do domestic work .
Although the increase in jobs for women has had benefits in policy changes for families with working parents , there has been debates about the conditions of the work places . In Mexico , there is an influx of the maquila industry , which produces products that will be sold in the developed nations . The mostly female workforce is often exploited by having unsafe working conditions , and stress is a major cause of many illnesses of these women .
Another increasing issue is the rise in conditional cash transfer programs in Latin America , such as the Oportunidades program in Mexico . Although this program is meant to provide poor families with an increase in income , the conditionalities has led to a time poverty for the family members who are in charge of fulfilling the conditions , most oftentimes the woman . This has increased the inequality of work burden within the family .
= = = Africa = = =
In Africa , the HIV / AIDS pandemic has been the major cause of falling life expectancy . There is currently a crisis of decreasing number of available care workers for an increasing population requiring care . One reason why this phenomenon occurs is because HIV / AIDS affects working age people the most , and there has been evidence to show that women are affected at a younger age and in greater numbers . Another reason is due to the influx of HIV / AIDS , government @-@ led health policies are breaking down , increasing the amount of care work and community work that women have to do . Because of the lack of care workers available , the very young and the very old have also started participating in care work , resulting in poorer quality of care .
Women in Africa also face different time struggles than women elsewhere , because of the need to perform domestic chores such as " collecting water and wood " , which takes away from their free time .
Another aspect of the double burden in Africa is that there is class divide , meaning that most white families , including poor ones , employ Africans either as a live @-@ in worker or a part @-@ time worker . In addition , because of the urban house shortage , oftentimes relatives and friends are given room and board in exchange for unpaid work , alleviating work for some .
= = = Western Europe = = =
Since the 1960s , Western Europe has been participating in a series of political debates to increase women ’ s rights in the workforce . In the 2000s , there has been a change from considering women ’ s rights to a mother ’ s rights , focusing on the rights of pregnant women as well as mothers . However , there have been issues with creating laws specifically for mothers . There is still the inherent gender bias that women are the ones to care for children .
Some parts of Western Europe , especially Scandinavian countries have been creating family friendly policies that have aided them in equalizing the gender difference in participation in the work force . Nordic countries have the highest female participation rates in the work force in the world and salary differences are among the lowest . Government aid in providing care to the elderly and the young have enabled women in Scandinavia to be a part of the working population in nearly a high rate as men . Examples of government aid include paid parental leave and benefits and post maternity re @-@ entry programs . Such programs have led to a greater participation of women in the workforce , as well as a higher birth rate , and a robust economy .
= = = Eastern Europe = = =
Under communism , everyone was guaranteed employment . However , women suffered the double burden of paid and unpaid work , leading to lower birth rates . The commitment to social equality and the issue of declining birth rates allowed women to have some rights , such as child care and child allowances . For example , in the Soviet Union , maternity leave was extended to three years and part @-@ time work was introduced . With the collapse of communism , many of these rights have been revoked due to the new largely male oriented democracy that has been put in place . Although there has been an increase in female workers , their need for welfare support such as child care has not been met , and has been ignored .
= = = Asia = = =
In Western and Southern Asia , women represent only a third of the work force . Many of them , even women in more modernized Asian countries , are involved in the informal sector , in traditional jobs for women , such as caring or teaching , without benefits such as employee health insurance or pension plans .
The issue of the double burden is exacerbated in Asian countries due to the large cultural norm of women doing care work held by both men and women . In many developed countries , women drop out of work when they have children in order to have more time to take care of them .
In countries where women have to do paid work in order to feed their family , there is a lack of regulation and safety standards regarding female workers due to the large amount of informal work available . In Thailand for example , due to the severe economic crisis in 1997 , many women have jobs in the informal industry , and often do home @-@ based work so that they can do their domestic jobs concurrently with their paid jobs . This increases the work intensity by women doing more than one job at a time , and has been shown to have deteriorating effects on women 's health .
= = Causes of the double burden = =
= = = Gender ideology = = =
" Gender ideologies are linked to beliefs about appropriate behaviour for men and women " Socialization plays a major role in determining gender ideologies and what 's valued in one time and culture may not necessarily transcend to another . Traditional gender ideologies have contributed to the double burden because it posits women as caretakers , men as providers , and each gender occupying their own sphere of influence . Although research has shown that attitudes about gender roles have become more egalitarian over the past few decades , " these changes in gender attitudes have not been accompanied by corresponding changes in the allocation of housework " .
= = = Labor market constraints = = =
Despite women 's increasing participation in the work force , a gender division of labor persist . There are a number of constraints in the labor market that contribute to the double burden . " Women are disproportionately represented in informal work and concentrated among lower @-@ quality jobs within self @-@ employment . " The informal market is generally precarious and characterized by low wages , few benefits , and a lack of social protections that are offered in the formal market . Even within the formal market , there is occupational segregation and a gender wage gap . Occupational segregation can be either horizontal or vertical : horizontal segregation limits women to certain sectors and occupations , while vertical segregation restricts them to particular positions within occupational hierarchies . Men and women are even found at different levels of the occupational hierarchy . The " glass ceiling " is the relative absence of women in senior or managerial positions due to institutional barriers and norms . Even in female @-@ dominated occupations , men often occupy the more skilled and better paid positions .
The gender wage gap is a possible consequence of occupational segregation . The gender wage gap is the " difference between wages earned by women and men " . In 2008 , globally , men were estimated to earn 16 @.@ 5 per cent more than women . The gender wage gap is narrowing , but progress remains slow . Additionally , the narrowing of the gender wage gap may be attributed to a decrease in men 's wages instead of an increase in women 's wages . " The persistent gender wage gap across regions may reflect a number of factors , including women ’ s continued disadvantage in terms of education and skills ; their lack of an organized voice and bargaining power ; gender @-@ specific constraints on their labour market mobility ; and their relatively high involvement in part @-@ time or temporary jobs . " Many characteristics of the labor market constrain the employment opportunities of women and make it easier for them to be responsible for care work .
= = = Societal pressures = = =
There are various societal pressures that combine to create the double burden , including some economic thinking of domestic work , thoughts about net household gain , and the perceived notion that women are more likely to ask for maternity leave than men . Many classical economists believe that child care does not contribute to economic growth of the nation . They believe that welfare states such as Sweden are subsidizing work that is unproductive , and often think of children like a pet that only consumes without growing up to be productive workers . There is also the notion that the net household gain of a woman taking an hour away from her unpaid labor in order to do paid labor is always more than the net household gain of a man taking an hour away from paid labor to do unpaid labor . This creates the thought that women should do paid work and lose some time doing domestic jobs without the man taking time away from paid work to do domestic jobs , creating a deficit of hours necessary to do unpaid work that need to get filled . In addition , women are seen as more likely to ask for maternity leave than men , meaning that it is more difficult for them to obtain a well paying job , which has negative effects on female employment .
= = = Political pressure = = =
One of the political pressures , it is suggested by Susan Himmelweit is the issue of whom to empower . When there are considerations of policies , politicians usually only consider work as paid labor , and do not take into account the interdependence between unpaid work and paid work . It is also often common to think that women make economic decisions similarly to men . This is typically not the case , because for men , payment is simply a compensation for lost leisure time . However , for women , when they are working in the paid sector , they are still losing money because they have to make provisions for the domestic labor they are unable to do , such as caring for children or making dinner from scratch due to lack of resources such as child care . Her net financial gain is less than the financial gain of a man because she has to spend her earnings on providing for these provisions . In addition , increasing paid work hours in order to have more money may have negative effects on the woman due to the increased total work hours and decreased leisure time . Therefore , policies that give greater power to people who do paid labor , such as cutting back on public expenditure in order to lessen income taxes have an adverse effect on female employment and the effect that the double burden has on females . Such policies give greater power and consideration towards people who work in the paid sector , and less towards people who work in the unpaid sector .
Another political issue surrounding the double burden is what sort of policies directly or indirectly affect those who do domestic work . Some policies that companies have , such as a lower rate for part @-@ time workers or firing workers when they get pregnant can be seen as disempowering women . Debate as to whether this is gender segregation continues . On one side , only women get pregnant and there is a disproportionate amount of women who do part @-@ time work instead of full @-@ time , suggesting that there should be allowances made for women . However , there is also the argument that similar to men who fail to meet the standards of the company and cannot comply with their contract , women who cannot perform work at the performance expected of them should be given the proportionate amount of benefits and given no exceptions over men .
= = = Separate notion of paid work vs. unpaid work = = =
As the term double burden might suggest , when people consider paid work vs. unpaid work , they often consider them as two separate entities - that the man or woman is doing one or the other , but not at the same time . In reality , men and especially women often undertake both paid and unpaid labor simultaneously , creating the issue of work intensity , where the person undertakes many activities at the same time in order to compensate for the time necessary to accomplish many things in one day . Household surveys often only let people write down one thing that they are doing at any given time , and do not take into consideration that they may be cooking while cleaning , or sewing while taking care of the children . Because of this , the time taken for child care and other domestic activities may be underestimated . This coping mechanism of undertaking two or more tasks at once can especially be seen in women in developing countries . For example , many Caribbean rural women use this as a method of increasing the number of things they can accomplish in a day .
= = = Increased nuclearization of family = = =
Due to the increasing trend of decreased fertility rate , there has been an increased nuclearization of the family , where families have less immediate relatives to depend on in times of need . Because of this phenomenon , families do not have an extended family to depend on when they need a caretaker or someone to do domestic work , and must turn to market substitutes or a member of the immediate family doing both domestic and paid work instead .
= = Gender differences = =
= = = Women = = =
Many studies have been done to investigate the division of household labor within couples , and more specifically , on the gender roles played by a variety of people worldwide . According to The State of the World 's Children 2007 , women generally work longer hours than men regardless if they live in a developed or developing country . Most studies found that when both parents are faced with a full @-@ time job , women are faced with a higher amount of a domestic workload than men . According to the World Bank Latin American and Caribbean Studies , Mexican women in the labor force still spend approximately 33 hours each week performing household responsibilities . In contrast , husbands only contribute approximately 6 hours each week . Even more striking , " daughters contribute 14 hours weekly helping their mothers , while sons spend the same time as their fathers ( that is , 5 – 6 hours weekly ) . " In a study done by Statistics Canada 's General Social Survey of 10 @,@ 000 households , the average man spent under two hours a day dealing with childcare and house work while women on average spent a little more than three . This study highlights the unequal distribution of labor between partners . Of the people surveyed , under fifteen percent of the couples agreed on doing around the same amount of work in the house . About 83 percent of women participated in housecleaning and food preparation compared to only 51 percent of men who were surveyed .
John Frederick Conway 's book , The Canadian Family in Crisis , explores effects of the double burden by gender . In Conway 's studies , he discovers the physical , emotional , and psychological differences between men and women faced with the double burden in Canada . In these studies it was found that women who are raising children and are in the workforce are more prone to have anxiety and many other stress related effects than the women who are just faced with one of the two burdens .
= = = Men = = =
Even though the effects of raising children and having a career simultaneously are mostly seen in women throughout many societies , the men in such situations are affected greatly as well . This is not seen in all situations in males because the effects on men differ greatly from how females are affected by this extra responsibility . In The Canadian Family in Crisis , the author suggests a reason for these effects to go unnoticed in most studies and surveys . This is because women 's stress can be seen through direct labor consisting of housework and career whereas men 's stress , in most cases , mostly come from decision making and work @-@ family conflicts . These situations arise where the male must make the best choice for the future of his family . Specifically , these include things such as workload , overtime hours , shift decisions , and even accepting a promotion or a transfer . In these situations , the man is forced to make major choices that will affect the entire family , which brings on more stress . The effects also go unnoticed since , in traditional gender roles , the male is supposed to be the backbone of the family and , in the past , it would have been seen as weakness for the male to display his emotions to the rest of the family . In surveys and studies done , most males would not like to be seen as too weak to handle his responsibilities as the role of the adult male in the household , which in the past has consisted of being the major economical supporter and physical figure for the family . With this in mind , it is very possible that some may have lied when surveyed about these topics .
= = Types of double burdens = =
= = = Work vs. family = = =
Parenting is a large task within itself , and when a parent has a career as well , it can cause a double burden , or work – family conflict . Strain begins to develop when women and men find that the demands of their family are conflicting with the demands from their job . When one is faced with a double burden like this , it affects how decisions are made within a career and in a family ; this burden could potentially effect when a couple decides to have children . 75 % of all women who have jobs are in their childbearing prime . When the conflict between one 's family and work presents itself , the unpaid work that is being done in the home may be cut down , because of the certain health effects , or as a solution to deal with the greater demands from the workplace . Social outings and visits , and family dinners are two of the first things that get cut back on due to the work / family conflict . In a study by Ari Väänänen , May V. Kevin , et al. found that if a man put a higher importance on their family , were more likely to stay home from work in order to deal with extreme family demands . Ways that the double burden can be lessened for is with hired help in the house , day @-@ care facilities , and longer maternity leaves for women . For instance , in Norway women are allowed the options of 10 months of maternity leave , where they will get 100 % of their pay , or 12 months leave , where they will only paid 80 % of their earnings . Some companies are realizing the effect the double burden of work and a family is having on their employees and are offering flexible work schedules in order to help their employees cope . Not only do these flexible hours help the employee deal with their stress , but it also benefits the company because workers are happier , less likely to be absent , more productive , and the turnover rate is lower for the company . As Sophia Mwangi says , " Parenthood is a joy . Let us never be burdened by it but let 's celebrate the joy that it brings . Celebrate those first steps or words , the first school play , their graduation day , passing those exams , landing their first job , getting married , making you grandparents . Whatever it is , let 's celebrate our children . It 's not easy , but the art of juggling can always be mastered ! "
= = = Family vs. school = = =
Raising a family is not an easy task , and deciding to go back to school while raising a family can be a monumentual decision for the family says Carol Jacobs of the Jewish Employ @-@ ment & Vocational Service . Her advice to those considering going back to school is , " Talk to an educational consultant and people in the field you want to be in . " She adds , " This is a commitment and the decision should involve your family . Will you be available to go to your child 's softball game or have time to cook dinner ? " There are many reasons why someone may put off to school until their children are older , such as not wanting to leave them in the hand of a baby sitter constantly at such a young age . However , once the children get older the parent pursuing an education , may start missing school events that they would have normally attended . The guilt of having to leave a child while attending to educational matters is less when the child is old enough to be able to ask questions about where their parent is and comprehend the response . Even though pursuing an education while nurturing a family will have its cost , the benefits include getting a higher paying job , gaining more knowledge , and becoming more stable financially . Most of the time this burden will include the person trying to balance a job along with their family and schooling , because they still need to work in order to provide for their family at the present moment . For people who have a hard time fitting classes into their schedule around the needs of their family , there are options where they will be required to do all of the work for a course , but it will all take place online . For example , the University of Delaware and the University of Phoenix Online have both Bachelor of Science in Nursing and Master of Science in Nursing programs for people to complete online .
= = = Single vs. married parents = = =
= = = = Single parent double burdens = = = =
" Single Parents do not typically have the luxury of dividing tasks between two adults in the home . " " The Parents in a married @-@ couple family may be able to divide their tasks so that one parent specializes more in work @-@ related and income @-@ producing activities and the other parent specializes more in home @-@ related , non @-@ income producing activities . " Married parents have that option to split the workload , even though it usually does not happen , but single parents do not have the option of sharing the workload with anyone .
The double burden is usually view as a primary problem for single women or married women . However , it is often less recognized that men can and often do go through the same trials and hard times as a parent trying to balance work and the family . Within the book The Canadian Family in Crisis , Conway addresses this issue with an argument from Eichler . Eichler says , " Social science fails to understand men " by tending " to downplay or ignore a potential conflict between work and home for men . " Married men can avoid the full impact of the double burden , but single fathers are totally incapable of avoiding the double burden of family and work . Though single fathers face the same amount of problems that single mothers face , they have two advantages that play in their favor . Men usually have a higher income and have a shorter time of being single than women . However , until they are remarried or have a woman to help them out around the house , men still must deal with the sexual and emotional frustration as a woman does . They must deal with the balancing of work , childcare , and domestic responsibilities . Single fathers are usually doubtful about their ability be a parent , and they are challenged psychologically . " The problems faced by the working single father are more than merely the logistical problems shared by all working parents . He has to change the way he feels about himself as man . " A man being a single parent and feelings the effects of the double burden can and will interfere with his career just as it does with a single mother that has a career . A study showed that five percent of single fathers were fired form their jobs due to the double burden and another eight percent quit because the double burden became too much of a burden for them to balance both work and the family . With that being said , single fathers feel the same , if not more , of the effect of the double burden as women do .
The double burden that single mothers endure has a historical precedent , and still exists currently . Single mothers usually have higher rates of employment and children at home , and have the highest levels overall of the double burden . Women also typically have less economic resources than men , and have no partner to share the workload with them . Single mothers fall heavily under economic vulnerability . They may face job discrimination and not earn as much , so there will be further difficulties in maintaining the double burden . Single @-@ mother families tend to hover near the poverty line , with a poverty rate that is twice as high of that for men .
= = = = Married parent double burdens = = = =
Because of women 's expanded roles in the workforce have generally not been accompanied by any relaxation of expectations for their family and domestic activities , many women today face the " double burden " of home and work responsibilities . Women take on the largest portion of the domestic obligations of the home , even when they are working full @-@ time jobs . This breeds anger and frustration , as women know they do the majority of the housework on top of their careers . There have been said to be more reasons , other than gender roles , as to why there is a difference in the housework performed by men and women . Some theories have suggested that women 's expectations for household cleanliness are higher than men 's . Women feel like they must be responsible for the condition of the home in a way that men do not . Men do invest most of their time in their careers , but women spend double that time caring for the children , state of the home and taking care of the domestic responsibilities . In a graph from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics in 2004 , that compare the workload of married men and women between the ages of 25 @-@ 54 , women are displayed as performing one hundred percent more housework than men , and men are displayed as having more leisure time than women . As the double burden increased in 1980 , women became more critical of their marriages than men and wanted the men to do more around the house to ease the burden of a second shift . The double burden of women who have jobs and still shoulder the majority of the housework at home leads to women filing or initiating divorce .
This concept of the double burden with married couples is a worldwide phenomenon . Throughout different cultures of the world , women spend more total hours in work than men do . In Japan , once married , they are still expected to be devoted wives and mothers who give all off their effort to the home , even after a full day of work . Latin American women , now entering the work force in large numbers , still face what they call doble jornada , or double day 's journey . Although in the Latin American culture , men are starting to interact more with the children and helping around the house more , the main domestic responsibilities still fall upon the women of the house . Sometimes women who are primary wage earners are still relegated to most of the domestic work . European men are more likely to play and interact with their children but not likely to participate fully in their daily care . They are more likely to help their wives at home , yet rarely do they tackle all domestic task equally . Men commonly fail to live up to their belief of equal sharing of domestic labor : they may believe in an equal workload in the house , but the inconvenience of taking on work done by their wives stops many from following through .
= = = Middle @-@ class vs. poor families = = =
= = = = Middle @-@ class families = = = =
Middle @-@ class families often use substitutes for domestic work to make up for the lost time while working in the paid sector . They buy time taking care of children by using hired help and day @-@ care centers . They also decrease the burden of paid work and unpaid work by using household appliances such as microwaves , laundry machines , and dishwashers , as well as buying pre @-@ made food , eating out and using laundry services .
= = = = Poor families = = = =
Poor families are much more constrained in their economic ability to " buy back " lost time through the market . Instead of buying market substitutes , they try to meet their needs without spending money by taking care of children instead of hiring help , taking care of the sick instead of taking them to the hospital , and making food from scratch instead of buying pre @-@ made food . The way that poor families deal with the time debt is for the main caretaker to intensify the time that they spend working , by doing multiple jobs at once instead of doing one job at a time . When people increase the intensity of their work to compensate for their lack of time to finish everything that needs to get done , called work intensity , many health problems occur .
= = Effects of double burden = =
= = = Health effects = = =
= = = = Stress = = = =
When faced with the double burden of having to deal with the responsibilities of both a career as well as domestic duties , sometimes a person 's health is affected . Many people faced with these circumstances have a higher chance of being sick since health and stress seem to be correlated , as stress has been implicated in up to eighty percent of all illnesses , as found by a report done by the Canadian Advisory Council on the Status of Women . In an article that was written by a team of researchers it was found that both men and women faced with a " spillover " of work and family issues were 1 @.@ 5 @-@ 1 @.@ 6 times more likely to have an absence due to sickness than others . Men and women in these situations have also been proven to be more likely to be faced with psychological stress and even see themselves as unhealthier than their colleagues who are not in their situation .
Although women faced with double burden usually have more stress than most women in today 's society , it was proven that in most cases they are psychologically healthier than women who are not faced with these circumstances , for either being a stay at home mother or for being a working woman without children to take care of .
= = = = Mortality rate = = = =
In a study done by Rosamund Weatherall , Heather Joshi and Susan Macran of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine in 1994 , the research presented suggests that women presented with the double burden have a lower mortality rate than women who are simply housewives . The women who were observed that had part @-@ time jobs had a mortality rate lower than the women with full @-@ time jobs and children . The same study also suggests that women who have young children are less likely to die than women who have no children or have older children . Although this evidence can not be strictly attributed to the double burden of having children and a career field , it can give a good indication of a trend in society . Also , this study was conducted in multiple countries including England , Wales , and the United States which gives the information presented from the study a more global perspective on the double burden .
= = = = Absences due to sickness = = = =
In several Western countries it has been seen that absences due to sickness for women are far greater than men . When investigating the reasons behind this , a study done in Sweden published in 1996 found that half of the difference between genders can be dismissed if you take out the days missed by pregnant women . When taking into account the health effects of double burden , child birth is always a possibility for mothers who already are faced with taking care of children and having a career and effects them and their health . In many studies people have tried to relate the difference in sickness absences directly to the double burden effect . It has been somewhat successful as women who are faced with work and child care have been known to request more sick days than men in the same situation . Additionally , working wives with children have twice the absence rate as men who are placed in the same position in work family conflicts .
= = = = Loss of sleep = = = =
The stress of maintaining a career and a household can also lead to a loss of sleep . In traditional gender roles it is usually the mother who is the one to get the family going in the morning as she fixes breakfast and takes the children to school before she goes to her own job . At night the mother cooks and does various other activities around the house that cause her to be the last person to retire for the night as well . Although this is merely just a few gender roles that are not set in stone , they may hold to be true . It was found that working women sleep twenty @-@ five minutes less a night due solely to their responsibility for domestic work . Applying this statistic in larger scale leads to the assumption that women on average lose up to thirteen hours of sleep per month due to domestic duties . It can be assumed that it is possible for an average woman to lose up to one hundred and fifty @-@ six hours of sleep during a year because of domestic work and motherly duties .
= = = = Work intensity = = = =
For many poor women and men whose work hours have reached the point where they cannot cut back on leisure time anymore to make time for domestic and paid work , work intensity is an issue because they often intensify their work time by doing two or more activities at once , such as taking care of children while cooking . Work intensity can lead to many negative health consequences , such as lack of sleep , stress , and lack of recreation .
= = = Economic effects = = =
There are many economic effects to the person who has to shoulder the double burden . Oftentimes , this tends to be the woman in the relationship , and so there has been analysis done on the economic effect of the double burden on women . According to Himmelweit ( 2002 ) , because women often earn less than men , there is the thought that the woman should be the one to fit her paid job around household activities such as taking care of children . Because of this , and because they have many domestic duties , women often take part @-@ time jobs and jobs in the informal sector in order to balance paid work with domestic work . Part @-@ time jobs and jobs in the informal sector do earn less than full @-@ time jobs , so men have to increase their paid work hours in order to compensate for the lacking family income . This will " weaken her earning power and strengthen his " , leading to an unequal distribution of power in the household , and allow the man to exploit the woman 's unpaid work . This situation could have negative consequences especially for the woman because she is perceived to have less contribution to the household , due to domestic work being seen as less of a contribution than paid work . Such negative consequences include the lack of a divorce threat , where the woman does not have the economic means to ask for a divorce because she does not have a full @-@ time job , and she has less money that she personally receives , decreasing her perceived contributions to the household .
= = Solutions to the double burden = =
= = = Family @-@ friendly initiatives = = =
Family @-@ friendly initiatives are a possible solution to redistributing the load of unpaid work and alleviating the double burden . Possible initiatives include flexible work hours ; part @-@ time and job @-@ sharing options ; parental leave ; child care subsidies ; and on @-@ site daycare options . There are two primary approaches to assisting working families : " One stresses the importance of action from within , with emphasis on private , internal , local initiatives within firms and organizations to alter workplace norms , conventions , and practices . The other approach calls for government interventions designed to facilitate proper care for children with less sacrifice of parents ' job opportunities , advancement , and compensation " .
= = = Government initiatives = = =
The Nordic countries exemplify the use of family @-@ friendly initiatives . For example , a nine @-@ month parental leave is divided into thirds in Iceland . Three months are for the mother . Three non @-@ transferable months are for the father , and there are three months that both parents can share . " The reimbursement is 80 per cent of the salary . From 2001 to October 2003 , the average number of days taken by men increased from 39 to 83 , and 13 per cent of Icelandic fathers used more than their non @-@ transferable part . " Dual @-@ income families are becoming the norm , especially in industrialized countries , so it is not uncommon for large corporations to practice some form of family @-@ friendly initiative .
Government family @-@ friendly initiatives such as child subsidies and cheaper child care facilities can also greatly decrease the gender difference in the workplace , due to the woman being able to work longer hours outside the home . In addition , when developing policies related to paid work , it is important to do gender impact assessments in order to assess the impact of a policy on both the paid and unpaid sector .
= = = Workplace initiatives = = =
Whenever there is talk about new policies regarding new work time policies , there is often the argument for longer work hours in exchange for a shorter work week . For example , many are in favor of longer work hours such as " three ten @-@ hour days or four eight @-@ hour days " . However , this is often not the best work hours for people who take care of children , because children go to school for perhaps six hours a day , not eight or ten . Caretakers would prefer the opposite - shorter hours and longer weeks , such as six hour work days for six times a week , with limits on evening work and overtime , as well as flexible schedules . In order to lessen the burden of taking care of children and domestic duties as well as working in the paid sector , workplaces should consider policies that take into account the preferred work hours of caretakers . In addition , it is often the case now that many workers juggle domestic work and paid work . In order to get the most effective workers , companies should consider changing their policies in order to attract the best people in the field .
= = Criticism = =
A paper rejecting statistics of the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions as " the main source of tendentious polemics on women ’ s unfair burden and gender inequality " , states that the idea of a double burden is a myth and conclude instead that " on average , women and men across Europe do the same total number of productive work hours , once paid jobs and unpaid household work are added together – roughly eight hours a day . "
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= Birthday Cake ( song ) =
" Birthday Cake " is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna , from her sixth studio album , Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) . After it leaked onto the internet , fans expressed interest in the track being included on Talk That Talk , but it was later revealed that the 1 : 18 ( one minute , 18 seconds ) length that leaked was in fact the final cut and was not being considered for inclusion on the album . Due to a high level of fan interest , the song was included on the album as an interlude . The full length version , also known as the official remix of the track , featuring Rihanna 's ex @-@ boyfriend Chris Brown , was premiered online on February 20 , 2012 , to coincide with Rihanna 's 24th birthday . The song peaked in the top fifty .
The lyrics to " Birthday Cake " express the desire to have spontaneous sex . Music critics were divided on " Birthday Cake " , with the majority both praising and criticising the song 's sexual lyrical content . Several critics compared the song to the previous track on the album " Cockiness ( Love It ) " , which also consists of sexually explicit lyrics . Upon the release of Talk That Talk , the song debuted on the lower regions of the singles charts in South Korea , the United Kingdom , and the United States .
= = Background and development = =
" Birthday Cake " was written by The @-@ Dream , Rihanna , Marcos Palacios , and Earnest Clark , with production helmed by Da Internz and The @-@ Dream . The interlude was recorded in room 1306 of the Radisson Blu Royal Hotel in Copenhagen , Denmark . In an interview for The Boom Box , producer The @-@ Dream answered a question about fans being disappointed that " Birthday Cake " would not be featured on Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) after it leaked online before the album 's November 2011 release ; the producer explained that only an interlude had been produced , and that a full length version of the song would be released at some point during the Talk That Talk era , saying :
I was just talking to Rihanna about that , because she [ originally ] made [ just ] an interlude . I was like , ' Your fans are going to be so mad at you . ' As soon as I said that , I got back , and I guess she released a piece of it , and they saw how long it is . Man , they tore me up on Twitter ! So I hit her on the phone . I was like , ' Yo , your fans , they 're going crazy on me right now , like I could make you do something . ' So ' Birthday Cake ' is on there . It 's going to turn into a whole song because the fans are ganging up on me , and I don 't want to be murdered by the Rihanna Navy ! .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Birthday Cake " is an interlude which lasts for one minute and 18 seconds , appearing as the sixth track on the album . The instrumentation of " Birthday Cake " consists of a heavy bass , schoolbells , engine sounds , claps , and electro beats . The track also consists of hoover synths , synth handclaps , an Eastern @-@ inspired tone and chants . In the song , Rihanna adopts a sensual tone in her vocals , as she chants the song 's provocative and sexually explicit lyrics . The majority of the interlude is rapped by Rihanna . A reviewer for Flavour described the singer 's vocal performance in " Birthday Cake " as " sultry " . Nathan S. of DJ Booth concurred that Rihanna sounds " sultry " as well as " playful " on the song .
The lyrical content of the interlude is spare and largely revolves around Rihanna chanting , " cake cake cake cake cake cake . " Aside from the repetitive chant of " cake " , the interlude consists of multiple sexual metaphors . The lyric " I know you wanna bite this / It 's so enticing / Nothing else like this , I 'ma make you my bitch / And it 's not even my birthday / But you wanna put your name on it " is a metaphor referring to a vagina . Rihanna sings about the desire to have spontaneous sex . Rihanna promises her lover that she will make him do whatever she pleases , singing " I 'mma make you my bitch . " T 'Cha Dunlevy of The Montreal Gazette described the lyric as a " promise " , with Rihanna intending to act upon her desires . The interlude ends mid @-@ verse and mid @-@ lyric with a fade at 1 : 18 . Katherine St. Asaph of Popdust described the fade as " ungraceful " , as well as writing that it makes the track appear as though it is not finished . Upon the fade , Rihanna puts forward the line " Ooh , I wanna fuck you right now . " Dunlevy and St. Asaph were critical of the final line , with the former labelling it as " blatant " , and the latter noting that " cursing makes everything obvious . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Birthday Cake " garnered mixed reviews from music critics . Jayson Lipshutz of Billboard praised the interlude , writing " We 're all for birthday @-@ themed naughtiness in pop music form , but only 78 seconds of ' Birthday Cake ' is just not enough of a celebration ! " Lipshutz continued to compare the song 's lyrical message to Jeremih 's " Birthday Sex " . Sam Lansky of MTV Buzzworthy was complimentary of " Birthday Cake " , writing , " The only misstep on the album – not because it 's not amazing ( it is ! ) , but because it 's only 78 seconds long . ' Birthday Cake ' is more decadent Rihanna filth , this time courtesy of sensual R & B @-@ master The @-@ Dream . Have any Rihanna Navy members made an hour @-@ long mix yet ? We need to keep the bump ' n ' grind going all night . " Pip Ellwood of Entertainment @-@ Focus noted that " Birthday Cake " , along with " Cockiness ( Love It ) " , " leave you under no misunderstanding that Rihanna is as sexual as she 's ever been throughout her career . " Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly wrote that " Birthday Cake " , along with " Cockiness ( Love It ) " , were the most provocative songs on the album , describing them as " I @-@ like @-@ it @-@ rough tracks " , but criticized them for being album fillers designed to get the listener out of the bedroom and on to the dance floor .
Adrian Thrills of the Daily Mail wrote that after listening to " Cockiness ( Love It ) " and then " Birthday Cake " , " the double entendres have grown tiresome " after having listening to the latter . Giovanny Caquias of CultureBlues expressed distaste for " Birthday Cake " , calling the track " horrendous " , but referred to it being " only a minimal waste of time " due to its short length . Mike Diver of BBC Music was equally critical , writing that " Birthday Cake " is a " wholly pointless minute @-@ something in the company of star producer The @-@ Dream , wasted on the boring profanities of Birthday Cake . " A reviewer for Flavour had a mixed reaction to the lyrical content , writing , " I can 't exactly say it is a bad song . In fact , I will probably be singing it over the next few weeks . But at this point its like , ' we get it – you like sex . ' Chill out about it and sing about education or something – your younger fans need more SUBSTANCE . " [ sic ] Nathan S. of DJ Booth noted that the song resembles a real life " quickie " , continuing to write that the overtly sexual lyrics in the song earned Talk That Talk the Parental Advisory sticker . Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times commented that the lyrics on " Birthday Cake " " wouldn 't seem out of place on Spinal Tap 's ' Smell the Glove ' . " Roberts continued to note that " Birthday Cake " appeared to be an afterthought , writing ,
The hottest lines on the album come nearly as an afterthought on the all @-@ too @-@ brief ' Birthday Cake , ' produced by The @-@ Dream . ' I know you wanna bite this / It 's so enticin ' / Nothin ' else like this / I 'mma make you my bitch , ' she sings . But as if the network censors had let the song run before realizing their mistake , a little over a minute into it the music fades out , just as it 's getting dirty , leaving us wondering whether Rihanna really believes what she 's selling on " Talk That Talk . "
= = Chart performance = =
Upon the release of Talk That Talk , " Birthday Cake " debuted on several world charts . The song entered the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 67 on November 26 , 2011 , with sales of 6 @,@ 661 digital downloads . In the United Kingdom , " Birthday Cake " debuted at number 172 on December 3 , 2011 . In the United States , the song charted at number 22 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , which represents the 25 songs which failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 . On March 3 , 2012 , " Birthday Cake " made its first appearance on the US Digital Songs chart at number 62 , following the release of the official remix featuring Brown , and has peaked at number 30 . Due to strong airplay spins , the interlude of " Birthday Cake " peaked at number 4 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . " Birthday Cake " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 units .
= = Live performance = =
Rihanna performed the song for the first time on May 5 , 2012 , on Saturday Night Live , as part of a medley with " Talk That Talk " . The performance started with the original interlude version " Birthday Cake " and featured Rihanna in an all black outfit with a giant spiders web as the backdrop behind her . After she performed a short section of the song , it transitioned into " Talk That Talk " , where she performed her part of the song in full , without the rap vocal by Jay @-@ Z. The remix of the song was included on her Diamonds World Tour as part of her first act in 2013 .
= = Track listing = =
Album version
" Birthday Cake " – 1 : 18
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Radisson Blu Royal Hotel , Room 1306 , Copenhagen , Denmark .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Talk That Talk , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Remix featuring Chris Brown = =
" Birthday Cake " was remixed with vocals from American recording artist Chris Brown , and is a full length version of the interlude which was originally included on Talk That Talk . It was sent to radio as the fourth US single from the album on March 6 , 2012 . At first , it was rumored that Christina Aguilera would feature on the remix version after Rihanna posted a message on Twitter saying that she wanted someone " Dirrrty " on the re @-@ recording , a supposed reference to Aguilera 's 2002 song " Dirrty " . However , the singer later tweeted that she wanted a male vocalist , not a female vocalist , to accompany her on the remix via Twitter with a tweet reading ' No girls allowed on # CAKE ' . It was later revealed that Brown was the featured artist on the full length version . Despite receiving negative attention regarding Rihanna 's choice of collaborator from the media and fans alike , the singer defended her decision saying that it is simply music .
The remix of " Birthday Cake " ' s lyrics are similar to the interlude , but with new lyrics provided by Brown . Critical reception of the collaboration was met with a mixed response from music critics , many of whom were shocked at the fact that Rihanna and Brown had collaborated on a song together despite their relationship history , but cited the remix as an improvement upon the original interlude . The remix peaked at number 24 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , and number two on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . American rappers Fabolous , Rick Ross and Busta Rhymes appeared on additional remixes of the song .
= = = Background = = =
Due to the high level of demand by the singer 's fans to release a full length of " Birthday Cake " , Rihanna posted a message via her official Twitter account , promising that it was at the top of her agenda to record and release it . Despite fans wanting to hear the updated version , Katherine St. Asaph of PopDust criticized the notion , writing " Honestly , at this point Rihanna and Def Jam would be better off just calling ' Birthday Cake ' an interlude , not an incomplete version , because otherwise that 's saying the album is released but essentially unfinished . " Beck Bain of Idolator noted that the release of the full length song is " doubtful " , writing " the song is already too dirty in its current minute @-@ and @-@ twenty @-@ second version . But if ' S & M ' could be a single , is anything [ sic ] too risque for the radio these days ? "
In February 2012 , it was speculated that Christina Aguilera would appear as the featured artist on the release after Rihanna posted a message on Twitter saying , " I need somebody # DIRRRTY [ sic ] on my Birthday # CAKE [ sic ] , " a supposed reference to Aguilera 's 2002 song " Dirrty " , which contains lyrical content relating to various sexual activities . The singer later confirmed that she did not want a female artist to feature on the collaboration , stating , " No girls allowed on # CAKE . [ sic ] " On February 15 , 2012 , Kosine of Da Internz , who produced the interlude , revealed that the featured collaborator will " shock the world , " and that the full length version would premiere between February 16 , and February 20 , 2012 .
= = = Development = = =
On February 16 , 2012 , it was speculated that former boyfriend Chris Brown was the featured artist on the full length version . Reports surfaced after the pair were photographed leaving Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles at separate times and Brown being invited to Rihanna 's birthday party . Rumors were also fueled when Rihanna and Brown spent time together at the 2012 Grammy Awards on February 8 , 2012 . The reports gained worldwide media controversy , because Brown and Rihanna were involved in a physical altercation on the evening of the 2009 Grammy Awards . The full length version , eventually revealed to feature Brown , was released on Rihanna 's birthday , February 20 , 2012 . In an interview with Billboard , The @-@ Dream stated that he believed Rihanna and Brown 's past together should not be judged and that " Birthday Cake " is simply a song , saying , " For me , it 's just music - two talented people doing a record together , doing two records together , and that 's what it was . It wasn 't about an incident that happened . The true thing really is to forgive , and you want to believe in people . " " Birthday Cake " impacted US Urban contemporary radio on March 6 , 2012 , serving as the fourth U.S. single from Talk That Talk .
On March 15 , 2012 , Rihanna explained her collaboration with Brown to Ryan Seacrest during his morning show : " The first song that came about was ' Birthday Cake ' . I mean , we ended up recording them at the same time and executing them together . But I reached out to him about doing ' Birthday Cake ' because that ’ s the only person that , really , it made sense to do the record . Just as a musician , despite everything else , that was going to be the person . You know I thought about rappers , and I ’ ve done that so many times , and the hottest R & B artist out right now is Chris Brown . So I wanted him on the track , and then in turn he was like , ‘ Why don ’ t you do the remix to my track ? ’ and it was a trade @-@ off . We did two records . One for my fans , one for his fans , and that way our fans can come together . There shouldn ’ t be a divide . You know ? It ’ s music , and it ’ s innocent . " In March 2012 , American rapper Fabolous released his own verse to the " Birthday Cake " remix . The following month , Rick Ross also released the track featuring an added rap verse from himself , along with the previously incorporated Chris Brown verses . Busta Rhymes released his own freestyle to the song along with rapper Reek da Villian .
= = = Composition = = =
Brown 's verse begins with the lyric " Girl , I wanna fuck you right now , " which is the antithesis of how Rihanna concludes the original interlude , sing " Ooh , I wanna fuck you right now . " Brown 's verse continues with " Been a long time I 've been missing your body / Turn the lights down / When I go down it 's a private party . " Brown delivers his vocals in an aggressive and manipulative manner as he sings " Give it to her in the worst way , can 't wait to blow her candles out . " At the end of the song , Rihanna performs new lyrics which were not included on the original 1 minute and 18 second interlude ; " Remember how you did it / If you still wanna kiss it / Then come and get it . " According to Ben Rayner of the Toronto Sun , the instrumentation of " Birthday Cake " consists of " snaky , slurpy , bass @-@ droppin ' beats . " The song 's lyrics revolve around sadomasochistic sexuality and dominance over men , and consists mainly of oral sex metaphors , including the lyric " Doggy want the kitty . "
= = = Critical reception = = =
Beth Hardie for the Daily Mirror wrote that the remix came as a shock , because of how Brown " beat her virtually senseless in a car three years ago just before the Grammys , " and noted that Rihanna would face harsh criticism from journalists and fans alike for not setting a good example to younger girls . Hardie continued to state that although the collaboration came as a surprise , " We have to admit , it ’ s a pretty amazing stroke of genius in terms of publicity and messing with people ’ s minds . " Regarding the collaboration on the remix Jo Usmar from Daily Mirror compared the collaboration to the physical altercation between Rihanna and Brown at the 2009 Grammy Awards , writing " In case you 've been living in a cave for the last two years this is extraordinarily controversial as Brown was convicted of assaulting Rihanna in 2009 and there was a restraining order issued against him . " Ben Rayner for the Toronto Sun was complimentary of the remix , writing that it was an improvement upon the original interlude , " What was empty , unfinished titillation before , then , has become empty , overstated , boardroom @-@ written pseudo @-@ pornography for the pop charts . "
Jon Caramanica for The New York Times commented that the remix of " Birthday Cake " , as well as the original , was " very much so " a good song . However , Caramanica was critical of the collaboration itself , due to Rihanna and Brown 's history , writing " You want to forget ? Fine . But don ’ t forgive . " Caramanica continued to explain his distaste , writing " It displays an advanced understanding of marketing and an understanding of moral obligations and ethics that 's not much more than rudimentary . It is a woman publicly accepting her abuser - nothing more , nothing less . " J. Bryan Lowder for The Huffington Post labelled the song as " innuendo @-@ iced " with regard to the song 's explicit lyrics . Lowder provided an explanation for what he thought the reason was behind Rihanna asking Brown to collaborate on " Birthday Cake " , writing :
Even though we know that collaborations like this are almost always commercial in motivation , we like to imagine that the artist 's choice of a creative partner gives us some kind of access to their private , emotional world . Collaboration suggests a personal relationship , and our eavesdropping on that interplay conjures up a feeling of intimacy between audience and artist that is very powerful . We feel like we know what 's really going on with Rihanna and Chris Brown because we are virtually present in the studio with them , and here , the thing we 're meant to know is that everything 's OK now . The problem is , the strategy won 't work ; because of an infamous leaked photograph , we were also virtually present in the car that night three years ago when Brown beat Rihanna till her face was bruised and bloodied . And that kind of terrifying intimacy is not easily forgotten .
= = = Live performance = = =
Rihanna performed " Birthday Cake " Remix at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24 , 2012 , as the fifth song on the set list . She performed the remix in its entirety , and sang Brown 's lyrics . The song was later included on her Diamonds World Tour in 2013 during the first act .
= = = Chart performance = = =
The remix version of " Birthday Cake " debuted at number 20 on the US Billboard R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart on chart issue dated March 10 , 2012 , and received both the Airplay and Greatest Gainer honours . The following week , it ascended to number 17 . In its third week on the chart , the song ascended to number seven , and received the Airplay Gainer honor . The song ascended to number four the following week , and was awarded with the Airplay Gainer honor again . It has so far reached a peak of number two . It debuted at number 63 on the US Billboard Hot 100 on the chart issue dated March 10 , 2012 . In its fourth week on the chart , the song climbed to number 39 and became the fourth top forty single from Talk That Talk . " Birthday Cake " ( Remix ) has reached a peaked of number 24 . The remix of " Birthday Cake " debuted at number 73 on the Radio Songs chart , generating a 372 % increase in spins , on the chart issue dated March 10 , 2012 . It has so reached a peak of number 16 .
= = = Charts = = =
Weekly Charts
Year @-@ end charts
= = = Premiere and radio history = = =
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= Johann Lamont =
Johann MacDougall Lamont ( / ˈdʒoʊæn læmʌnt / ; born 11 July 1957 ) is a Scottish politician , who was leader of the Scottish Labour Party from 2011 to 2014 . She served as a junior minister in the Labour @-@ Liberal Democrat coalition Scottish Executive from 2004 until the coalition 's defeat by the Scottish National Party ( SNP ) in 2007 . She was subsequently elected deputy leader of the opposition Labour group of MSPs in 2008 , and was elected to lead the Labour Party in December 2011 . She announced her resignation in October 2014 , and following a leadership election to replace her , was succeeded by Jim Murphy in December .
Born in Glasgow , Lamont attended the city 's Woodside Secondary School and obtained a degree from the University of Glasgow . After studying for teaching qualifications at Jordanhill College , she became a schoolteacher . Active in the Labour Party since her university days , Lamont served on its Scottish Executive Committee , and chaired it in 1993 . With the establishment of a devolved legislature in Scotland , she was elected as the Labour Co @-@ operative Member of the Scottish Parliament ( MSP ) for Glasgow Pollok in 1999 . Having been appointed convener of the Scottish Parliament 's Social Justice Committee in 2001 , she obtained her first ministerial role in October 2004 . Her decision to stand for the Labour Party leadership followed the resignation of Iain Gray as leader in the wake of the party 's defeat at the 2011 Scottish general election — its second consecutive defeat . Following a review of how the Labour Party in Scotland is structured , she became its first overall leader .
Lamont has been a campaigner on equality issues and violence against women throughout her political career . Following the SNP Government 's announcement of a referendum on Scottish independence she was a key figure in Better Together , the cross @-@ party movement that sought to keep Scotland in the United Kingdom . Lamont believes that Labour lost the 2011 election because it had lost its direction , and initiated a review of Scottish Labour policy on issues like devolution and the party 's commitment to free universal public services . Her work won her accolades at the Scottish Politician of the Year Awards , for Political Impact of the Year in 2012 and Debater of the Year in 2013 . In Parliamentary debates she was perceived by commentators such as The Scotsman 's Andrew Whitaker as being an effective opponent to First Minister Alex Salmond , but others , including Richard Seymour of The Guardian , criticised her for clumsiness during television interviews . Lamont resigned as Labour leader in October 2014 , making the announcement in a Daily Record interview in which she claimed that senior figures within the UK Labour Party had undermined her attempts to reform the Scottish party , and treated it " like a branch office of London " .
= = Early life and teaching career = =
Johann Lamont was born in the Anderston district of Glasgow on 11 July 1957 . Her parents , Archie and Effie , were both Gaelic speakers from crofting families on the Inner Hebridean island of Tiree , who met after both had moved to Glasgow . Archie was a carpenter employed by the Scottish ferry operator Caledonian MacBrayne , working on the Mallaig to Skye route . He took part in the Seamen 's Strike of 1966 . The family were Presbyterians , and Lamont 's mother was influenced in her faith by the American evangelist Billy Graham . Her first experiences of public speakers was listening to the preachers her mother took her to see as a girl .
Lamont 's childhood was divided between Glasgow and her mother 's family home on Tiree , where she and her brother David spent their summer holidays . She attended Woodside Secondary School , having declined to take scholarship exams for selective education . Like her parents , she was a Gaelic speaker , but she did not believe she spoke it well enough , and she dropped it at school in favour of French and German . It was also at school that she first developed an interest in politics , once entering a Daily Mirror competition with a politically @-@ themed short story . The tale , whose central character discussed her intention to demand a pay rise and was finally revealed to be the Queen , won Lamont third prize . She studied English and History at the University of Glasgow , graduating with an MA . Joining the Labour Party in 1975 , she was active in the Glasgow University Labour Club where she was a contemporary of fellow Labour politician Margaret Curran , and was also involved with the women 's movement . She trained as a teacher for a year at Jordanhill College , gaining a Postgraduate Certificate in Education , and afterwards joined Rothesay Academy , Isle of Bute , as a teacher in 1979 . She taught at Springburn Academy in Glasgow from 1982 to 1989 and at Castlemilk High School , also in Glasgow , from 1990 to 1999 . Lamont taught English and worked with social workers and educational psychologists attempting to tackle instances of school truancy .
Continuing to be active in the Labour Party , Lamont became a prominent campaigner on issues related to social justice , equality and devolution . Although she had voted no in the 1979 referendum that proposed the establishment of a Scottish Assembly , during the 1980s and 1990s she was a representative on the Scottish Constitutional Convention , the body that paved the way for Scottish devolution . Of her 1979 decision , Lamont has said that she " came from the strand on the left which saw the politics of nationalism as a diversion from more central aims [ but later ] came to see the parliament as a vehicle for democratic change in Scotland . " She was a member of the Scottish Executive Committee of the Labour Party , serving as chair in 1993 .
= = MSP for Glasgow Pollok = =
Although a Labour activist for two decades , Lamont had not sought election to the House of Commons during that time , telling a 2014 BBC interview there were few chances for women to be elected to Westminster : " In 1987 Labour sent down 50 MPs and only one of them was a woman . " Instead , her decision to seek political office was influenced by the creation of the Scottish Parliament . Speaking to The Herald in 2011 , she said , " It is easy to forget what a great opportunity it was for women and I was determined that women would be represented , would have a strong voice . " The parliament was established as a result of the 1997 referendum that saw a 74 % vote in favour of devolving legislative powers to Scotland . Lamont was first elected as the Member of the Scottish Parliament ( MSP ) for Glasgow Pollok in 1999 . She held the seat in 2003 , when she faced a strong challenge from the Scottish Socialist Party leader Tommy Sheridan , and then again in 2007 and 2011 .
During her maiden speech on 17 May 1999 , Lamont was the first MSP to use Gaelic at a sitting of the Parliament . She served on a number of the Parliament 's committees during her first term in office , including the Equal Opportunities Committee , the Local Government Committee and the Social Justice Committee . She became convener of the Social Justice Committee in 2001 . In 2000 she became the first Labour MSP to rebel against the Labour @-@ led administration when she threatened to lead backbenchers in voting against a planned Scottish Executive attempt to block the Abolition of Poindings and Warrant Sales Bill , which had been introduced by Sheridan . The move resulted in the withdrawal of the amendment , and a crucial parliamentary vote in favour of the legislation . At a session of First Minister 's Questions in 2002 , she narrowly avoided becoming the first MSP to be ejected from the parliament after continuing to speak when Presiding Officer David Steel had told her to sit down . Steel felt her supplementary question about youth crime was too long , but the incident led to a heated parliamentary debate , and accusations from Lamont 's colleague , Labour 's Helen Eadie that the Presiding Officer was not treating male and female MSPs equally , an allegation he rejected .
= = Frontbench politics = =
Lamont was appointed convener of the Communities Committee in 2003 . In March 2004 the Committee endorsed a bill aimed at tackling antisocial behaviour , which included plans for parenting orders and the electronic tagging of youths under the age of 16 . First Minister Jack McConnell made her Deputy Minister for Communities in the Scottish Executive in October 2004 . In that post she was responsible for the launch of a radio and television advertising campaign aimed at tackling domestic abuse that aired over Christmas 2005 , and she expressed concerns over the level of discrimination faced by travellers and gypsies after the issue was highlighted in a 2005 Scottish Parliament report .
In November 2006 , Lamont was appointed Deputy Minister for Justice and oversaw reforms to Scotland 's Lower Courts system . She held the post until Labour was defeated at the 2007 election . McConnell appointed her as Labour 's spokesperson for Communities and Sport in his post @-@ election frontbench team , a role she retained in the shadow cabinet formed by his successor , Wendy Alexander , in September 2007 . Following Alexander 's decision to step down as leader of the Labour MSPs in June 2008 , and Cathy Jamieson 's subsequent resignation as her deputy , Lamont stood against fellow MSP Bill Butler for the position vacated by Jamieson . She was elected as deputy leader in September 2008 with 60 @.@ 16 percent of the vote , against 39 @.@ 82 percent for Butler . At the same time , Iain Gray was elected to lead the Labour group at Holyrood .
In addition to her deputy leadership role , Lamont was appointed Chief of Staff with special responsibility for Equalities . While in that post she gave her support to Scottish Government plans to introduce a Bill outlawing forced marriage , which was announced in September 2010 . In February 2011 , she criticised Scottish Conservative MSP and Justice Committee Convener , Bill Aitken after the Sunday Herald quoted him making a controversial statement about a rape victim , and later welcomed his subsequent resignation . As Gray 's deputy Lamont also represented Labour at First Minister 's Questions in his absence . At a session of First Minister 's Questions in October 2009 , she raised the issue of the Scottish Futures Trust with Deputy First Minister Nicola Sturgeon , asking whether the public body planned to spend any money on improving school infrastructure before the 2011 election .
= = Leader of the Scottish Labour Party = =
= = = Leadership election = = =
In the wake of Labour 's second defeat at the Scottish Parliament election of May 2011 , which saw the Scottish National Party ( SNP ) form its first majority government , Gray announced his intention to step down as leader of the Labour MSPs later that year . A review chaired by Jim Murphy and Sarah Boyack into the party 's structure in Scotland subsequently concluded that the next leader should lead the entire Scottish Labour Party rather than just its MSPs , as previous leaders had . Lamont declared her candidacy for the leadership election in September 2011 and launched her campaign on 7 November at Stirling University . She told delegates that Labour needed to reengage with the electorate if it wanted to govern again : " We must listen and learn , show humility and seek again to talk for and to people 's ambitions and concerns . Our real challenge is that we in Labour lost our way , lost our confidence and lost Scotland . "
Lamont 's opponents in the leadership race were the MP Tom Harris , and her fellow MSP Ken Macintosh , both of whom had also expressed a need for Labour to change if it was to win the next election . Harris 's campaign centred on the belief that Labour had to " [ re @-@ establish ] itself as the party of aspiration " , or it would risk becoming " an irrelevance " . McIntosh felt the party had focussed too heavily on its traditional support in the Central Belt while paying less attention to rural communities . He suggested increasing government help to tackle unemployment among young people , and wanted to nationalise rail and bus services .
The result of the election was announced on 17 December 2011 and saw Lamont secure an overall majority with 51 @.@ 77 % of the vote in the first round . Her closest rival was Macintosh with 40 @.@ 28 % , while Harris was third with 7 @.@ 95 % . Lamont also won majorities in two groups of Labour 's three @-@ tier electoral college system , securing the support of parliamentarians and affiliated bodies such as trade unions . Macintosh was backed by the majority of individual party members . In her acceptance speech , Lamont told party activists , " Together we will change the Scottish Labour Party and win the chance to serve the people of Scotland again and make Scotland all that we know it can be . " On the same day , MP Anas Sarwar was elected to the position of Deputy that Lamont had vacated .
= = = Shadow Cabinet = = =
Lamont began appointing members of her shadow cabinet on 19 December 2011 . Those given positions on her initial frontbench team include Macintosh ( Shadow Cabinet Secretary for Finance , Employment and Sustainable Growth ) , Hugh Henry ( Labour spokesman for Education and Lifelong Learning ) , Lewis Macdonald ( Shadow Justice Minister ) and Boyack ( Local Government and Planning ) . The post of Shadow Health Minister was given to Jackie Baillie , who had held the position previously . Gray was not included , as he had expressed a wish to take a break from frontline politics .
Lamont announced a major shakeup of the Labour frontbench team on 28 June 2013 . Gray returned to replace Macintosh as the party 's finance spokesman . Macdonald was appointed chief whip , and his previous role as Shadow Justice Minister was given to Graeme Pearson . Baillie was moved from Health to Social Justice and Welfare . Boyack kept her role in Local Government and Planning . Speaking about the reshuffle , Lamont said , " We have made a great deal of progress in the last 18 months but we have to keep moving forward . "
= = = First months in office = = =
Lamont gave her first post @-@ election interview to The Politics Show Scotland on 18 December 2011 , speaking of the " huge challenge " of rebuilding public trust in Scottish Labour after its election defeat of the previous May , and a general decline in support over the preceding decade . Attributing the party 's losses to its failure to engage with the electorate , she told the programme that Labour needed to speak up for the interests of the Scottish people , and accept more devolved powers for the Scottish Parliament . Attending her first session of First Minister 's Questions as Labour leader on 22 December 2011 , she addressed the issue of child neglect following the conviction of a Glasgow woman for the murder of her son and asking what lessons could be learned from the case .
In January 2012 , as the SNP Government prepared for a referendum on Scottish independence , she spoke out in defence of Scotland 's position in the United Kingdom after First Minister Salmond claimed that the country was not an equal partner in the union . Along with Ruth Davidson and Willie Rennie , the respective leaders of the Scottish Conservatives and the Scottish Liberal Democrats , and Deputy First Minister Sturgeon , Lamont added her signature to a February 2012 letter urging Glasgow City Council to decline an application by the Scottish Defence League to stage a march through the city . The group , an offshoot of the far @-@ right English Defence League , subsequently withdrew their application , and a " static " demonstration was held instead .
Lamont gave her first conference speech as party leader at Scottish Labour 's conference in March 2012 , setting out an agenda for rebuilding confidence in the party . Later the same month she welcomed the passing of the Scotland Bill , which devolved further powers to Scotland in accordance with the recommendations of the Calman Commission , praising it as " an important development of devolution " . In May 2012 she participated in the Scottish Parliament debate paying tribute to Queen Elizabeth as the UK celebrated her Diamond Jubilee . Lamont commented , " 60 years in the one job is good going – I 've been in this one for just six months and some days , I have to say , it feels like 60 years – so we recognise the scale of the achievement of the particular , very strong woman . " Lamont was a guest on the 7 June 2012 edition of the BBC 's political debate programme Question Time .
= = = Standing in the polls = = =
A poll conducted by Ipsos MORI in December 2011 as Lamont took control of Scottish Labour indicated that the party had an approval rating of 26 % , almost half that of the Scottish National Party with 51 % . A survey by the same organisation in June 2012 showed an improvement for Labour , with 32 % against the Nationalists ' 45 % . The same poll indicated a personal approval rating for Lamont of 9 % , compared to 13 % for Salmond . A poll conducted by Ipsos MORI on behalf of STV in September 2013 indicated that 37 % of respondents were satisfied with Labour 's performance compared to 41 % for the SNP . That survey found that Lamont had a personal approval rating of + 6 % , against + 8 % for Salmond . Another Ipsos MORI poll for STV in December 2013 showed Labour on 34 % with 36 % for the SNP , while Lamont had overtaken Salmond in terms of personal approval with + 9 for her compared to + 7 for the First Minister .
A poll on the issue of Scottish independence conducted by TNS @-@ BMRB in December 2013 gave Lamont an approval rating of 6 % among women and 8 % among men , compared with 22 % and 30 % respectively for Salmond . 41 % of respondents to that survey were unaware of her role as Scottish Labour leader , a figure rising to 62 % among those aged 16 – 34 .
= = = Local elections and by @-@ elections = = =
Lamont launched Labour 's 2012 local election campaign in Edinburgh on 17 April 2012 , setting out policies for creating employment and training opportunities as well as improvements to education and childcare . Claiming that the SNP Government had passed on 89 percent of the spending cuts imposed by the UK Government , she compared the Nationalists to the businessman criticised for his role in the financial collapse of Glasgow Rangers Football Club , saying , " Putting the SNP in charge of a council is like putting Craig Whyte in charge of your tax return . " Retaining control of Glasgow City Council , where Labour was facing a strong challenge from the SNP , was another of the party 's key objectives . After the polls , political academic John Curtice , writing for The Guardian , observed that Lamont " has undoubtedly done enough to dispel doubts about whether she was the right woman for the job " .
The 2013 Dunfermline by @-@ election was triggered by the resignation of the SNP 's Bill Walker in the wake of his conviction on several accounts of domestic abuse . On the eve of the poll , Alan Cochrane of The Daily Telegraph described it as an election Labour could not afford to lose because , " For [ Lamont 's ] personal prestige , her candidate simply must win . " Labour won the seat with a swing of 7 percent from the SNP and a majority of 2 @,@ 873 . Lamont said that the result reflected " the progress we 've made " , but Curtice said that if the results were repeated across Scotland , the SNP would still be the majority party at the next election .
Labour have also increased their support at other by @-@ elections . At the 2013 Aberdeen Donside by @-@ election in June , held after the death of the SNP 's Brian Adam , Labour reduced the SNP majority from 7 @,@ 789 to 2 @,@ 025 . The 2014 Cowdenbeath by @-@ election was held following the death of Labour MSP Helen Eadie . The campaign was fought on issues such as education , employment and care for the elderly , and saw Labour increase their share of the vote , with an 11 @.@ 25 percent swing from the SNP and a majority of 5 @,@ 488 .
= = = Scottish independence and enhanced devolution = = =
Lamont was a prominent figure in the Better Together Campaign , the cross @-@ party political movement founded to keep Scotland as part of the United Kingdom following the SNP 's announcement of a referendum on Scottish independence in 2014 . She was outspoken in her opposition to Scottish independence , using a keynote speech at UK Labour 's 2013 conference in Brighton to accuse the SNP of nurturing hostility between Scotland and the rest of the UK , and describing nationalism as a " virus that has affected so many nations and done so much harm " . Lamont is in favour of greater devolved powers for the Scottish Parliament , and established a Commission to look at how this can be achieved .
= = = = 2014 referendum and Better Together campaign = = = =
After taking office as Labour leader in December 2011 , Lamont urged First Minister Salmond to set a date for the referendum , arguing in her leadership acceptance speech that uncertainty over the referendum 's timeline was having a negative impact on Scotland . On 10 January 2012 Salmond announced late 2014 as his preferred time for a referendum . The Scottish Government confirmed the referendum question on 25 January 2012 , and announced on 21 March 2013 that the referendum would be held on 18 September 2014 . Lamont told Scottish Labour 's 2012 annual conference she wanted her party 's campaign to be one of " collective leadership " against independence , a strategy which she envisaged would become a cross @-@ party movement arguing the case for keeping Scotland in the UK . At the Scottish Conservative Party conference a few weeks later , party leader Ruth Davidson called for Lamont and her opponents to work together . The Better Together Campaign , fronted by former UK Government minister Alistair Darling , was launched at an event attended by Lamont and other senior Scottish political figures at Edinburgh 's Napier University on 25 June 2012 . Along with former British Prime Minister Gordon Brown and other senior Scottish Labour figures , Lamont launched the party 's own pro @-@ union campaign , United with Labour in May 2013 . The Scottish Government published Scotland 's Future , a white paper setting out its vision for an independent Scotland , on 26 November 2013 . Lamont dismissed it as " 670 pages of assertion and uncertainty " . Addressing the Shadow Cabinet of UK Labour leader Ed Miliband on 28 January 2014 , Lamont warned that Scots could vote for independence if they believed Labour was unlikely to win the 2015 UK general election .
Opinion polls showed an increase in support for the Yes campaign as the referendum approached . On 8 September 2014 , Gordon Brown set out plans for greater devolved powers for Holyrood in the event of a No vote . Lamont joined Ruth Davidson and Willie Rennie in giving her backing to the proposals the following day , but Salmond dismissed them as " a retreading , a repackaging , a re @-@ timetabling " of previous promises . Prime Minister David Cameron and Opposition leader Ed Miliband cancelled their appearance at Prime Minister 's Questions to travel to Scotland to campaign for a No vote . On 18 September , Scotland voted to reject independence with a majority of 2 @,@ 001 @,@ 926 to 1 @,@ 617 @,@ 989 . Salmond announced his intention to resign as First Minister and SNP leader on 19 September , shortly after the result of the referendum was confirmed . Lamont paid tribute to him , describing him as " an immense figure in Scottish political history " . Sturgeon was chosen to succeed Salmond as SNP leader on 15 October .
= = = = Labour 's Commission on devolution = = = =
At the Scottish Labour Party Conference in March 2012 , Lamont announced her intention to establish a Commission to examine the prospect of a fully devolved Scottish Parliament . This would give the Scottish Government the power to make decisions on policies relating to issues such as welfare benefits , income tax and corporation tax , effectively making it a fully self @-@ governing region of the United Kingdom . The Commission , chaired by Lamont and including politicians , academics and trade union members , met for the first time in October 2012 . It published an interim report in April 2013 , recommending that Scotland have autonomy over income tax , but leaving decisions on corporation tax and welfare to the UK Parliament . But party members opposed it , warning that the plans could threaten the Barnett formula , the financial mechanism under which Scotland receives an annual average of £ 1 @,@ 600 per head more in UK Government spending than does the rest of the UK . Ian Davidson , chair of the House of Commons Scottish Affairs Select Committee said the proposals could affect spending in poorer areas . Macintosh subsequently warned that devolving responsibility for income tax would reduce the Scottish tax base and result in independence by default , a claim that Guy Lodge and Alan Trench of the Institute for Public Policy Research called " highly disingenuous " because income tax makes up only 23 % of the taxes collected by the UK Government .
The Commission 's final report , Powers for a Purpose was published on 18 March 2014 , setting out recommendations that would be implemented if Scotland voted no in the referendum , and Labour were elected in 2015 . The proposals included allowing the Scottish Parliament to raise as much as 40 % of its annual revenue , and giving it greater leeway to vary income tax rates from those in the rest of the UK . The plans would build on the powers devolved under the 2012 Scotland Act , which legislated for an increase in responsibility over taxation from 2016 , in exchange for a 10 % reduction in the grant received from Westminster . The Commission also recommended devolving responsibility in some other fiscal areas , such as the payment of Housing Benefit and the possible levy of a mansion tax in Scotland , but decided against taking charge of other financial matters , including state pensions , National Insurance and tariffs on North Sea oil . Other proposals were to retain the Barnett formula , give Scotland control over its railways , and transfer authority for dissolving parliament and holding elections from Westminster to Holyrood . Lamont described the proposals as " the right balance between fiscal accountability and insuring us against risk " . Ben Thomson , chair of the cross @-@ party Devo Plus think tank argued the plans were " just tinkering with the current system " and would allow the SNP to " say that the unionist parties aren 't interested in real devolution " . Deputy First Minister Sturgeon welcomed the prospect of increased devolution , but said a vote for independence was the only way to ensure greater powers for Scotland as " there [ was ] no guarantee that any new powers would be delivered in the event of a no vote " . The proposals were subsequently endorsed by delegates at Scottish Labour 's 2014 party conference .
= = = Free public services debate = = =
In September 2012 , Lamont announced a policy review of Scotland 's universal benefits , signalling that a future Labour administration would reverse many of the free services introduced since power was devolved to Scotland . Launching the review at an address to party delegates in Edinburgh , she questioned whether services such as prescriptions and tuition fees — which are free in Scotland — should continue to be available to all , regardless of income , and suggested the situation was unsustainable : " I believe our resources must go to those in greatest need ... Salmond 's most cynical trick was to make people believe that more was free , when the poorest are paying for the tax breaks for the rich ... Scotland cannot be the only something @-@ for @-@ nothing country in the world . "
The speech was condemned by the SNP , which branded it as " Blairite " , while deputy party leader Sturgeon called the strategy " disastrous " . The approach was also questioned by Richard Seymour of The Guardian , who suggested it could damage Labour 's electoral appeal : " Outside Scotland , this policy would merely be a gift to the Tories , by corroborating their arguments for welfare cuts . In Scotland , it reminds ex @-@ Labour voters why they defected to the SNP : as a defensive shield against such policies . " Owen Jones of The Independent suggested it was " a baffling political strategy to outflank the SNP from the right " .
Lamont returned to the issue of universal tuition fees again in a speech in Glasgow on 17 December 2012 to mark the first anniversary of her election as Labour leader . She suggested that the Graduate Endowment , a system abolished by the SNP Government , could be reinstated if Labour were re @-@ elected at the next Scottish parliamentary election . Ian Grant , a retired college principal , welcomed her comments as " courageous " , but Jamie Kinlochan , a member of the National Union of Students Scotland expressed concerns that students would be discouraged by extra financial costs on top of loans and other expenses .
In January 2014 , Lamont and Scottish Labour faced criticism after the party voted against an SNP motion that included the introduction of free school meals for pupils in their first three years of primary education , and a commitment to childcare for pre @-@ school children . The motion also contained measures that would only be implemented in the event of Scottish independence , something Labour said it could not support . Recalling her experience of teaching underprivileged children , Lamont told the parliament that free school meals would not be her priority , and tabled an unsuccessful amendment calling for greater childcare provisions instead . The motion was later passed by a majority of 67 – 46 . In The Daily Telegraph , Cochrane wrote that the strategy had allowed the SNP to claim Labour opposed the principle of free school meals because they " fell for a bit of skulduggery that Ms Lamont and her business managers should have seen coming a mile off " .
= = = Falkirk candidate selection row and Grangemouth dispute = = =
In 2013 , Labour and Police Scotland launched separate investigations into claims that officials of the Unite union had signed their members up to Labour to get their preferred candidate adopted to represent the party in the Falkirk constituency . The union officials were later cleared of any wrongdoing . It was later claimed that key evidence thought to have been retracted had not been withdrawn , prompting several Falkirk councillors to urge Miliband to publish details of the party 's internal inquiry or to hold a fresh investigation . On the 4 November edition of Good Morning Scotland , Lamont said there was a case for a fresh inquiry , but that Labour does not publish details of its internal investigations . Later the same day , Labour said that it would not be reopening the investigation . Miliband subsequently said that a new investigation was unnecessary . On 8 December the former MSP Karen Whitefield was selected to contest the seat . The report into Labour 's inquiry was leaked to the media in February 2014 , and concluded there was " no doubt " that Unite had attempted to manipulate the selection process .
In October 2013 Lamont faced criticism for her reaction to an industrial dispute at the Grangemouth Oil Refinery . Ineos , the company that operates the plant , had stated that the refinery was making financial losses , and had proposed a survival plan requiring employees to accept worse employment terms , notably changes in work rules and less generous pensions ; this the employees rejected . The company mothballed the plant , threatening to close it if the terms were not accepted . Lamont urged Ineos to withdraw its conditions and for both sides to hold talks , while Salmond tried to negotiate an agreement . Union officials eventually agreed not to call a strike for at least three years , and the plant reopened . The Ineos chairman , Calum MacLean , described Lamont 's support for the trade unions during the dispute as " deeply irresponsible " , while Salmond claimed she had been silent throughout the disagreement . Writing for the Dunfermline Press , Natalie McGarry suggested that while the Labour leader 's silence probably had much to do with the continuing Falkirk selection row , ultimately she was " found wanting " .
= = = Resignation = = =
Scotland voted by a small majority against independence , but the referendum returned " Yes " votes in some traditional Labour strongholds , particularly Glasgow and North Lanarkshire , prompting media speculation about Lamont 's future as the party 's leader . Shortly after the referendum , a Daily Mail article claimed that Shadow International Development Secretary Jim Murphy was being lined up to take over from her , while The Herald reported that party delegates concerned about the results had started to view Murphy as a possible successor . Lamont had attempted to quash rumours of a leadership challenge at the 25 September 2014 session of First Minister 's Questions , the first of the post @-@ referendum era . " When the First Minister is long gone I will still be doing my job on behalf of the people of Scotland . " Her position remained uncertain . Alan Cochrane wrote that many Labour MPs in Scotland feared losing their seats at the 2015 general election without a change of leadership . In October , two former first ministers voiced their concern about the direction of the party . McConnell expressed fears that Labour would experience increased difficulty in regaining the confidence of Scottish voters following the election of Sturgeon as SNP leader , and described the party as " a political machine that is angry about what has happened in Scotland in the recent past " . Shortly afterwards , his predecessor , Henry McLeish suggested Labour had ceded " enormous ground to the SNP unnecessarily " because its supporters no longer understood " what the party stands for " . Margaret Curran , the Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland , said that although the party was changing , it needed to reconnect with its " socialist principles " .
Lamont 's resignation as Labour leader was reported by media outlets on the evening of 24 October 2014 , following the publication of an interview with the Daily Record in which she announced her intention to step down with immediate effect . She told the newspaper that she was resigning because Labour 's Westminster leadership had undermined her attempts to reform the party in Scotland , and treated Scottish Labour “ like a branch office of London . ” . She described some London @-@ based colleagues as " dinosaurs " unable to understand that " Scotland has changed forever " following the referendum . Lamont was also angry that she had not been consulted on some matters , such as a decision by the UK leadership to replace Ian Price as Scottish Labour 's General Secretary . In her letter of resignation , submitted to Scottish Labour Party Chairman Jamie Glackin , Lamont accused " senior members of the party " of questioning her role and said that she was taking herself " out of the equation " to allow Scottish Labour to have a discussion about the best way forward . Anas Sarwar became Labour 's acting leader . On 26 October , following a meeting of the party 's executive committee , he outlined the details of a leadership election , which would be held using the three @-@ tier electoral college , and conclude with the announcement of a new leader on 13 December . Murphy , Boyack and Neil Findlay stood in the subsequent contest , with Murphy elected as Lamont 's successor . Lamont did not vote for Murphy in the election , but instead chose to back his rivals .
Miliband paid tribute to Lamont shortly after she announced that she intended to relinquish the leadership role , saying she had " led the Scottish Labour Party with determination " . McLeish and McConnell both indicated that Lamont 's sudden departure following weeks of speculation could have implications for Miliband 's leadership . McLeish said that Miliband 's chance of becoming Prime Minister could be affected if Labour returned fewer Scottish MPs in 2015 , something he called a problem of “ historic , epic proportions ” , while McConnell said that he was " very , very angry " and suggested Miliband had questions to answer about the circumstances surrounding the resignation . Salmond echoed the views of his predecessor , arguing that Miliband " should be answering questions about why Labour in Scotland is run as an extension of his Westminster office , and why he has effectively forced the resignation of a Labour leader in Scotland . " Ed Balls , the Shadow Chancellor , rejected Lamont 's claims about UK Labour 's treatment of its Scottish counterpart . Ian Davidson claimed that supporters of Murphy , who subsequently announced his intention to stand in the leadership contest to succeed Lamont , had conducted a whispering campaign against her . He further suggested that those on the right of the party had resented her election as leader and ignored her , treating her as a " wee lassie " .
= = Post leadership = =
Labour went on to suffer significant losses , both in the 2015 UK general election , and the 2016 Scottish Parliament election . In Glasgow , where the party had traditionally enjoyed strong support , both elections produced a result in which every Labour held constituency was lost to the SNP , while in 2016 the Conservatives overtook Labour as the second largest party at Holyrood . Lamont lost her Glasgow Pollok seat to the SNP 's Humza Yousaf , who secured it with a majority of 6 @,@ 484 , but she was one of four Labour candidates elected to the Glasgow regional list , where she was joined by Sarwar , James Kelly and Pauline McNeill . In response to the results , Lamont suggested Labour needed to understand the reasons behind it , and suggested that the 2014 referendum could be partially responsible . " A bit of it , I think , is still the referendum , the Yes / No is the divide in people ’ s minds rather than the politics of taxation , investing in public services against a low tax economy and so on . "
= = Politics and views = =
Although she has been criticised by SNP politicians for taking a " Blairite " stance on public services , The Guardian 's Peter Hetherington has described Lamont as " rooted to older [ Labour ] party values , with a deep commitment to fairness " . Her politics were heavily influenced by her inner city upbringing and her career in teaching . Her childhood experience was something she addressed in an emotional speech to delegates at the 2013 Scottish Labour Party Conference : " I saw in my upbringing the beauty of our land and felt both the warmth of community and the harshness and brutality at times of trying to make a living here . I had the privilege to grow up in a family of love , but one where my mother always reminded me that what we ate , what we wore , where we lived , was all the product of the sweat of my father 's brow earned at sea . And I respected that . "
Throughout her career , Lamont has campaigned on issues such as equality and violence against women . Her profile on the Scottish Parliament website lists her political interests as being focussed on tackling poverty , women 's rights and disability issues . She credits Curran , and the work of author Erin Pizzey for helping to broaden her understanding of women 's issues . On 12 March 2014 , she led a Scottish Parliament debate in which she discussed the increased opportunities available for women in Scotland , while highlighting issues she felt still needed to be addressed . At First Minister 's Questions she often highlighted personal stories of members of the public , believing them to bring an element of real life into the Parliament . Along with Holyrood 's other opposition leaders , Lamont signed the Equality Network 's Equal Marriage Pledge in favour of legalising same @-@ sex marriage in January 2012 , and voted in favour of the Marriage and Civil Partnership Bill on 4 February 2014 . As someone with a Gaelic background , she has spoken of her belief in the importance of providing support for the language , feeling it has an economic benefit for Scotland . On the death of Nelson Mandela in December 2013 , Lamont joined other public figures in paying tribute to him , describing the former South African President as " the towering figure of my life since I became politically aware " .
Lamont has said that Labour lost the 2011 Scottish Parliament election because the party lost its direction , and that having failed to recognise the 2007 result as a defeat , it picked up the wrong signals from the 2010 general election that saw a strong Scottish Labour vote at Westminster . In February 2012 she told the Times Educational Supplement , " We misread the 2010 ( general ) election , thinking it was confirmation that Scotland was a Labour country – it was probably confirmation that Scotland was still anti @-@ Tory . There 's an issue about rebuilding trust , and our confidence in the values that brought us into politics . " She told delegates at her party 's 2012 Scottish conference that it was time for them to stop apologising for past mistakes . " We know what happened last May – we looked tired and complacent and we got the kind of beating we deserved . But now , we need to start building the kind of Scottish Labour Party which Scotland deserves and which Scotland needs . "
In an interview with Scotland on Sunday in September 2013 , Lamont signalled her support for the creation of a land tax as part of reforms to local taxation , suggesting that the council tax freeze introduced by the SNP had resulted in a funding shortfall . At the 2014 Scottish Trades Union Congress annual conference , Lamont outlined plans to establish a Workers ' Charter , saying she would work with the SNP government to achieve this .
= = Media image = =
After her inaugural session of First Minister 's Questions on 22 December 2011 , the BBC 's Brian Taylor called Lamont 's performance " confident , direct and salient " . Cochrane has suggested that she emerged as the prevailing force at the weekly debates with Salmond , writing in May 2013 , " it 's been obvious for some time to those of us in the cheap seats that Johann Lamont has more than got his measure . " Peter Hetherington of The Guardian quotes an unnamed political observer at Holyrood who said , " She 's getting under [ Salmond 's ] skin like no predecessor . " Writing for The Scotsman as Scottish Labour gathered for its conference in April 2013 , Andrew Whitaker felt that Lamont 's tenure as party leader had been successful , citing Labour 's local election achievements and her weekly exchanges with Salmond at First Minister 's Questions as examples : " Ms Lamont has made Labour at Holyrood respectable again and less of the laughing stock than the ravaged party that emerged from heavy defeat in 2011 . "
Her media appearances were criticised for their awkwardness . In September 2012 , Richard Seymour of The Guardian described how she " fluffed her lines " during an interview with STV reporter Bernard Ponsonby following her announcement of Labour 's public service policy review . Peter Ross of The Scotsman cites another interview , in which she was repeatedly questioned about her views on the UK Trident programme . But he describes her in person as " articulate , reflective , self @-@ deprecating and at times very funny . It would be unfair to condemn her for not being a sound @-@ bite politician ; she ought to be applauded for it , but the trouble is we live in a sound @-@ bite age . " Mandy Rhodes of Holyrood magazine writes , " despite a reputation as being a bit of a fierce one , [ Lamont ] is actually , really rather entertaining , engaging and wonderfully self @-@ deprecating . " The BBC 's Marianne Taylor describes Lamont as " Quietly spoken and more humorous in person than she comes across on television " .
Ian Swanson of The Scotsman has described her as " dour but passionate " . Lamont 's low public recognition indicated by the December 2013 TNS BMRB poll led Herald columnist Alison Rowat to label her " the invisible woman of the independence debate " , and to suggest she needed to raise her profile . Impressionist Jonathan Watson satirised Lamont in the 2013 edition of BBC Scotland 's annual Hogmanay comedy show Only an Excuse ? , featuring a sketch in which she debates Scottish independence with Salmond .
= = Awards = =
Lamont 's decision to question the status quo over the availability of free public services for all earned her the Political Impact of the Year award at the 2012 Herald Scottish Politician of the Year Awards . She was also nominated for Politician of the Year at the same ceremony , but beaten by Deputy First Minister Sturgeon . At the 2013 awards , she was the winner of the Donald Dewar Debater of the Year award for her weekly exchanges with Salmond at First Minister 's Questions .
= = Personal life = =
Lamont is married to Archie Graham , deputy leader of Glasgow City Council and Labour councillor for Langside ward . They have two children . She is a fan of the television soap Coronation Street and likes to keep fit by walking , jogging and dancing . As a keen runner , she has completed several long distance races .
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= Interest rate parity =
Interest rate parity is a no @-@ arbitrage condition representing an equilibrium state under which investors will be indifferent to interest rates available on bank deposits in two countries . The fact that this condition does not always hold allows for potential opportunities to earn riskless profits from covered interest arbitrage . Two assumptions central to interest rate parity are capital mobility and perfect substitutability of domestic and foreign assets . Given foreign exchange market equilibrium , the interest rate parity condition implies that the expected return on domestic assets will equal the exchange rate @-@ adjusted expected return on foreign currency assets . Investors then cannot earn arbitrage profits by borrowing in a country with a lower interest rate , exchanging for foreign currency , and investing in a foreign country with a higher interest rate , due to gains or losses from exchanging back to their domestic currency at maturity . Interest rate parity takes on two distinctive forms : uncovered interest rate parity refers to the parity condition in which exposure to foreign exchange risk ( unanticipated changes in exchange rates ) is uninhibited , whereas covered interest rate parity refers to the condition in which a forward contract has been used to cover ( eliminate exposure to ) exchange rate risk . Each form of the parity condition demonstrates a unique relationship with implications for the forecasting of future exchange rates : the forward exchange rate and the future spot exchange rate .
Economists have found empirical evidence that covered interest rate parity generally holds , though not with precision due to the effects of various risks , costs , taxation , and ultimate differences in liquidity . When both covered and uncovered interest rate parity hold , they expose a relationship suggesting that the forward rate is an unbiased predictor of the future spot rate . This relationship can be employed to test whether uncovered interest rate parity holds , for which economists have found mixed results . When uncovered interest rate parity and purchasing power parity hold together , they illuminate a relationship named real interest rate parity , which suggests that expected real interest rates represent expected adjustments in the real exchange rate . This relationship generally holds strongly over longer terms and among emerging market countries .
= = Assumptions = =
Interest rate parity rests on certain assumptions , the first being that capital is mobile - investors can readily exchange domestic assets for foreign assets . The second assumption is that assets have perfect substitutability , following from their similarities in riskiness and liquidity . Given capital mobility and perfect substitutability , investors would be expected to hold those assets offering greater returns , be they domestic or foreign assets . However , both domestic and foreign assets are held by investors . Therefore , it must be true that no difference can exist between the returns on domestic assets and the returns on foreign assets . That is not to say that domestic investors and foreign investors will earn equivalent returns , but that a single investor on any given side would expect to earn equivalent returns from either investment decision .
= = Uncovered interest rate parity = =
When the no @-@ arbitrage condition is satisfied without the use of a forward contract to hedge against exposure to exchange rate risk , interest rate parity is said to be uncovered . Risk @-@ neutral investors will be indifferent among the available interest rates in two countries because the exchange rate between those countries is expected to adjust such that the dollar return on dollar deposits is equal to the dollar return on euro deposits , thereby eliminating the potential for uncovered interest arbitrage profits . Uncovered interest rate parity helps explain the determination of the spot exchange rate . The following equation represents uncovered interest rate parity .
<formula>
where
<formula> is the expected future spot exchange rate at time t + k
k is the number of periods into the future from time t
St is the current spot exchange rate at time t
i $ is the interest rate in one country ( for example , the United States )
ic is the interest rate in another country or currency area ( for example , the Eurozone )
The dollar return on dollar deposits , <formula> , is shown to be equal to the dollar return on euro deposits , <formula> .
= = = Approximation = = =
Uncovered interest rate parity asserts that an investor with dollar deposits will earn the interest rate available on dollar deposits , while an investor holding euro deposits will earn the interest rate available in the eurozone , but also a potential gain or loss on euros depending on the rate of appreciation or depreciation of the euro against the dollar . Economists have extrapolated a useful approximation of uncovered interest rate parity that follows intuitively from these assumptions . If uncovered interest rate parity holds , such that an investor is indifferent between dollar versus euro deposits , then any excess return on euro deposits must be offset by some expected loss from depreciation of the euro against the dollar . Conversely , some shortfall in return on euro deposits must be offset by some expected gain from appreciation of the euro against the dollar . The following equation represents the uncovered interest rate parity approximation .
<formula>
where
<formula> is the change in the expected future spot exchange rate
<formula> is the expected rate of depreciation of the dollar
A more universal way of stating the approximation is " the home interest rate equals the foreign interest rate plus the expected rate of depreciation of the home currency . "
= = Covered interest rate parity = =
When the no @-@ arbitrage condition is satisfied with the use of a forward contract to hedge against exposure to exchange rate risk , interest rate parity is said to be covered . Investors will still be indifferent among the available interest rates in two countries because the forward exchange rate sustains equilibrium such that the dollar return on dollar deposits is equal to the dollar return on foreign deposit , thereby eliminating the potential for covered interest arbitrage profits . Furthermore , covered interest rate parity helps explain the determination of the forward exchange rate . The following equation represents covered interest rate parity .
<formula>
where
<formula> is the forward exchange rate at time t
The dollar return on dollar deposits , <formula> , is shown to be equal to the dollar return on euro deposits , <formula> .
= = Empirical evidence = =
Covered interest rate parity ( CIRP ) is found to hold when there is open capital mobility and limited capital controls , and this finding is confirmed for all currencies freely traded in the present @-@ day . One such example is when the United Kingdom and Germany abolished capital controls between 1979 and 1981 . Maurice Obstfeld and Alan Taylor calculated hypothetical profits as implied by the expression of a potential inequality in the CIRP equation ( meaning a difference in returns on domestic versus foreign assets ) during the 1960s and 1970s , which would have constituted arbitrage opportunities if not for the prevalence of capital controls . However , given financial liberalization and resulting capital mobility , arbitrage temporarily became possible until equilibrium was restored . Since the abolition of capital controls in the United Kingdom and Germany , potential arbitrage profits have been near zero . Factoring in transaction costs arising from fees and other regulations , arbitrage opportunities are fleeting or nonexistent when such costs exceed deviations from parity . While CIRP generally holds , it does not hold with precision due to the presence of transaction costs , political risks , tax implications for interest earnings versus gains from foreign exchange , and differences in the liquidity of domestic versus foreign assets . Researchers found evidence that significant deviations from CIRP during the onset of the global financial crisis in 2007 and 2008 were driven by concerns over risk posed by counter parties to banks and financial institutions in Europe and the US in the foreign exchange swap market . The European Central Bank 's efforts to provide US dollar liquidity in the foreign exchange swap market , along with similar efforts by the Federal Reserve , had a moderating impact on CIRP deviations between the dollar and the euro . Such a scenario was found to be reminiscent of deviations from CIRP during the 1990s driven by struggling Japanese banks which looked toward foreign exchange swap markets to try and acquire dollars to bolster their creditworthiness .
When both covered and uncovered interest rate parity ( UIRP ) hold , such a condition sheds light on a noteworthy relationship between the forward and expected future spot exchange rates , as demonstrated below .
<formula>
<formula>
Dividing the equation for UIRP by the equation for CIRP yields the following equation :
<formula>
which can be rewritten as :
<formula>
This equation represents the unbiasedness hypothesis , which states that the forward exchange rate is an unbiased predictor of the future spot exchange rate . Given strong evidence that CIRP holds , the forward rate unbiasedness hypothesis can serve as a test to determine whether UIRP holds ( in order for the forward rate and spot rate to be equal , both CIRP and UIRP conditions must hold ) . Evidence for the validity and accuracy of the unbiasedness hypothesis , particularly evidence for cointegration between the forward rate and future spot rate , is mixed as researchers have published numerous papers demonstrating both empirical support and empirical failure of the hypothesis .
UIRP is found to have some empirical support in tests for correlation between expected rates of currency depreciation and the forward premium or discount . Evidence suggests that whether UIRP holds depends on the currency examined , and deviations from UIRP have been found to be less substantial when examining longer time horizons . Some studies of monetary policy have offered explanations for why UIRP fails empirically . Researchers demonstrated that if a central bank manages interest rate spreads in strong response to the previous period 's spreads , that interest rate spreads had negative coefficients in regression tests of UIRP . Another study which set up a model wherein the central bank 's monetary policy responds to exogenous shocks , that the central bank 's smoothing of interest rates can explain empirical failures of UIRP . A study of central bank interventions on the US dollar and Deutsche mark found only limited evidence of any substantial effect on deviations from UIRP . UIRP has been found to hold over very small spans of time ( covering only a number of hours ) with a high frequency of bilateral exchange rate data . Tests of UIRP for economies experiencing institutional regime changes , using monthly exchange rate data for the US dollar versus the Deutsche mark and the Spanish peseta versus the British pound , have found some evidence that UIRP held when US and German regime changes were volatile , and held between Spain and the United Kingdom particularly after Spain joined the European Union in 1986 and began liberalizing capital mobility .
= = Real interest rate parity = =
When both UIRP ( particularly in its approximation form ) and purchasing power parity ( PPP ) hold , the two parity conditions together reveal a relationship among expected real interest rates , wherein changes in expected real interest rates reflect expected changes in the real exchange rate . This condition is known as real interest rate parity ( RIRP ) and is related to the international Fisher effect . The following equations demonstrate how to derive the RIRP equation .
<formula>
<formula>
where
<formula> represents inflation
If the above conditions hold , then they can be combined and rearranged as the following :
<formula>
RIRP rests on several assumptions , including efficient markets , no country risk premia , and zero change in the expected real exchange rate . The parity condition suggests that real interest rates will equalize between countries and that capital mobility will result in capital flows that eliminate opportunities for arbitrage . There exists strong evidence that RIRP holds tightly among emerging markets in Asia and also Japan . The half @-@ life period of deviations from RIRP have been examined by researchers and found to be roughly six or seven months , but between two and three months for certain countries . Such variation in the half @-@ lives of deviations may be reflective of differences in the degree of financial integration among the country groups analyzed . RIRP does not hold over short time horizons , but empirical evidence has demonstrated that it generally holds well across long time horizons of five to ten years .
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= Born Again ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Born Again " is the twenty @-@ second episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on April 22 , 1994 . " Born Again " was written by Howard Gordon and Alex Gansa , and directed by Jerrold Freedman . The episode featured guest appearances by Brian Markinson and Maggie Wheeler . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Born Again " earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 2 , being watched by 7 @.@ 7 million households in its initial broadcast , and received mixed reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . When Mulder and Scully are called to New York to investigate the death of a police officer , they come to believe that a young girl present at the incident may be the reincarnation of another officer murdered years earlier .
Several crew members disliked the episode , most notably writer Howard Gordon and David Duchovny . Gordon felt that the episode was too similar to the other episodes that had been aired , whereas Duchovny bluntly stated that he " detested " the episode .
= = Plot = =
In Buffalo , New York , police detective Sharon Lazard finds a little girl , Michelle Bishop , alone in an alley . Lazard takes the seemingly lost girl into her precinct , and leaves her alone to be interviewed by another detective , Rudolph Barbala . However , moments later , Barbala is jettisoned through a window , falling to his death .
Lazard turns to Fox Mulder and Dana Scully for help . She tells them of Michelle 's claims that a man had attacked Barbala , even though she was the only person in the room when the detective was killed . The agents have Michelle describe the alleged attacker for a computerized facial composite ; the computer seemingly glitches , displaying a face that Michelle identifies as the killer . The composite matches that of a Detective Charlie Morris — who died nine years previously in an apparent gangland hit . The agents speak to Michelle 's psychiatrist , Dr. Braun , who tells them that she habitually mutilated dolls in a uniform manner during their sessions together , removing the same eye and arm each time ; Mulder realizes that these mutilations match the circumstances of Morris ' death .
The agents interview Barbala 's partner , Tony Fiore , who attributes Morris ' death to a triad gang they had been investigating together . Later that day , Fiore meets with a Leon Felder , and the two discuss claiming a large sum of money from a safety deposit box , but agree that they haven 't waited the ten years they had intended to , ominously discussing that they are the last two claimants left . That night , Felder gets off a bus , but his tie catches in the door as it drives off . The driver tries to brake , but the bus inexplicably continues to accelerate , strangling Felder as Michelle watches from inside the bus .
Investigating further , Mulder and Scully learn that Fiore , Barbala , Felder and Morris had all worked closely together in the past . They also find that Fiore 's wife Anita keeps a collection of origami animals made by her first husband — Charlie Morris . Anita tells the agents that Fiore hasn 't returned home from the previous night ; meanwhile , the agents find that pages are missing from the file on Morris ' murder , and Fiore was the last one to have checked the file out .
Michelle undergoes a session of regression hypnosis , where she claims to be twenty @-@ four years old . She suddenly starts screaming in panic about someone trying to kill her , and the session is ended . Mulder reviews the video of the session , and is convinced that the girl is the reincarnation of Morris , having been conceived right around the time the detective was murdered . The tape contains a brief section of static noise just before Michelle begins screaming , which Mulder has an expert clean up . The noise is found to contain a grainy image of what appears to be a fish tank ornament of a man in an atmospheric diving suit . Meanwhile , Scully has tracked down Morris ' autopsy findings , which show the presence of salt water in his respiratory tract , indicating he died of drowning . The agents realise from these findings that Morris was drowned in the exotic fish tank in Fiore 's house .
Rushing to Fiore 's house , Mulder and Scully find Michelle using telekinetic powers to try to kill Fiore . They prevent her from doing so , and Fiore confesses that he , Felder and Barbala had stolen a large sum of money , intending to keep it safe for ten years before claiming it . Morris learned of their plan and threatened to report on them , and was consequently killed to silence him . However , Fiore maintains that he never wanted to see Morris dead and only wanted to take care of Anita after his death . Michelle uses her powers to destroy the fish @-@ tank , but spares Fiore after hearing pleas from Anita not to hurt him . Later , Fiore pleads guilty to charges of murder and grand larceny , whilst Michelle seemingly recovers and goes on to become a normal little girl .
= = Production = =
Writer Howard Gordon was disappointed with the episode , finding it too similar to other series being aired around the same time . He also believed that the episode seemed " a little too cop show @-@ y " overall , stating that he did not think it " was very well executed on any front " . David Duchovny also reportedly " detested " the episode , despite a guest appearance by his then @-@ girlfriend Maggie Wheeler .
Executive producer R. W. Goodwin recalls being on location for the episode 's opening scene , in which Detective Barbala is thrown from a window . The room used for the scene had two windows side @-@ by @-@ side , and one had been replaced with sugar glass for the stunt . When the false window was blown out to simulate someone being thrown through it , the crew found that the glass window beside the false one had also accidentally been blown out . The episode 's key grip , Al Campbell , suggested that the next shot show Barbala 's dog lying beside his body to explain the second window breaking .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Born Again " premiered on the Fox network on April 22 , 1994 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on February 23 , 1995 . This episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 2 , with a 14 share , meaning that in the US , roughly 8 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 14 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 7 @.@ 7 million households .
Writer Howard Gordon has expressed his disappointment with the episode , feeling that it was too similar to his earlier work on the episode " Shadows " , and finding that it was " not done particularly interestingly " . Series creator Chris Carter also felt that " Born Again " was " just not one of [ his ] favorites " , adding that he " thought the direction was a little sloppy , but it 's one of those episodes that plays a little closer to reality and I like that about it " .
In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , " Born Again " was rated a B − , with the episode being described as " engaging but ultimately just serviceable " , although Andrea Libman 's casting as Michelle was called " inspired " . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , felt negatively towards the episode , feeling that its plot was too reminiscent of earlier episodes , such as " Eve " or " Shadows " . However , he found the scene in which an image is found in the static of a video recording to have been a highlight , calling it " a cool combination of hard science and the inexplicable " . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , was favorable towards the episode , again praising the performance of Libman as Michelle . He also drew comparisons to " Shadows " , but felt that " Born Again " was the better episode of the two .
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= Oviri ( Gauguin ) =
Oviri ( Tahitian : Savage or wild ) is an 1894 ceramic sculpture by French artist Paul Gauguin , the original cast is in the Musée d 'Orsay . Gauguin shows her with long pale hair and large wild eyes . In Tahitian mythology Oviri was the goddess of mourning . Gauguin shows her either smothering or embracing a wolf with her feet , as she tightly clutches another wolf cub in her arms . Art historians have presented multiple interpretations of the work ; usually that he intended it as an epithet to reinforce his self @-@ image as a " civilised savage " . Tahitian goddesses of her era had passed from folk memory by 1894 , yet Gauguin romanticises the island 's past as he reaches towards more ancient sources , including an Assyrian relief of a ' master of animals ' type and Majapahit mummies . Other possible influences include preserved skulls from the Marquesas Islands , figures found at Borobudur , and a 9th @-@ century Mahayana Buddhist temple in central Java .
Gauguin made three casts in 1894 , each in partially glazed stoneware . Several other copies exist in plaster or bronze . His sale of the casts were not successful , and at a low financial and personal ebb he asked that for one of the reproductions to act as a marker for his grave . A cast was not placed there until 1973 . There are only three other surviving comments of his on the figure : on an 1895 presentation mount of two impressions of a woodcut of the Oviri figure he made to Stéphane Mallarmé where he called the figure a strange and cruel enigma ; in an 1897 letter to Ambroise Vollard where he referred to it as La Tueuse ( " The Murderess " ) ; and in a c . 1899 drawing where he appends an inscription referencing Honoré de Balzac 's novel Séraphîta . Oviri was exhibited at the 1906 Salon d 'Automne ( no . 57 ) where it influenced Pablo Picasso , who based one of the figures in Les Demoiselles d 'Avignon on it .
= = Background = =
Gauguin was foremost a painter ; he came to ceramics around 1886 , when he was taught by the French sculptor and ceramist Ernest Chaplet . They had been introduced by Félix Bracquemond who , inspired by the new French art pottery , was experimenting with the form . During that winter of 1886 – 87 , Gauguin visited Chaplet 's workshop at Vaugirard , where they collaborated on stoneware pots with applied figures or ornamental fragments and multiple handles .
Gauguin first visited Tahiti in 1891 , and attracted by the beauty of Tahitian women undertook a set of sculptural mask @-@ like portraits on paper . They evoke both melancholy and death , and conjure the state of faaturuma ( brooding or melancholy ) ; imagery and moods later used in the Oviri ceramic . Gauguin 's first wood carvings in Tahiti were with a guava wood that quickly crumbled and have not survived .
He completed Oviri in the winter of 1894 , during his return from Tahiti , and submitted it to the Société Nationale des Beaux @-@ Arts 1895 salon opening in April the following year . There are two versions of what ensued : Charles Morice claimed in 1920 that Gauguin was " literally expelled " from the exhibition ; in 1937 Ambroise Vollard wrote that the piece was admitted only when Chaplet threatened to withdraw his own works in protest . According to Danielsson , Gauguin was keen to increase his public exposure and availed of this opportunity by writing an outraged letter to Le Soir , bemoaning the state of modern ceramics .
At the outset of 1897 , Vollard addressed a letter to Gauguin about the possibility of casting his sculptures in bronze . Gauguin 's response centered on Oviri :
I believe that my large statue in ceramic , the Tueuse ( " The Murderess " ) , is an exceptional piece such as no ceramist has made until now and that , in addition , it would look very well cast in bronze ( without retouching and without patina ) . In this way the buyer would not only have the ceramic piece itself , but also a bronze edition with which to make money .
Art historian Christopher Gray mentions three plaster casts , the fissured surfaces of which suggest that they were taken from a prior undocumented wood carving no longer extant . One was given to Daniel Monfreid and now belongs to the Musée départemental Maurice Denis " The Priory " in Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye . Another version in plaster , with the surface finish of wood , was kept by Gustave Fayet , and subsequently formed part of the collection of his son , Léon . The third version was kept by the artist who made the casts . A number of bronzes were produced , including the version placed on Gauguin 's grave at Atuona , cast by the Foundation Singer @-@ Poligna and erected 29 March 1973 .
= = Description and sources = =
Oviri has long blonde or grey hair reaching to her knees . Her head and eyes are disproportionately large , she has adolescent breasts , while the aperture at the back of her head resembles a vaginal orifice . She holds a wolf cub to her hip , a symbol of her indifference and wild power . It is not clear whether Oviri is smothering or hugging the cub , but her pose invokes ideas of sacrifice , infanticide and the archetype of the vengeful mother , influenced by Eugène Delacroix 's 1838 painting , Medea About to Kill Her Children . A second animal , likely another wolf , is at her feet either curling in submission or dead . Art historians including Sue Taylor suggest the second animal may represent Gauguin .
The association between the woman and a wolf stems from a remark Edgar Degas made defending Gauguin 's work at the poorly received 1893 Durand @-@ Ruel exhibition , when Degas quoted La Fontaine 's fable The Dog and the Wolf , which is usually taken as implying that freedom should not be exchanged for comfort or financial gain : " You see , Gauguin is the wolf . " In Oviri , the mature wolf , the European Gauguin , perishes while the whelp , the Gauguin of Tahiti , survives .
The Tahitian myths had largely disappeared by Gauguin 's time ( he based his own accounts on other sources without acknowledgement ) , as had most artefacts associated with that culture . His representation of Oviri is largely a work of imagination , informed by a collection of what he described as his " little world of friends " and which he took with him to Tahiti on his first visit . These included Odilon Redon 's lithograph La Mort , photographs of subjects such as a temple frieze at Borobudur , Java , and an Egyptian fresco from an XVIIIth dynasty tomb at Thebes . Other sources that have been suggested include an Assyrian relief of Gilgamesh clutching a lion cub now in the Louvre , and a Majapahit terracotta figure from the Djakarta museum .
Oviri 's head seems based on mummified skulls of chieftains in the Marquesas Islands , whose eye sockets were traditionally encrusted with mother @-@ of @-@ pearl and worshiped as divine . Elements of her body may draw from Borobudor images of fecundity . Thus life and death were evoked in the same image . In a letter to Mallarmé trying to raise a public subscription to purchase the work , Morice titled the sculpture Diane Chasseresse ( " Diana the Huntress " ) , an allusion to the ancient Greek goddess Diana of the hunt , moon and childbirth . He made the same reference in his poems on Oviri . Barbara Landy interprets the life and death theme as indicating Gauguin 's need to abandon his civilised ego in a return to the natural state of the primitive savage . The work is related to the 1889 ceramic Black Venus , which shows a woman kneeling over a decapitated head resembling the artist .
Nancy Mowll Mathews believes the creatures in her arms and at her feet are actually foxes , animals Gauguin had used in his 1889 wood carving Be in Love , You Will Be Happy and in his 1891 Pont @-@ Aven oil painting The Loss of Virginity . In an 1889 letter to Émile Bernard , he described the Soyez amoureuses fox as an " Indian symbol of perversity " . There is a long tradition in Asian folklore of foxes having the power to transform into women ( for example in Japanese Yōkai or Kitsune folklore ) .
Gauguin depicts the Oviri figure in at least one drawing , two watercolor transfer monotypes and two woodcuts . It is possible that the woodcuts were created in Pont @-@ Aven in the summer of 1894 ; before the ceramic . The last to appear is probably the drawing in what is apparently the first issue of Gauguin 's Papeete broadsheet Le Sourire " ( The Smile : A Serious Newspaper ) " published between August 1899 and April 1900 . It was accompanied by the inscription " Et le monstre , entraînant sa créature , féconde de sa semence des flancs généreux pour engendrer Séraphitus @-@ Séraphita " ( And the monster , embracing its creation , filled her generous womb with seed and fathered Séraphitus @-@ Séraphita ) . Séraphitus @-@ Séraphita is an allusion to Honoré de Balzac 's novel Séraphîta which features an androgynous hero . In this first issue of Le Sourire , he reviewed a local Maohi author 's play by that dealt with incest ( among other themes ) , and invokes ' Séraphitus @-@ Séraphita ' . The review congratulated the play 's " savage author " and ended with a plea for women 's liberation through the abolition of marriage . The accompanying drawing is distinctly androgynous .
= = Interpretation = =
Art historians have put forward various theories as to the seeming multiplicity of meanings inherent in Gauguin 's representation . Most obviously the figure invokes Tahitian legend and themes of death and superstition . It reflects the artist 's view of female sexuality ; a common motif in 19th century art was the connection between long , wild hair and evil femininity . Related is the delight Gauguin took from its alternative title " savage " and the implications of a brutal , bloodthirsty deity , which seems to refer as much to himself as the goddess .
= = = Tahiti deity = = =
Gauguin 's figure seems to invoke the Polynesian goddess Hina , depicted by Morice as a Diana @-@ like deity clutching a wolf cub , " monstrous and majestic , drunk with pride , rage and sorrow " . He titled an 1894 self @-@ portrait in plaster as Oviri . The original is lost but a number of bronze casts survive . He used double mirrors to capture his familiar Inca profile , the result reprising his Jug in the Form of a Head , Self @-@ Portrait . This was one of the earliest occasions Gauguin applied the term Oviri to himself . " Gauguin sometimes also referred to himself as Oviri , the savage ... " , writes Merete Bodelsen . The Stuttgart version of his 1892 oil painting E haere oe i hia ( Where Are You Going ? ) depicts a woman clutching a wolf cub . Pollitt remarks that this stocky , sculptural and androgynous figure gives a first glimpse of Oviri .
Oviri was the title of a favourite Tahitian song – a melancholy tune of love and longing that mentions the subject 's " savage , restless heart " . It recounts the love between two women for each other , both of whom have grown silent and cold . Gauguin translated the verse in his series of romanticised journal Noa Noa ( Tahitian for " fragrance " , a written project he undertook to examine his Tahitian experience , which he accompanied with a series of ten woodcuts ) ; the only one of his songs reprinted in the Tahitian newspaper La Guêpes when he became editor . Danielsson believes the song echoes Gauguin 's dual attachment to his Danish wife Mette and his then vahine ( Tahitian for " woman " ) Teha 'amana , his young native wife and the focal point of Noa Noa .
= = = Colonial experience = = =
Noa Noa contains an account of a journey into the mountains with a young man whom he eventually understands as sexless , leading him to meditate on the " androgynous side of the savage " in his manuscript . Ben Pollitt notes that in Tahitian culture the craftsman / artist , neither warrior / hunter nor homemaker / carer , was conceived androgynously , an ambiguous gender position that appealed to Gauguin 's subversive nature . Taylor believes Morice may have been describing Gauguin in his 1897 poem Shining Hina of the Woods as part of two long extracts from their collaboration on Noa Noa . Gray views the sculpture as representing " the expression of Gauguin 's profound disillusionment and discouragement " .
Noa Noa is part of Gauguin 's documentation of his experiences as a colonial visitor to Tahiti in 1891 – 1893 . He first used the term " Noa Noa " to describe the scent of Tahitian women : " A mingled perfume , half animal , half vegetable emanated from them ; the perfume of their blood and of the gardenia taitensis , which they wore in their hair " . On his return to Paris in 1893 , Gauguin was apprehensive about exhibiting his Tahitian works . Noa Noa was to provide the context necessary for the public to comprehend the new motifs presented at his Durand @-@ Ruel exhibition . It was not , however , completed in time for the opening of the exhibition .
= = = Self portrait = = =
Gauguin asked that Oviri be placed on his grave , which seems to indicate that he saw the figure as his alter ego and the fox as changeable in its gender as he was ( according to Mathews ) and thus symbolic of dangerous sexuality . A number of sources indicate that Gauguin was suffering at the time from a syphilitic rash that prevented him from travelling to Tahiti for several months . She suggests the orifice is a pars pro toto for the woman who infected him .
The anthropologist Paul van der Grijp believes Oviri was intended as an epithet to reinforce Gauguin 's persona as a " civilised savage " . The artist wrote in his final letter to Morice that " You were wrong that day when you said I was wrong to say I was a savage . It 's true enough : I am a savage . And civilised people sense the fact . In my work there is nothing that can surprise or disconcert , except the fact that I am a savage in spite of myself . That 's also why my work is inimitable . "
= = Reception and influence = =
Whether or not the sculpture was to be exhibited at the Salon de la Nationale , it was scheduled for the café proprietor Lévy at 57 rue Saint @-@ Lazare , with whom Gauguin had concluded an agreement to represent him before his last departure for Tahiti . It failed to sell , and Charles Morice was unable to raise public money to acquire it for the nation . Gauguin had thought his only likely interested patron would be Gustave Fayet , who did eventually buy it for 1 @,@ 500 francs , but in 1905 , after Gauguin 's death .
Gauguin was celebrated by the Parisian avant @-@ garde after the posthumous retrospective exhibitions at the Salon d 'Automne in 1903 and 1906 . The power evoked by his work lead directly to Les Demoiselles d 'Avignon in 1907 . According to David Sweetman , Picasso became an aficionado of Gauguin in 1902 when he befriended the expatriate Spanish sculptor and ceramist Paco Durrio in Paris . Durrio was a friend of Gauguin and held several of his works in an attempt to help his poverty @-@ stricken friend in Tahiti by promoting his oeuvre in Paris .
Art historian John Richardson writes :
The 1906 exhibition of Gauguin 's work left Picasso more than ever in this artist 's thrall . Gauguin demonstrated the most disparate types of art — not to speak of elements from metaphysics , ethnology , symbolism , the Bible , classical myths , and much else besides — could be combined into a synthesis that was of its time yet timeless . An artist could also confound conventional notions of beauty , he demonstrated , by harnessing his demons to the dark gods ( not necessarily Tahitian ones ) and tapping a new source of divine energy .
Both Sweetman and Richardson point to the Gauguin Oviri as a major influence . First exhibited in the 1906 Salon d 'Automne retrospective , it was probably a direct influence on Les Demoiselles . Sweetman writes , " Gauguin 's statue Oviri , which was prominently displayed in 1906 , was to stimulate Picasso 's interest in both sculpture and ceramics , while the woodcuts would reinforce his interest in printmaking , though it was the element of the primitive in all of them which most conditioned the direction that Picasso 's art would take . This interest would culminate in the seminal Les Demoiselles d 'Avignon . "
In 2006 , a bronze version of Oviri sold at Christie 's New York for US $ 251 @,@ 200 .
= = Recent exhibitions = =
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= German battleship Gneisenau =
Gneisenau was a German capital ship , alternatively described as a battleship and battlecruiser , of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine . She was the second vessel of her class , which included one other ship , Scharnhorst . The ship was built at the Deutsche Werke dockyard in Kiel ; she was laid down on 6 May 1935 and launched on 8 December 1936 . Completed in May 1938 , the ship was armed with a main battery of nine 28 cm ( 11 in ) C / 34 guns in three triple turrets , though there were plans to replace these weapons with six 38 cm ( 15 in ) SK C / 34 guns in twin turrets .
Gneisenau and Scharnhorst operated together for much of the early portion of World War II , including sorties into the Atlantic to raid British merchant shipping . During their first operation , the two ships sank the British auxiliary cruiser HMS Rawalpindi in a short battle . Gneisenau and Scharnhorst participated in Operation Weserübung , the German invasion of Norway . During operations off Norway , the two ships engaged the battlecruiser HMS Renown and sank the aircraft carrier HMS Glorious . Gneisenau was damaged in the action with Renown and later torpedoed by a British submarine , HMS Clyde , off Norway . After a successful raid in the Atlantic in 1941 , Gneisenau and her sister put in at Brest , France . The two battleships were the subject of repeated bombing raids by the RAF ; Gneisenau was hit several times during the raids , though she was ultimately repaired .
In early 1942 , the two ships made a daylight dash up the English Channel from occupied France to Germany . After reaching Kiel in early February , the ship went into drydock . On the night of 26 February , the British launched an air attack on the ship ; one bomb penetrated her armored deck and exploded in the forward ammunition magazine , causing serious damage and a large number of casualties . The repairs necessitated by the damage were so time consuming that it was determined to rebuild the ship to accommodate the 38 cm guns as originally intended . The 28 cm guns were removed and used as shore batteries . In 1943 , Hitler ordered the cessation of conversion work , and on 27 March 1945 , she was sunk as a blockship in Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) in German @-@ occupied Poland . She was eventually broken up for scrap in 1951 .
= = Construction and configuration = =
Gneisenau was ordered as Ersatz Hessen as a replacement for the old pre @-@ dreadnought Hessen , under the contract name " E. " The Deutsche Werke in Kiel was awarded the contract , where the keel was laid on 6 May 1935 . The ship was launched on 8 December 1936 , after which fitting @-@ out work was begun . The ship was completed in May 1938 and commissioned for sea trials on the 21st , under the command of Kapitän zur See ( KzS ) Erich Förste . The trials revealed a dangerous tendency to ship considerable amounts of water in heavy seas . This caused flooding in the bow and damaged electrical systems in the forward gun turret . As a result , she went back to the dockyard for extensive modification of the bow . The original straight stem was replaced with a raised " Atlantic bow . " A diagonal cap was fitted to the smoke stack to keep the main mast free of smoke . The modifications were completed by September 1939 , by which time the ship was finally fully operational .
Gneisenau displaced 32 @,@ 100 long tons ( 32 @,@ 600 t ) as built and 38 @,@ 100 long tons ( 38 @,@ 700 t ) fully loaded , with a length of 234 @.@ 9 m ( 770 ft 8 in ) , a beam of 30 m ( 98 ft 5 in ) and a maximum draft of 9 @.@ 9 m ( 32 ft 6 in ) . She was powered by three Germania geared steam turbines , which developed a total of 165 @,@ 930 metric horsepower ( 163 @,@ 660 shp ; 122 @,@ 041 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 31 @.@ 3 knots ( 58 @.@ 0 km / h ; 36 @.@ 0 mph ) on speed trials . Her standard crew numbered 56 officers and 1 @,@ 613 enlisted men , though during the war this was augmented up to 60 officers and 1 @,@ 780 men . While serving as a squadron flagship , Gneisenau carried an additional ten officers and 61 enlisted men .
She was armed with nine 28 cm ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) L / 54 @.@ 5 guns arranged in three triple gun turrets : two superfiring turrets forward — Anton and Bruno — and one aft — Caesar . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 55 guns , fourteen 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L / 65 and sixteen 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 83 , and initially ten 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns . The number of 2 cm guns was eventually increased to thirty @-@ eight . Six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) above @-@ water torpedo tubes , taken from the light cruisers Nürnberg and Leipzig , were installed in 1942 .
= = Service history = =
Gneisenau left Germany for a round of trials in the Atlantic in June 1939 . As it was peacetime , the ship carried primarily practice ammunition , with only a small number of live rounds . She was back in Germany when war began in September 1939 . On the 4th , the day after the British declaration of war , Gneisenau was attacked by fourteen Wellington bombers , though they made no hits . In November , KzS Förste was replaced by KzS Harald Netzbandt . The ship 's first combat operation , under the command of Admiral Wilhelm Marschall , began on 21 November 1939 ; the ship , in company with her sister Scharnhorst , the light cruiser Köln , and nine destroyers , was to patrol the area between Iceland and the Faroe Islands . The intent of the operation was to draw out British units and ease the pressure on the heavy cruiser Admiral Graf Spee , which was being pursued in the South Atlantic . Two days later , the German flotilla intercepted the auxiliary cruiser Rawalpindi .
Scharnhorst fired first , followed by Gneisenau eight minutes later . The ship was quickly reduced to a burning wreck ; Marschall ordered Scharnhorst to pick up survivors while he stood by in Gneisenau . The cruiser Newcastle arrived on the scene , which prompted Marschall to halt rescue operations and flee . Four allied capital ships , the British Hood , Nelson , Rodney , and the French Dunkerque followed in pursuit . The Germans reached Wilhelmshaven on 27 November , and on the trip both battleships incurred significant damage from heavy seas and winds . After returning to Kiel , Gneisenau went into drydock for repairs for the storm damage . During the repairs , the bow was remodeled a second time to incorporate additional flare and sheer , in an attempt to improve her seaworthiness . Gneisenau went into the Baltic for trials on 15 January 1940 , after the completion of the refit . Her voyage back to the North Sea was blocked by ice in the Kiel Canal until 4 February .
= = = Operation Weserübung = = =
Gneisenau was assigned to the forces participating in Operation Weserübung , the invasion of Denmark and Norway . She and her sister were the covering force for the assaults on Narvik and Trondheim ( Flag Officer Vize Admiral Günther Lütjens ) . The two ships left Wilhelmshaven on the morning of 7 April , along with the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper and fourteen destroyers . The cruiser and destroyers carried the assault forces for Narvik and Trondheim , while Gneisenau and Scharnhorst provided cover for them . Later that day , at around 14 : 30 , the three ships came under attack by a force of British bombers , though the bombers failed to make any hits . On the morning of 8 April , the destroyer Z11 Bernd von Arnim encountered the British destroyer Glowworm . Before being sunk , Glowworm rammed Admiral Hipper , though the latter was not seriously damaged . The crews of the two battleships went to battle stations , though they did not take part in the brief engagement . At 21 : 00 , Gneisenau and Scharnhorst took up a position west of the Vestfjorden to provide distant cover to both of the landings at Narvik and Trondheim .
At 04 : 30 on the 9th , Gneisenau located the British battlecruiser Renown with her Seetakt radar ; the call to battle stations rang out on both Gneisenau and Scharnhorst , though it was Renown that fired first , at 05 : 05 . Gneisenau scored two hits on Renown ; the first failed to explode and the second exploded on her upper deck and damaged the radio equipment . Gneisenau and Scharnhorst then turned to disengage . Almost simultaneously , two of Renown 's 15 in ( 38 @.@ 1 cm ) shells struck Gneisenau . One shell hit the director tower and passed through it without exploding ; regardless , it cut several cables and killed one officer and five enlisted men . The second shell disabled the rear turret . This prompted Gneisenau to cease firing and increase speed in order to break away from Renown . Vice Admiral Wilhelm Marschall feared that the destroyers escorting Renown could be used to make torpedo attacks against his unescorted battleships . In the course of the action , Gneisenau fired sixty 28 cm and eight 15 cm rounds . During the high @-@ speed escape , both Gneisenau and Scharnhorst were flooded by significant quantities of water over their bows , which caused problems in both of their forward gun turrets .
Admiral Hipper rejoined the two battleships off Trondheim on the morning of 11 April , and the three ships returned to Wilhelmshaven , arriving the following day . There , the damage incurred during the engagement with Renown was repaired . She was then drydocked in Bremerhaven for periodic maintenance on 26 – 29 April . The ship was to go to the Baltic following the completion of repairs , but on the morning of 5 May , while steaming at 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) off the Elbe estuary , Gneisenau detonated a magnetic mine about 21 m ( 68 ft 11 in ) off the port rear quarter and 24 m ( 78 ft 9 in ) below the hull . The explosion caused significant damage to the hull and flooded several compartments , which caused the ship to take on a half @-@ degree list to port . The concussive shock from the blast damaged many internal and topside components , including the starboard low @-@ pressure turbine and the rear rangefinders . Repairs were effected in a floating drydock in Kiel from 6 to 21 May . A brief shakedown cruise followed in the Baltic , and by the 27th , she was back in Kiel at full combat readiness .
Gneisenau and Scharnhorst left Wilhelmshaven on 4 June to return to Norway . They were joined by Admiral Hipper and four destroyers . The purpose of the sortie was to interrupt Allied resupply efforts to the Norwegians and to relieve the pressure on German troops fighting in Norway . On 7 June , the squadron rendezvoused with the tanker Dithmarschen to refuel Admiral Hipper and the four destroyers . The next day , the trawler Juniper was discovered and sunk , along with the oil tanker Oil Pioneer . The Germans then launched their Arado 196 float planes to search for more Allied vessels . Admiral Hipper and the destroyers were sent to destroy Orama , a 19 @,@ 500 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 19 @,@ 800 t ) passenger ship , while Atlantis , a hospital ship , was allowed to proceed unmolested . Admiral Marschall detached Admiral Hipper and the four destroyers to refuel in Trondheim , while he would steam to the Harstad area .
At 17 : 45 , the German battleships spotted the British aircraft carrier Glorious and two escorting destroyers , Ardent and Acasta , at a range of some 50 @,@ 000 m ( 55 @,@ 000 yd ) . Scharnhorst was closer and therefore fired first . Scharnhorst had some boiler difficulty , which reduced her speed to 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) . This allowed Gneisenau to overtake her sister during the action . Although the destroyers attempted to cover Glorious with smoke screens , the German battleships used their Seetakt radar to assist the gunlaying . In less than an hour 's shooting , Glorious was reduced to a burning hulk . Gneisenau then turned her fire on Acasta , while Scharnhorst dispatched Ardent . Before Acasta was sunk , she fired a spread of torpedoes at Gneisenau , which the latter successfully evaded . One of them struck Scharnhorst , however , and caused serious damage . After all three British ships had been sunk , Marschall withdrew his force to Trondheim to conduct emergency repairs to Scharnhorst . In the meantime , Marschall sortied with Gneisenau , Admiral Hipper , and four destroyers , though after two days he returned to Trondheim when it became clear that the British convoys were too heavily guarded .
Admiral Günther Lütjens replaced Marschall as the commander of the squadron , and on 20 June he sortied with Gneisenau , Admiral Hipper , and four destroyers in the direction of Iceland . His intention was to give the impression he was attempting to break out into the Atlantic , to draw British attention away from Scharnhorst as she made the return voyage to Germany . About 40 nmi ( 74 km ; 46 mi ) northwest of Halten , however , the submarine Clyde torpedoed Gneisenau . The torpedo hit the ship in the bow , just forward of the splinter belt , and caused serious damage . The ship took on a significant amount of water in the two forward watertight compartments , and she was forced to return to Trondheim at reduced speed . In Trondheim , the repair ship Huascaran effected temporary repairs that permitted the ship to return to Kiel on 25 – 27 July , escorted by Admiral Hipper , Nürnberg , four destroyers , and six torpedo boats . A strong force from the British Home Fleet attempted to intercept the flotilla , but it failed to find it . Upon arrival , Gneisenau went into drydock at the Howaldtswerke dockyard for five months of repair work . In August , the ship 's commander was replaced by KzS Otto Fein , who would captain the ship for the majority of her active wartime career .
= = = Operation Berlin = = =
Scharnhorst joined Gneisenau , in preparation for Operation Berlin , the planned breakout into the Atlantic Ocean designed to wreak havoc on the Allied shipping lanes . Severe storms caused damage to Gneisenau , though Scharnhorst was undamaged . The two ships were forced to put into port during the storm : Gneisenau went to Kiel for repairs while Scharnhorst put into Gdynia ( Gotenhafen ) . Repairs were quickly completed , and on 22 January 1941 , the two ships , again under the command of Admiral Lütjens , left port for the North Atlantic . They were detected in the Skagerrak and the heavy units of the British Home Fleet deployed to cover the passage between Iceland and the Faroes . The Germans ' radar detected the British at long range , which allowed Lütjens to avoid the British patrols , with the aid of a squall . By 3 February , the two battleships had evaded the last British cruiser patrol , and had broken into the open Atlantic .
On 6 February , the two ships refueled from the tanker Schlettstadt south of Cape Farewell . Shortly after 08 : 30 on 8 February , lookouts spotted convoy HX @-@ 106 , though it was escorted by the battleship Ramillies . Lütjens ' orders prohibited him from engaging Allied capital ships , and so the attack was called off . Scharnhorst 's commander , KzS Hoffmann , however , closed to 23 @,@ 000 m ( 25 @,@ 000 yd ) in an attempt to lure Ramillies away from the convoy so that Gneisenau could attack the convoy . Lütjens ordered Hoffmann to rejoin the flagship immediately . The two battleships steamed off to the northwest to search for more shipping . On 22 February , the pair spotted an empty convoy sailing west , though it dispersed at the appearance of the battleships . Gneisenau sank three ships , and along with a fourth destroyed by Scharnhorst , the pair accounted for 25 @,@ 784 GRT of Allied shipping .
Lütjens then decided to move to a new area , as the surviving members of the dispersed convoy had sent distress signals . He chose the Cape Town @-@ Gibraltar convoy route , and positioned himself to the northwest of Cape Verde . The two ships encountered another convoy , escorted by the battleship Malaya , on 8 March . Lütjens again forbade an attack , though he shadowed the convoy and directed U @-@ boats to attack it . A pair of U @-@ boats sank a total of 28 @,@ 488 GRT of shipping on the night of 7 – 8 March . Malaya turned on the two battleships and closed to 24 @,@ 000 m ( 26 @,@ 000 yd ) , well within the range of the Germans ' guns , but Lütjens refused to be drawn into an engagement . He instead turned toward the mid @-@ Atlantic , where the two ships refueled from the tankers Uckermark and Ermland on 12 March .
On 15 March , the two battleships , with the two tankers in company , encountered a dispersed convoy in the mid @-@ Atlantic . Gneisenau captured three tankers and sank a fourth , totaling 20 @,@ 139 GRT of shipping . The next day , stragglers from a convoy were sighted . Gneisenau sank seven ships for 26 @,@ 693 GRT , while her sister accounted for six vessels for 35 @,@ 088 long tons ( 35 @,@ 651 t ) . One of the surviving ships radioed the location of the German battleships , which summoned the powerful British battleships Rodney and King George V. Scharnhorst and Gneisenau used their high speed to escape in a squall , and the intervention by the British battleships convinced Lütjens that the chances of further success were small . He therefore decided to head for Brest in occupied France , which the ships reached on 22 March . She then entered drydock for periodic maintenance .
= = = Air attacks in Brest = = =
After arriving in Brest , Gneisenau was the subject of repeated British air raids . The first attack took place on the night of 30 – 31 March , and a second occurred on 4 – 5 April . During the second raid , a 227 kg ( 500 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) bomb narrowly missed the ship . As a result of the attacks , the ship was moved out of the dry dock and moved to the harbor . On 6 April , the ship was attacked by British torpedo bombers , which managed to score a single hit . The Bristol Beaufort that struck the ship was piloted by Flying Officer Kenneth Campbell . The torpedo struck Gneisenau in the vicinity of the rear main battery turret . Some 3 @,@ 050 t ( 3 @,@ 000 long tons ) of water flooded the ship and caused a 2 degree list to starboard . The flooding also disabled several components of the ship 's propulsion system . The explosion caused significant destruction to the side plating as well as the starboard and centerline propeller shafts . The concussive shock also caused widespread damage to the ship 's electronic components . A salvage tug came alongside to assist in the pumping effort . Following the attack , Gneisenau returned to the drydock for repairs .
Three days later , on the night of 9 – 10 April , several British bombers dropped around 25 t ( 25 long tons ) of 227 kg AP bombs on the ship , four of which hit . All four hit the starboard side of the forward superstructure . Two of the bombs exploded on the main armor deck while the other two failed to detonate . The attack killed 72 initially and wounded 90 , of which 16 later died of their injuries . The bombs slightly damaged the main armor deck and caused some structural damage on the starboard side . It was decided to make alterations to the ship while she was drydocked for repairs ; these included the installation of fourteen additional 2 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns and six 53 @.@ 3 cm torpedo tubes amidships . The aircraft hangar was rearranged , and the catapult that had been mounted on top of it was removed . The length of repairs and modifications precluded participation in Operation Rheinübung , the sortie by the new battleship Bismarck in May 1941 . The British continued to attack the ship in drydock , though no further damage was done . On 6 February 1942 , a bomb fell close to the ship , but caused no damage .
= = = Operation Cerberus = = =
On 12 January 1942 , the German Naval Command , in a conference with Hitler , made the decision to return Gneisenau , Scharnhorst , and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen to Germany . The intention was to deploy the vessels to Norway to interdict Allied convoys to the Soviet Union . The so @-@ called " Channel Dash " , codenamed Operation Cerberus , would avoid the increasingly effective Allied radar and patrol aircraft in the Atlantic . Vice Admiral Otto Ciliax was given command of the operation . In early February , minesweepers swept a route through the English Channel , though the British failed to detect the activity .
At 23 : 00 on 11 February , Scharnhorst , Gneisenau , and Prinz Eugen left Brest . They entered the Channel an hour later ; the three ships sped at 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) , hugging the French coast along the voyage . The British failed to detect their departure , as the submarine that had been tasked with observing the port had withdrawn to recharge its batteries . By 06 : 30 , they had passed Cherbourg , at which point they were joined by a flotilla of torpedo boats . The torpedo boats were led by Kapitän Erich Bey , aboard the destroyer Z29 . General der Jagdflieger ( General of Fighter Force ) Adolf Galland directed Luftwaffe fighter and bomber forces ( Operation Donnerkeil ) during Cerberus . The fighters flew at masthead @-@ height to avoid detection by the British radar network . Liaison officers were present on all three ships . German aircraft arrived later to jam British radar with chaff . By 13 : 00 , the ships had cleared the Strait of Dover , though half an hour later , a flight of six Swordfish torpedo bombers , with Spitfire escort , attacked the Germans . The British failed to penetrate the Luftwaffe fighter shield and all six Swordfish were destroyed . Several more attacks were launched over the next two hours , but the Luftwaffe screen repulsed them all .
Five British destroyers mounted an attack on the German squadron at 16 : 17 . The ships attempted to close to torpedo range , though heavy seas and overcast conditions hampered their attack . Gneisenau and Prinz Eugen inflicted serious damage to the destroyer Worcester . At 19 : 55 , Gneisenau detonated a magnetic mine off Terschelling . The mine exploded just forward of the rear gun turret but caused only minor damage . Slight flooding was quickly stopped , though the shock disabled the center turbine . The ship stopped for less than 30 minutes before resuming the voyage ; by 03 : 50 , Gneisenau and two destroyers reached Helgoland . After being joined there by Prinz Eugen , the ships left for Kiel , but thick ice in the canal forced the ships to stop in Brunsbüttel . While maneuvering in port , Gneisenau struck a submerged wreck . The collision tore a hole in the hull and caused some minor flooding . Gneisenau reached Kiel the following day , where she went into a floating dry dock at the Deutsche Werke dockyard .
= = Fate = =
Repair work on Gneisenau was completed by 26 February 1942 , and she was scheduled to deploy to Norway on 6 March . Her ammunition stores had been restocked and she was prepared for a short round of trials before her departure . On the night of 26 – 27 February , however , the British launched a heavy air raid on the ship . The ship was hit by a single bomb in her forecastle that penetrated the armored deck and exploded . Red @-@ hot bomb fragments ignited propellant charges in the forward turret and caused a tremendous explosion . The turret was thrown off its mount and the entire bow section was burned out . The crew partially flooded the magazine to prevent a more catastrophic explosion . The blast killed 112 men and wounded 21 others .
The extensive damage convinced the Naval Staff to rebuild Gneisenau to mount the six 38 cm guns originally planned , rather than repair the ship . The damaged bow section was removed in order to attach a lengthened bow , which would correct the decrease in freeboard that would have been caused by the heavier 38 cm guns . On 4 April , the ship went to Gotenhafen , escorted by the training ship Schlesien and the icebreaker Castor . She was formally decommissioned on 1 July . Her crew were paid off and redeployed to the U @-@ boat arm .
By early 1943 , the ship had been sufficiently repaired to begin the conversion process , but Hitler , angered by the failure of German surface raiders at the Battle of the Barents Sea in December 1942 ordered the cessation of all work . Gneisenau was disarmed and her 28 cm and 15 cm gun turrets were used in shore batteries . Turret Caesar was installed in a coastal fortress in Trondheim as the coastal battery Orlandet .
Gneisenau remained unused in Gotenhafen until the end of the war . As the Red Army advanced on the city , the remaining crew took the ship out to the entrance of the harbor and sank the vessel as a blockship on 27 March 1945 . In 1947 , the Polish government ordered the ship be removed , and initial salvage operations began . The ship was sealed and refloated on 12 September 1951 then completely scrapped , though it is believed that some of her steel was used in the construction of Polish merchant vessels . She was the largest ship raised at the time . Norway offered to return the turret from Trondheim in 1979 , though the offer was rejected . The gun turret was instead preserved as a museum in Norway .
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= Avocado cake =
Avocado cake is a cake prepared using avocado as a primary ingredient , together with other typical cake ingredients . The avocados may be mashed , and may be used as an ingredient in cake batter , in cake toppings and alone atop a cake . Cake variations include raw avocado cake , avocado brownies and avocado cheesecake . Raw , uncooked versions of avocado cake can be high in vitamin E and essential fatty acids , which are derived from avocado . Avocado @-@ based cake toppings include avocado fool and avocado crazy .
= = Overview = =
Avocado is a main ingredient in avocado cake , along with other typical cake ingredients . Various varieties of avocados may be used . Avocado cake may have a subtle avocado flavor imbued in the dish . Mashed avocado may be used as an ingredient in the batter and in cake frostings and toppings . Sliced avocado may be used to top or garnish it , as may other ingredients such as the zest of citrus fruits .
Additional ingredients used may include yogurt , buttermilk , raisins , dates , walnuts , hazelnuts , allspice , cinnamon and nutmeg among others . Lemon juice may be used on the avocado to prevent browning from occurring . Avocado cake can be prepared as a vegetarian and vegan dish . Chocolate cake and pancakes may be prepared with avocado as an ingredient in the batter .
= = Variations = =
= = = Raw avocado cake = = =
Avocado cake may be prepared as an uncooked cake using raw avocados and other raw ingredients , which are blended together into a smooth consistency and then chilled . A food processor may be used to blend the ingredients . Raw avocado cake prepared with a significant amount of avocado may contain substantial amounts of vitamin E and essential fatty acids , which are derived from avocado .
= = = Avocado brownies = = =
Avocado brownies are brownies prepared using avocado as a primary ingredient . The use of overripe avocados may contribute to the gooey , fudge @-@ like consistency of the dish . Black beans may be used in the dish , and may be used in the place of flour .
= = = Avocado cheesecake = = =
Avocado cheesecake is a style of cheesecake prepared using avocado as a main ingredient . Raw avocados may be used in its preparation , and it may have a creamy texture and consistency . Avocado cheesecake was featured in an episode of the television show MasterChef in March 2015 .
= = Avocado @-@ based cake toppings = =
Avocado cakes may be topped with an avocado @-@ based fool . A fool is a pressed fruit mixture or fruit purée that is mixed with cream or custard . The term " fool " in this context dates to the 16th century , and was also a synonym for " a trifling thing of small consequence . "
Some milk sponge cakes may be topped with avocado crazy , a food in Sri Lankan cuisine . Avocado crazy may be prepared with avocado , cream , sugar and lemon juice . Rum may also be added . Avocado crazy may have a creamy texture and flavor .
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= Kingston upon Hull =
Kingston upon Hull ( / ˌkɪŋstən əpɒn ˈhʌl / KING @-@ stən ə @-@ pon HUL , local / ˈhʊl / ) , usually abbreviated to Hull , is a city and unitary authority in the East Riding of Yorkshire , England . It lies upon the River Hull at its junction with the Humber estuary , 25 miles ( 40 km ) inland from the North Sea , with a population of 257 @,@ 710 ( mid @-@ 2014 est . ) .
The town of Hull was founded late in the 12th century . The monks of Meaux Abbey needed a port where the wool from their estates could be exported . They chose a place at the junction of the rivers Hull and Humber to build a quay .
The exact year the town was founded is not known but it was first mentioned in 1193 . Renamed Kings @-@ town upon Hull by King Edward I in 1299 , Hull has been a market town , military supply port , trading hub , fishing and whaling centre , and industrial metropolis .
Hull was an early theatre of battle in the English Civil Wars . Its 18th @-@ century Member of Parliament , William Wilberforce , played a key role in the abolition of the slave trade in Britain .
The city is unique in the UK in having had a municipally owned telephone system from 1902 , sporting cream , not red , telephone boxes .
After suffering heavy damage in the Second World War ( the ' Hull Blitz ' ) , Hull weathered a period of post @-@ industrial decline , gaining unfavourable results on measures of social deprivation , education and policing . In the early 21st @-@ century spending boom before the late 2000s recession the city saw large amounts of new retail , commercial , housing and public service construction spending .
Tourist attractions include the historic Old Town and Museum Quarter , Hull Marina and The Deep , a city landmark . The redevelopment of one of Hull 's main thoroughfares , Ferensway , included the opening of St. Stephen 's Hull and the new Hull Truck Theatre . Spectator sports include Premier League football and Super League Rugby . The KCOM Stadium houses Hull City football club and Hull FC rugby club and The Lightstream Stadium rugby club Hull Kingston Rovers . Hull is also home to the English Premier Ice Hockey League Hull Pirates .
In 2013 , it was announced that Hull would be the 2017 UK City of Culture .
In 2015 it was announced that the Ferens Art Gallery will be hosting the prestigious annual art prize , The Turner Prize , in 2017 . The prize is held outside London every other year . This important art prize receives more media coverage than any other art prize .
= = History = =
Kingston upon Hull stands on the north bank of the Humber estuary at the mouth of its tributary , the River Hull . The valley of the River Hull has been inhabited since the early Neolithic period but there is little evidence of a substantial settlement in the area of the present city . The area was attractive to people because it gave access to a prosperous hinterland and navigable rivers but the site was poor , being remote , low @-@ lying and with no fresh water . It was originally an outlying part of the hamlet of Myton , named Wyke . The name is thought to originate either from a Scandinavian word Vik meaning creek or from the Saxon Wic meaning dwelling place or refuge .
The River Hull was a good haven for shipping , whose trade included the export of wool from Meaux abbey . In 1293 the town was acquired from the abbey by King Edward I , who on 1 April 1299 granted it a royal charter that renamed the settlement King 's town upon Hull or Kingston upon Hull . The charter is preserved in the archives of the Guildhall .
In 1440 , a further charter incorporated the town and instituted local government consisting of a mayor , a sheriff and twelve aldermen .
In his Guide to Hull ( 1817 ) , J. C. Craggs provides a colourful background to Edward 's acquisition and naming of the town . He writes that the King and a hunting party started a hare which " led them along the delightful banks of the River Hull to the hamlet of Wyke … [ Edward ] , charmed with the scene before him , viewed with delight the advantageous situation of this hitherto neglected and obscure corner . He foresaw it might become subservient both to render the kingdom more secure against foreign invasion , and at the same time greatly to enforce its commerce " . Pursuant to these thoughts , Craggs continues , Edward purchased the land from the Abbot of Meaux , had a manor hall built for himself , issued proclamations encouraging development within the town , and bestowed upon it the royal appellation , King 's Town .
The port served as a base for Edward I during the First War of Scottish Independence and later developed into the foremost port on the east coast of England . It prospered by exporting wool and woollen cloth , and importing wine and timber . Hull also established a flourishing commerce with the Baltic ports as part of the Hanseatic League .
From its medieval beginnings , Hull 's main trading links were with Scotland and northern Europe . Scandinavia , the Baltic and the Low Countries were all key trading areas for Hull 's merchants . In addition , there was trade with France , Spain and Portugal . As sail power gave way to steam , Hull 's trading links extended throughout the world . Docks were opened to serve the frozen meat trade of Australia , New Zealand and South America . Hull was also the centre of a thriving inland and coastal trading network , serving the whole of the United Kingdom .
Sir William de la Pole was the town 's first mayor . A prosperous merchant , de la Pole founded a family that became prominent in government . Another successful son of a Hull trading family was bishop John Alcock , who founded Jesus College , Cambridge and was a patron of the grammar school in Hull . The increase in trade after the discovery of the Americas and the town 's maritime connections are thought to have played a part in the introduction of a virulent strain of syphilis through Hull and on into Europe from the New World .
The town prospered during the 16th and early 17th centuries , and Hull 's affluence at this time is preserved in the form of several well @-@ maintained buildings from the period , including Wilberforce House , now a museum documenting the life of William Wilberforce .
During the English Civil War , Hull became strategically important because of the large arsenal located there . Very early in the war , on 11 January 1642 , the king named the Earl of Newcastle governor of Hull while Parliament nominated Sir John Hotham and asked his son , Captain John Hotham , to secure the town at once . Sir John Hotham and Hull corporation declared support for Parliament and denied Charles I entry into the town . Charles I responded to these events by besieging the town . This siege helped precipitate open conflict between the forces of Parliament and those of the Royalists .
Throughout the second half of the 19th century and leading up to the First World War , the Port of Hull played a major role in the transmigration of Northern European settlers to the New World , with thousands of emigrants sailing to the city and stopping for administrative purposes before travelling on to Liverpool and then North America .
Parallel to this growth in passenger shipping was the emergence of the Wilson Line of Hull . Founded in the city in 1825 by Thomas Wilson , by the early 20th century the company had grown – largely through its monopolisation of North Sea passenger routes and later mergers and acquisitions – to be the largest privately owned shipping company in the world , with over 100 ships sailing to different parts of the globe . The Wilson Line was sold to the Ellerman Line – which itself was owned by Hull @-@ born magnate ( and the richest man in Britain at the time ) Sir John Ellerman .
Whaling played a major role in the town 's fortunes until the mid @-@ 19th century . Hull 's prosperity peaked in the decades just before the First World War ; it was during this time , in 1897 , that city status was granted . After the decline of the whaling industry , emphasis shifted to deep @-@ sea trawling until the Anglo @-@ Icelandic Cod War of 1975 – 1976 . The conditions set at the end of this dispute initiated Hull 's economic decline .
Many of the suburban areas on the western side of Hull were built in the 1930s , particularly Willerby Road and Anlaby Park , as well as most of Willerby itself . This was part of the biggest British housing boom of the 20th century ( possibly ever ) .
= = = Hull Blitz = = =
The city 's port and industrial facilities , coupled with its proximity to mainland Europe and ease of location being on a major estuary , led to extremely widespread damage by bombing raids during the Second World War ; much of the city centre was destroyed . Hull had 95 % of its houses damaged or destroyed , making it the most severely bombed British city or town , apart from London , during the Second World War . More than 1 @,@ 200 people died in air raids on the city and some 3 @,@ 000 others were injured .
The worst of the bombing occurred in 1941 . Little was known about this destruction by the rest of the country at the time , since most of the radio and newspaper reports did not reveal Hull by name but referred to it as " a North @-@ East town " or " a northern coastal town " . Most of the city centre was rebuilt in the years following the war . As recently as 2006 researchers found documents in the local archives that suggested an unexploded wartime bomb might be buried beneath a major new redevelopment , The Boom , in Hull .
= = Government = =
Following the Local Government Act 1888 , Hull became a county borough , a local government district independent of the East Riding of Yorkshire . This district was dissolved under the Local Government Act 1972 , on 1 April 1974 when it became a non @-@ metropolitan district of the newly created shire county of Humberside . Humberside ( and its county council ) was abolished on 1 April 1996 and Hull was made a unitary authority area .
The single @-@ tier local authority of the city is now Hull City Council ( officially Kingston upon Hull City Council ) , headquartered in the Guildhall in the city centre . The council was designated as the UK 's worst performing authority in both 2004 and 2005 , but in 2006 was rated as a two star ' improving adequate ' council and in 2007 it retained its two stars with an ' improving well ' status . In the 2008 corporate performance assessment the city retained its " improving well " status but was upgraded to a three star rating .
The Liberal Democrats won overall control of the City Council in the 2007 local elections , ending several years in which no single party had a majority . They retained control in the 2008 local elections by an increased majority and in the 2010 local elections . Following the UK 's local elections of 2011 , the Labour Party gained control of the council , increasing their majority in the 2012 and retained this following the 2014 local elections . They increased their majority by one in the 2015 local elections .
The city returned three Members of Parliament to the House of Commons and at the last general election , in 2015 , elected three Labour MPs : Alan Johnson who was the former Home Secretary , Diana Johnson and Karl Turner .
William Wilberforce is the most celebrated of Hull 's former MPs . He was a native of the city and the member for Hull from 1780 to 1784 when he was elected as an Independent member for Yorkshire .
It lies within the Yorkshire and the Humber constituency of the European Parliament , which in the May 2014 European Election elected three UKIP , two Labour and one Conservative MEPs .
Hull is the only city and forms the major urban area in the official government @-@ defined Hull and Humber Ports City Region .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 44 ′ 30 ″ N 0 ° 20 ′ 0 ″ W , 154 miles ( 248 km ) north of London , Kingston upon Hull is on the northern bank of the Humber estuary . The city centre is west of the River Hull and close to the Humber . The city is built upon alluvial and glacial deposits which overlie chalk rocks but the underlying chalk has no influence on the topography . The land within the city is generally very flat and is only 2 to 4 metres ( 6 @.@ 5 to 13 ft ) above sea level . Because of the relative flatness of the site there are few physical constraints upon building and many open areas are the subject of pressures to build .
The parishes of Drypool , Marfleet , Sculcoates , and most of Sutton parish , were absorbed within the borough of Hull in the 19th and 20th centuries . Much of their area has been built over , and socially and economically they have long been inseparable from the city . Only Sutton retained a recognisable village centre in the late 20th century , but on the south and east the advancing suburbs had already reached it . The four villages were , nevertheless , distinct communities , of a largely rural character , until their absorption in the borough — Drypool and Sculcoates in 1837 , Marfleet in 1882 , and Sutton in 1929 . The current boundaries of the city are tightly drawn and exclude many of the metropolitan area 's nearby villages , of which Cottingham is the largest . The city is surrounded by the rural East Riding of Yorkshire .
Some areas of Hull lie on reclaimed land at or below sea level . The Hull Tidal Surge Barrier is at the point where the River Hull joins the Humber estuary and is lowered at times when unusually high tides are expected . It is used between 8 and 12 times per year and protects the homes of approximately 10 @,@ 000 people from flooding . Due to its low level , Hull is expected to be at increasing levels of risk from flooding due to global warming .
Many areas of Hull were flooded during the June 2007 United Kingdom floods , with 8600 homes and 1300 businesses affected .
Historically , Hull has been affected by tidal and storm flooding from the Humber ; the last serious floods were in the 1950s , in 1953 , 1954 and the winter of 1959 .
Unlike many other English cities , Hull has no cathedral . It is in the Diocese of York and has a Suffragan bishop . However , Hull 's Holy Trinity Church is the largest parish church in England by floor area . The church dates to about 1300 . Hull forms part of the Southern Vicariate of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Middlesbrough and included among Hull 's Catholic churches is St Charles Borromeo , the oldest post @-@ Reformation Roman Catholic church in the city .
There are several seamen 's missions and churches in Hull . The Mission to Seafarers has a centre at West King George Dock and the St Nikolaj Danish Seamen 's Church is located in Osborne Street .
= = = Climate = = =
Located in Northern England , Hull has a temperate maritime climate which is dominated by the passage of mid @-@ latitude depressions . The weather is very changeable from day to day and the warming influence of the Gulf Stream makes the region mild for its latitude . Locally , the area is sunnier than most areas this far north in the British Isles , and also considerably drier , due to the rain shadowing effect of the Pennines . It is also one of the most northerly areas where the July maximum temperature exceeds 21 @.@ 5 ° C ( 70 @.@ 7 ° F ) , although this appears to be very localised around the city itself .
The absolute maximum temperature recorded is 34 @.@ 4 ° C ( 93 @.@ 9 ° F ) , set in August 1990 . Typically , the warmest day should reach 28 @.@ 8 ° C ( 83 @.@ 8 ° F ) , though slightly over 10 days should achieve a temperature of 25 @.@ 1 ° C ( 77 @.@ 2 ° F ) or more in an " average " year . All averages refer to the 1981 @-@ 2010 period .
The absolute minimum temperature is − 11 @.@ 1 ° C ( 12 @.@ 0 ° F ) , recorded during January 1982 . An average of 32 @.@ 5 nights should report an air frost .
= = = Seismic activity = = =
At around 00 : 56 GMT on 27 February 2008 , Hull was 30 miles ( 48 km ) north of the epicentre of an earthquake measuring 5 @.@ 3 on the Richter Scale which lasted for nearly 10 seconds . This was an unusually large earthquake for this part of the world .
= = Demography = =
According to the 2001 UK census , Hull had a population of 243 @,@ 589 living in 104 @,@ 288 households . The population density was 34 @.@ 1 per hectare . Of the total number of homes 47 @.@ 85 % were rented compared with a national figure of 31 @.@ 38 % rented . The population had declined by 7 @.@ 5 % since the 1991 UK census , and has been officially estimated as 256 @,@ 200 in July 2006 .
In 2001 approximately 53 @,@ 000 people were aged under 16 , 174 @,@ 000 were aged 16 – 74 , and 17 @,@ 000 aged 75 and over . Of the total population 97 @.@ 7 % were white and the largest minority ethnic group was of 749 people who considered themselves to be ethnically Chinese . There were 3 % of people living in Hull who were born outside the United Kingdom . In 2006 the largest minority ethnic grouping was Iraqi Kurds who were estimated at 3 @,@ 000 . Most of these people were placed in the city by the Home Office while their applications for asylum were being processed . In 2001 , the city was 71 @.@ 7 % Christian . A further 18 % of the population indicated they were of no religion while 8 @.@ 4 % did not specify any religious affiliation . In 2001 , the city had the lowest church attendance in the United Kingdom .
Also in 2001 , the city had a high proportion , at 6 @.@ 2 % , of people of working age who were unemployed , ranking 354th out of 376 local and unitary authorities within England and Wales . The distance travelled to work was less than 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) for 64 @,@ 578 out of 95 @,@ 957 employed people . A further 18 @,@ 031 travelled between 5 and 10 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 and 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to their place of employment . The number of people using public transport to get to work was 12 @,@ 915 while the number travelling by car was 53 @,@ 443 .
= = Economy = =
The economy of Hull was built on trading and seafaring , firstly whaling and later seafishing . Merchant 's houses such as Blaydes House and some warehouses survive in the Old Town , where trade was centred on the River Hull , later shifting to the Humber docks . Another major industry was oilseed crushing . Although the fishing industry declined in the 1970s , the city remains a busy port , handling 13 million tonnes of cargo per year . The port operations run by Associated British Ports and other companies in the port employ 5 @,@ 000 people . A further 18 @,@ 000 are employed as a direct result of the port 's activities . The port area of the city has diversified to compensate for the decline in fishing by the introduction of Roll @-@ on Roll @-@ off ferry services to the continent of Europe . These ferries now handle over a million passengers each year . Hull has exploited the leisure industry by creating Hull Marina from the old Humber Street Dock in the centre of the city . It opened in 1983 and has 270 berths for yachts and small sailing craft .
Industry in the city is focused on the chemical and health care sectors . Several well @-@ known British companies , including BP , Smith & Nephew , Seven Seas , and Reckitt Benckiser , have facilities in Hull . The health care sector is further enhanced by the research facilities provided by the University of Hull through the Institute of Woundcare and the Hull York Medical School partnerships . In recent years , with the decline of fishing and heavy industry , the retail sector , tourism , the arts and further and higher education sectors have played an increasingly prominent role in the process of economic regeneration and raising the profile of the city . In 2009 it was estimated that businesses in Hull deliver an annual turnover of almost £ 8 billion , and over 5 million annual visitors contribute almost £ 210 million to Hull 's economy .
= = = Retail = = =
As the biggest settlement in the East Riding of Yorkshire and the local transport hub , Hull is a natural focus for retail shoppers . Major department stores in Hull include Debenhams , House of Fraser and British Home Stores ( BHS ) . The city centre has three main shopping centres , St. Stephen 's , Princes Quay and the Prospect Centre . There are also a number of " retail parks " , and suburban shopping centres including the North Point Shopping Centre at Bransholme , St Andrews Quay retail park on the Humber bank , as well as near Great Gutter lane ( Willerby ) , Mount Pleasant ( Holderness Road ) , Priory Park ( near Hessle ) and Kingswood retail park ( Kingswood )
Whitefriargate is one of the shopping streets , along with King Edward Street and Carr lane .
The electrical retailer Comet Group was founded in the city as Comet Battery Stores Limited in 1933 ; the company 's first superstore was opened in Hull in 1968 .
The city 's branch of Woolworth 's on King Edward Street closed in 2008 , as did the branch of T J Hughes on the site of the former C & A store on Ferensway in August 2011 , following the parent companies ' bankruptcies . The main non @-@ town @-@ centre shopping streets are Hessle Road , Holderness Road , Chanterlands Avenue , Beverley Road , as well as Princes Avenue and Newland Avenue . Two covered shopping arcades remain in the town centre : the Hepworth and Paragon Arcades .
The Prospect Centre on Prospect Street is a smaller , older shopping centre with a range of chain stores , banks and fashion retailers . It contains branches of Boots , Claire 's , a large Wilkinsons , Poundland , W H Smith , Santander , and Hull 's main post office . At Bransholme , the North Point Shopping Centre ( Bransholme Shopping Centre ) contains a similar range of popular chain stores and budget @-@ oriented retailers including Boyes and Heron Foods .
The Princes Quay Shopping Centre ( 1991 ) was built on stilts over the closed Prince 's Dock , and houses a variety of chain stores and food outlets . It was originally built with four retail floors , known as " decks " . The uppermost deck has housed a Vue cinema since December 2007 .
There are a number of budget and discount retailers including four branches of Boyes , Primark , Peacocks , Poundland and Wilkinsons have branches in the city . Hull has a good selection of supermarkets , including several branches of Tesco , Sainsbury 's , the Co @-@ operative and budget food stores including Heron Foods and Iceland .
The St. Stephen 's shopping centre development on Ferensway opened in 2007 , is a 560 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 52 @,@ 000 m2 ) scheme , costing over £ 160 million . It is anchored by a large 24 @-@ hour Tesco Extra superstore and provides shop units , food outlets , a hotel , cinema , car parking ; adjacent is Hull 's Paragon Interchange completed in the same time period which includes a new bus station and renovated railway station with retail outlets .
= = = Development , 2000 – 2010 = = =
In addition to the St. Stephen 's retail project , a number of other commercial , office and services developments were planned or took place during the first decade of the 21st century . One high profile project was the £ 165 million Humber Quays development , built near to the Humber estuary , which gained World Trade Centre status as the World Trade Centre Hull & Humber . Phase 1 of the project includes two office buildings and 51 new apartments . A second phase is expected to include a new 200 @-@ bedroom 4 @-@ star hotel , a restaurant , and more high @-@ quality office space . The 50 @-@ stall indoor Edwardian Trinity Market , a grade II listed building , and Hepworth 's arcade were modernised and renovated in the late 2000s . The city centre railway station , and adjacent bus terminal were also redeveloped , and were official opened in 2009 , as the Hull Paragon Interchange .
Several large @-@ scale developments also planned , including a £ 100 million residential development on east bank of the River Hull , called the Boom , which would include over 600 luxury riverside apartments , shops , boutiques , bistro cafés , a 120 @-@ bed luxury hotel , and health and education facilities . Also planned and not built was the Quay West extension to the Princes Quay shopping centre , that was cancelled in 2010 .
The late 2000s recession halted many of the building development projects . Additionally , the local development agency ' Hull Forward ' lost funding in June 2010 due to governmental budgetary cuts on public spending . and the regional development agency , Yorkshire Forward was abolished .
The ' Boom ' development was to be linked to the city centre by a new swing footbridge , Scale Lane Bridge , across the River Hull . The bridge was officially opened in June 2013 .
An investment of £ 14 @.@ 5 million by Network Rail was used to enhance the capacity of the port freight railway line , the Hull Docks branch , ( completed 2008 ) ; the project was intended to increase its capacity from 10 trains per day to 22 .
= = = Development 2010 – present = = =
In January 2011 Siemens Wind Power and Associated British Ports signed a memorandum of understanding concerning the construction of wind turbine manufacturing plant at Alexander Dock . The plan would require some modification of the dock to allow the ships , used for transporting the wind turbines , to dock and be loaded . Planning applications for the plant were submitted in December 2011 , and affirmed in 2014 , concerning 75 metre blades for the 6 MW offshore model . The creation of an enterprise zone , Humber Enterprise Zone , was announced in 2011 to encourage further industrial development in the Humber estuary region .
A 12 @.@ 5 @-@ acre site waste @-@ to @-@ energy centre costing in the region of £ 150 million is also planned to be built by the Spencer Group . Announced in mid @-@ 2011 , and named ' Energy Works ' , the proposed plant would process up to 200 @,@ 000 tonnes of organic material per year , with energy produced via a waste gasification process .
In July 2014 , demolition began in the Fruit Market to allow room for the construction of the C4DI ( Centre for Digital Innovation ) , a technology hub whose aim is to promote the tech sector in Hull and East Yorkshire .
= = Culture = =
Hull has several museums of national importance . The city has a theatrical tradition with some famous actors and writers having been born and lived in Hull . The city 's arts and heritage have played a role in attracting visitors and encouraging tourism in recent efforts at regeneration . Hull has a diverse range of architecture and this is complemented by parks and squares and a number of statues and modern sculptures . The city has inspired author Val Wood who has set many of her best @-@ selling novels in the city .
In April 2013 Hull put forward a bid to be the UK City of Culture in 2017 , reaching the shortlist of four in June 2013 along with Dundee , Leicester and Swansea Bay . On 20 November 2013 , Maria Miller , the Culture Secretary , announced that Hull had won the award to become the UK City of Culture 2017 .
= = = Museums = = =
Hull 's Museum Quarter , on the High Street in the heart of the Old Town , consists of Wilberforce House , the Arctic Corsair , the Hull and East Riding Museum ( which contains the Hasholme Logboat – Britain 's largest surviving prehistoric logboat ) , and the Streetlife Museum of Transport . Other museums and visitor attractions include the Ferens Art Gallery with a good range of art and regular exhibitions , the Maritime Museum in Victoria Square , the Spurn Lightship , the Yorkshire Water Museum , and the Deep , a public aquarium . The recently refurbished Seven Seas Fish Trail marks Hull 's fishing heritage , leading its followers through old and new sections of the city , following a wide variety of sealife engraved in the pavement .
= = = = Visual culture and sculpture = = = =
Marine painter John Ward ( 1798 – 1849 ) was born , worked and died in Hull and a leading ship artist of his day . Artist and Royal Academician David Remfry ( born 1942 ) grew up in Hull and studied at the Hull College of Art ( now part of Lincoln University ) from 1959 to 1964 . His tutor , Gerald T Harding , trained at the Royal College of Art , London and was awarded the Abbey Minor Travelling Scholarship in 1957 by the British School in Rome . Remfry has had two solo exhibitions at the Ferens Art Gallery in 1975 and 2005 .
Hull has a number of historical statues such as the Wilberforce Memorial in Queen 's Gardens and the gilded King William III statue on Market Place ( known locally as " King Billy " ) . There is a statue of Hull @-@ born Amy Johnson in Prospect Street . In recent years a number of modern art sculptures and heritage trails have been installed around Hull . These include a figure looking out to the Humber called ' Voyage ' which has a twin in Iceland . In July 2011 , this artwork was reported stolen . There is a shark sculpture outside The Deep and a fountain and installation called ' Tower of Light ' outside Britannia House on the corner of Spring Bank .
Running along Spring Bank there is also an elephant trail , with stone pavers carved by a local artist to the designs of members of the community . This trail commemorates the Victorian Zoological Gardens and the route taken daily by the elephant as it walked from its house down Spring Bank to the zoo and back , stopping for gingerbread at a shop on the way . The animals are further represented on the Albany Street ' Home Zone ' a project involving local residents and resulting in sculptures of a hippo ( ' Water Horse ' ) at the bottom of Albany Street ; an elephant balancing on its trunk on an island in the middle ; and two bears climbing poles and reaching out to each other to form an open archway across the entrance to Albany street from Spring Bank . Other sculptural details of animals along the street represent the participation of street residents , either through workshops with artists and makers , or through independent work of their own .
In 2010 a public art event in Hull city centre entitled Larkin with Toads displayed 40 individually decorated giant toad models as the centrepiece of the Larkin 25 festival . Most of these sculptures have since been sold off for charity and transported to their new owners . Visitors to Hull 's Paragon Interchange are now greeted by the new statue of Philip Larkin unveiled on 2 December 2010 .
= = = Theatres = = =
The city has two main theatres . Hull New Theatre , which opened in 1939 , is the largest venue which features musicals , opera , ballet , drama , children 's shows and pantomime . The Hull Truck Theatre is a smaller independent theatre , established in 1971 , that regularly features plays , notably those written by John Godber . Since April 2009 , the Hull Truck Theatre has had a new £ 14 @.@ 5 million , 440 seat venue in the St. Stephen 's Hull development . This replaced the former home of the Hull Truck Theatre on Spring Street , a complex of buildings demolished in 2011 . The playwright Alan Plater was brought up in Hull and was associated with Hull Truck Theatre .
Hull has produced several veteran stage and TV actors . Sir Tom Courtenay , Ian Carmichael and Maureen Lipman were born and brought up in Hull . Younger actors Reece Shearsmith , Debra Stephenson and Liam Garrigan were also born in Hull . Garrigan attended Hull 's Northern Theatre Company and Wyke College .
In 1914 , there were 29 cinemas in Hull but most of these have now closed . The first purpose @-@ built cinema was the Prince 's Hall in George Street which was opened in 1910 by Hull 's theatre magnate , William Morton . It was subsequently renamed the Curzon .
= = = Poetry = = =
Hull has attracted the attention of poets to the extent that the Australian author Peter Porter has described it as " the most poetic city in England " .
Philip Larkin set many of his poems in Hull ; these include " The Whitsun Weddings " , " Toads " , and " Here " . Scottish @-@ born Douglas Dunn 's Terry Street , a portrait of working @-@ class Hull life , is one the outstanding poetry collections of the 1970s . Dunn forged close associations with such Hull poets as Peter Didsbury and Sean O 'Brien ; the works of some of these writers appear in the 1982 Bloodaxe anthology A Rumoured City , a work that Dunn edited . Andrew Motion , past Poet Laureate , lectured at the University of Hull between 1976 and 1981 , and Roger McGough studied there . Both poets spoke at the Humber Mouth Festival in 2010 . Contemporary poets associated with Hull are Maggie Hannan , David Wheatley , and Caitriona O 'Reilly .
17th @-@ century metaphysical poet and parliamentarian Andrew Marvell was born nearby , grew up and was educated in the city . There is a statue in his honour in the Market Square ( Trinity Square ) , set against the backdrop of his alma mater Hull Grammar School .
= = = Music = = =
= = = = Classical = = = =
In the field of classical music , Hull is home to Sinfonia UK Collective ( formerly Hull Sinfonietta , founded in 2004 ) , a national and international touring group that serves Hull and its surrounding regions in its role as Ensemble in Residence at University of Hull , and also the Hull Philharmonic Orchestra , one of the oldest amateur orchestras in the country. and formerly The Hull Philharmonic Youth Orchestra , established in 1952 , the Hull Choral Union , the Hull Bach Choir – which specialises in the performance of 17th- and 18th @-@ century choral music , the Hull Male Voice Choir , the Arterian Singers and two Gilbert & Sullivan Societies : the Dagger Lane Operatic Society and the Hull Savoyards are also based in Hull . There are two brass bands , the East Yorkshire Motor Services Band , who are the current North of England Area Brass Band Champions , and East Riding of Yorkshire Band who are the 2014 North of England Regional Champions within their section .
Hull City Hall annually plays host to major British and European symphony Orchestras with its ' International Masters ' orchestral concert season . During the 2009 – 10 season visiting orchestra 's included the St Petersburg Symphony Orchestra and the Czech National Symphony Orchestra . Internationally renowned touring pop , rock , and comedy acts also regularly play the City Hall .
In September 2013 a five @-@ year partnership with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra was announced by the City Council .
= = = = Rock , pop and folk = = = =
On the popular music scene , in the 1960s , Mick Ronson of the Hull band Rats worked closely with David Bowie and was heavily involved in production of the album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars . Ronson later went on to record with Lou Reed , Bob Dylan , Morrissey and the Wildhearts . There is a Mick Ronson Memorial Stage in Queen 's Gardens in Hull . The 1960s were also notable for the revival of English folk music , of which the Hull @-@ based quartet , the Watersons were prominent exponents .
In the 1980s , Hull groups such as the Red Guitars , the Housemartins and Everything but the Girl found mainstream success , followed by Kingmaker in the 1990s . Paul Heaton , former member of the Housemartins went on to front the Beautiful South . Another former member of the Housemartins , Norman Cook , now performs as Fatboy Slim . In 1982 , Hull @-@ born Paul Anthony Cook , Stuart Matthewman and Paul Spencer Denman formed the group Sade . In 1984 , the singer Helen Adu signed to CBS Records and the group released the album Diamond Life . The album had sales of four million copies . Vocalist and actor Roland Gift , who formed the Fine Young Cannibals , grew up in Hull .
The pioneering industrial band Throbbing Gristle formed in Hull ; Genesis P @-@ Orridge ( Neil Megson ) attended Hull University between 1968 and 1969 , where he met Cosey Fanni Tutti ( Christine Newby ) , who was born in the city , and first became part of the Hull performance art group COUM Transmissions in 1970 .
The record label Pork Recordings started in Hull in the mid @-@ 1990s and has released music by Fila Brazillia .
The New Adelphi is a popular local venue for alternative live music in the city , and has achieved notability outside Hull , having hosted such bands as the Stone Roses , Radiohead , Green Day , and Oasis in its history , while the Springhead caters to a variety of bands and has been recognised nationally as a ' Live Music Pub of the Year ' .
In the 2000s , Hull indie rock band The Paddingtons saw mainstream success with two UK Top 40 singles in 2005 , later reforming in 2014 and performing at the Humber Street Sesh with notable bands such as Sulu Babylon and Street Parade .
In the 1990s , the duo Scarlet from Hull had two Top 40 hits with " Independent Love Song " and " I Wanna Be Free ( To Be With Him ) " in 1995 .
The Humber Street Sesh night has released four DIY compilations featuring the cream of Hull 's live music scene , and there are currently a few labels emerging in the city , including Purple Worm Records based at Hull College , with bands such as The Blackbirds showing a promising future .
= = = Nightlife , bars and pubs = = =
The drinking culture in Hull city centre tends towards late bars , while the wine bars and pubs around Hull University and its accommodation area are popular with students . In particular , the areas around Newland Avenue and Prince 's Avenue have seen a rapid expansion in continental @-@ style bars and cafes encouraged by the redesign of the street layout .
= = = Festivals = = =
The Humber Mouth literature festival is an annual event and the 2012 season featured artists such as John Cooper Clarke , Kevin MacNeil and Miriam Margolyes . The annual Hull Jazz Festival takes place around the Marina area for a week at the beginning of August .
As of 2008 Hull has also held Freedom Festival ; an annual free arts and live music event that celebrates freedom in all its forms . Performers have included Pixie Lott , JLS and Martha Reeves and The Vandellas , Public Service Broadcasting and The 1975 as well as featuring a torchlight procession , local bands like The Talks and Happy Endings from Fruit Trade Music label and a Ziggy Stardust photo exhibition including photos of the late @-@ Hull @-@ born Mick Ronson who worked with David Bowie .
Early October sees the arrival of Hull Fair which is one of Europe 's largest travelling funfairs and takes place on land adjacent to the KCOM Stadium .
The Hull Global Food Festival held its third annual event in the city 's Queen Victoria Square for three days – 4 – 6 September 2009 . According to officials , the event in 2007 attracted 125 @,@ 000 visitors and brought some £ 5 million in revenue to the area . In 2007 the Hull Metalfest began in the Welly Club , it featured major label bands from the United States , Canada and Italy , as well as the UK . The first Hull Comedy Festival , which included performers such as Stewart Lee and Russell Howard was held in 2007 .
In 2010 , Hull marked the 25th anniversary of the death of the poet Philip Larkin with the Larkin 25 Festival . This included the popular Larkin with Toads public art event . The 40 Larkin toads were displayed around Hull and later sold off in a charity auction . A charity appeal raised funds to cast a life @-@ size bronze statue of Philip Larkin , to a design by Martin Jennings , at Hull Paragon Interchange . The statue was unveiled at a ceremony attended by the Lord Mayor of Hull on 2 December 2010 , the 25th anniversary of Larkin 's death . It bears an inscription drawn from the first line of Larkin 's poem , ' The Whitsun Weddings ' .
In 2013 , from 29 April to 5 May , Hull Fashion Week took place with various events happening in venues in and around Hull 's City centre . It finished with a finale on 5 May at Hull Paragon Interchange , when recently reformed pop group Atomic Kitten appeared in a celebrity fashion show .
On 3 August 2013 , the second Humber Street Sesh Festival took place celebrating local music talent and arts , with several stages showcasing bands and artists from the Fruit Trade Music Label , Humber Street Sesh and Purple Worm Records .
= = Parks and green spaces = =
Hull has a large number of parks and green spaces . These include East Park , Pearson Park , Pickering Park , Peter Pan Park ( Costello Playing fields ) , and West Park . West Park is home to Hull 's KCOM Stadium . Pearson Park contains a lake and a ' Victorian Conservatory ' housing birds and reptiles . East Park has a large boating lake and a collection of birds and animals . East Park and Pearson Park are registered Grade II listed sites by Historic England . The city centre has the large Queen 's Gardens parkland at its heart . This was originally built as formal ornamental gardens used to fill in the former Queen 's Dock . It is now a more flexible grassed and landscaped area used for concerts and festivals , but retains a large ornamental flower circus and fountain at its western end .
The streets of Hull 's suburban areas also lined with large numbers of trees , particularly the Avenues area around Princes Avenue and Boulevard to the west . Many of the old trees in the Avenues district have been felled in recent years with the stumps carved into a variety of ' living sculptures ' . Other green areas include the University area and parts of Beverley Road to the north .
West Hull has a district known as ' Botanic ' . This recalls the short @-@ lived Botanic Garden that once existed on the site now occupied by Hymers College . Elephants once lived nearby in the former Zoological Gardens on Spring Bank and were paraded in the local streets . The land has since been redeveloped . There was also a former Botanic Garden between Hessle Road and the Anlaby Road commemorated by Linnaeus Street .
= = Media = =
Hull 's only local daily newspaper is the longstanding Hull Daily Mail , whose circulation area covers much of the East Riding of Yorkshire too . A free paper , The Hull Advertiser , used to be issued weekly by the same publisher . The city was once served by three competing daily newspapers , all operating from the Whitefriargate area Eastern Morning News , Hull News and Hull and East Yorkshire Times . On 17 April 1930 the last edition of Evening News was published after the paper was taken over by its longstanding rival the Hull Daily Mail .
Local listings and what 's @-@ on guides include Tenfoot City Magazine and Sandman Magazine ( combined into single volume covering all of England , print version then made defunct in favour of online site ) . The BBC has its Yorkshire and Lincolnshire regional headquarters at Queen 's Gardens , from which the regional news programme Look North is broadcast .
Radio services broadcasting from the city are Hull 's community radio station 106 @.@ 9 West Hull FM ( formerly 106.9FM WHCR ) and the BBC 's regional station BBC Radio Humberside , as well as commercial stations Viking FM , KCFM and Viking 2 ( radio ) formally Magic 1161 although all but it 's breakfast show are not broadcast from Hull . There is also the smallest station in Hull , Kingstown Radio , a hospital @-@ based radio station founded in 1961 , all of which broadcast to the wider East Riding of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire area . The Hull University Union 's student radio station Jam 1575 , stopped broadcasting on MW due to funding cuts , but has recently ( in 2014 ) re @-@ launched as JamRadio , as an online only station , aimed at students at the University .
On 24 November 2013 a RSL ( Restricted Service Licence ) was given to new station " Hull Community Radio " broadcasting on 87 @.@ 9 FM . As of 2014 , it is now broadcasting online only and is bidding for a licence from Ofcom to broadcast on FM to East Hull .
= = Sport = =
The Hull area has available a wide range of both spectator and participatory sporting clubs and organisations . There are various sports such as professional football , rugby league , golf , darts , athletics and watersports .
The city 's professional football club , Hull City A.F.C. ( The Tigers ) , play in the Premier League , the first tier of the English football league system , after promotion from the Championship in the 2016 play @-@ off final win against Sheffield Wednesday . The team play at the KCOM Stadium . There are also two non @-@ league clubs based in the city , Hall Road Rangers , who play at Haworth Park , and Hull United , who play at Craven Park . Both teams play in the Northern Counties East Division One .
Hull is also a rugby league hub , having two clubs who play in the Super League competition . Hull F.C. , alongside the city 's football club Hull City , play at the KCOM Stadium while Hull Kingston Rovers play at Craven Park in East Hull . There are also several lower league teams in the city , such as East Hull , West Hull , Hull Dockers and Hull Isberg , who all play in the National Conference League . Rugby union is catered for by Hull Ionians who play at Brantingham Park. and Hull RUFC who are based in the city .
The city has two athletics clubs based at the Costello Stadium in the west of the city – Kingston upon Hull Athletics Club and Hull Achilies Athletics Club .
Cycling wise the city is home to Hull Cycle Speedway Club situated at the Hessle raceway near the Humber bridge . The side race in the sports Northern league and won both the league titles in 2008 . Other cycling clubs also operate throughout the city including Hull Thursday , the areas road racing group .
The city also has Hull Arena , a large ice rink and concert venue , which was home to the Hull Pirates ice hockey team who played in the English Premier League . It is also home to the Kingston Kestrels sledge hockey team . In August 2010 , Hull Daily Mail reported that Hull Stingrays was facing closure , following a financial crisis . The club was subsequently saved from closure following a takeover by Coventry Blaze . But on 24 June 2015 , the club announced on its official website that it has been placed into liquidation .
The Hull Hornets American Football ( existed from 2005 until 2011 ) The Club which acquired full member status of the British American Football League on 5 November 2006 and played in the BAFL Division 2 Central league for 5 years . The Humber Warhawks formed in 2013 are now Hull 's American football team . Greyhound racing returned to the city on 25 October 2007 when The Boulevard stadium re @-@ opened as a venue for the sport . In mid @-@ 2006 Hull was home to the professional wrestling company One Pro Wrestling , which held the Devils Due event on 27 July in the Gemtec Arena . From 16 May 2008 , Hull gained its own homegrown wrestling company based at the Eastmount Recreation Centre- — New Generation Wrestling — -that have featured the likes of El Ligero , Kris Travis , Martin Kirby and Alex Shane .
Hull Lacrosse Club was formed in 2008 and currently plays in the Premier 3 division of the North of England Men 's Lacrosse Association .
The city played host to the Clipper Round the World Yacht Race , a tough 35 @,@ 000 miles ( 56 @,@ 000 km ) race around the globe , for the 2009 – 10 race which started on 13 September 2009 and finished on 17 July 2010 . The locally named yacht , Hull and Humber , captained by Danny Watson , achieved second place in the 2007 – 2008 race .
The city hosted The British Open Squash Championships at the KC Stadium in 2013 and 2014 .
= = Transport = =
The main road into and out of Hull is the M62 motorway / A63 road , one of the main east – west routes in Northern England . It provides a link to the cities of Leeds , Manchester and Liverpool , as well as the rest of the country via the UK motorway network . The motorway itself ends some distance from the city ; the rest of the route is along the A63 dual carriageway . This east – west route forms a small part of the European road route E20 .
Hull is close to the Humber Bridge , which provides road links to destinations south of the Humber . It was built between 1972 and 1981 , and at the time was the longest single @-@ span suspension bridge in the world . It is now seventh on the list .
Before the bridge was built , those wishing to cross the Humber had to either take a Humber Ferry or travel inland as far as Goole .
Public transport within the city is provided East Yorkshire Motor Services ( EYMS ) , Stagecoach in Hull and CT Plus . Stagecoach In Hull provide the inter @-@ city transport serving suburban areas such as Bransholme , Greatfield and Orchard Park , as well as going to places such as Cleethorpes , Grimsby and Scunthorpe . EYMS serve the outer @-@ city and the East Riding of Yorkshire as well as places such as Pocklington , Scarborough , Whitby and York .
Hull Paragon Interchange , opened on 16 September 2007 , is the city 's transport hub , combining the main bus and rail termini in an integrated complex . It is expected to have 24 @,@ 000 people passing through the complex each day . There is services that run to certain other parts of the UK . These include through expresses to London , up to seven per day provided by Hull Trains and one a day ( the Hull Executive ) by Virgin Trains East Coast . Other long @-@ distance rail services are provided by TransPennine Express serving Leeds and Manchester . The nearest access to fast East Coast Main Line services northwards to Teesside , Tyneside and Scotland is via either York or Doncaster , in either case requiring a connecting journey by local train from Hull . Hull also has no through trains to the West Midlands and beyond . Northern operates regular local stopping trains to Beverley , Brough and Goole , and the coastal towns of Bridlington and Scarborough , along with services to Selby , York , Doncaster and Sheffield .
P & O Ferries provide daily overnight ferry services from King George Dock in Hull to Zeebrugge and Rotterdam . Services to Rotterdam are worked by ferries MS Pride of Rotterdam and MS Pride of Hull . Services to Zeebrugge are worked by ferries MS Pride of Bruges and MS Pride of York ( previously named MS Norsea ) . Both Pride of Rotterdam and Pride of Hull are too wide to pass through the lock at Hull . Associated British Ports built a new terminal at Hull to accommodate the passengers using these two ferries . The Rotterdam Terminal at the Port of Hull , was built at a cost of £ 14 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 .
The nearest airport is Humberside Airport , 20 miles ( 32 km ) away in Lincolnshire , which provides a few charter flights but also has high @-@ frequency flights to Amsterdam with KLM and Aberdeen with Eastern Airways each day . Robin Hood Airport in South Yorkshire is 48 miles ( 77 km ) from Hull city centre and provides a wider choice of charter flights as well as a number of low @-@ cost flights to certain European destinations . The nearest airport with intercontinental flights is Leeds Bradford International Airport ( 70 miles ) .
Road transport in Hull suffers from delays caused both by the many bridges over the navigable River Hull , which bisects the city and which can cause disruption at busy times , and from the remaining three railway level crossings in the city . The level @-@ crossing problem was greatly relieved during the 1960s by the closure of the Hornsea and Withernsea branch lines , by the transfer of all goods traffic to the high @-@ level line that circles the city , and by the construction of two major road bridges on Hessle Road ( 1962 ) and Anlaby Road ( 1964 ) .
According to the 2001 census data cycling in the city is well above the national average of 2 % , with a 12 % share of the travel to work traffic . A report by the University of East London in 2011 ranked Hull as the fourth @-@ best cycling city in the United Kingdom .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Telephone system = = =
Hull is the only city in the UK with its own independent telephone network company , KCOM , formerly KC and Kingston Communications , a subsidiary of KCOM Group . Its distinctive cream telephone boxes can be seen across the city . KCOM produces its own ' White Pages ' telephone directory for Hull and the wider KC area . Colour Pages is KCOM 's business directory , the counterpart to Yellow Pages . The company was formed in 1902 as a municipal department by the City Council and is an early example of municipal enterprise . It remains the only locally operated telephone company in the UK , although it is now privatised . KCOM 's Internet brands are Karoo Broadband ( ISP serving Hull ) and Eclipse ( national ISP ) Initially Hull City Council retained a 44 @.@ 9 per cent interest in the company and used the proceeds from the sale of shares to fund the city 's sports venue , the KCOM Stadium , among other things . On 24 May 2007 it sold its remaining stake in the company for over £ 107 million .
KCOM ( Kingston Communications ) was one of the first telecoms operators in Europe to offer ADSL to business users , and the first in the world to run an interactive television service using ADSL , known as Kingston Interactive TV ( KiT ) , which has since been discontinued due to financial problems . In the last decade , the KCOM Group has expanded beyond Hull and diversified its service portfolio to become a nationwide provider of telephone , television , and Internet access services , having close to 180 @,@ 000 customers projected for 2007 . After its ambitious programme of expansion , KCOM has struggled in recent years and now has partnerships with other telecommunications firms such as BT who are contracted to manage its national infrastructure . Telephone House , on Carr Lane , the firm 's 1960s @-@ built headquarters , in stark modernist style , is a local landmark .
= = = Hydraulic power = = =
The first public hydraulic power network , supplying many companies , was constructed in Hull . The Hull Hydraulic Power Company began operation in 1877 , with Edward B. Ellington as its engineer and the main pumping station ( now a Grade II listed building ) in Catherine Street . Ellington was involved in most British networks , including those in London , Liverpool , Birmingham , Manchester and Glasgow , but the advent of electrical power combined with wartime damage meant the Hull company was wound up in 1947 .
= = = Public services = = =
Policing in Kingston upon Hull is provided by Humberside Police . In October 2006 the force was named ( jointly with Northamptonshire Police ) as the worst @-@ performing police force in the United Kingdom , based on data released from the Home Office . However , after a year of " major improvements " , the Home Office list released in October 2007 shows the force rising several places ( although still among the bottom six of 43 forces rated ) . Humberside Police received ratings of " good " or " fair " in most categories .
HM Prison Hull is located in the city and is operated by HM Prison Service . It caters for up to 1 @,@ 000 Category B / C adult male prisoners .
Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Humberside Fire and Rescue Service , which has its headquarters near Hessle and five fire stations in Hull . This service was formed in 1974 following local government reorganisation from the amalgamation of the East Riding of Yorkshire County Fire Service , Grimsby Borough Fire and Rescue Service , Kingston Upon Hull City Fire Brigade and part of the Lincoln ( Lindsey ) Fire Brigade and a small part of the West Riding of Yorkshire County Fire and Rescue Service .
Hull and East Yorkshire Hospitals NHS Trust provides healthcare from three sites , Hull Royal Infirmary , Castle Hill Hospital and , until 2010 , Princess Royal Hospital and there are several private hospitals including ones run by BUPA and Nuffield Hospitals . The Yorkshire Ambulance Service provides emergency patient transport . NHS primary health care services are commissioned by the Hull Clinical Commissioning Group and are provided at several smaller clinics and general practitioner surgeries across the city . NHS Mental health services in Hull are provided by Humber NHS Foundation Trust . It runs a memory clinic in Coltman Street , west Hull designed to help older people with early onset dementia .
Waste management is co @-@ ordinated by the local authority . The Waste Recycling Group is a company which works in partnership with the Hull City and East Riding of Yorkshire councils to deal with the waste produced by residents . The company plans to build an energy from waste plant at Salt End to deal with 240 @,@ 000 tonnes of rubbish and put waste to a productive use by providing power for the equivalent of 20 @,@ 000 houses . Hull 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is CE Electric UK ( YEDL ) ; there are no power stations in the city . Yorkshire Water manages Hull 's drinking and waste water . Drinking water is provided by boreholes and aquifers in the East Riding of Yorkshire , and it is abstracted from the River Hull at Tophill Low , near Hutton Cranswick . Should either supply experience difficulty meeting demand , water abstracted from the River Derwent at both Elvington and Loftsome Bridge can be moved to Hull via the Yorkshire water grid . There are many reservoirs in the area for storage of potable and non @-@ potable water . Waste water and sewage has to be transported in a wholly pumped system because of the flat nature of the terrain to a sewage treatment works at Salt End . The treatment works is partly powered by both a wind turbine and a biogas CHP engine .
= = Education = =
= = = Higher education = = =
= = = = University of Hull = = = =
Kingston upon Hull is home to the University of Hull , which was founded in 1927 and received its Royal Charter in 1954 . It now has a total student population of around 20 @,@ 000 across its main campuses in Hull and Scarborough . The main University campus is in North Hull , on Cottingham Road . Notable alumni include former Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott , the poet Philip Larkin , social scientist Lord Anthony Giddens , Woman 's Hour presenter and writer Jenni Murray , and the dramatist Anthony Minghella . Hull University is a partner in the new University Centre of the Grimsby Institute of Further and Higher Education ( GIFE ) being built in Grimsby , North Lincolnshire .
= = = = Hull York Medical School = = = =
The Hull York Medical School ( HYMS ) is a joint venture between the University of Hull and the University of York . It first admitted students in 2003 as a part of the British government 's attempts to train more doctors .
= = = = University of Lincoln = = = =
The University of Lincoln grew out of the University of Humberside , a former polytechnic based in Hull . In the 1990s the focus of the institution moved to nearby Lincoln and the administrative headquarters and management moved in 2001 . The University of Lincoln has retained a campus in George Street in Hull city centre whilst Hull University purchased the adjacent University of Lincoln campus site on Cottingham Road . Following government cuts to Higher Education funding , the George Street campus is due to close in 2013 with courses transferred to Lincoln .
= = = = Other institutions = = = =
The Hull School of Art , founded in 1861 , is regarded nationally and internationally for its excellence as a specialist creative centre for higher education .
The Northern Academy of Performing Arts and Northern Theatre School both provide education in musical theatre , performance and dance .
= = = Schools and colleges = = =
Hull has over 100 local schools ; of these , Hull City Council supports 14 secondary and 71 primary schools . The highest achieving state school in Hull is Malet Lambert School , Schools which are independent of the City Council include Hymers College and Hull Collegiate School . The latter , which is run by the United Church Schools Trust , was formed by the merging of Hull Grammar School and Hull High School . There is a further education college , Hull College , and two large sixth form colleges , Wyke College and Wilberforce College . East Riding College operates a small adult education campus in the city , and Endeavour Learning and Skills Centre is an adult education provision operated by HCC Training . Hull Trinity House Academy has been offering pre @-@ sea training to prospective mariners since 1787 . There are only two single @-@ sex schools in Hull : Trinity House Academy , which teaches only boys , and Newland School for Girls .
= = = = Schools ratings = = = =
The city has had a poor examination success rate for many years and is often at the bottom of government GCSE league tables . In the 2007 the city moved off the bottom of these tables for pupils who achieve five A * to C grades , including English and Maths , at General Certificate of Secondary Education by just one place when it came 149th out of 150 local education authorities . However , the improvement rate of 4 @.@ 1 per cent , from 25 @.@ 9 per cent in 2006 to 30 per cent in summer 2007 , was among the best in the country . They returned to the bottom of the table in 2008 when 29 @.@ 3 per cent achieved five A * to C grades which is well below the national average of 47 @.@ 2 per cent .
= = Dialect and accent = =
The local accent is quite distinctive and noticeably different from the rest of the East Riding ; however it is still categorised among Yorkshire accents . The most notable feature of the accent is the strong I @-@ mutation in words like goat , which is [ ˈɡəʊt ] in standard English and [ ˈɡoːt ] across most of Yorkshire , becomes [ ˈɡɵːt ] ( " gert " ) in and around parts of Hull , although there is variation across areas and generations . In common with much of England ( outside of the far north ) , another feature is dropping the H from the start of words , for example Hull is more often pronounced ' Ull in the city . The vowel in " Hull " is pronounced the same way as in northern English , however , and not as the very short / ʊ / that exists in Lincolnshire . Though the rhythm of the accent is more like that of northern Lincolnshire than that of the rural East Riding , which is perhaps due to migration from Lincolnshire to the city during its industrial growth , one feature that it does share with the surrounding rural area is that an / aɪ / sound in the middle of a word often becomes an / ɑː / : for example , " five " may sound like " fahve " , " time " like " tahme " .
The vowel sound in words such as burnt , nurse , first is pronounced with an / ɛ / sound , as is also heard in Middlesbrough and in areas of Liverpool yet this sound is very uncommon in most of Yorkshire . The word pairs spur / spare and fur / fair illustrate this . The generational and / or geographic variation can be heard in word pairs like pork / poke or cork / coke , or hall / hole , which some people pronounce almost identically , sounding to non @-@ locals like they are using the second of the two variations - while others make more of a vocal distinction ; anyone called " Paul " ( for example ) soon becomes aware of this ( pall / pole ) .
= = Notable people = =
Most of the notable people associated with the city can be found in the People from Kingston upon Hull and People associated with the University of Hull categories .
People from Hull are called " Hullensians " and the city has been the birthplace and home to many notable people . Amongst those of historic significance with a connection to Hull are former city MP William Wilberforce who was instrumental in the abolition of slavery and Amy Johnson , aviator who was the first woman to fly solo from England to Australia .
Entertainers from the city include ; Dorothy Mackaill , 1950 's singer David Whitfield , sports commentator Tony Green , actors Sir Tom Courtenay , Ian Carmichael , John Alderton and more recently Reece Shearsmith. and actress Maureen Lipman . Playwrights Richard Bean , John Godber and Alan Plater have close connections with Hull .
Musicians include ; Paul Heaton of The Housemartins and The Beautiful South and guitarist Mick Ronson and Trevor Bolder who worked with David Bowie and more recently 2000 's Indie band The Paddingtons . The logician John Venn hailed from Hull . The poet Philip Larkin lived in Hull for 30 years and wrote much of his mature work in the city . Artist David Remfry RA studied at Hull College of Art before moving to London and New York .
Chemist Professor George Gray , who had a 45 @-@ year career at the university , developed the first stable liquid crystals that became an immediate success for the screens of all sorts of electronic gadgets . Notable sportspeople include Clive Sullivan , rugby league player , who played for both of Hull 's professional rugby league teams and was the first black Briton to captain any national representative team . The main A63 road into the city from the Humber Bridge is named after him ( Clive Sullivan Way ) . Nick Barmby played for Tottenham Hotspur , Middlesbrough , Everton , Liverpool , and Leeds United before returning to play for his hometown club Hull City . He also won 23 England caps and played in the famous 5 @-@ 1 victory over Germany in 2001 . Another footballer is Dean Windass , who had two spells with Hull City . On accepting a peerage , Welsh @-@ born Baron Prescott of Kingston @-@ upon @-@ Hull ( former MP and Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott ) took his title from his adopted home city of Hull .
= = International relations = =
Hull has formal twinning arrangements with
The following cities are named directly after Hull :
Hull , Massachusetts , United States
Hull , Quebec , Canada
= = = Local rivalries = = =
Hull has a longstanding local rivalry with the southbank towns of Scunthorpe and Grimsby on the opposite side of the Humber .
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= History of the Rove Formation =
The Rove Formation is located in the upper northeastern part of Cook County , Minnesota , United States , and extends into Ontario , Canada . It is the youngest of the many Animikie layers , a layer of sedimentary rocks .
Before the Rove sediments were laid down , during the Archean Eon , the Algoman orogeny added landmass along a border from South Dakota to the Lake Huron region ; this boundary is the Great Lakes tectonic zone . Several million years later a thin layer of hypervelocity impact ejecta from the Sudbury impact event was deposited on the older , underlying , Gunflint Iron Formation , and the Rove was then deposited on top of the ejecta ; it is estimated that at ground zero the earthquake generated by the meteor impact would have registered 10 @.@ 2 on the Richter scale .
During the Middle Precambrian a shallow inland sea covered much of the Lake Superior region and formed the Animikie Group , layers of sedimentary rocks overlying 2700 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Archean rocks . The Rove Formation is the youngest of the many Animikie layers .
After the Rove sediments were deposited , the Penokean orogeny added more land mass by accretion that occurred from the south . A few hundred million years later the proto @-@ North American continent nearly split in half along the Midcontinent Rift zone , which is a bow @-@ shaped rift extending from northeast Kansas , arcing through the present @-@ day Lake Superior Basin and then angling southeast through Michigan . Then came a period of advancing and retreating glaciers . The more resistant diabase sills and dikes remained , while the softer shales were bulldozed away by the glaciers . The north path of glaciation is transverse to the general trend on the valleys and ridges .
As a result of erosion of sandstone and the erosion @-@ resistant sills and dikes , the topography in Minnesota has repeated parallel hills and valleys . The tightly packed lakes in the narrow valleys are long and narrow , and they orient from the east to west . The cliffs in these narrow valleys are the habitat to several rare plants which prefer living in narrow cliff areas in a sub @-@ Arctic climate . In Ontario the Rove Formation is overlain by a thick diabase cap .
= = Location = =
The Rove Formation is in the Arrowhead Region of northeastern Minnesota , U.S. , and extends into Ontario , Canada . In Minnesota it occurs along the U.S.-Ontario border from Gunflint Lake to Pigeon Point ( both in northeastern Cook County ) and northward into Canada . Pigeon Point is the most eastern part of Minnesota ; it is a diabase sill about 152 m ( 500 ft ) thick . Both the north and south coasts of the point expose Rove slates under and over the sill . Within the sill , rates of cooling and gravity have created an interesting distribution of rock types .
The visible formation is in Minnesota and contains many east @-@ west oriented ridges and valleys . Many lakes in this 5 to 8 km ( 3 to 5 mi ) wide band along the Canadian border are in the elongated east @-@ west valleys ; included are Caribou , Clearwater , Crocodile , Daniels , Duncan , Dunn , Hungry Jack , Iron , Loon , Moose , Pine , Portage and South . In Ontario the Rove Formation is overlaid by a thick diabase sill .
= = Geologic history = =
= = = Archean Eon = = =
The Archean Eon lasted from 3 @,@ 800 million years ago until approximately 2 @,@ 500 million years ago .
The Algoman orogeny occurred 2800 to 2 @,@ 500 million years ago , and it marks the end of the crust @-@ building Archean Eon . There were several episodes of continental collision , compression and subduction which resulted in mountain building during this time . Orogenic events are characterized by extensive metaphorism , granitic extrusions and unconformities . The Algoman orogeny added landmass along a border from South Dakota to the Lake Huron region ; this boundary is the Great Lakes tectonic zone ( GLTZ ) .
Northeast Minnesota has 2700 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ ago exposed rocks formed during volcanic activity that was in the form of seepage of lava from rifts in the sea floor . These lava flows began to rise up out of the ancient ocean to form the Superior craton ; the Superior craton later assembled into the Canadian shield , which became part of the North American craton . The Superior province is the largest preserved fragment of Archean crust , and the Canadian shield is the nucleus of the North American craton .
= = = Proterozoic Eon = = =
The Proterozoic Eon lasted from 2 @,@ 500 million years ago until 570 million years ago
= = = = Animikie Group = = = =
The Animikie Basin , measuring 700 x 400 km ( 420 mi x 240 mi ) , is an elongated oval straddling the North Shore of Lake Superior , mainly in Minnesota . Approximately the northwestern two @-@ thirds lies to the northwest of the shoreline ; the southeastern third lies to the southeast of the shoreline ( so is under Lake Superior 's waters ) .
During the Middle Precambrian a shallow inland sea covered much of the Lake Superior region and formed the Animikie Group , which are layers of sedimentary rocks which unconformably overlies 2700 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Archean rocks . This group contains both the Rove and Gunflint Iron formations . The Rove Formation is the youngest of the many Animikie layers ; it consists of gently tilted fine @-@ grained sediments . It is composed of greywackes and black shale , and contains lower concentrations of iron and taconite than the underlying Gunflint Iron Formation does .
The Rove Formation consists of a lower argillite unit , a middle transition unit and an upper thin @-@ bedded greywacke unit . The lower argillite unit is about 150 m ( 490 ft ) thick ; this layer contains fine @-@ grained greywacke , and silty and graphitic argillites . Greywacke is a sedimentary rock composed of a mixture of poorly sorted grains of sand , silt and clay particles . Argillite is a fine @-@ grained sedimentary rock composed primarily of clay particles ; they are essentially lithified muds and oozes . Greywacke is abundant in the middle unit and dominates the upper unit . The complete thickness of the upper two units is about 900 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) .
Gunter Faure and Jack Kovach , using Rb @-@ Sr dating , determined the age to be 1635 ± 24 million years old . The Resident Geologist Program , Geology of the Thunder Bay South District , reports an age of 1800 million years old .
= = = = Penokean orogeny = = = =
The Penokean Mountain Range formed in the Penokean orogeny 1880 to 1830 million years ago , when an oceanic island arc called the Pembine – Wausau terrane collided with the southern margin of the Superior craton . From 1880 to 1850 million years ago , the region was volcanically active . This volcanism ceased 1850 million years ago when a fragment of Archean crust arrived from the South at the subduction zone . Collision of this Archean crust in the south with the Superior craton in the North caused a period of intense crustal shortening . Rocks of the Pembine – Wassau terrane were thrust up over and onto the Superior craton , forming a mountain range that covered all but the northernmost portion of Lake Superior , crossed parts of three US states ( south @-@ central Minnesota , northern Wisconsin , and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan ) , and continued to the southernmost tip of Ontario , Canada . Loading of the lithosphere by these thrust sheets caused it to flex downwards , forming a foreland basin at around 1850 million years ago in the south and 1835 million years ago in the north . The Rove Formation was deposited in the northern basin . In the southern basin , crustal thickening caused high @-@ grade metamorphism of the sedimentary fill by 1830 million years ago . A series of post @-@ orogenic plutons intruded into the overlying rocks 1830 million years ago , ; these plutons mark the end of the Penokean orogeny .
= = = = Sudbury impact ejecta = = = =
At the base of the Rove Formation , between the Rove and the underlying Gunflint Iron Formation , there is a lateral layer of shocked quartz and feldspar grains found within accretionary lapilli , accreted grain clusters and spherule masses . These pieces of debris indicate that the layer contains hypervelocity impact ejecta . Zircon geochronologic data shows that this layer formed 1878 to 1836 million years ago ; the Sudbury Impact event occurred 1 @,@ 850 ± 1 million years ago . Because of the closeness in dating and the nearness of the crater , the Sudbury Impact event is the likely source for the ejecta ; these are the oldest ejecta linked to a specific event on Earth . In the Rove area this layer is about 7 @.@ 6 m ( 25 ft ) thick ; this thin layer very likely represents the catastrophic events of a single day nearly 1 @,@ 850 million years ago .
Evidence indicates a 16 km ( 10 mi ) diameter meteorite collided with Earth in the current @-@ day vicinity of Sudbury , Ontario , Canada , about 1 @,@ 850 million years ago . The meteorite vaporized and created a 240 km ( 150 mi ) wide crater ( this is the second @-@ largest impact depression on Earth ) . This impact is 770 km ( 480 mi ) east of the Minnesota @-@ Ontario border of the Rove Formation . Earthquakes shattered the ground hundreds of miles away and within seconds ejecta ( cloud of ash , rock fragments , gases and droplets of molten rock ) began to spread around the globe . It is estimated that at ground zero the earthquake would have registered 10 @.@ 2 on the Richter scale . Seas covered the Rove Formation area and the Sudbury impact generated huge tsunamis .
To put the Sudbury meteorite impact in perspective , the Chicxulub impact on the Yucatán Peninsula occurred 66 million years ago from an object perhaps 60 % the size of the Sudbury impactor ; the results of this impact caused the worldwide extinction of many species ( including dinosaurs ) .
The Sudbury Impact would have had global ramifications ; it is conjectured that this caused the end of the iron deposits . The impact fundamentally affected concentrations of dissolved oxygen in the sea ; the accumulation of marine sediments ( known as banded @-@ iron formations ) were almost instantaneously shut down . Banded @-@ iron formations are massive deposits rich in iron oxides ; they accumulated at several periods in the Earth 's geologic past . One extended episode of banded @-@ iron formation buildup suddenly ended about 1 @,@ 850 million years ago . In northeastern Minnesota these banded @-@ iron formations lie immediately under the ejecta layer . Minnesota 's Iron Range is composed of this layer of banded @-@ iron formation .
Most of the impact layer in the Rove area consists of beccia , a mixture of rock fragments which ripped loose from the sea floor during the earthquakes . The tsunamis jumbled the loosened bedrock and ejecta together ; over time this layer was buried by younger sediments , cemented together and fused by molten rock to form a solid layer . Ejecta from the Sudbury Impact was found in May 2007 on the Gunflint Trail in Cook County , Minnesota . Geologists Mark Jirsa and Paul Weiblen from the University of Minnesota took advantage of the burnt @-@ over landscape resulting from the intense , hot Ham Lake fire to explore the newly exposed geology along the Gunflint Trail . Jirsa picked up some rocks which turned out to be ash and debris from the 1 @,@ 100 km ( 680 mi ) distant impact site ; this is the farthest distance that Sudbury detrita has been found .
= = = = Midcontinent Rift = = = =
The Midcontinent Rift ( also known as the Keewenawan Rift ) began about 1 @,@ 100 million years ago ; it lasted for about 20 million years . After the Penokean Mountains had eroded away , the proto @-@ North American continent nearly split in half along this rift zone . The 2 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 200 mi ) bow @-@ shaped rift extended from northeastern Kansas , through the southeastern corner of Nebraska , diagonally northeast through Iowa , through Minnesota along the current Minnesota @-@ Wisconsin border , arced through the present @-@ day Lake Superior basin and angled southeasterly through Michigan .
The Midcontinent Rift is the largest @-@ known continental rift in the world . The rift began as a hot spot of basaltic magma underneath the Lake Superior region ; it extruded layers of lava up to 20 km ( 12 mi ) thick and extending up to 100 km ( 60 mi ) on either side of the rift . The deposited lava along the North Shore of Lake Superior is 7 @,@ 620 m ( 5 mi ) thick .
This was a fast @-@ spreading rift ; the resulting basalts show little interaction with the then @-@ existing rock . These immense volumes of mafic lava were generated in two major pulses , mostly via a hot mantle plume . Along the North Shore of Lake Superior , one can see the solidified lava ( igneous rock ) most everywhere . In the Rove region the magma didn 't reach the surface ; it intruded into fractures in the formation and slowly cooled to become diabase ( rather than basalt ) . These solidified bodies are the Pigeon River and Logan Intrusion diabases .
The continent didn 't split into two because the Grenville province ( a microcontinent ) was converging with the proto @-@ North American continent to the east . This convergence applied compressional forces to the rift , preventing the complete splitting apart of the proto @-@ North American continent .
This rift was the last of volcanic or mountain @-@ building activity in present @-@ day Minnesota . The solidified lava flows have sagged , tilted and faulted ; this created a basin up to 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) deep along the rift zone . Proto @-@ Lake Superior filled the basin .
= = = = Puckwunge Formation = = = =
The Puckwunge Formation has buff to grey sandstone which comes from sediments deposited during the early stages of the Midcontinent rift ; zircon dating shows a time period of 1200 to 1100 million years ago .
Puckwunge sandstone is exposed along an extremely narrow ( feet @-@ wide ) band on the southwestern border of the Rove formation . The Puckwunge exposure begins at Raspberry Point within the Grand Portage National Monument on Lake Superior , Cook County , Minnesota , and extends for about 40 km ( 25 mi ) inland to the northwest . The Rove Formation is located to the northeast of the Puckwunge sandstone ; none is southwest of the border . The Rove Formation is bisected by several bands of Pigeon River Diabase ; these bands are in a west @-@ to @-@ east orientation . The bands of Pigeon River Diabase do extend southwesterly past the Puckwunge Formation .
= = = Quaternary Period and glaciation = = =
The Quaternary Period began about 2 million years ago and continues today . This is the period of advancing and retreating glaciers . The Rove region has multiple tilted layers of volcanic rocks and easily eroded shale . The more resistant diabase dikes and sills remained , while the softer shales were bulldozed away by the glaciers . These former shale valleys filled with water , forming the many lakes in the region . The character of the slates made them especially well suited for glacial quarrying , much more so than the contiguous sills . A cuesta – a ridge formed by gently tilted sedimentary rock layers – topography had developed and was dominated by major east @-@ west valleys with a few pronounced gaps in the intervening ridges .
The Rainy Lobe of the Wisconsin glaciation was the most recent of the glaciation events , and it retreated about 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Glacial scratches and grooves in Rove rocks indicate a north or somewhat east @-@ of @-@ north glacial movement . This direction is transverse to the general trend on the valleys and ridges . The lakes in the Rove Formation area are unique from other well @-@ known linear bedrock lakes in North America because their long axes lie transverse to the general movement of the glaciers .
When continental glaciers moved over the Rove Formation area , the ice was a hundreds of meters thick and its surface sloped gently southward from the Patrician center to the north . The base of the ice sheet encountered the cuesta topography relief of a few hundred feet . Because the ice over the valleys would be thicker than the ice over the ridges , obstructed extrusion flow would operate and resulted in the removal of the easily quarried slates of the valleys . The ridges would not be appreciably eroded , partly because the ice would be thinner over the ridges and therefore less plastic , and partly because of the resistance of the diabase to both quarrying and abrasion by the ice .
The weight of the ice sheet compressed the land and created depressions . As the glacier retreated , the weight and pressure were relieved from the surface of the land and the land rebounded ; the rebound process continues , and is estimated to be 100 m ( 330 ft ) .
= = Human history = =
The Pigeon River forms the border between Minnesota and Ontario in this area . The first 32 km ( 20 mi ) of the river is crooked , swift , interrupted by rapids and falls , and flows in places through a steep @-@ walled canyon . The High Falls are 37 m ( 120 ft ) high and presents an impassable obstacle to river travel . The Cascade Falls are further up the river . The soft shale erodes easily , leaving the Logan and Pigeon River diabases which create the waterfalls and cascades .
A portage was necessary from the shore of Lake Superior past the High Falls . Southwest of the mouth of the Pigeon River is Grand Portage Bay ; about 1 @.@ 6 km ( 1 @.@ 0 mi ) inland there is a gap through the surrounding hills and bluffs which provides a gradual ascent to Cascade Falls . The river is navigable by canoe beyond the Cascade Falls . The Sioux and Chippewa created a 14 @.@ 5 km ( 9 @.@ 0 mi ) long portage from Grand Portage Bay to bypass the three falls and several kilometers of turbulent river up to the Cascade Falls , probably by following animal trails . The French called this trail the Great Portage because it was so long .
The first @-@ known non @-@ native visitors were French @-@ speaking people from France and eastern Canada who started to explore the area in about 1655 . They were looking for the Northwest Passage and to trade for furs , particularly beaver pelts . Beaver pelts were in demand for European fashion during the 17th and 18th centuries . The Grand Portage was on the major fur trade route of the 18th century and was the first of more than 40 portages along the fur trade route . The French @-@ Canadian voyageurs would carry two 40 kg ( 88 lb ) packs from the main storage depot at Grand Portage Bay along the trail to their smaller storage depot at Fort Charlotte ; it took a few hours . In 1784 Grand Portage Bay became the headquarters for the North West Company . The post was abandoned in 1803 when the North West Company moved north .
= = Present @-@ day topography = =
In Ontario , the shales and greywackes from the Rove Formation of the Animikie Group are overlain by a 60 m ( 200 ft ) cap of diabase . This diabase cap is a sill remnant , and most of the diabase is covered by a considerable thickness of mineral soil . The mesa at Russell Point ( about 16 km ( 10 mi ) south of Thunder Bay ) is a Logan sill of diabase over the softer Rove Formation metasediments . It is one of the many flat @-@ topped , steep @-@ sided mesas along Lake Superior 's northwestern shore south of Thunder Bay that are collectively known as the Nor 'Wester Mountains .
In Minnesota , the Rove Formation area shows a relationship of bedrock to topography , with its valley @-@ and @-@ ridge landscape . There are several series of steep , east @-@ west oriented valleys which were created by the erosion of the exposed shale . The diabase @-@ capped ridges between the valleys slope gently to the south ( 4 ° to 15 ° from the horizontal ) ; the northern faces are precipitous ; they rise 60 to 140 m ( 200 to 460 ft ) above deep , cold lakes , creating an asymmetrical cross @-@ section profile . The asymmetrical cross section of the ridges is the result of bands of massive , poorly jointed rock alternating with highly jointed rock units . The valleys contain glacially quarried bedrock lakes ; they are also asymmetrical in cross section because of the same structural elements which control the ridge shapes . Most of the lakes show an asymmetrical bottom configuration , showing a steep subaqueous slope on the south shore . The northern @-@ facing cliffs provide the habitat for a few species of endangered flora . The Rove Formation has landscape features that are not found elsewhere in Minnesota .
Most of the valleys are occupied by chains of elongate lakes , many of which are bordered by solid rock on all sides . Many of the east @-@ west valleys terminate abruptly at either one or both ends when the bordering sills merge . The elevation of the lakes ranges from Rose Lake 's 465 m ( 1 @,@ 526 ft ) to Loon Lake 's 532 m ( 1 @,@ 745 ft ) above sea level . Lakes on the opposite sides of a single ridge may differ in surface elevation by as much as 60 m ( 200 ft ) . Many of the rock @-@ bound lakes have a depth of about 30 m ( 100 ft ) ; a few are deeper than 61 m ( 200 ft ) .
A topographic map shows that the majority of the interconnected complex of tightly packed lakes with their valley @-@ and @-@ ridge landscape is primarily in Minnesota ; the border of the landscape is the Minnesota @-@ Canadian border . This border is composed of the Pigeon River , and these Rove Formation lakes ( going east to west ) : South Fowl , North Fowl , Moose , Mountain , Watap , Rose , South , Little North and Gunflint . The border runs approximately through the center of the lengths of these lakes . The only Rove @-@ typical east @-@ west oriented lakes lying in Ontario are Arrow and North lakes .
The preglacial drainage pattern was controlled by the rock structure . Ver Steeg reconstructed a preglacial drainage pattern that shows major streams flowing east in the slate belts . Short tributaries and short north @-@ south segments of the major streams cut across ridges which formed small gaps that are still present .
The Laurentian Continental Divide is within the formation . Between North Lake , Ontario , and South Lake , Minnesota , is a low saddle of land right on the border ; this is the divide . North Lake drains into the Rainy River and then to Hudson Bay . South Lake drains into the Pigeon River and then to Lake Superior .
Topsoils are thin and poor because the glaciers had abraded down to the bedrock . The soils are clayey silt .
= = Endangered flora = =
Topographically this is the Rove Slate Bedrock Complex Landtype Association . The sedimentary and diabase rocks are calcareous ; they produce a more basic , nutrient @-@ rich soil compared to the poorer soils typical of the Canadian shield . The Royal River drains Royal Lake [ which is about 1 @.@ 2 km ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) east of South Fowl Lake ] into John Lake , both in Minnesota . The relatively rich soils , particularly in the Royal River drainage area , along with steep , moist , north @-@ facing cliffs provide the habitat for these rare plants . For over a century this landtype association has been recognized as being ecologically and botanically unique ; it harbors a rare assemblage of plants , including the rarest plants in Minnesota . Virtually all of the known sensitive plant species in this landscape association occur on the north side of the cliffs or in the Royal River drainage .
Six vascular plants are unique in that they are at the extreme edge of their range or are disjunct from the main range of their species . They are the Maidenhair spleenwort ( Asplenium trichomanes L. ) , in Minnesota six small populations of 20 to 40 plants have been found in the Rove area ; Ross 's ( or Short ) sedge ( Carex rossii ) , only three populations are known to exist in the Rove area ; Large @-@ leaved sandwort ( Moehringia macrophylla or Arenaria macrophylla ) , evidence indicates that this is a very rare species with limited distribution and restrictive environmental needs ; Sticky locoweed ( Oxytropis borealis var. viscida ) , is restricted to a single cliff in Cook County ; Encrusted saxifrage ( Saxifraga paniculata ssp. neogaea ) , 11 populations are known to exist in the Rove formation ; and Smooth Woodsia ( Woodsia glabella ) , there are small , isolated populations in the Rove Formation .
During two sensitive plant surveys conducted in June and July 2003 , and July 2004 , a Superior National Forest sensitive plant , Canada Yew ( Taxus canadensis ) , was found ; and a state @-@ listed species of concern , Blunt @-@ fruited sweet cicely ( Osmorhiza depauperata ) , has only four populations within 30 km ( 19 mi ) of each other . Minnesota 's Department of Natural Resources lists these vascular plants as being threatened : Rocky Mountain woodsia ( Woodsia scopulina ssp. laurentiana ) , there are few isolated populations in the formation ; and Holboell 's rock @-@ cress ( Boechera retrofracta or Arabis holboellii var. retrofracta ) , rare in Ontario and Minnesota . Minnesota 's Department of Natural Resources lists the Nodding saxifrage ( Saxifraga cernua ) as endangered , one source refers it to being " very rare " and that Cook County has Minnesota 's single colony with about a dozen plants – the entire population occupies less than a 1 m2 ( 1 sq yd ) – so it is vulnerable to singular events which would alter its habitat .
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= International Speedway Corporation =
International Speedway Corporation ( ISC ) is a corporation whose primary business is the ownership and management of NASCAR and IndyCar race tracks . ISC was founded by NASCAR founder Bill France , Sr. in 1953 for the construction of Daytona International Speedway and in 1999 they merged with Penske Motorsports to become one of the largest motorsports companies in North America . The company has played an important , though controversial , role in the modernization of the sport . It has worked with NASCAR to create new tracks and update older ones in an effort to improve the racing and the experience for spectators ( though because both companies have several members of the France family in top positions , ISC 's competitors have filed multiple lawsuits on antitrust grounds ) and has constructed popular new tracks in regions previously thought uninterested in NASCAR .
= = History = =
= = = Bill France Racing = = =
International Speedway Corporation ( ISC ) was founded as Bill France Racing , Inc . ( later Daytona International Speedway Corporation ) in 1953 and in 1957 the company signed a contract for the use of land on which to build Daytona International Speedway , one of the world 's first superspeedways . A decade later , France decided to build another superspeedway , this time on a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 8 km ² ) site near Talladega , Alabama and after its completion Talladega Superspeedway became NASCAR 's fastest track . These two tracks were the fastest on the series schedule until the advent of restrictor plates in 1988 . In 1968 , the company assumed its current name to reflect its more ambitious scope . Two years later , ISC created the Motor Racing Network , a play @-@ by @-@ play radio network for NASCAR races , with MRN 's first race coverage coming at the 1970 Daytona 500 .
= = = Transition = = =
The early 1980s saw NASCAR 's popularity increase , not only among fans , but also with sponsors . Companies like Ford , General Motors , Winston and Gatorade were willing to put up advertising dollars and holding auto races became a much more profitable venture . To capitalize on this , the company began pursuing expansion through the purchase of existing tracks . In 1982 , the company bought one of the series ' most popular and traditional ones , Darlington Raceway which has been in operation since 1950 , as well as Tucson Raceway Park , a .375 miles ( 0 @.@ 604 km ) dirt oval ( since paved ) in Arizona . The following year they partnered with Corning Glass Works to purchase the Watkins Glen International road course in upstate New York . In 1987 , Bill France , Sr. stepped down as president of the company with Jim France replacing him . Two years later , ISC incorporated its food service company , Americrown .
= = = Penske merger = = =
By this time ISC was profitable , but most of their races were still in the South and in mostly rural areas , with many of the country 's major cities like Los Angeles , Detroit , Miami and Chicago lacking a nearby track . ISC began looking for ways to change this in the late 1990s . Homestead @-@ Miami Speedway was built in 1995 by Ralph Sanchez and Wayne Huizenga and in 1997 ISC and Penske Motorsports ( owned by motorsports magnate Roger Penske ) partnered with the track 's owners . In 1999 , the company continued its push into the country 's urban centers when it merged with Penske , who at the time owned four speedways : Nazareth Speedway , North Carolina Speedway in Rockingham , North Carolina , Michigan International Speedway and the newly constructed Auto Club Speedway ( which opened as California Speedway ) . Chairman Bill France , Jr. cited the company 's " attractive markets " as one of the major reasons for going ahead with the deal . The new company retained the ISC name , with Penske 's son Gregory Penske joining the board of directors . Not all of the new tracks from the Penske merger fit into the company 's plans however , as Nazareth was soon closed down and Rockingham was sold . The merger also gave ISC a 90 % stake in Homestead @-@ Miami Speedway and the company soon bought out the final 10 % to acquire complete control over the track .
In the same year , ISC formed the Motorsports Alliance with the owners of the historic Indianapolis Motor Speedway ; this company would go after another huge market in Chicago by building the new Chicagoland Speedway in nearby Joliet , Illinois and by buying out the smaller Route 66 Raceway dragstrip . In 2007 , ISC bought out its partners in the company to take control of both tracks .
In 2001 , ISC would continue its trend towards modern facilities by constructing Kansas Speedway near Kansas City . In 2003 , Lesa Kennedy took over from Jim France the role of president of the company . On June 1 , 2009 , John R. Saunders took over as President of ISC , becoming the first ISC president without a " France " surname . Mr. Saunders held the position of Executive Vice President of Operations prior to becoming President .
= = Today = =
Today , the company owns 13 active tracks which collectively hold 19 of the 36 events on the schedule of NASCAR 's premier competition , the Sprint Cup Series . Twelve of the thirteen host a Sprint Cup race ( the thirteenth being Route 66 Raceway , a dragstrip ) . In addition to the stock car racing that NASCAR is famous for , ISC tracks also host IRL IndyCar races , Grand @-@ Am , IMSA GT and SCCA sports car races , WKA go @-@ kart races and AMA motorcycle races . Besides NASCAR , other stock car series like IROC and ARCA use their tracks .
The company 's other holdings include the Motor Racing Network , a radio network that broadcasts NASCAR events , and Americrown , a food service business that operates concession stands at its tracks . In 2005 , ISC partnered with Speedway Motorsports , Inc. to form Motorsports Authentics , a company that markets and distributes NASCAR @-@ related souvenirs and collectibles .
Although ISC is controlled by the France family , it is separate from NASCAR . About 35 % of the stock in ISC is owned by the heirs of NASCAR founder Bill France and the remainder trades on the stock market . Lesa Kennedy is CEO and Jim France is Chairman .
ISC is still headquartered in Daytona Beach , Florida near Daytona International Speedway . ISC is working on a new development called ONE DAYTONA that will feature anchor tenants Bass Pro Shops , Cobb Theatres and a Marriott Autograph Collection hotel .
= = = ISC tracks = = =
= = = Former / inactive ISC tracks = = =
= = Future expansion = =
ISC and NASCAR have both made public their desire to have a presence in areas it sees as having the potential for growth , most notably the Pacific Northwest and New York City . ISC has said that the earliest either of these tracks would be operating is 2011 .
= = = Pacific Northwest = = =
= = = = Marysville = = = =
In 2003 , ISC began scouting sites in Washington and Oregon for a new track to attract fans from around the Pacific Northwest , eventually settling on a site near Marysville , Washington in Snohomish County north of Seattle . Although the plan was met with some resistance from residents – particularly those living near the site for the planned speedway – local business owners and other residents were in favor of the plan , believing that the track would be good for the area 's economy and would create jobs . Unlike ISC 's later proposal in New York , the Marysville proposal would be supported by public funds raised through taxes , in much the same way as other sports venues in the area ( KeyArena , Safeco Field , CenturyLink Field ) . The track would have been publicly owned and leased to ISC . In November 2004 , local officials and ISC announced that they could not go through with the deal , saying that the costs for that particular site would be too high .
= = = = Bremerton , WA = = = =
After the deal in Marysville fell through , ISC courted another site , this time south of Bremerton National Airport in Bremerton , WA just across Puget Sound from Seattle . Although like the Marysville proposal the proposal in Bremerton was to be partially funded with public money , the money will not come directly from taxes but instead from bonds funded by taxes , in a scheme similar to the one used to fund Kansas Speedway . Also like the Marysville proposal , the Bremerton track would be publicly owned and leased to ISC for three races per year . ISC 's current proposal was met with a lukewarm response from area lawmakers and citizens , but the company has promised to present an improved offer for early 2007 .
In March 2007 , Washington state representative Larry Seaquist caused a minor controversy when he was quoted as saying , " These people are not the kind of people you would want living next door to you . They 'd be the ones with the junky cars in the front yard and would try to slip around the law . " The quote was assumed to be an attack on NASCAR fans but Seaquist later claimed that it was directed at ISC .
In April 2007 , this plan was also abandoned by ISC after failing to get their bill out of committee in the Washington State Legislature or to gain the full support of the Kitsap County Commissioners .
= = = New York City = = =
On November 30 , 2004 , the company made no secret of its interest in building a superspeedway in the New York market and was in talks with Staten Island officials about the logistics of constructing a track there . In 2004 , ISC purchased 600 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 km2 ) on Staten Island in New York City for the construction of a 4 / 5 mile ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) short track that would hold 80 @,@ 000 fans and have the New York City skyline as its backdrop . The proposal was met with fierce resistance from many of the island 's residents . At a public meeting in April 2006 , police had to end the meeting early for fears of rioting and safety concerns . One report had a local councilman being put in a headlock after one particularly provoking speech ( though one ISC official called it merely a " hug for the TV cameras " ) . In December 2006 , ISC dropped their pursuit of the project .
= = = Colorado = = =
On February 13 , 2007 , the company announced that they were looking into building a track in Colorado . The 75 @,@ 000 @-@ seat track would be built on one of two locations in Adams County , just east of Denver . The company would also be looking to use the same type of combination of public and private funds for the race track as in Kansas and Washington .
= = Antitrust lawsuits = =
= = = Ferko lawsuit = = =
Francis Ferko , a stockholder in Speedway Motorsports , Inc . , sued NASCAR and ISC in 2002 for violating federal antitrust laws and breach of contract for not awarding a second Winston Cup ( now Sprint Cup ) series date to Texas Motor Speedway , claiming that the second race was " promised " to the SMI track by NASCAR . After an attempt by NASCAR to get the case dismissed , another shareholder , Rusty Vaughn , joined the case as co @-@ plaintiff in 2003 . Although NASCAR CEO Brian France initially said he was going to fight the case in the courts , in April 2004 it was announced that the case had been settled out of court with Texas getting the Cup date previously belonging to North Carolina Speedway and , as part of the deal , agreeing to purchase North Carolina — which now had no dates at all — from ISC for $ 100 million . Other races on the schedule were also moved around as a result ( see NASCAR Realignment ) .
= = = Kentucky Speedway lawsuit = = =
In 2005 , Kentucky Speedway filed a similar lawsuit against ISC and NASCAR , claiming that NASCAR violated antitrust laws by not awarding them a Sprint Cup Series race , noting the close relationship between NASCAR , ISC , and the France Family . NASCAR sought to have the case thrown out by arguing that the speedway wasn 't trying to end the alleged anticompetitive practices , they were merely trying to benefit from them as well . This motion was denied , however . A motion to move the case from Kentucky to Florida – home of NASCAR and ISC – was also rejected . ISC , for its part , said it shouldn 't be involved in the case at all as it conducts no business in the state . Lawyers for Kentucky Speedway contended that the company does business online and is just as responsible for the lack of competition in granting the races as NASCAR is .
Initially , Kentucky had wanted the jury to force NASCAR to grant the speedway a Sprint Cup Series event but in 2007 they changed their demand to instead force the France family to sell either NASCAR or ISC . The track is also demanding that NASCAR develop objective standards for the awarding of their race events and damages of $ 200 million . In January 2008 , the court dismissed the lawsuit , saying that the plaintiffs had failed to make their case . Kentucky Speedway says they will appeal the court 's decision .
In 2011 , Kentucky Speedway , now owned by SMI , received a date , the Quaker State 400 , on the Cup Series schedule .
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= London Underground departmental stock =
Departmental locomotives on the London Underground consist of vehicles of a number of types which are used for engineering purposes . These include battery locomotives , diesel locomotives , electric locomotives , sleet locomotives , pilot motor cars and ballast motor cars . Details of the first four types are covered elsewhere . Pilot motor cars and ballast motor cars are generally vehicles which have been withdrawn from passenger service , but continue to be used by the engineering department . Pilot motor cars are used to move other vehicles around the system , while ballast motor cars are used to haul ballast trains and engineering trains .
The first ballast motor cars were former trailer cars built for the Central London Railway in 1900 , which were converted to motor cars for trials of the first multiple system to be used in Britain , and were retained for departmental use after 1903 . These were followed by French and Hungarian Gate stock cars , built in 1906 , which were converted in the 1920s and 1930s . The next batch consisted on 14 standard stock cars converted in 1953 . Rolling stock reorganisation and replacement in the 1970s on the District and Metropolitan lines resulted in a number of surface stock cars being used for pilot motor duties . Subsequently motor cars of 1938 stock and 1960 stock were used for this purpose , and complete 4 @-@ car units of 1962 stock .
The London Underground has also owned several departmental self @-@ powered vehicles designed for other duties . These include a tunnel cleaning train , consisting of two 1938 stock motor cars and three purpose @-@ built cars , which act like a giant vacuum cleaner , and can hold 6 tons of dust before the filter tanks need to be emptied . Three Plasser & Theurer track tamping machines were purchased in 1980 , and two Unimog road @-@ rail vehicles were obtained in 1983 and 1986 , for use as depot shunters .
= = Early ballast motor cars = =
When the Central London Railway opened in 1900 , it used camel @-@ back electric locomotives hauling six @-@ car trains . The locomotives weighed 44 tons and were largely unsprung , causing severe vibration problems in properties near the line . In an effort to resolve the problem , four of the coaches were fitted with motors , in the first trial in Britain of the Sprague @-@ Thomson @-@ Houston multiple unit control system . The trials were a success , and multiple unit trains were running by 1903 . Two of the trial cars , numbers 201 and 202 , were retained and became the first ballast motor cars to work on the Underground . They worked in this form until about 1910 , when batteries were fitted . They were renumbered L22 and L23 in 1929 , and were scrapped in 1936 and 1937 .
The next batch of ballast motor cars were French @-@ built gate stock cars , originally constructed in 1906 , but converted in the early 1920s to run with the 1920 air @-@ door stock . 20 motor cars were converted , but were replaced by more modern cars in 1930 . Although 12 of the displaced cars were scrapped , six were kept as ballast motor cars , becoming numbers L24 to L29 in the service fleet . The final two were further converted to run as single cars on the Aldwych shuttle . During the Second World War they were used as pilot motor cars for refreshment trains on the Piccadilly line , which supplied food to people sleeping on the stations to escape from the bombing of the city . They returned to the Aldwych shuttle between 1946 and 1949 , but were again used as pilot motor cars after that , transferring cars between the engineering works at Acton and various depots . They were both coupled to a flat wagon for a period , and were used to transfer stores from Acton Works to Northfields depot , and also took stores to Croxley Green and Queens Park depots on the Bakerloo line .
Four Hungarian @-@ built gate stock motor cars were used as ballast motor cars , and were numbered L13 to L16 . The final one was stored in 1955 , in the hope that it would be restored and preserved , but by 1960 , the project appeared to be too costly , and so the gate end of the car was cut off , and the rest of it was scrapped . After refurbishment , the gate was displayed at the London Transport Museum . A further four Hungarian motor cars from the Piccadilly line were used as pilot motor cars during the reconstruction of the Hampstead line in 1922 , and were numbered L17 to L20 . Once a spur between the Hampstead line and the Piccadilly line at Kings Cross station was opened on 27 March 1927 , it became much easier to transfer ballast motor cars between lines . The 14 departmental vehicles which were operational in 1934 continued to be used until 1953 , by which time their age made maintenance very difficult . They were replaced over the next two years and scrapped .
= = Standard stock cars = =
In 1953 , fourteen standard stock motor cars were withdrawn from passenger service , and were converted to ballast motor cars , with the final one completed in early 1955 . All of the vehicles chosen had been built in 1923 , four by Cammell Laird and ten by the Metropolitan Carriage Wagon & Finance Co . At least three of them were chosen because they were at Acton Works for repairs to collision damage . They were numbered L62 to L75 , and were painted grey . In 1957 , they were all repainted in Metropolitan maroon . L72 was the first to be scrapped , after a collision in 1963 . At the time , the standard stock was being withdrawn and replaced by 1959 / 62 Stock , and so rather than repair it , it was replaced by a 1927 motor car . The replacement also carried the number L72 . A 1931 motor car was used to replace L73 when it was badly damaged in 1967 , but in this case it carried a new number , becoming L77 . During the 1970s , the ballast motor cars were gradually withdrawn . The last two to be used were L63 and L68 , which performed leaf @-@ clearing duties in late 1977 , and all had been scrapped by September 1978 .
While single passenger cars were sometimes moved around the system , either between depots or to Acton Works , these movements were infrequent , and when they were necessary , standard stock motor cars borrowed from the passenger fleet were normally used . Following the introduction of the 1959 passenger stock , single cars and parts of units were moved around much more frequently , and normal passenger motor cars could not be used to perform this task , as the equipment they needed to operate was spread around the unit , rather than confined to the motor car . Eight Standard Stock motor cars , dating from 1927 and 1934 , were therefore allocated as pilot motor cars . In 1967 , they were painted maroon , numbered L130 to L137 , and became part of the ballast motor fleet . Four were withdrawn in 1971 without performing this work , however . Following withdrawal , L137 was shipped to the Isle of Wight , to replace a car on the Island Line which had been damaged . The remaining four cars worked as two pairs , and were still working as pilot motor cars in 1987 , but had been withdrawn by 1993 .
= = Surface stock cars = =
From time to time , the Underground has needed to move surface stock cars around the system , and several motor cars have been set aside as pilot motor cars for this purpose . In 1971 , the trains on the District line were rearranged into 7 @-@ car units , and in 1974 , District line stock was removed from the East London line . This resulted in a large number of spare cars , which were transferred to Ruislip Depot for eventual scrapping . One Q23 stock motor car and one Q27 stock motor car were allocated as pilot motor cars for this task in 1967 , but did not receive departmental numbers . They also toured the system with a gauging car , to check clearances . They were joined by four Q38 stock motor cars in 1971 , which were renumbered L126 to L129 in 1972 . Shunting of the scrap cars and the new stock being delivered in Ruislip Depot between 1970 and 1972 was handled by six pilot motor cars , two each drawn from Q23 , Q27 and Q38 stock . Four were scrapped in 1972 , and the final two in 1974 . L126 and L127 were painted yellow in 1983 , They were subsequently repainted in red , and their departmental numbers were replaced by their original passenger car numbers . Following withdrawal , they have been retained by the London Transport Museum .
When delivery of C67 stock began in 1977 , two pairs of CO / CP stock motor cars were used as pilot motor cars to shunt the new stock at Ruislip Depot , and to marshall the scrap stock displaced by the new units . The C77 stock could be driven under its own power to Hammersmith Depot , as it was commissioned at Ruislip . The D78 stock was different , in that delivery was still to Ruislip , but the commissioning took place at Ealing Common Depot , and therefore pilot motor cars were needed to transfer the stock . Two pairs of CO / CP stock motor cars were allocated to do this in 1979 , with a further three pairs joining them in 1980 . New trains were transferred with a pilot motor car at each end , as were trains that were withdrawn for scrapping . The pilot motor cars carried large stencils at both ends , so that they would not accidentally be scrapped until their duties were complete . Three pairs of R stock motor cars were used as pilot motor cars after the R stock was scrapped . Most of the surface stock pilot motor cars were scrapped when the deliveries were complete , although one each of the CO / CP and R stock cars have been privately preserved .
= = Tube stock cars = =
Deliveries of 1972 stock enabled 1938 stock to be withdrawn , and several cars were converted for use as ballast motor cars . The task was more complicated than for earlier stock , as 1938 units had compressors mounted on the trailer cars . The motor cars therefore had to be fitted with compressors , and the couplings were changed from Wedgelock to Ward type . The first four were numbered L140 to L143 , and the conversion was carried out at Acton Works in 1972 . Another six were converted , two in 1975 , two in 1976 , and the final two in 1977 , which were numbered L144 to L149 . L151 and L152 were converted in 1978 , and were additionally fitted with weed killing equipment . Another four were added in the same year , numbered L153 to L156 . Although the ballast motor cars were normally worked in pairs , some engineering trains had a ballast motor car at one end and a battery locomotive at the other . One advantage of the ballast motor cars over battery locomotives was that the interiors could be used by personnel and for storing small tools , although they were less powerful , and could only work when the traction current was switched on . By 2002 , all except the weed killing pair had been withdrawn .
Two of the 1960 stock cars were converted to work as pilot motor cars in 1987 . The conversion was carried out at British Rail Engineering Limited 's works at Derby . They were numbered L132 and L133 , and were used to haul a track recording car around the system . The recording car is numbered TRC666 , and was converted from a 1973 @-@ built trailer car .
27 cars of 1962 stock , supplemented by three cars of 1959 stock , were retained after most of that stock was withdrawn . These were formed into seven 4 @-@ car units , which were used as pilot motor units , while the remaining two cars were used for training by the Emergency Response Unit of the British Transport Police . Two units were fitted with Automatic Train Protection ( ATP ) equipment to allow them to work on the Central line , two were based at Ruislip Depot , and two were owned by TransPlant . The seventh unit was stored at Ruislip by 2002 , waiting for disposal . The units were not renumbered in the engineering series and continued to carry their passenger fleet numbers . One of the driving motor cars based at Ruislip was repainted in olive green .
= = Other self @-@ powered vehicles = =
London Underground has owned a small number of departmental vehicles which were not ballast motor or pilot motor cars . Between 1935 and 1950 , the District line had a weed @-@ killing train , initially consisting of a 1905 @-@ built B stock driving motor car and a control trailer . The two cars were kept at Ealing Common depot , but the control trailer was scrapped in 1937 and replaced by a second motor car , to provide more power . Weed @-@ killing duties were not carried out during the Second World War , and the vehicles were not refurbished subsequently . They were scrapped in 1950 .
In 1977 , a tunnel @-@ cleaning train was completed . This consisted of two 1938 driving motor cars , and three purpose @-@ built vehicles . The middle vehicle of the five contains a fan unit , which supplies large volumes of low pressure air to a series of nozzles , which disturb the dust on the tunnel walls and track . The cars on either side of it draw the dust @-@ laden air into filter chambers , and are fitted with conveyors for discharging the dust at depots . To enable the train to operate sufficiently slowly for the cleaning process to be effective , a hydraulic drive was fitted to one of the motor cars , with settings to allow speeds of 0 @.@ 5 mph ( 0 @.@ 8 km / h ) , 1 @.@ 5 mph ( 2 @.@ 4 km / h ) , 4 @.@ 5 mph ( 7 @.@ 2 km / h ) and 6 mph ( 9 @.@ 7 km / h ) . Up to 6 tons of dust can be held in the filter bags , and the units are fitted with carbon dioxide and water mist fire fighting equipment , because of the combustible nature of fine dust particles . There were teething problems when the train began work in 1978 , but by 1980 , these had been resolved .
In 2002 , the company also owned three Plasser & Theurer track maintenance machines , which were built in 1980 . One was fitted with ATP equipment to allow it to work on the Central line . They had previously owned six other tamping machines , which were acquired between 1959 and 1975 . The 1959 model was scrapped in 1970 , and the oldest four of the others were withdrawn in 1984 and 1985 . One of the machines built in 1967 went to the Southern Steam Trust at Swanage , and another , built in 1973 , was acquired by the Severn Valley Railway .
In 1983 and 1986 , London Underground purchased two Unimog road @-@ rail vehicles , which were used as depot shunters . They are fitted with small railway wheels just outside the road tyres , which can be lowered when working in railway mode , and ensure that the road wheels run along the top of the rails . They are numbered L84 and L85 . They previously owned a Unimog tractor @-@ trailer pair of vehicles , purchased in 1982 , which were used for leaf @-@ clearing duties . Nozzles on the tractor unit were used to suck up the leaves , which were then stored in a 570 @-@ cubic @-@ foot ( 16 m3 ) bin mounted in the trailer .
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= 1997 – 98 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1997 – 98 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was fairly quiet and had the latest start in 30 years . The first tropical disturbance originated on January 16 , although the first named storm , Anacelle , was not upgraded until February 8 , a record late start . The last storm to dissipate was an unusually late tropical depression in late July . Many of the storms suffered from the effects of wind shear , which contributed to there being only one tropical cyclone – equivalent to a minimal hurricane . The season also occurred during a powerful El Niño .
Tropical Depression A1 , the first of the season , moved throughout most of Mozambique in January , causing landslides and flooding . One landslide affected Milange District , where many houses were swept into a river . Landslides killed between 87 and 143 people in the country . In February , Cyclone Anacelle buffeted several islands with gusty winds after becoming the strongest storm of the season , reaching maximum sustained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . Although Anacelle was the first named storm of the season , another tropical depression preceded it that crossed Madagascar several times . The depression eventually became Tropical Storm Beltane , and lasted 17 days . Beltane caused flooding across Madagascar due to heavy rainfall , which killed one person and left locally heavy crop damage . There were several other disturbances in February , including Cindy which dissipated 50 days after it originated , as well as a disturbance that brought heavy rainfall to Réunion and Mauritius . The rest of the season was fairly quiet , mostly with short @-@ lived tropical disturbances or storms .
= = Season summary = =
During the year , the Météo @-@ France office on Réunion ( MFR ) issued warnings for tropical systems in the region as the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre . In the year , MFR tracked tropical cyclones south of the equator from the coast of Africa to 90 ° E. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center also issued warnings in an unofficial capacity .
The season had the latest start in 30 years , with the first depression forming in January . The first storm , Anacelle , was not named until February 8 , which retains the record for the latest date of the first named storm . For the early portion of the season , there were unusually quiet conditions across much of the basin , along with higher than normal pressure . The intertropical convergence zone ( ITCZ ) associated with the monsoon only became active in February , allowing tropical cyclogenesis to occur more frequently . There were six tropical storms during the season , of which only one attained tropical cyclone status ; these are below the averages of 9 and 4 , respectively . No storms attained intense tropical cyclone status . The season 's low activity contrasted that of the previous season , which was much more active . There were 18 days in which a storm was active , the lowest since 1982 – 83 . An ongoing El Niño was evident during the season .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression A1 = = =
The first system of the season originated out of a circulation that persisted in the northern Mozambique Channel on January 15 . Convection developed around the center near Grande Comore , meriting its classification Tropical Disturbance 1 . Moving southwestward , the system organized into a tropical depression on January 17 , developing a curved band of convection . Further intensification was halted as the system moved ashore Mozambique near Angoche . The depression turned to the south over land , remaining over inland Mozambique for several days . On January 18 , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 13S , estimating winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , despite the storm being 55 km ( 35 mi ) inland . The agency quickly downgraded the storm to tropical depression status , but briefly re @-@ upgraded it on January 19 as the system crossed over the extreme western Mozambique Channel . The agency again downgraded it after the storm moved ashore . By contrast , the MFR assessed that the system remained a tropical depression and placed the circulation farther inland . On January 20 , the depression turned to the southeast over open waters , influenced by a trough to the south . Despite warmer waters , the system was unable to re @-@ intensify much due to the presence of wind shear , although the JTWC again upgraded the system to tropical storm status for a third and final time . The depression approached tropical storm intensify after developing increased convection over the center , but it weakened again on January 22 . On the next day , the system dissipated just off the southern coast of Madagascar .
In its formative stages , the depression dropped beneficial rainfall in the Comoros , reaching 163 mm ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) at Prince Said Ibrahim International Airport . While the depression was over land , the plume of warm air from the open waters sustained heavy convection over the circulation , which dropped heavy rainfall across eastern Mozambique . The rains caused landslides and flooding in the country , which disrupted transport in three provinces , damaging several bridges . The most significant landslide occurred in Milange District at nighttime , which swept houses into a river ; about 2 @,@ 500 people were left homeless in the village . There were 73 confirmed fatalities , with another 70 people missing and presumed killed . However ; the International Disaster Database ( EM @-@ DAT ) later placed the total number of casualties at 87 . Rainfall also extended into Malawi , where villages were flooded and crops were damaged . While the system was accelerating to the southeast away from Mozambique , it produced gale force winds on Europa Island .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Beltane = = =
A northerly flow produced a low pressure area on February 1 in the central Mozambique Channel . Influenced by the monsoon trough , the system developed a distinct circulation on February 3 near Juan de Nova Island , becoming a tropical disturbance and bringing gusts of 50 km / h ( 30 mph ) to the island . The convection organized around the circulation while moving eastward . Conditions were favorable for further strengthening , although the system made landfall in western Madagascar between Maintirano and Morondava on February 5 . After progressing slightly inland , the disturbance looped and turned to the south . The circulation became difficult to locate , but surface observations helped track the circulation southward through the country . Late on February 8 , the system reached the open waters south of Madagascar and quickly redeveloped convection southeast of the center , displaced by wind shear , and it was reclassified as a subtropical depression . The JTWC briefly classified it as Tropical Cyclone 21S on February 9 with winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) .
A building ridge to the south turned the system northeastward on February 10 and later to the northwest , bringing it back over southwestern Madagascar . On February 11 , the circulation again reentered the Mozambique Channel , and subsequently the thunderstorms rebuilt over the poorly defined center . A trough behind the ridge allowed the system to turn to the southwest and later southeast . An increase in convection on February 15 organized into a curved band , and MFR upgraded the system to Tropical Storm Beltane on the next day off the west coast of Madagascar . The JTWC also classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 23S on February 16 , possibly due to the extended duration between issuing advisories . Strong wind shear stripped the convection from the center as Beltane approached southwestern Madagascar on February 17 . Another building ridge turned the weakened depression to the northwest across the Mozambique Channel , finally dissipating on February 20 near the mouth of the Zambezi . The remnants later moved across Mozambique accompanied by locally heavy rainfall .
Due to its trajectories across Madagascar , Beltane brought heavy rainfall to the country . The persistent precipitation damaged crops , up to 100 % in some areas , and forced thousands to evacuate their houses . Floodwaters covered the village of Vohipeno , killing one person . Several roads and bridges were also washed away .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Anacelle = = =
On February 5 , the ITCZ spawned an area of convection about 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) southwest of Diego Garcia . The system slowly organized , aided by warm waters and weakening wind shear . On February 6 , it developed into a tropical disturbance , and became Tropical Storm Anacelle two days later . Also on February 8 , the JTWC initiated advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 20S . The storm initially moved westward due to a ridge to the north , although the motion shifted to the southwest on February 9 due to a trough and the influence of the system that would become Tropical Storm Beltane . Anacelle developed an eye feature on February 10 , indicating that it attained tropical cyclone status , or winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Around that time , Anacelle passed just west of St. Brandon . On February 11 , the cyclone passed about 100 km ( 60 mi ) east of Mauritius . Shortly thereafter , Anacelle attained peak winds while presenting a 30 km ( 19 mi ) eye . It reached peak winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , according to MFR , while the JTWC estimated peak winds of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . An approaching trough weakened the cyclone and steered it southeastward , causing the eye to disappear . On February 13 , Anacelle became extratropical , although the remnants continued southeastward , passing near Île Amsterdam on the next day and re @-@ intensifying on February 15 in the southern Indian Ocean .
While passing near St. Brandon , Anacelle produced peak winds of 101 km / h ( 63 mph ) , with gusts to 151 km / h ( 94 mph ) . Later , the storm produced gusty winds of less than 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) on Mauritius , along with 125 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall at Port Louis . The extratropical remnants also brought gale force winds to Île Amsterdam .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Donaline = = =
A large area of low pressure between the Chagos Archipelago and the Mascarene Islands spawned a small tropical disturbance on March 4 . Moving southeastward , the system slowly developed as wind shear in the region slowly decreased . Despite only being a tropical depression , it was named Donaline on March 5 . On the next day , the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 26S . Increased convection organized into a central dense overcast , and Donaline intensified into a minimal tropical storm , reaching peak winds of 75 km / h ( 55 mph ) according to the MFR . In contrast , the JTWC estimated peak winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . The wind shear returned , causing weakening and dislocating the circulation from the convection . On March 10 , Donaline became extratropical and was absorbed by a cold front two days later .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Elsie = = =
On March 7 , a low pressure area persisted west of the Cocos Islands in the Australian basin . It drifted westward , entering the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on March 9 as a tropical disturbance . It remained weak , with little convection over the center . Outflow gradually increased , although satellite imagery was limited in the region to only one image per day . Late on March 12 , the satellite imagery indicated a well @-@ defined tropical storm with curved convection , and the MFR immediately upgraded it to Severe Tropical Storm Elsie , estimating peak winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . By contrast , the JTWC estimated winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) , having classified it as Tropical Cyclone 27S that day . By that time , the storm was moving steadily to the southwest due to a trough in the region related to the remnants of Donaline . Increased wind shear caused steady weakening , removing the circulation from the convection on February 14 . On the next day , Elsie weakened to tropical depression status as it curved southward . A building ridge to the south turned the system to the east , gradually looping back to the northwest . Elsie eventually dissipated on March 20 .
= = = Tropical Depression Fiona = = =
While Elsie was weakening and turning to the south , another system was forming near St. Brandon . Convection associated with the monsoon trough persisted on March 13 , becoming a tropical disturbance two days later . The ridge steered the system to the southwest toward Rodigues , and conditions were expected to allow for intensification . As a result , the Mauritius Meteorological Service named the disturbance as Fiona on March 16 . On the next day , Fiona intensified into a tropical depression , reaching peak winds of only 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . Also on March 17 , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 28S . Around this time , Fiona passed about 200 km ( 120 mi ) southeast of St. Brandon . After peaking , the convection decreased due to wind shear , causing the winds to fluctuate . On March 20 , the circulation became exposed from the thunderstorms and approached 80 km ( 45 mi ) east of Mauritius , producing wind gusts of 70 km / h ( 44 mph ) . The next day , Fiona dissipated into an approaching cold front .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Gemma = = =
After an extended period of inactivity , the ITCZ produced two areas of convection – one was located about 550 km ( 340 mi ) south @-@ southwest of Diego Garcia , and the other was located 900 km ( 560 mi ) east @-@ southeast of that system . Both were classified as tropical disturbances on April 7 and subsequently interacted with each other . The eastern system , classified as Tropical Cyclone 33S , quickly dissipated due to strong wind shear and was absorbed into the western system . The disturbance continued to organize and developed a central dense overcast over the center , becoming Tropical Storm Gemma on April 8 . A ridge and a trough steered the storm to the southeast and later to the east . On April 9 , Gemma attained peak winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , according to the MFR , while the JTWC estimated 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) winds . As with most other storms in the year , increased wind shear caused the storm to weaken . The weaker system isolated it from the upper @-@ level steering , causing the circulation to loop southwestward . On April 16 , Gemma dissipated far to the east of Rodrigues .
= = = Other storms = = =
In addition to the named systems , there were nine tropical depressions or disturbances tracked by the MFR , and several by other agencies .
On January 2 , the tropical depression that was once Cyclone Selwyn crossed 90 ° E from the Australian region , but dissipated the next day .
On February 8 , a tropical low formed just north of Western Australia from the remnants of Cyclone Katrina , which earlier formed off the east coast of Australia . The low moved generally westward due to a strong ridge to the south . Given the name Victor , the storm intensified to a peak of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) before weakening steadily due to increased wind shear . On February 14 , the storm weakened to tropical depression status . Victor crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on February 16 with a well @-@ defined circulation but little convection . Despite being downgraded to a tropical disturbance , the system was named Cindy by the Mauritius Meteorological Service on February 16 . The system continued gradually weakening while turning more to the southwest , dissipating on February 19 . This marked a 50 day period in which the same system was active .
After Cyclone Anacelle became extratropical , an area of convection developed about 700 km ( 430 mi ) northeast of Rodrigues on February 14 . The circulation moved southwestward , organizing into Tropical Disturbance D1 on February 16 . Later that day , it was upgraded to tropical depression status after the convection organized into a central dense overcast , and on the same day the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 24S . Increased wind shear weakened the depression as a trough turned it more to the southeast . On February 19 , the trough absorbed the system .
After the disturbance dissipated , a large low pressure area persisted east of Madagascar with several associated circulations . On February 24 , Tropical Disturbance D2 passed about 160 km ( 100 mi ) west of Réunion , and continued to the southeast , passing south of Mauritius . Wind shear stripped the convection from the center and caused it to dissipate . Over a nine @-@ day period , the system dropped nearly 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) of rainfall in portions of Réunion , including nearly 700 mm ( 28 in ) at Salazie on February 24 ; at that station , 255 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) of precipitation fell in just three hours . Gusts reached 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) in some locations . The storm caused flooding and landslides on the island as well as power outages . Rainfall also reached 240 millimetres ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) on Mauritius . Residents were generally caught off guard by the storm due to the lack of warnings . Tropical Disturbance D3 also developed before March .
Although Tropical Storm Gemma was the final named storm , there were four subsequent tropical disturbances . The first formed toward the end of April after Gemma dissipated in the same general region . Named Tropical Cyclone 34S by the JTWC , it moved westward throughout its duration but failed to intensify due to wind shear . On April 22 , the system dissipated , never having developed beyond tropical disturbance status . The last disturbance of the year formed on July 20 about 1480 km ( 920 mi ) east of Diego Garcia . The system moved generally southwestward , dissipating on July 23 due to wind shear . At the time , the tropical cyclone year for the basin lasted from August 1 to July 31 of the following year , although the JTWC considers the start of the tropical cyclone year to begin on July 1 . As a result , the MFR considered the system Tropical Disturbance H4 while the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 01S .
= = Storm names = =
A tropical disturbance is named when it reaches moderate tropical storm strength . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status west of 55 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status between 55 ° E and 90 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Mauritius assigns the appropriate name to the storm . A new annual list is used every year so no names are retired .
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= Kangiten =
Kangi @-@ ten ( Japanese : 歓喜天 , " God of Bliss " ) is a god ( deva or ten ) in Shingon and Tendai schools of Japanese Buddhism . He is generally considered the Japanese Buddhist form of the Hindu elephant @-@ headed god of wisdom , Ganesha and is sometimes also identified with the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara . He is also known as Kanki @-@ ten , Shō @-@ ten ( 聖天 , " sacred god " or " noble god " ) , Daishō @-@ ten ( " great noble god " ) , Daishō Kangi @-@ ten ( 大聖歓喜天 ) , Tenson ( 天尊 , " venerable god " ) , Kangi Jizai @-@ ten ( 歓喜自在天 ) , Shōden @-@ sama , Vinayaka @-@ ten , Binayaka @-@ ten ( 毘那夜迦天 ) , Ganapatei ( 誐那缽底 ) and Zōbi @-@ ten ( 象鼻天 ) .
Kangiten has many aspects and names , associated with Vajrayana ( Esoteric Buddhist , Tantric , mantrayana ) schools , Shingon being one of them . Although Kangiten is depicted with an elephant 's head like Ganesha as a single male deity , his most popular aspect is the Dual ( -bodied ) Kangiten or the Embracing Kangiten depicted as an elephant @-@ headed male @-@ female human couple standing in an embrace .
= = Names = =
Kangiten inherits many names and characteristics from the Hindu god Ganesha . He is known as Bināyaka @-@ ten , derived from the epithet Vinayaka ; Gaṇabachi or Gaṇapati ( Ganapati is a popular epithet of Ganesha ) and Gaṇwha ( Ganesha ) . Like Ganesha , Bināyaka is the remover of obstacles , but when propitiated , he bestows material fortunes , prosperity , success and health . In addition , Bināyaka is said to be of evil nature , creator of discord and dispute and leading people towards immoral ways .
Shō @-@ ten or Āryadeva indicates his association with good luck and fortune .
The name " Kangi @-@ ten " , generally implied to the Tantric embracing deity icons , is venerated as giver of joy and prosperity . The Dual Kangiten icon called Soshin Kangi @-@ ten ( " dual @-@ bodied god of bliss " ) is a unique feature of Shingon Buddhism . It is also called Soshin Binayaka in Japanese , Kuan @-@ Shi ten in Chinese and Nandikeshvara in Sanskrit .
= = Iconography and depictions = =
Kangiten is often represented as an elephant @-@ headed male and female pair , standing embracing each other in sexual union . The genders of the pair is not explicit , but hinted in the iconography . The female wears a crown , a patched monk 's robe and a red surplice , while the male wears a black cloth over his shoulder . He has a long trunk and tusks , while she has short ones . He is reddish @-@ brown in colour and she is white . She usually rests her feet on his , while he rests his head on her shoulder . A variant form called " Shoten Fondly Smiling " form , both of them gaze into each other 's eyes , smiling intently . She wears loose garments , while he wears tight ones . Sometimes , they are cloaked in a single garment . In another variant , " Embracing Shoten Looking Over the Shoulder " , as the name suggests , the couple look over each other 's shoulders . The iconography represents unity of opposites ( coniunctio oppositorum ) . Though they are separate figures with contrasting iconographies and genders , however they share the common name " Kangiten " and are engrossed in an intimate embrace , indicating their nonduality . The non @-@ dual is further stressed by sexual indicators like the feet @-@ on @-@ feet or the single garment .
Shoten may be also depicted as male alone . The deity figure ( s ) is / are portrayed as elephant @-@ headed , with two , four , six , eight or twelve arms . However , his images are rarely displayed in public . When depicted as a male , Shoten is generally four @-@ armed , holding a radish and a sweet ( modak ) . He may also hold a mace , a sword , a cup of ambrosia or have two of his front arms folded . The six @-@ armed aspect of Kangiten is described carrying a knife , a fruit bowl , a discus in his left hands and a club , a noose and his broken tusk in his right .
Vinayaka are also depicted in two most important Shingon mandalas , Vajra @-@ dhatu and Garbhakosa @-@ dhatu . The mandalas generally have more than 1 Vinayaka figures . The Vinayakas are elephant @-@ headed , carry emblems such as radish and axe and are seated on lotus pedestals ( padmasana ) , the sign of divinity . The Vinayakas are generally positioned as guardians of the directions and serve as protectors against demons and evil . The central figure of the mandalas is Vairocana , one of the Five Great Buddhas , whose incarnation the Vinayakas are considered in this configuration .
Kangiten may also be depicted symbolically by symbolic syllable called shuji or bija or by symbols such as an umbrella , garland or bow and arrow in mandalas .
= = Origins and texts = =
Kangiten first emerged as a minor deity in the Japanese Buddhist pantheon in the eighth @-@ ninth centuries CE , possibly under the influence of Kukai ( 774 – 835 ) , the founder of Shingon Buddhism . The Hindu Ganesha icon travelled to China , where it was incorporated in Buddhism , then journeyed further to Japan . Kangiten 's early role in Shingon , like most other Hindu deities assimilated in Buddhism , is of a minor guardian of the twin mandalas . Later on , Kangiten emerged as besson , an independent deity . Kangiten appears in numerous Japanese besson guides , compiled in Heian period ( 794 – 1185 ) . While it includes rituals and iconographic forms like the early Chinese texts , it introduces origin myths of the deity to justify the Buddhist nature of the Hindu Ganesha .
Early images show him as with two or six arms . The paintings and gilt @-@ bronze images of the Dual Kangiten with explicit sexual connotations emerged in the late Heian period , under the Tantric influence of Tibetan Buddhism where such sexual imagery ( Yab @-@ Yum ) was common . The rare Japanese sexual iconography was hidden from public eye , to abide with Confucian ethics . Kangiten has now become an important deity in Shingon .
The origins of the Dual Kangiten have perplexed scholars for years ; there is no concrete evidence about the inception of this form . It is first found in Chinese texts , related to Chinese Tantric Buddhism , which was centred on the Buddha Vairocana and propagated by the three great masters Śubhakarasiṃha , Vajrabodhi , and Amoghavajra . The Dharanisamuccya translated to Chinese by the monk Atigupta ( Atikuta ) in 654 CE describes a ritual to worship the Dual Kangiten ; the same ritual was replicated by Amoghavajra ( 705 – 774 ) in his ritual text Daishoten Kangi Soshin Binayaka ho . Amoghavajra describes Soshin Kangiten as a deva , who grants one 's desires and a trayaka , the protector against evil and calamity . It details rituals and mantras to gain favour of the Dual Kangiten as well as the six @-@ armed Shoten . In another text by Amoghavajra , Soshin Kangiten is called a bodhisattva . This text categorizes the worshippers into three : the highest can learn inner secrets , the middle can read this text and the lowest should just accompany a higher worshipper in rituals . It describes rituals to gain four siddhis ( " powers " ) , namely of " protection , of gain , of love and of subjugation " . Rituals to appease Kangiten are described to gain three material things : kingship , prosperity and sufficient food and clothing . The text especially prescribes wine , the " water of bliss " as an offering to Kangiten . A minor text " Ritual of Sho Kangiten " ( 861 ) by Poi @-@ jo @-@ je Chieh @-@ lo describes the mandalas of Kangiten .
Bodhiruci ( trad . 572 – 727 ) has written two texts ( dated c . 693 – 713 ) that narrate about Vinayaka . In one of the texts , Vinayaka teaches a host of deities and demons a one @-@ syllable mantra , followed by a description of a ritual dedicated to the Dual Kangiten , which is also found in Amoghavajra 's Daishoten Kangi Soshin Binayaka ho . Vinayaka 's demon followers promise the deity to grant of wishes of beings , who repeat the one @-@ syllable mantra . In the longer version of the previous text , Bodhiruci elaborates of the Vinayaka story and enlists many rituals to propitiate the Dual Kangiten as well as the four @-@ armed form of the deity . It also has rituals to entice , gain wisdom , destroy foes etc . Besides the usual list of rituals , mantras and iconographical descriptions of the deity , Śubhakarasiṃha ( early 8th century ) in text , predating Amoghavajra but post @-@ dating Atigupta composed in c . 723 @-@ 36 , equates Kangiten to Shiva and associates " the Hindu king " Vinayaka with Avalokiteshvara ( Kannon ) .
The Dual Kangiten may also have been by the Hindu Tantric portrayal of Ganesha with consorts .
= = Legends = =
Numerous Japanese Buddhist canons narrate tales about the evil nature of Vināyaka . The Kangisoshinkuyoho as well as Śubhakarasiṃha 's early Chinese text describes that King Vinayaka ( Binayaka ) was the son of Uma ( hi ) ( identified with the Hindu Parvati , mother of Ganesha ) and Maheshvara , the Buddhist equivalent of Shiva , father of Ganesha . Uma produces 1500 children from her either side ; from her left a host of evil Vinayakas , headed by Vinayaka ( Binayaka ) and from her right , benevolent virtuous hosts headed by the manifestation of Avalokiteshvara – Senanayaka ( " Lord of the army [ of gods ] " , identified with the Hindu god of war Skanda , the brother of Ganesha ) , the antithesis of Vinayaka . Senanayaka would take many births as the elder brother ( as in the Hindu tradition ) or wife of Vinyanaka to defeat him . Then Śubhakarasiṃha 's text says that as wife , Senanayaka embraces Vinayaka leading to the icon of the Dual Kangiten . In the Japanese pantheon , Kangiten is considered as the brother of Ida @-@ ten , idenfied with Skanda .
Another legend narrates that the king of Marakeira only ate beef and radishes . When these became rare , he started feasting on human corpses and finally living beings , turning into the great demon @-@ king Vinayaka , who commanded an army of vinayakas . The people prayed to the Avalokiteshvara , who took the form of a female vinayaka and seduced Vinayaka , filling him with joy ( kangi ) . Thus , he , in union with her , became the Dual Kangiten .
The Kukozensho tells that Zaijizai , Maheshvara 's consort , had a son named Shoten , who was banished from heaven , due to his evil and violent nature . A beautiful goddess named Gundari ( Kundali ) , took the form of a terrible demoness and married Shoten , leading him to good ways . Another tale narrates that Kangiten was the evil daughter of Mahaeshvara , driven out from heaven . She took refuge at Mount Binayaka and married a fellow male @-@ Binayaka , resulting in the Dual Kangiten icon . Japanese variants of the legend of the Dual Kangiten emphasize that union of Vinayaka ( the male ) and Vainayaki ( the female ) transforms an evil obstacle creator into a reformed individual .
= = Worship = =
Kangiten is considered to be endowed with great power . Kangiten is regarded as protector of temples and worshipped generally by gamblers , actors , geishas and people in the business of " pleasure " . Mantras are often prescribed in ritual texts to appease the deity and even to drive away this obstacle @-@ maker . Rice wine ( sake ) , radishes and " bliss @-@ buns " ( kangi @-@ dan ) are offered to the god .
While Kangiten is worshipped throughout Japan , Hōzan @-@ ji on the summit of Mount Ikoma is his most important and active temple . Though the temple is believed to have been founded in the sixth century , it came in the limelight in the 17th century when the monk Tankai ( 1629 – 1716 ) made the temple 's Gohonzon , a Heian period , gilt @-@ bronze image of the Dual Kangiten , the centre of attraction . In the Genroku era ( 1688 – 1704 ) , Osaka merchants , especially vegetable @-@ oil sellers , joined Kangiten 's cult , attributing their success to his worship . Business people still continue to worship him at the sanctuary and figurines of the Dual Kangiten are found in shops around the temple . The central Dual Kangiten icon is kept under a phallic cover called the linga @-@ kosa , when not being worshipped .
Besides Shingon worship , as of 1979 , Kangiten 's worship was recorded in at least 243 Japanese shrines .
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= The Last Voyage of the Starship Enterprise =
" The Last Voyage of the Starship Enterprise " is a comedy sketch that first aired on May 29 , 1976 , during episode 22 of the first season of the NBC variety show , Saturday Night Live . The twelve @-@ minute sketch was written by Michael O 'Donoghue during a month @-@ long process consulting with actor John Belushi . The sketch is a satire of the 1969 cancellation of Star Trek : The Original Series . The set design featured an effective replica of the bridge of the U.S.S Enterprise . Dress rehearsal was difficult , with the writer doubting whether Belushi would be able to pull off an effective parody of William Shatner 's performance as Captain James Kirk . However , the result was a success , and O 'Donoghue immediately congratulated Belushi after his performance and reflected that he had perfectly parodied Shatner as Kirk .
The sketch became an instant cult classic hit among Star Trek and science fiction fans . The 1977 book Saturday Night Live edited by Anne Beatts and John Head included a copy of a note from Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry praising the comedic bit . The sketch was released on a 1985 Saturday Night Live compilation VHS that featured The Best of John Belushi , and re @-@ released with the same title in DVD format in 2011 . In his book Metapop author Michael Dunne called the comedic bit among the most well @-@ known of all Saturday Night Live routines . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times referred to it as an intelligent satire of Star Trek . The Los Angeles Times placed the parody among the program 's top ten sketches of all @-@ time . On the series ' 40th anniversary , Tulsa World listed the sketch as one of the television show 's most iconic .
The New Yorker film critic Anthony Lane wrote that Belushi was flawless and captured Shatner 's essence while adding simultaneously his own layer of weariness to the character . The Hollywood Reporter interviewed Tom Hanks and Elliott Gould in 2015 ; Gould called the sketch a favorite , while Hanks placed it among the best five of all time . In ranking every single Saturday Night Live cast member by talent in 2015 , Rolling Stone called the Captain Kirk parody one of Belushi 's most memorable and wrote that it was evidence of the actor 's youthful innocence .
= = Plot synopsis = =
The sensors of the starship U.S.S. Enterprise pick up a strange alien spacecraft following it in hot pursuit . Mr. Spock , played by Chevy Chase , identifies it as a 1968 Chrysler Imperial with a tinted windshield and retractable headlights .
Captain Kirk , played by John Belushi , orders the ship to outrun the strange craft . Unable to do so , he orders phasers and photon torpedoes to destroy the craft . Unfortunately , all of the ship 's equipment fails for no reason and the Enterprise 's systems break down . Suddenly , Dr. Leonard McCoy , played by Dan Aykroyd , runs onto the bridge saying that the aliens are on the ship . He says they did not beam aboard , but merely walked out from behind the curtains .
It turns out that the aliens are NBC executive Herb Goodman , played by Elliott Gould , and his associate Curtis , played by Garrett Morris . They announce that the Star Trek series has been cancelled . Captain Kirk orders the crew to fire their hand phasers at the aliens but nothing happens . Mr. Spock assumes that the aliens have a type of weapons de @-@ activator and tries to employ his famous Vulcan nerve pinch on him , but that does not work either . The executive confiscates Mr. Spock 's pointed ears . Spock then mind @-@ melds with Goodman only to discover that , as he describes it , his brain is devoid of substance and contains only a few rodents .
Other NBC executives and staff show up and dismantle the Enterprise set .
Other crew members accept the cancellation , but Shatner and Nimoy try to hang on to their Star Trek personae as Kirk and Spock . However , Nimoy is eventually reduced to a sobbing , nervous wreck , and is carried off the set . Shatner remains defiantly in the Captain 's chair , as Herb Goodman mentions a phone call from a margarine company . Finally , the set is completely dismantled , and still in his chair , Shatner , as Captain Kirk , makes a final entry into his log recalling his previous three years of space exploration , concluding : " And except for one television network , we have found intelligence everywhere in the galaxy . " Raising his hand in the Vulcan salute , he goes on , " Live long and prosper " . Then he brings his fingers together , his hand still raised , and adds , " Promise " .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The twelve @-@ minute sketch was written by Michael O 'Donoghue who wanted to create a scene that would showcase the acting talents of John Belushi . O 'Donoghue had been the one who had initially persuaded producer Lorne Michaels to hire Belushi for the new Saturday Night Live program . O 'Donoghue and Belushi recognized that the original Star Trek series itself was not a ratings success during its initial run , but had become much more successful during syndication . Belushi enjoyed the Star Trek series and wanted the part of Captain Kirk . He demonstrated his intense desire to get the role by trimming his sideburns to closely resemble Kirk 's facial appearance in the original series . They worked together on the sketch for thirty @-@ days and scheduled it for the final episode of the 1976 season of the show when it would be hosted by Elliott Gould .
= = = Cast = = =
John Belushi as Captain Kirk / William Shatner :
Chevy Chase as Mr. Spock / Leonard Nimoy
Dan Aykroyd as Dr. Leonard McCoy / DeForest Kelley and the voice of Scotty on intercom
Elliott Gould as Herb Goodman , NBC Executive
Garrett Morris as Curtis , Head NBC stage crew
Akira Yoshimura as Mr. Sulu / George Takei
Doris Powell as Lt. Uhura / Nichelle Nichols
= = = Set design = = =
The production values for the set were quite good . The production staff had reproduced an effective @-@ looking replica of the bridge of the U.S.S Enterprise . As the scene began , the viewscreen of the ship depicted the U.S.S Enterprise being pursued by a type of automobile commonly manufactured in the United States .
= = = Dress rehearsal = = =
Dress rehearsal for the sketch went poorly . During rehearsal , Belushi was having difficulty correctly parodying the character of James T. Kirk as originally portrayed by actor William Shatner . Belushi had sat for several hours while being made up so that he would look the part . Sketch writer O 'Donoghue was worried that the sketch was too long and might not go over well with the audience . He knew that Belushi was a fan of Star Trek , and had previously rescued sketches that others thought would flop , but O 'Donoghue was nervous that Belushi would not be able to pull off a comedic performance on this occasion .
Donoghue complained directly to Belushi that he thought his parody of Shatner during the dress rehearsals was inadequate and needed much improvement . Further , actor Chevy Chase was annoyed that he was satirizing Leonard Nimoy as Spock ; he did not like the idea of playing second @-@ fiddle to Belushi . During all of the rehearsals , Chase attempted to attract more attention to his character 's role and dominate the scene . Just prior to the actual on @-@ air performance of the sketch , O 'Donoghue admonished Belushi and implored him to perform an effective parody . Belushi 's dress rehearsal performance had worried executives so much that they had discussed canceling the entire sketch altogether .
= = = Release = = =
" The Last Voyage of the Starship Enterprise " first aired during episode 22 of the first season of The NBC variety show , Saturday Night Live on May 29 , 1976 .
Immediately upon the conclusion of the sketch , writer Michael O 'Donoghue knew it was an instant success . He had been watching the Saturday Night Live performance from beside the set , off @-@ camera . He felt that Belushi had performed his role as Captain Kirk perfectly . As soon as Belushi left the set , O 'Donoghue went over to him and gave the actor a congratulatory hug . On reflection , after the live performance , O 'Donoghue stated that Belushi had performed a perfect parody of Shatner as Kirk . Belushi felt it was one of his most satisfying performances .
In their book Saturday Night : A Backstage History of Saturday Night Live , authors Doug Hill and Jeff Weingrad wrote that the sketch was writer Michael O 'Donoghue 's signature success on the television program . In addition , they noted that the staff of Saturday Night Live felt the sketch was among the best routines on the program .
After Belushi 's sudden death by drug overdose in 1982 , Judith Jacklin Belushi , the actor 's widow , began to think about putting together a video to commemorate him . The sketch was included on the 1985 Saturday Night Live release of 16 sketches featuring Belushi called The Best of John Belushi , produced by Lorne Michaels and Judith Jacklin Belushi , sold by Warner Home Video in VHS format .
Together , Lorne Michaels , Belushi 's brother Jim Belushi , and Judith Jacklin Belushi , reviewed the actor 's comedic sketches from Saturday Night Live to select what were generally considered his best works . In an interview with the Los Angeles Daily News on the 1985 VHS release , Belushi 's widow commented she was not sure if her husband had a particular sketch he liked the most , but that he considered the Star Trek parody among his favorites . The Best of John Belushi edition in VHS format sold approximately 200 @,@ 000 copies . It reached number three on Billboard 's Top Videocassettes Sales Chart in February 1986 .
The DVD edition of the collected shorts video release by Saturday Night Live was released in 2011 , again under the title The Best of John Belushi .
= = Themes = =
Writing for American Humor , academic Robert G. Pielke observed that the sketch was a very well @-@ done , and moving , reflection on NBC management 's fealty to Nielsen ratings and profit . Pielke went on to analyze the sketch and characterized it as an example of Saturday Night Live resisting conformist authority . He commented that an injustice had been wrought by NBC the company , whereas the NBC executives who came to shut down Star Trek were simply pawns in the process . He posited that the U.S.S. Enterprise crew members were against cancelling the television program because their self @-@ worth had become tied to it . Pielke noted that within the confines of the sketch 's plot itself , as each crew member realized there was no option other than cancellation , they each showed their actual identity and humanity .
Pielke praised the final scene of the sketch as evocative of the original series and an indictment of capitalism . He wrote that Belushi finished off the sketch with a moving rendition of the introduction to the original Star Trek series , while modifying it slightly to emphasize that NBC 's greed had ended the Enterprise mission .
Mother Jones magazine additionally commented upon the key theme of satire over conflict between the critical success of Star Trek and the decision to cancel the program by the studio executives . The magazine noted that writer Michael O 'Donoghue 's work for the sketch was among the highest caliber scripts he had written for Saturday Night Live . Mother Jones found it ironic that in the sketch the Enterprise was defeated not by its traditional enemies such as the Klingons , but by a stupid NBC executive in charge of the network 's programming schedule .
Upon re @-@ release of the sketch on the Saturday Night Live compilation DVD titled The Best of John Belushi , Jon Corey wrote for Inside Pulse that the sketch was still one of ten best ever on Saturday Night Live . He pointed out the irony that it was not Khan Noonien Singh or the Klingons that defeated the Enterprise , but an enemy much more powerful — NBC executives . Nick Hartel reviewed the DVD release for DVD Talk , and commented that the sketch 's satire succeeded because it was a surreal form of meta @-@ comedy that dared to criticize NBC management .
The New Yorker film critic Anthony Lane reflected on the sketch and Belushi 's performance in 2013 . Lane thought that the sketch was an effective satire of the cancellation of the series and simultaneously served as a death knell for the Star Trek franchise . He felt that viewers watching the sketch in 1976 would be hard @-@ pressed to imagine a future , thirty @-@ seven @-@ years later , where " Star Trek " was so thoroughly ensconced within popular culture . Lane wrote that Belushi was flawless in his role parodying Shatner playing Kirk . He observed that Belushi both performed an effective parody , while simultaneously injecting his own weariness into the Kirk character . Lane wondered how the " Star Trek " franchise could ever come back from the total deconstruction the SNL skit presented .
= = Impact on Star Trek = =
The sketch became an instant cult classic hit among Star Trek and science fiction fans . Captain Kirk actor William Shatner was asked which Star Trek parody was his favorite : Belushi 's impression of himself , or the later satire wherein Shatner appeared on Saturday Night Live in a sketch telling Star Trek fans known as Trekkies to " Get a life " . Shatner said he preferred Belushi 's impression to his own later appearance on the comedy television program . Shatner commented : " I like Belushi 's work as Kirk better than my own " .
DeForest Kelley , the actor who portrayed physician Leonard McCoy on Star Trek , was a personal favorite of John Belushi . Belushi had offices on the same lot as Kelley . Kelley overheard Belushi discussing the Saturday Night Live parody of Star Trek with William Shatner , and mentioned to both of them that he had not yet seen the sketch . Belushi immediately escorted Kelley to his office on the lot and had him watch it on videotape .
Kelley thoroughly enjoyed it , especially Belushi 's impression of Captain Kirk . He later remarked that he had trouble going back to act on the Star Trek set in a scene opposite Shatner because he could not stop laughing remembering the Saturday Night Live parody and Belushi 's portrayal . Belushi later gave Kelley a signed videotape of the sketch ; he had written " Live Long and Prosper " on the tape . Kelley sent the videotape to close friends when Belushi died because he did not want to hold on to the memento which brought up sad memories of his loss .
The 1977 book Saturday Night Live , edited by Anne Beatts and John Head , included a rough version of the plot of the comedic bit , as well as a message from Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry in which he effusively praised the sketch .
Roddenberry had sent a letter to Elliot Gould on June 3 , 1976 , in which he thanked the actor for the parody and said he would show it to members of the actual Star Trek cast . Roddenberry called the sketch creatively designed with the light comedic touch necessary to pull off an effective satire . Elliott Gould later told The Hollywood Reporter that the success of the sketch inspired Roddenberry to create the first feature film version of his series : Star Trek : The Motion Picture .
= = Reception = =
In reviewing The Best of John Belushi when Saturday Night Live released the compilation to VHS in 1985 , The New York Times critic Fred Ferretti highlighted Belushi 's role as Captain James Kirk among the actor 's memorable performances . In his 1992 book , Metapop : Self @-@ referentiality in Contemporary American Popular Culture , author Michael Dunne called the comedic bit : " one of SNL 's most famous sketches " . The Los Angeles Times called the sketch one of the television program 's most noteworthy of all time . In a 1999 article reflecting on the 25th anniversary of Saturday Night Live , Los Angeles Times journalist Susan Keller placed the Star Trek parody at number eight on a list of the program 's top ten all @-@ time sketches .
In a contribution to the 2001 compilation book Faith , Reason , and Political Life Today , Paul A. Cantor calls the sketch among the best of Star Trek parodies , saying it is " hysterical " . A 2005 article by journalist Darel Jevens , writing for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , called the sketch an intelligent satire of Star Trek . Reflecting on Belushi 's impact 25 years after the actor 's death , a 2007 Associated Press article noted that the parody of Captain Kirk , Bluto from Animal House and the Saturday Night Live Samurai were among the characters that illustrated his acting versatility .
In a 2008 article published by Huffpost TV , columnist Richard Keller characterized the sketch as one of the most well @-@ known satires of Star Trek ; the other being another Saturday Night Live episode where William Shatner appeared playing himself . Los Angeles Times film critic Betsy Sharkey wrote that Belushi 's performance was so nuanced and full of depth , because he was able to skillfully rely upon the depth that William Shatner had given to the character 's prior portrayals . It was described by TrekMovie.com founder Anthony Pascale as " one of the best Star Trek parody sketches of all time " .
Reflecting on the life of John Belushi for a 2012 article , WOMC placed the sketch among those regarded as the most well @-@ remembered and loved performances by the actor . In his 2012 book Star Trek : The Complete Unauthorized History , author Robert Greenberger called the piece a classic . In a September 2013 article for The A.V. Club , Phil Dyess @-@ Nugent described " The Last Voyage Of The Starship Enterprise " as lovable in @-@ depth satire of Star Trek with a touching impression of Shatner that was likely the best routine from the first year of Saturday Night Live . In a subsequent review of the episode in an October 2013 , Dyess @-@ Nugent again praised the sketch , writing that it was an outstanding work both as a form of humor and a tribute to Star Trek fans .
Writing for CNN in 2014 , journalist Todd Leopold commented that he appreciated the sketch , but did not place it among the program 's five all @-@ time sketches . Time magazine included the sketch in a retrospective on classic Saturday Night Live works , placing the comedic bit among the most iconic from the program 's first years on television . On the 40th anniversary of Saturday Night Live , Tulsa World placed the sketch among " 16 iconic skits " .
In his 2015 book John Prine : In Spite of Himself , author Eddie Huffman wrote that the Captain Kirk role , along with his portrayal of Samurai warrior , and Marlon Brando as the Godfather , helped John Belushi become famous and an acting sensation . In a 2015 Hollywood Reporter interview with actors Tom Hanks and Elliott Gould , Gould called the sketch one of his favorite , and Hanks remarked : " Oh , I think that 's got to be one of the top five of all . " Rolling Stone ranked every single one of the 141 cast members of Saturday Night Live in order of talent . John Belushi was ranked at number one , with Rolling Stone citing his Captain Kirk parody as evidence of his youthful innocence among his often lunatic @-@ like performances in a 2015 article . The website Rotten Tomatoes characterized the sketch as a satire that did not lose its effectiveness with age .
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= The Human Centipede ( First Sequence ) =
The Human Centipede ( First Sequence ) is a 2009 Dutch film written , directed , and co @-@ produced by Tom Six . The film tells the story of a German surgeon who kidnaps three tourists and joins them surgically , mouth to anus , forming a " human centipede " , a conjoined triplet . It stars Dieter Laser as the creator of the centipede , Dr. Josef Heiter , with Ashley C. Williams , Ashlynn Yennie , and Akihiro Kitamura as his victims . According to Six , the concept of the film arose from a joke he made with friends about punishing a child molester by stitching his mouth to the anus of a " fat truck driver " . Inspiration for the film also came from Nazi medical experiments carried out during World War II , such as the crimes of Josef Mengele at the Auschwitz concentration camp .
When approaching investors prior to filming , Six did not mention the mouth @-@ to @-@ anus aspect of the plot , fearing it would put off potential backers . The financiers of The Human Centipede did not discover the full nature of the film until it was complete . The film received generally mixed reviews from mainstream film critics , but it won several accolades at international film festivals . The film was released in the United States on a limited theatrical release on 30 April 2010 . A sequel , entitled Full Sequence , also written and directed by Six , was released in 2011 .
= = Plot = =
Lindsay ( Ashley C. Williams ) and Jenny ( Ashlynn Yennie ) , two American tourists in Germany , are drugged and involuntarily detained by crazed surgeon Dr. Josef Heiter ( Dieter Laser ) when they seek help at his house after they get a flat tire . The women awake in a makeshift medical ward . They witness Heiter kill a kidnapped truck driver after Heiter informs him he is " not a match " . Heiter secures a new male captive , Japanese tourist Katsuro ( Akihiro Kitamura ) . The doctor explains that he is a world @-@ renowned expert at separating Siamese twins , but dreams of making new creatures by sewing people together . He describes in detail how he will surgically connect his three victims mouth @-@ to @-@ anus , so that they share a single digestive system .
After Lindsay tries to escape and fails , Heiter explains that he had previously experimented with creating what he called a " three @-@ dog " , also joined mouth @-@ to @-@ anus . However , the three @-@ dog died shortly after surgery . Heiter tells Lindsay that one dog tried to escape and that dog became the middle , thus this caused the most pain to the dog and as punishment for her escape attempt , she will become the middle part of his centipede . Heiter performs the surgery , placing Katsuro at the front , Lindsay in the middle and Jenny at the rear . He removes the front teeth of both women and mutilates the buttocks of both Katsuro and Lindsay in order to provide easier access to the rectums , to which he hideously stitches and grafts their mouths . During his procedure , he severs the ligaments within his victims ' knees to prevent leg extension , forcing his victims to crawl . He then connects his victims together in a straight line with their mouths surgically attached to the anus of the victim in front of them .
Once the operation is complete , Heiter attempts to train his centipede as a pet , often belittling Katsuro with racist insults and beating him with a crop when he becomes rebellious . When Katsuro defecates , Lindsay is forced to swallow his excrement while the doctor watches in delight . However , he eventually becomes irritated after being kept awake by the constant screaming of Katsuro ( who , as the front part of the centipede , has his mouth free and is still able to speak ) and the realization that Jenny is dying from septicemia . When two detectives , Kranz ( Andreas Leupold ) and Voller ( Peter Blankenstein ) , visit the house to investigate the disappearance of tourists , Heiter comes up with an idea to add them as replacements for Jenny in a new creation ; a four @-@ segment centipede . He offers the two detectives water spiked with sedatives in hopes of knocking the two unconscious . After being given the water , the detectives become suspicious and obtain a search warrant for his home . While the detectives leave Heiter 's home , the victims attempt to escape . Katsuro attacks Heiter in the process . Their attempt to escape ultimately fails . Katsuro confesses to the doctor that he deserves his fate because he had treated his own family poorly , then commits suicide by slitting his throat with a glass shard .
Upon returning to Heiter 's home , the detectives forcefully conduct separate searches as an injured Heiter hides near his swimming pool . Kranz finds the ward along with Heiter 's victims . Voller begins to feel ill from the earlier drugging , and Heiter stabs him with the scalpel pulled from his leg during Katsuro 's attack . Upon finding Voller dead , Kranz is shot by Heiter with Voller 's sidearm . Kranz responds by shooting Heiter in the head before dying . Back in the house , Jenny and Lindsay hold hands as Jenny dies . Lindsay sobs as she is left alone in the house , trapped between her deceased fellow captives . Her fate is left unknown . The film ends with the sounds of her sobbing while the camera pans to the roof of the house .
= = Cast = =
Dieter Laser as Dr Josef Heiter , a retired surgeon who specialised in the separation of conjoined twins , but in retirement is more interested in joining creatures together . Casting for the role of Heiter took place in Berlin , and Six intended to cast Laser before he had even read for the part , after Six saw a DVD of one of Laser 's previous films . Laser had previously appeared in over 60 mostly German @-@ language films , including Der Unhold and Baltic Storm . Upon meeting him in Berlin , Six gave Laser a shot @-@ by @-@ shot explanation of Heiter 's scenes , and Laser , impressed by Six 's dedication and passion , agreed to take part in the film . Laser contributed considerably to the development of Heiter 's character . For example , because Heiter views the " centipede " as his pet , Laser felt that it was important that Heiter appeared naked during a scene in which he swam in full view of his victims , because Laser said " you aren 't ashamed to be naked " around a pet .
Ashley C. Williams as Lindsay , an American tourist and the central section of the centipede . Auditioning for the roles of Jenny and Lindsay took place in New York City . Six said during the auditioning process , many actresses walked out of readings in disgust after hearing the full nature of the role . Others thought they would be able to take on the role , but found it was " too much " for them once they got onto their hands and knees behind another actor . Williams expressed concerns about the nudity expected of her in the film , but took the role when she was assured it would be modest and of a non @-@ sexual nature .
Ashlynn Yennie as Jenny , the rear section of the centipede . As with Williams , The Human Centipede was Yennie 's first major film role . Yennie was one of several actresses to audition for the role , as the producers searched for an actress who would have good on @-@ screen chemistry with Williams . Yennie was able to further develop her relationship with Williams when the pair shared an apartment in the Netherlands during filming . Yennie auditioned to Ilona Six , sister of Tom Six and the film 's producer , and did not meet Tom Six , who had viewed tapes of her reading , until fitting for the centipede special effects in the Netherlands . Yennie was drawn to the role by the humanity throughout the story , referring to how the three victims of Heiter are unwillingly forced into their situation . She also said the story was so realistic it scared her .
Akihiro Kitamura as Katsuro , a Japanese tourist and front section of the centipede . Having already acted in or written for a number of films and television shows ( including popular American television series Heroes ) , Kitamura was a relatively experienced actor compared to other cast members . He auditioned for the role of Katsuro via Skype from Los Angeles after the casting director saw him on television and recommended him for the role . The rest of the cast did not meet Kitamura until the day before shooting commenced .
Rene de Wit as Truck Driver , one of Heiter 's victims . De Wit had previously worked with Six in his 2008 film I Love Dries .
Andreas Leupold as Detective Kranz , a police officer .
Peter Blankenstein as Detective Voller , a police officer .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The inspiration for the film 's plot came from a joke that writer / director Tom Six once made to his friends about punishing a child molester they saw on TV by stitching his mouth to the anus of an overweight truck driver . Six saw this as the concept for a great horror film , and he began to develop the idea . He has said he was heavily influenced as a filmmaker by the early works of David Cronenberg and Japanese horror films . Six has said he prefers horror films that are more realistic over " unbelievable " monster films , and said that he gets " a rash from too much political correctness . " Major influences for The Human Centipede were Pier Paolo Pasolini 's controversial 1975 Italian drama film Salò , or the 120 Days of Sodom , which was notable for its scenes depicting intensely graphic violence , sadism , and sexual depravity , as was the work of Japanese director Takashi Miike . Six has also expressed his love of the works of David Lynch . Further inspiration came from Six 's previous work as a director on the Dutch series of Big Brother , where he had been able to observe people who " did crazy things when they were alone and thought they were not ( being ) watched . "
Six has stated that The Human Centipede is , to an extent , a reflection on fascism . Dieter Laser , who played the antagonist Dr Heiter , said during the promotion of the film that he felt the guilt of Nazi actions during the war had haunted ordinary Germans for generations , and that as a German whose father participated in the war , he often felt " like a child whose father is in jail for murder . " The inclusion of a German villain came from this , with Six citing both the German invasion of the Netherlands during World War II and the Nazi medical experiments as inspiration . Laser stated in an interview with Clark Collis for Entertainment Weekly that he considered the film a " grotesque [ parody ] about the Nazi psyche " . Heiter 's name was an amalgamation of several Nazi war criminals , his surname ( literally meaning " cheerful " in German ) a combination of the names of Nazi doctors Fetter and Richter , and his first name coming from Josef Mengele , who carried out experiments on prisoners at Auschwitz concentration camp . World War II also played an influence on the nationality of the other main characters who were American and Japanese . Six includes many horror film clichés in the first act , such as a broken @-@ down car , lack of phone signal and very naïve victims . Six did this in an attempt to lull audiences into thinking they are watching a conventional horror film , therefore making Dr Heiter 's treatment of his victims more shocking .
Six placed a Japanese male at the front of the centipede for two reasons : first to create a language barrier between the doctor and the centipede . Throughout the film the characters ( with the exception of Heiter who for the most part speaks to the centipede in English ) speak in their native languages only ( subtitled for the viewer into English where necessary ) . Katsuro , as the front part of the centipede , can only speak Japanese and therefore cannot speak with either the doctor or Jenny and Lindsay . Secondly , Katsuro 's position in the centipede sets up the opportunity for the doctor and the male victim of the centipede to fight toward the climax of the film . Six stated in the director 's commentary for The Human Centipede that he has a personal fear of hospitals and doctors , so he stretched out the scene where Heiter explains how he will create the centipede and the subsequent procedure to create his " own nightmare . "
While seeking funding for the film , Six pitched the idea of a surgeon who sewed people together . He did not initially reveal that the victims would be joined mouth @-@ to @-@ anus , as he believed this idea would stand no chance of receiving investments . His backers felt that the idea of a surgeon sewing people together was original and Six received funding . However , they did not learn the exact details of the film until it had been completed . Six claimed that they were very happy with the finished film . Before signing on , the actors were given an outline of the storyboard rather than a complete script . They were also shown sketches of how the centipede would be formed .
= = = Filming = = =
Although The Human Centipede is set in Germany , principal photography took place in the Netherlands due to the neighboring countries ' similar landscapes . Heiter 's home , where most of The Human Centipede takes place , was a villa in the Netherlands found by the production team . The property was in a residential area and not surrounded by woodland as it appears in the film , but by other houses . This meant the filmmakers had some difficulty ensuring that the other houses did not appear in shot . Some conversion of the property took place prior to filming , for example , a cinema room was converted to form Heiter 's basement operating theatre , with real hospital beds and intravenous drips rented from a local hospital . The paintings of conjoined twins that were displayed throughout the house were painted by Tom Six , which he felt contributed to the atmosphere in the house . The hotel room scene near the beginning of the film was filmed in a hotel suite at a location near Amsterdam . The film was shot almost entirely in sequence , which Yennie stated helped the actors to develop their characters throughout the film . The opening scene , which only featured Laser and de Wit , was shot on the last day of filming .
Laser remained in character as Heiter throughout the filming process , often shouting at the rest of the cast on set , but wherever possible staying away from the other actors and crew between scenes to preserve a level of separation . He only ate food he had brought onto the set himself , eating mostly fruit . He contributed dialogue for his character and selected many of his character 's outfits from his personal wardrobe . Six claims that the jacket Heiter wore , which was bought by Laser , was a genuine jacket worn by real Nazi doctors . Laser was also happy for the other actors in The Human Centipede to add their own ideas to the film . For example , when Heiter is explaining his procedure to his victims , Katsuro 's dialogue was improvised , which pleased Laser . During filming Laser accidentally kicked Kitamura ( Katsuro ) , leading to a fight on set between the actors . The incident contributed to the tension and anger throughout the scene they were filming , in which Heiter sits at his dining table eating while the centipede eats dog food from the floor alongside him . Laser also hurt Williams during the scene when Heiter roughly grabs and injects Lindsay , which caused a pause in shooting before the filmmakers could continue .
The Nazi influence behind Heiter led to the use of classical music when the doctor is " training " his centipede . The music was deliberately played at low quality to simulate the music coming from a loudspeaker , in much the same way as music was sometimes played in Nazi concentration camps . Many of the sound effects in The Human Centipede were created by manipulating meat . For example , the sound of a nose being broken was made by snapping bones within cuts of raw meat . Due to the discomfort of spending long periods on their hands and knees , the actors playing the centipede were given massages at the end of each day of filming . Yennie stated that she and Williams experienced jaw pain from holding a bit in their mouths during filming , but overall she did not feel that the physical side of filming had been excessively difficult .
= = = Effects = = =
The Human Centipede contains relatively few gory images ; little of the surgical procedure is depicted directly , no excrement is shown on screen , and according to Kim Newman in Empire , it is " never quite as outrageous as it threatens to be . " Six stated that he wanted the film to be as authentic as possible and claimed to have consulted a Dutch surgeon during the creation and filming process , resulting in the film being " 100 % medically accurate . " Six said that the surgeon initially wanted nothing to do with his film , as he felt Six was " crazy " and the idea had " nothing to do with medical science . " However , the surgeon changed his mind and decided that he in fact liked the idea , and so came up with a method of creating a human centipede . Six has claimed that the central and rear members of the centipede could survive for years by supplementing their diet with an IV drip . The special effects team was led by a father and son team , Rob Hillenbrink and son Erik . They designed the final composition of the centipede from sketches provided by the consulting surgeon . The actors who made up the centipede wore hardened underwear , compared by Yennie to shorts , which had a rubber grip for the actors to wear for the actor behind on which to bite , creating the illusion of the mouth @-@ to @-@ anus connection . Six kept secret how the centipede would be formed as long as possible , and Yennie claimed that even her make @-@ up artist did not know , asking Yennie what kind of " suit " the actors would be wearing .
When Heiter is operating on his victims , Jenny 's teeth were digitally removed in post @-@ production . However , other effects were relatively simple to create . Heiter 's " three dog " was created by photoshopping an image of three Rottweilers to create an image of dogs joined together . Colour grading was used extensively throughout the production of The Human Centipede . For example , at the end of the film when Lindsay is left between the dead bodies of Jenny and Katsuro , their skin tones were lightened to further emphasise that they were dead and Lindsay was still alive .
The rain when Jenny and Lindsay 's car breaks down was added digitally in post @-@ production . The filmmakers had not been granted permission to film at the roadside location , but went ahead against the authorities ' wishes as Six felt the location in the woods was ideal for the scene . When Heiter 's window is repaired after Lindsay 's escape attempt , the use of a tracking shot through the window pane required the reflection of the crew to be digitally removed from the glass . The film contains a large number of long tracking shots ; Six has cited the influence of Takashi Miike who also uses many tracking shots in his films .
= = Release = =
= = = Promotion = = =
During promotion for The Human Centipede , press materials claimed that the film was " 100 % medically accurate " . Six and the producers frequently stated that the film had been described as " the most horrific film ever made , " and many writers , such as Karina Longworth of LA Weekly magazine and Jay Stone of the Calgary Herald described the film as torture porn . Roger Ebert , writing in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times stated that he felt the film had been " deliberately intended to inspire incredulity , nausea and hopefully outrage . " However , writing in The Guardian , David Cox noted that he had been unable to trace the source of this quote as the " most horrific film ever made " and had contacted Six to attempt to ascertain the origin of this judgement . Six claimed that the statement had originally been made by The Sun newspaper in the United Kingdom . However , Cox was unable to trace any article making this claim . When asked by Cox as to what Six regarded as the " most horrific " film , Six stated he in fact believed it to be Pier Paolo Pasolini 's Salò , or the 120 Days of Sodom .
= = = Theatrical = = =
The Human Centipede was released in the United States without an MPAA rating . It was released theatrically in New York City on 30 April 2010 and had a limited release in the US shortly afterward , distributed by IFC Films . Throughout 2009 , the film was included in several film festivals around the world including the London FrightFest Film Festival , Leeds International Film Festival , Sitges Film Festival , and Screamfest Horror Film Festival . Six remarked on how many film festival audiences reacted strongly to the film , sometimes almost vomiting in the cinema aisles . To Six 's amusement , Spanish audiences often found the film funny , and laughed throughout screenings . Six claimed that the " buzz " surrounding the film led to several studios approaching him to discuss its distribution . IFC Films has a history of releasing unconventional horror films , having previously distributed the Norwegian Nazi @-@ zombie feature Dead Snow and the 2009 release Antichrist . The Human Centipede 's US gross was $ 181 @,@ 467 , and worldwide takings amounted to $ 252 @,@ 207 .
The film was passed uncut by the British Board of Film Classification ( BBFC ) and released with an 18 certificate , receiving a limited release in the UK on 20 August 2010 . It was distributed by Bounty Films .
= = = Home media = = =
The Human Centipede was released in the United Kingdom on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 4 October 2010 and in the US the following day , where , as of September 2011 , DVD sales have totalled $ 2 @,@ 113 @,@ 186 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The Human Centipede received mixed reviews . Review aggregator web site Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a 49 % ' Rotten ' rating , based upon 91 reviews , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 1 out of 10 ; the general consensus states : " Grotesque , visceral and hard to ( ahem ) swallow , this surgical horror doesn 't quite earn its stripes because the gross @-@ outs overwhelm and devalue everything else . " At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film received an average score of 33 based on 15 reviews .
Giving the film three stars out of five , Empire writer Kim Newman stated that " underneath an extremely repulsive concept , this is a relatively conventional horror movie . " Variety Magazine writer Peter DeBurge criticised the film 's lack of any form of social commentary , stating that it could not " be bothered to expand upon its unpleasant premise , inviting audiences to revel in its sick humor by favoring Dr. Heiter ... and characterizing the victims as shallow expendables . " Writing in Entertainment Weekly , Clark Collis was broadly positive about Dieter Laser 's performance as the Doctor , and praised Six 's direction , saying Six " has put together his nightmare yarn with Cronenbergian care and precision . " Collis said The Human Centipede was " without question one of the most disgusting horror films ever made . " Writing in The Guardian , Peter Bradshaw gave the film three out of five , saying that whilst " entirely deplorable and revolting " the film was " sort of brilliant " . Total Film writer Jamie Russell gave the film four stars out of five , calling it " Shocking , funny , disturbing ... a throwback to the glory days of Cronenberg . "
Sukhdev Sandhu in The Daily Telegraph was generally negative about the film , stating , " The Human Centipede has its moments , but they 're largely obscured by umpteen holes in the plot as well as by reams of exposition " and that it was " an ultimately underwhelming affair that 's neither sick or repellent enough to garner the cult status it so craves . " The New York Times review by Jeannette Catsouli noted that whether the film was " a commentary on Nazi atrocities or a literal expression of filmmaking politics , the grotesque fusion at least silences the female leads , both of whose voices could strip paint . " Writing in the Chicago Sun Times , Roger Ebert did not assign the film a star rating ( not to be confused with awarding it zero stars ) , stating , " I am required to award stars to movies I review . This time , I refuse to do it . The star rating system is unsuited to this film . Is the movie good ? Is it bad ? Does it matter ? It is what it is and occupies a world where the stars don 't shine . "
Critics and a doctor have dismissed Six 's claim that the film was " 100 percent medically accurate " as " ludicrous " and " rubbish " . Dr John Cameron , speaking to TV3 News in New Zealand gave an interview about the feasibility of a human centipede , stating how he believed it would be difficult for a join between different people to heal and form a connection , and how the centipede would quickly die from lack of nutrition . John Martin , a former Hollywood film executive and CEO of Alamo Drafthouse Cinemas said Six 's claims of 100 percent medical accuracy should be viewed with reference to the kind of shock gimmicks that film producers had long used to attract attention . Martin compared Six 's claims to those of Kroger Babb and William Castle who had also made " grand promises " about what they were putting on screen in a bid to lure audiences .
= = = Accolades = = =
Despite mixed reviews , the film won several awards in 2009 during advance screenings at various international horror film festivals , including Best Picture / Movie at Fantastic Fest ( Austin , Texas ) , Screamfest Horror Film Festival ( Los Angeles ) , and the Sainte Maxime International Horror Film Festival . Laser won Best Actor in the horror category at Fantastic Fest and the film won the award for Best Ensemble Cast at the South African Horrorfest Film Festival .
= = Sequel = =
While promoting The Human Centipede , Six stated that he had started work on a sequel to First Sequence , titled The Human Centipede 2 ( Full Sequence ) . Shooting on a similar budget to the first film , Six stated the sequel would be a much more graphic and disturbing film ; First Sequence being " My Little Pony compared with part two . " Yennie stated at the May 2010 Weekend of Horrors that the sequel would contain " the blood and shit " that viewers did not see in the first film . The plot of Full Sequence involved a centipede made from 12 people , featured a largely British cast and was given the tag @-@ line " 100 % medically inaccurate " .
The plot of Full Sequence involves a man who after becoming sexually obsessed with a DVD recording of First Sequence decides to create his own human centipede . The film had been planned for a DVD release in the United Kingdom . However , upon submitting the film to the BBFC for classification , the film was rejected due to content that was " sexually violent and potentially obscene " . The BBFC 's report criticised the film as making " little attempt to portray any of the victims in the film as anything other than objects to be brutalised , degraded and mutilated for the amusement and arousal of the central character , as well as for the pleasure of the audience " and that the film was potentially in breach of the Obscene Publications Act , meaning its distribution in the UK would be illegal . Bounty Films , the UK distributor , appealed the decision , and the film was eventually passed with an 18 certificate in October 2011 . To achieve the 18 rating , thirty @-@ two cuts were made from the film , removing two minutes and thirty @-@ seven seconds from the original version .
= = Parodies = =
A number of parodies of the film have been made . A pornographic parody , directed by Lee Roy Myers and titled The Human Sexipede , was released in September 2010 . It starred Tom Byron as Heiter , who joined three people mouth @-@ to @-@ genitals . The South Park episode " HUMANCENTiPAD " saw character Kyle Broflovski unwittingly agreeing to become a part of a " Human CENTiPAD " after failing to read the full details of an Apple user license agreement . The website Funny or Die featured a sketch where the freed victims of a human centipede , now separated , but scarred physically and mentally , argue at a survivors ' meeting . The Human Centipede 3 ( Final Sequence ) actress Bree Olson starred in a parody of the franchise that was directed by Graham Rich .
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= Porcupine ( album ) =
Porcupine is the third studio album by the English post @-@ punk band Echo & the Bunnymen . First released on 4 February 1983 , it became the band 's highest charting release when it reached number two on the UK Albums Chart despite initially receiving poor reviews . It also reached number 137 on the American Billboard 200 , number 85 on the Canadian RPM 100 Albums and number 24 on the Swedish chart . In 1984 the album was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry . Porcupine included the singles " The Back of Love " and " The Cutter " .
The album was recorded at Trident Studios in London , Rockfield Studios in South Wales and Amazon Studios in Liverpool . It was produced by Ian Broudie , who was credited as " Kingbird " and who had co @-@ produced the band 's first album , 1980 's Crocodiles , and their second single , " Rescue " . After being rejected by the band 's label , the album was re @-@ recorded with Shankar providing strings . It was originally released as an LP in 1983 before being reissued on CD in 1988 . The album was again reissued on CD in 2003 , along with the other four of the band 's first five studio albums , having been remastered and expanded . A VHS video called Porcupine – An Atlas Adventure was also released containing six promotional videos of tracks from the album .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and recording = = =
Following the release of Heaven Up Here in 1981 , Echo & the Bunnymen had difficulty writing new material for their next album despite rehearsing five days each week at The Ministry , their rehearsal room in Liverpool . While lead singer Ian McCulloch still wanted them to be the best band in the world , bass player Les Pattinson was expressing his weariness with the music industry , drummer Pete de Freitas produced and played drums on Liverpool band The Wild Swans ' debut single " Revolutionary Spirit " , and lead guitarist Will Sergeant recorded a solo album of instrumental music called Themes for ' Grind ' ( 1982 ) .
On 27 January 1982 Echo & the Bunnymen recorded their fourth session for British disc jockey John Peel 's radio show on BBC Radio 1 . Of the tracks recorded , " Smack in the Middle " was renamed and became " Higher Hell " on the album , while " Taking Advantage " was renamed " The Back of Love " and became the band 's third single which was also included on the album . Ian Broudie , who had co @-@ produced 1980 's Crocodiles and who was Sergeant 's flat @-@ mate , was chosen to produce " The Back of Love " and the band 's third album , whose working title was The Happy Loss . The single , which became the band 's first UK Top 20 hit single , was recorded in early 1982 at Trident Studios in Soho , London . This was unusual as the band 's manager , Bill Drummond , had previously been keen to keep the band away from the temptations of London . The recording session for " The Back of Love " went well , but the relationship between the band members was strained , with them either not speaking to each other or , when they did , arguing . Drummond was aware of the tensions within the band and so arranged a tour in Scotland for April 1982 . This was done in an effort to make the band work harder , write some songs , and to communicate with each other . Drummond 's plan failed to work as following the tour there was still tension between the band members . Two other album tracks – " Clay " and " My White Devil " – were first played during the tour of Scotland .
Following the release of " The Back of Love " on 21 May 1982 , the band spent the summer , first playing at the inaugural WOMAD festival , and then playing at various European music festivals . After the summer the band resumed recording the album at Rockfield Studios in South Wales – which had been used for the band 's first two albums – and also at Amazon Studios in Liverpool . Recording the album was a slow process , de Freitas said , " Porcupine was very hard to actually write and record [ ... ] Heaven Up Here was pure confidence , we did it really quickly ; we had a great time doing it – but this one was like we had to drag it out of ourselves . " McCulloch later said that when recording the album , the mood between the band members was " horrible " .
When presented with the finished album , WEA rejected it as " too uncommercial " . The band agreed to re @-@ record the album , despite Sergeant 's complaints . Using the original version of the album as a blueprint , the follow @-@ up recording sessions went more smoothly . Drummond brought Shankar back to add strings to the other tracks on the album . It was these sessions that produced the band 's next single , " The Cutter " , which was released in January 1983 and went on to become the band 's first Top 10 hit .
= = = Porcupine – An Atlas Adventure = = =
After Echo & the Bunnymen had finished recording Porcupine they played a free show in early November 1982 for 20 @,@ 000 people at Sefton Park in Liverpool . Following this , WEA asked for three music videos and album art for the new album . The band 's lighting engineer Bill Butt was chosen to direct the videos and Brian Griffin was chosen to take the photographs for the album 's cover – as he had done for the band 's two previous albums . With a budget of £ 16 @,@ 000 Butt decided that it would be possible to get the photographs for the album cover and also to produce a half @-@ hour film . Deciding that he wanted the videos to reflect the frigid feel of the music on the album , Butt chose to shoot the videos in Scotland . However , it was not certain that there would be enough snow in Scotland during November so Iceland was chosen as the location to shoot the videos .
Filming took place on and near the frozen Gullfoss waterfall near Reykjavík . Feeling it was a dangerous process , McCulloch said in 1993 , " If we had slipped there wasn 't anything for hundreds of feet below us . " In 2001 Griffin said , " [ ... ] the sun barely appeared the whole time we were there . To walk , stand up , or just think seemed a massive effort . " Despite the danger the filming proved its worth when the British music magazine Q said in 2001 , " The Porcupine cover is the epitome of rock band as heroic archetype – young men on some ill @-@ defined but glorious mission , one easily as timeless as the stars and the sea . " The filming was finished in December 1982 with the band performing songs from the album at their rehearsal room at The Ministry . Butt interspersed this with clips from the 1929 Russian documentary The Man With the Movie Camera and he also projected psychedelic watercolour effects onto the band . A VHS video was subsequently released by Castle Hendring in 1983 called Porcupine – An Atlas Adventure which contained the six music videos – " In Bluer Skies " , " The Cutter " , " My White Devil " , " Porcupine " , " Heads Will Roll " and " The Back of Love " .
Describing the album cover , journalist Dave Rimmer wrote in British music magazine Smash Hits , " Iceland does seem an appropriate location for this group . It 's isolated , cold , bleak and fits perfectly with the moody image they 've attracted to themselves . "
= = = Musical content = = =
After WEA rejected the first version of the album , Shankar – who had played strings on " The Back of Love " – was brought back by Drummond to add strings to the remainder of the album in an effort to give it a brighter production and to build on the success of the strings used on the single . When recording " The Cutter " , Sergeant had asked Shankar if he could suggest the melody from Cat Stevens ' 1967 hit " Matthew and Son " .
In 1984 McCulloch said , " I think Porcupine was a classic autobiographical album , the most honest thing that I 'd ever written or sung . " Talking about how the album made him feel , he went on to say , " I found the material from it really heavy to play – like , really oppressive . That 's the only reason why I didn 't like the album . The songs were great but it didn 't make me happy . " He also said , " A lot of songs are about coming to terms with the opposites in me . "
= = Releases = =
Porcupine was first released as an LP by Korova in the United Kingdom on 4 February 1983 . It was subsequently released in the United States by Sire Records on 23 February 1983 . The original album had ten tracks with five tracks on each side . Like Echo & the Bunnymen 's previous album , the album cover was designed by Martyn Atkins and the photography was by Brian Griffin . The album was released on CD on 7 April 1988 .
Along with the other four of the band 's first five albums , Porcupine was remastered and reissued on CD in 2003 – these releases were marketed as 25th anniversary editions . Seven bonus tracks were added to the album : " Fuel " was the second B @-@ side track on the 12 @-@ inch version of " The Back of Love " ; alternate versions of " The Cutter " , " My White Devil " , " Porcupine " , " Ripeness " and " Gods Will Be Gods " which were all early versions recorded during the album 's sessions ; and " Never Stop ( Discotheque ) " the 12 @-@ inch version of the non @-@ album single which was released after Porcupine . The alternate versions of " My White Devil " , " Porcupine " and " Ripeness " had all previously been unissued . The reissued album was produced by Andy Zax and Bill Inglot .
There were two tracks from the original Porcupine album which had been released as singles . The first of these was " The Back of Love " which had been released on 21 May 1982 . The second single was " The Cutter " which was released on 14 January 1983 . " Never Stop ( Discotheque ) " , which was originally a non @-@ album single when it was released on 8 July 1983 , was subsequently included on the 2003 remastered version of the album as a bonus track .
= = Reception = =
Following the release of Porcupine in 1983 , NME reviewer Barney Hoskyns gave the album a negative review . Hoskyns wrote , " Porcupine is the distressing occasion of an important and exciting rock group becoming ensnared by its own strongest points , a dynamic force striving fruitlessly to escape the brilliant track that trails behind it . " Hoskyns likened the sound of the album to the band " turning on their own greatest ' hits ' and savaging them " . Hoskyns also criticised McCulloch 's lyrics and the general mood of the album , noting , " Only on ' Porcupine ' itself do the various strains of despair coalesce " , and dismissed the entire second side of the album , saying it " horrifies the more for its uniform lack of inspiration , for the fact that every number cops direct from earlier songs without preserving anything of their energy or invention " . Record reviewer Wayne King similarly commented that the album reused many motifs , such as Ian McCullough 's octave jumps , from their previous albums . While he praised the opening tracks " The Cutter " and " Back of Love " , he remarked that Porcupine as a whole was not nearly as good an album as Echo and the Bunnymen 's live performances showed they were capable of .
In a review of the original release on Allmusic , Porcupine was described as a " solid outing " , a " noticeably better listen than its predecessor , Heaven Up Here " and " well worth hearing " . When reviewing the remastered 2003 version the review was expanded to add that new release was " a very well done expansion of an already fine album " . Blender magazine described the album in a review on their website as " impossibly exciting pop @-@ rock " and Pitchfork called the album " the band 's definitive statement " and described the track " The Back of Love " as " the astonishing highlight of the group 's career " . The album appeared in the 1983 end of year critics ' lists for both Melody Maker , where it was listed at number nine , and NME , where it was listed at number 32 . The album is also listed in the 2006 book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
The album reached number 2 on the UK Albums Chart , number 137 on the American Billboard 200 , number 85 on the Canadian RPM 100 Albums , and number 24 on the Swedish albums chart . Having sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies of the album in the UK , Echo & they Bunnymen were awarded with a gold disc by the British Phonographic Industry . Of the singles from the album , " The Back of Love " reached number 19 on the UK Singles Chart and " The Cutter " reached number 8 . " The Back of Love " also became the band 's first single to make the Irish Singles Chart when it reached number 24 , while " The Cutter " reached number 10 . The single " Never Stop ( Discotheque ) " reached number 15 on the UK Singles Chart and number 8 on the Irish Singles Chart .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written by Will Sergeant , Ian McCulloch , Les Pattinson and Pete de Freitas .
Side one
" The Cutter " – 3 : 56
" The Back of Love " – 3 : 14
" My White Devil " – 4 : 41
" Clay " – 4 : 15
" Porcupine " – 6 : 01
Side two
" Heads Will Roll " – 3 : 33
" Ripeness " – 4 : 50
" Higher Hell " – 5 : 01
" Gods Will Be Gods " – 5 : 25
" In Bluer Skies " – 4 : 33
2003 bonus tracks
" Fuel " – 4 : 09
" The Cutter " ( Alternate Version ) – 4 : 10
" My White Devil " ( Alternate Version ) – 5 : 02
" Porcupine " ( Alternate Version ) – 4 : 04
" Ripeness " ( Alternate Version ) – 4 : 43
" Gods Will Be Gods " ( Alternate Version ) – 5 : 31
" Never Stop ( Discotheque ) " – 4 : 45
Porcupine – An Atlas Adventure
" In Bluer Skies "
" The Cutter "
" My White Devil "
" Porcupine "
" Heads Will Roll "
" The Back of Love "
= = Personnel = =
Ian McCulloch – vocals , guitar , piano
Will Sergeant – lead guitar
Les Pattinson – bass
Pete de Freitas – drums
Shankar – strings
Ian Broudie – producer
Dave Bascombe – engineer
Paul Cobald – engineer
Colin Fairley – engineer
Dave Woolley – engineer
Steve Short – engineer
Steve Presige – engineer
Brian Griffin – photography
Martyn Atkins – cover design
Andy Zax – producer ( reissue )
Bill Inglot – producer ( reissue ) , remastering ( reissue )
Dan Hersch – remastering ( reissue )
Rachel Gutek – cover design ( reissue )
|
= The Get Up Kids =
The Get Up Kids are an American rock band from Kansas City , Missouri . Formed in 1995 , the band was a major player in the mid @-@ 1990s emo scene , otherwise known as the " second wave " of emo music . As they gained prominence , they began touring with bands such as Green Day and Weezer before becoming headliners themselves , eventually embarking on international tours of Japan and Europe . They founded Heroes & Villains Records , an imprint of the successful indie rock label Vagrant Records . While the imprint was started to release albums by The Get Up Kids , it served as a launching pad for several side @-@ projects such as The New Amsterdams and Reggie and the Full Effect .
The Get Up Kids were viewed throughout their existence as a prototypical emo band , having been major players in the Midwest emo movement of the mid @-@ 1990s . Their second album Something to Write Home About remains their most widely acclaimed album , and is considered to be one of the quintessential albums of the second @-@ wave emo movement . However , like many early emo bands , The Get Up Kids , sought to dissociate themselves with the term , as it was considered dismissive to be seen as an " emo band . " The band departed heavily from their established style with the release of their 2002 album On a Wire , which saw the band take on a much more layered , alternative rock sound . Years later , guitarist Jim Suptic even apologized for having the influence they did on many of the modern third @-@ wave emo bands , commenting that " [ t ] he punk scene we came out of and the punk scene now are completely different . It 's like glam rock now ... If this is the world we helped create , then I apologize . "
Due to internal conflicts , the band broke up in 2005 . Three years later , the band reunited to support the tenth anniversary re @-@ release of Something to Write Home About , and soon afterward entered the studio to write new material . In early 2010 , the band released Simple Science , their first release in six years , followed in 2011 by the full @-@ length There Are Rules .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1995 – 1997 ) = = =
While in high school , Ryan Pope , Rob Pope , and Jim Suptic formed a short @-@ lived band called Kingpin . Matt Pryor had been writing songs since he was a teenager , and was playing in a band called Secret Decoder Ring . Following the demise of the two bands in 1995 , The Get Up Kids were formed . The band originally planned on calling themselves " The Suburban Get Up Kids " , until reasoning that there were fewer band names beginning with the letter ' G ' than there are with the letter ' S ' , and that therefore they were more likely to be noticed in a record store if their name began with a ' G ' . The band was formed on October 14 , 1995 on Suptic 's 18th birthday .
At the time the lineup consisted of Pryor on guitar and lead vocals , Suptic on guitar , Rob Pope on bass , and Thomas Becker on drums . However , Becker soon left for college in California , and was replaced by Nathan Shay , who was attending school with Suptic at the Kansas City Art Institute . In 1995 , Pryor , Suptic , and friend Kevin Zelko saved money to self @-@ release " Shorty / The Breathing Method " , their first 7 @-@ inch . However , due to an unwillingness to tour , Shay was replaced by Robert 's younger brother Ryan in April 1996 . The band became increasingly popular in the burgeoning underground Midwestern music scene , forming strong relationships with bands such as Rocket Fuel Is The Key , Coalesce and Braid . After the " Shorty " 7 @-@ inch , the band released " A Newfound Interest in Massachusetts " on Contrast Records . Encouraged by interest stirred by the band 's first 7 @-@ inch , they recorded their first EP , Woodson . Two songs of which were released by Contrast Records as a 7 @-@ inch titled " A Newfound Interest in Massachusetts " or more commonly known as " The Loveteller 7 " , with Doghouse Records releasing a CD @-@ EP version which included the songs from both Woodson and A Newfound Interest in Massachusetts as well as the two song Woodson 7 " . After Woodson , Doghouse approached the band with a two @-@ album contract , offering them $ 4 @,@ 000 to record their first full @-@ length album .
= = = Four Minute Mile ( 1997 – 1998 ) = = =
After signing to Doghouse , the band drove to Chicago to record their debut full @-@ length album with producer Bob Weston of Shellac . The album was recorded in only two days , with the band leaving on Friday after Ryan Pope got out of school and finishing in the early hours of Sunday morning . Two months after recording the album , the band embarked on their first national tour with Braid and Ethel Meserve with the first date of the tour taking place the day after Ryan 's high school graduation .
It was on that tour that the band met James Dewees , the new drummer for Coalesce while the bands were playing together in Wilkes @-@ Barre , Pennsylvania . After the show , the members of the two bands became close friends , eventually leading them to record a split 7 @-@ inch produced by Ed Rose entitled " The Get Up Kids / Coalesce " . For the split , each band covered one of the other 's songs in their own style . Coalesce did a post @-@ hardcore cover of " Second Place " , and The Get Up Kids recorded a power @-@ pop rendition of " Harvest of Maturity " .
A few months later , the band released their debut full @-@ length record Four Minute Mile , bringing a great deal of attention from critics , fans and labels alike . The band was invited to join Braid on their 1998 tour of Europe and the band rapidly created an overseas fanbase .
While the band was receiving rapidly increasing national and international attention , they became unhappy with Doghouse Records ' ability to keep up with the increasing popularity of the band . The Get Up Kids announcement to leave Doghouse Records brought interest from prominent record labels including Sub Pop , Geffen and Mojo Records . The band made a decision to sign to Mojo , but before the contracts were signed , they began to have second thoughts . The main issue was over the label 's insistence on owning merchandising rights , a large source of the band 's income . Moreover , the band was insulted the label requested they re @-@ record " Don 't Hate Me " from Four Minute Mile for their next record , feeling that the label believed it was " the best that [ they could ] write " . Before the deal with Mojo was official , the band met Rich Egan , founder of Los Angeles @-@ based Vagrant Records . He convinced the band to sign to Vagrant instead , offering them $ 50 @,@ 000 to record a second album , as well as their own imprint , Heroes & Villains Records .
= = = Something to Write Home About ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =
In 1998 , James Dewees recorded his first solo album under the pseudonym Reggie and the Full Effect . While Dewees wrote the songs himself , he asked Matt Pryor and Rob Pope to help record some of the instrumentals . The resulting album , Greatest Hits 1984 @-@ 1987 leaned heavily on the use of synthesizer keyboards for its sound . Their work together on the Reggie and the Full Effect album led Pryor to invite Dewees to collaborate with The Get Up Kids on Red Letter Day , a five @-@ track EP produced by Ed Rose to fulfill their two @-@ record deal with Doghouse . The cleaner , more focused sound of the EP provided the chance to experiment with the inclusion of keyboards and acts as a sonic bridge between the raw sound of Four Minute Mile and the more dynamic , produced style of their next studio album .
After the release of Red Letter Day , Dewees became a full @-@ time member as the band began recording their second studio album in Los Angeles in June 1999 with producer Alex Brahl . Before the album went into production , Vagrant Records co @-@ owner John Cohen borrowed money from his parents , who had mortgaged their house in order to fund the production of the album . On September 21 , 1999 , the band released Something to Write Home About on Vagrant Records . The album 's lyrics reflected the record label strife the band had experienced and their distance between friends and family back home after their move to Los Angeles . Something to Write Home About has been singled out as the band 's only ' true ' emo album , as the album 's aesthetic fit more into the contemporary definition of the genre . Furthermore , the album single @-@ handedly turned the struggling Vagrant label into one of the top indie labels in the country , selling over 140 @,@ 000 copies after its release . Not only did the album make The Get Up Kids the poster children for emo , but it also launched the genre into a public consciousness broader than the scattered local scenes that had previously embraced it . The album gave Vagrant Records the financial backing to grow and sign a string of other bands . At the same time , the addition of keyboards alienated some fans who thought it moved the band away from the contemporary punk scene 's DIY ethic .
The Get Up Kids toured relentlessly for almost three years in promotion of the record . As well as touring Europe , Japan , and Australia , they shared bills with acts such as Green Day , The Anniversary , Koufax , Hot Rod Circuit , Jebediah , Weezer and Ozma . Their 2000 tour with The Anniversary and Koufax was sponsored by Napster . Their fanbase kept expanding through word of mouth . Venues booked months in advance could no longer hold the demand by the time the band arrived in town and fans were forced to stand outside to see them perform . To capitalize on anticipation for the band 's next album , Vagrant Records released a rarities compilation Eudora in 2001 . Eudora consisted of alternate takes , covers , and B @-@ sides since the band 's formation . Likewise , Doghouse released a re @-@ mastered edition of Four Minute Mile and a compilation entitled The EPs : Woodson and Red Letter Day , combining the two Doghouse @-@ owned EPs on one compact disc .
= = = On a Wire ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = =
After three years of touring for Something to Write Home About , the band was beginning to feel burned @-@ out , and wished to depart from the upbeat power @-@ pop sound with which they had become associated . They also wanted to find a new producer to challenge them creatively , approaching Nigel Godrich and Gil Norton with offers , although both declined . Finally , the band settled on Scott Litt , best known for his work with R.E.M. and Nirvana . The band 's third studio album , On a Wire was released on May 14 , 2002 , debuting a more measured , alternative style . Just as Something to Write Home About alienated some fans with its more produced sound , On a Wire was criticized by fans who were disappointed with the album 's softer musical direction . Specifically , the reviewer for Alternative Press wrote " Unfortunately , the visceral energy of their early days is lost in their newfound maturity . "
While many fans were upset with this sudden change of direction , the album was generally well received by mainstream publications . Entertainment Weekly was highly positive , writing that " This is the group at their best . " In his review of the album , Rolling Stone writer Barry Walters wrote " On a Wire quivers with the anxieties that must have arisen as the Get Up Kids left behind what originally made them . Straining vocals , racing tempos and walls of distortion give way to softer singing , spacious guitars and prominent keyboards . . . The Get Up Kids dig deeper into themselves . What they find is often subtle , less visceral but far more tender . " The poor public reception of the album had a larger impact on the band 's popularity as a whole . The band embarked on a tour to promote the album in the late spring soon after the album was released , only to find that they had far less support from both their fans and their record label . Using the financial and critical success of Something to Write Home About , Vagrant signed several other headlining emo bands such as Alkaline Trio , Dashboard Confessional , and Saves the Day . The Get Up Kids were no longer the label 's top priority , and certainly not after the lukewarm reception of On a Wire . In an interview with Alternative Press , lead singer Matt Pryor considered the dramatic change in style on On a Wire seriously dented the momentum the band had built up since Something to Write Home About , allowing later bands such as Dashboard Confessional to take much of the fan base that The Get Up Kids had previously earned . In an interview , Pryor confessed that he did not think that " anyone , including Vagrant , gave that record a chance " . Even though they had avoided the term since its inception , it was at this point the band actively began trying to shed the term " emo " , a word that had defined them for years but had come to be associated with more pop @-@ oriented acts . Pryor commented on the album , saying " We really didn 't give two shits if anyone liked the record or not , we were really confident that we were going to kill this ' emo ' stigma that we had and take the people with open minds with us and leave everyone else in the dust . "
= = = Guilt Show ( 2003 – 2004 ) = = =
In 2003 the band began recording their fourth studio album . The album would be the first recorded in Black Lodge Studios in Eudora , Kansas , a studio renovated and owned by the Pope brothers and producer Ed Rose . The writing process for the album was different from their past efforts , as most of the songs were written by only three of the band members . In the early stages of writing , Jim Suptic was on his honeymoon . James Dewees was involved in a difficult divorce , and much of his creative efforts inspired by those events went into the fourth Reggie and the Full Effect album Songs Not to Get Married To . While this led to a less collaborative effort than in the past , it gave the Pope brothers a more substantial role in writing than ever before . In an interview with Alternative Press , Pryor confirmed the song " Never Be Alone " was written by Rob Pope about his 2003 divorce from The Anniversary keyboardist Adrianne Verhoeven .
This fractured approach to the writing process began to strain relationships in the band , at one point leading Suptic to consider quitting the band . Pryor drew lyrical inspiration from the lives of friends and people he knew , extracting stories of abuse , betrayal and guilt . The album 's lyrics also delve into incidents of adultery ( " Wouldn 't Believe It " , " How Long Is Too Long " ) and the album 's first single " The One You Want " is said to be about a woman who Pryor says " Sucks the soul out of people " .
In March 2004 , the band released their fourth studio album Guilt Show , produced by Ed Rose . Sonically , the album combined the more measured , sophisticated sound of On a Wire with the frenetic style of their earlier work . Guilt Show , which was titled after a misreading of a flier saying " Quilt show " , was very well received both critically and commercially . The more pop @-@ driven tone of the album reunited the band with many fans who were disenchanted after On a Wire , while also staying close enough to the evolution of the last album to interest newer fans and critics . However , their return was overshadowed by the booming popularity of other contemporary emo bands such as Dashboard Confessional , who invited the band to open for them on the 2004 Honda Civic Tour .
= = = Breakup and solo activity ( 2004 – 2008 ) = = =
Over the course of the tour with Dashboard Confessional , relationships between the band members continued to decline . The band 's live shows had deteriorated , and Rob and Suptic had both threatened to quit multiple times . Matt Pryor 's wife had recently given birth to their first child , and being away from his family had made him irritable and standoffish . After the Honda Civic tour ended , the band embarked on their world tour , including stops throughout Europe , Japan and Australia . However , their live performance hit an all @-@ time low , with Pryor at times refusing to even sing large portions of songs .
At one tour date in England , the tensions came to a head when Ryan Pope confronted Pryor over his recent despondence , leading to a band meeting where Pryor confessed his desire to reduce his commitment to the rest of the group . After some discussion , the band agreed that their hearts were no longer in it and at the end of the tour they would quietly end the band . Once the tour ended , the band went on an unofficial hiatus , not playing as a group until the next January , when they played a show at the Granada Theater in Lawrence , Kansas to celebrate the band 's tenth anniversary . The show was recorded and released the following May as the band 's first live album , Live ! @ The Granada Theater .
On Tuesday , March 8 , 2005 , The Get Up Kids announced that after ten years , they were calling it quits . They embarked on a national farewell tour , ending the band after a sold @-@ out show on July 2 , 2005 in their hometown of Kansas City , Missouri at the Uptown Theater .
After the band 's split , the Pope brothers took over management of Black Lodge Studios , the recording studio that the band formed with the recording of Guilt Show , alongside longtime producing partner Ed Rose . The brothers joined Koufax for a short stint , before splitting for different projects . Rob was a founding member of Lawrence , Kansas group White Whale , releasing the 2006 album WWI to moderate acclaim before becoming a full @-@ time member of Spoon , while Ryan became the drummer for the Lawrence @-@ based experimental rock band The Roman Numerals .
Matt Pryor continued as part of The New Amsterdams , an acoustic alt @-@ country group he had formed in 2000 , expanding its sound and solidifying its previously revolving @-@ door lineup . In 2007 he formed The Terrible Twos , a children 's band that has released two albums on Vagrant Records . Regarding the decision to make a children 's album directly after the split , Pryor said " I wanted to do it anyway because I have kids and I want to write songs for them , but nobody is going to be like ' this isn 't as good as the old stuff . ' It 's immune to punk criticism . " In July 2008 , he refocused his efforts on a solo career with the release of Confidence Man , an alt @-@ country release similar in sound to The New Amsterdams . After his second album , May Day , Pryor announced that he would be formally disbanding The New Amsterdams in favor of his solo career , concluding the band 's tenure with the release of Outroduction , a B @-@ sides recording .
Jim Suptic went on to form Blackpool Lights with former members of Butterglory and The Creature Comforts . The band released their debut album This Town 's Disaster in 2006 , consisted largely of songs Suptic wrote for The Get Up Kids but never recorded . The album was released on Curb Appeal Records , an independent label Suptic founded with former Get Up Kids collaborator and local musician Alex Brahl . The label released albums by Smoking Popes and The New Amsterdams , but dissolved sometime in 2008 . The exact reasons why were never revealed , but Suptic said only that it " blew up in [ his ] face . " After the closure of the label , Suptic began working at Home Depot to support his family .
After the breakup of The Get Up Kids , James Dewees toured with New Found Glory as their touring keyboardist , having been featured on their 2003 album Catalyst . While he was touring , his ongoing struggles with alcohol and drug abuse worsened . After moving to New York City , he began to attend rehab , a process which would inspire the fifth Reggie and the Full Effect album , Last Stop : Crappy Town . After another brief tour opening for Hellogoodbye in 2006 , he joined My Chemical Romance as their full @-@ time touring keyboardist .
= = = Reunion & There Are Rules ( 2008 @-@ present ) = = =
In late August and September 2008 , while Dewees was touring with Reggie and the Full Effect , he began making hints that The Get Up Kids would be reuniting to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the band 's second album Something to Write Home About . The reunion was finally confirmed by a post on the official music blog of The Kansas City Star , confirming rumors that the band would be playing a surprise reunion show at The Record Bar in Kansas City on November 16 , 2008 . According to the article , the band had made the decision over the summer and had Dewees intentionally leak the information to gauge fan interest .
The reunion show was officially announced on Friday , November 14 , along with the official confirmation of the album re @-@ release and a 2009 national tour . The tenth anniversary edition of the album includes a code to download bonus demo tracks from the original recording of Something To Write Home About from the Vagrant Records website , and a DVD containing a band retrospective and other content , including archive footage , and their live performance from March 13 , 2009 at Liberty Hall in Lawrence . The show took place Sunday , November 16 , 2008 at the record bar in Kansas City . The band played their album Something To Write Home About from beginning to end , as well as a six song encore .
In the summer of 2009 , they returned to Black Lodge studios to record their first new material in five years , recording twelve tracks intended to be released as three EPs over the course of a year . On April 13 , 2010 the band released the first EP Simple Science on Flyover Records .
After the release of Simple Science , the band decided to combine the remaining tracks — along with three more newly recorded songs — into a new full @-@ length album , There Are Rules . They also confirmed that the album would not be released on Vagrant Records , who had released their previous three albums , but on their own Quality Hill Records . The album was produced by Ed Rose and mixed by Bob Weston , who produced the band 's debut album . There Are Rules was released on January 25 , 2011 , and was supported by a co @-@ headlining tour with Saves The Day .
= = Influence = =
The Get Up Kids have had a lasting impact on the music scene , having been cited as inspirations to several prominent bands and artists . Blink @-@ 182 bassist and singer Mark Hoppus is a vocal fan , having proposed to his wife to The Get Up Kids song " I 'll Catch You . " They were also a major influence on the rest of the band , even at their peak popularity around the release of Take Off Your Pants and Jacket . The members of Fall Out Boy cite The Get Up Kids ' influence , particularly their album Four Minute Mile . In a 2005 interview with Alternative Press , Fall Out Boy bassist Pete Wentz stated that the band had a huge influence on him and the other members of Fall Out Boy . " There should be a How To Be a Pop @-@ Punk Kid starter kit with bands like Get Up Kids , so kids would know whose shoulders bands like us are standing on . Fall Out Boy would not be a band if it were not for The Get Up Kids . "
New Jersey based act Midtown has stated in interviews that they were heavily influenced by The Get Up Kids , among other groups . The Early November band members were all fans of , and influenced by , The Get Up Kids . The Early November song " Baby Blue " includes the line " I don 't want you to love me anymore " , a direct reference to the Get Up Kids song " No Love " both lyrically and melodically . The band Hellogoodbye have been vocal fans of the band and while on tour with Reggie and the Full Effect in 2007 , two years after the breakup of The Get Up Kids , Hellogoodbye invited James Dewees and Matt Pryor onstage with them , and proceeded to back them in a cover of The Get Up Kids ' song " Action & Action " . The Canadian post @-@ hardcore band Silverstein has cited the Get Up Kids as a major influence , and covered their song Coming Clean for a split 7 " with August Burns Red in 2013 . Claudio Sanchez of Coheed and Cambria cited Something to Write Home About as one of the albums that the band listened to and during the recording of their breakout album In Keeping Secrets of Silent Earth : 3 .
Despite their lasting influence on modern music , the band has attempted to disassociate themselves with many of the bands they inspired . Following the band 's reformation , guitarist Jim Suptic undertook an interview with website Drowned in Sound , in which he said , " The punk scene we came out of and the punk scene now are completely different . It 's like glam rock now . We played the Bamboozle fests this year and we felt really out of place ... If this is the world we helped create , then I apologise . " He went on to say they were grateful for the acknowledgements they have received , though explaining " the problem is most of [ the bands they inspired ] aren 't very good . "
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Four Minute Mile ( 1997 )
Something to Write Home About ( 1999 )
Eudora ( 2001 )
On a Wire ( 2002 )
Guilt Show ( 2004 )
There Are Rules ( 2011 )
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= Michael Jackson 's This Is It ( album ) =
Michael Jackson 's This Is It ( or simply This Is It ) is a posthumous two @-@ disc soundtrack album by American singer Michael Jackson . Released by MJJ Music on October 26 , 2009 , This Is It features previously released music , as well as six previously unreleased recordings by Michael Jackson . This Is It was released to coincide with the theatrical release of Michael Jackson 's This Is It , a concert film documenting Michael Jackson 's rehearsals for the This Is It concert series at London 's O2 Arena . This Is It is the sixth album to be released by Sony and Motown / Universal since Michael Jackson 's death in June 2009 .
This Is It debuted at number one in fourteen countries , including the United States , Canada , Japan , Italy and France . This Is It also peaked within the top 10 of the charts in several other nations . This Is It has been certified Gold , Platinum , and twice @-@ Platinum in multiple countries . This Is It was the twelfth best @-@ selling album of 2009 in the United States and the third best @-@ selling album of 2009 based on worldwide sales . The title track from the album , " This Is It " , earned Michael Jackson a Grammy Nomination in 2011 for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards .
= = Background and concept = =
Michael Jackson died at the age of 50 on June 25 , 2009 from cardiac arrest ( it would later be determined that Jackson died of " acute propofol intoxication " with the additional factor of " benzodiazepine effect " ) . Prior to his death , the singer was planning on performing 50 concerts for his sold out This Is It dates in the United Kingdom from 2009 to 2010 . Shortly after his death , on September 23 , 2009 , Sony Music Entertainment announced that they were to release a two @-@ disc compilation " soundtrack " for Jackson 's concert documentary film , Michael Jackson 's This Is It . In the announcement it was confirmed that This Is It would be released on October 26 , 2009 , one day before the film 's theatrical release . This Is It is the sixth posthumous album to be released by Sony and Motown / Universal since Jackson 's death in June 2009 . The previous five albums are The Collection , Hello World : The Motown Solo Collection , The Stripped Mixes , The Definitive Collection , and The Remix Suite . This Is It was released on Sony Music 's Epic Records , though , in certain countries , This Is It is listed under Sony Music Entertainment ( see release history ) . The album was made available for pre @-@ order – on Amazon.com as a compact disc and on the iTunes Store as a digital download . As planned , This Is It was released on October 26 , 2009 in the US and worldwide on October 27 and 28 .
= = Music = =
The press release announcing the two @-@ disc album describes it as a " stand @-@ alone companion " to the motion picture . This Is It was released as a two @-@ disc compilation album . The first disc consists of sixteen tracks , fourteen of which were already released on Jackson 's previous studio albums : Thriller ( 1982 ) , Bad ( 1987 ) , Dangerous ( 1991 ) and HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I ( 1995 ) , and one from The Jacksons ' album Destiny ( 1978 ) . Fourteen of the already released tracks were arranged in order of how they would have appeared on the This Is It setlist and how they appeared in the concert film . On September 23 , 2009 , Sony Music Entertainment announced that it would release the song " This Is It " as a single to promote both the album and film . However , shortly after " This Is It " ' s digital debut on MichaelJackson.com , it was confirmed that the single 's planned physical release was cancelled .
This Is It contains previously unreleased music by Michael Jackson , which consists of demos and instrumental versions of his songs . The first disc contains " This Is It " , which was written by Michael Jackson and Paul Anka in 1983 ; the song had originally been planned as a duet between the two for Anka 's Walk a Fine Line album . After Michael Jackson 's death , his brothers found a demo of Michael Jackson 's version of the song , described as a " bare bone " recording . They added their voices and instruments into the background of the track . Two versions of " This Is It " were added to the album ; the original and an orchestra version that is over one minute longer . The second disc consists of four unreleased versions of Michael Jackson 's classic hits . The disc contains three demo versions of Michael Jackson 's " She 's Out of My Life " ( 1979 ) , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " ( 1982 ) and " Beat It " ( 1982 ) . The disc 's fourth track is a spoken word poem by Jackson , entitled " Planet Earth " , which was already published in the liner notes of Michael Jackson 's 1991 album Dangerous .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
This Is It debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , selling 373 @,@ 000 copies in its first week according to Nielsen SoundScan . The album had the fifth @-@ best sales week for an album in the United States in 2009 . This Is It , which also debuted at number one on Billboards Soundtrack chart , marked Jackson 's sixth number one entry on the chart . This Is It slightly outsold Jackson 's first @-@ week sales of his previous album Invincible which sold 366 @,@ 300 units in 2001 . This Is It 's chart performance tied Jackson with several other artists for the most number @-@ one albums on the Billboard 200 chart ; among the solo male artists , Jackson currently is tied with Garth Brooks for second place with 51 entries . Jackson 's This Is It album was the twelfth best @-@ selling of 2009 , having sold an estimated 1 @.@ 29 million units in nine weeks . It has sold a total of 1 @,@ 735 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of August 2013 . Its video is also being sold as USB flash drive by Kingston Company , first time ever in the company 's history , according to a deal done with Sony Music , published as Limited Edition .
Internationally , This Is It had similar commercial reception . The album was released worldwide on October 26 and October 27 , 2009 and debuted at number one in fourteen countries . The fourteen countries include Italy , France , Sweden and the Netherlands , the album stayed at number one in the Netherlands for two consecutive weeks . Other countries where This Is It didn 't debut or peak at number one were , placing at number two , Denmark , Australia and Switzerland , placing at number three , Norway and the United Kingdom , placing at four in Germany and sixth in Ireland . In the album 's second week of release its chart positions saw both an increase and decrease . This Is It increased from four to three in Germany and sixth to fifth in Ireland while it held onto its second and third positions in Switzerland and Norway respectively . By its third week of release , the album went on to peak at number three in Ireland . This Is It sold 78 @,@ 000 units in its first week of release in the United Kingdom .
This Is It has received multiple certifications since its release from different countries worldwide ; although sales per certificate vary per country . Four days after This Is It 's release in the United Kingdom , it was certified gold for 100 @,@ 000 units sold on October 30 , and platinum for 300 @,@ 000 units sold on November 27 , 2009 . The album was certified 2x platinum by Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on December 4 , 2009 . This Is It was certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for the shipment of over 70 @,@ 000 units in Australia . The album was also certified Gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association for the sales of over 40 @,@ 000 units in Canada and was certified 3 × Platinum by the Federation of the Italian Music Industry for the sales of over 210 @,@ 000 units in Italy , as well as 2 × Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand for the sales of over 30 @,@ 000 units in New Zealand . It was the third best @-@ selling album of 2009 based on worldwide sales .
= = = Critical response = = =
Upon its release , This Is It received mixed to positive reviews from music critics . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly , praised the album and gave it an overall rating of a B + . Vozick @-@ Levinson described the album 's track " This Is It " as being an " uplifting ballad " and felt that " if you 're feeling generous " you can " count the minimally distinguishable " orchestra version of " This Is It " having thought of it as being a " decent if slight addition to Jackson 's songbook . " Vozick @-@ Levinson stated that while the album 's second disc only contains four tracks that were unreleased , that included a " fairly unremarkable " spoken @-@ word poem , after hearing Jackson " work out the vocal harmonies " for " Beat It , " he in particular , felt that This Is It was " well worth the price of admission ( or at least a healthy chunk of it ) . " Brian Linder of IGN described This Is It as a " freshly designed " release of a greatest hits album , and that the album 's tracks of an all @-@ vocal arrangement of " Beat It " was " particularly awesome " and the acoustic version of " She 's Out of My Life " allows Jackson 's " vocals to shine without the distraction of dated ' 70s musical underpinnings . " Linder did note that he felt that the album was both a " fitting tribute " to Jackson and a " crass , commercial double @-@ dip . "
Will Hines of Consequence of Sound gave This Is It a rating of four and a half out of five stars . Hines commented that : " On one level [ of the album ] , it 's an attempt to focus and draw attention to what Michael Jackson lived for , and not what he did . On a more superficial level , this is Sony milking his legacy . Any true MJ fan will already own 90 % of the songs that make up this two @-@ disc set . It is , however , that 10 % which justifies this album ’ s existence . "
Negative reviews from critics were mainly centered around them feeling that the album was released only for profit . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave This Is It two and a half out of five stars . Erlewine commented that , " an important thing to remember when considering the soundtrack to This Is It : this entire film and CD project was never supposed to happen " . He noted that Jackson 's death had " created considerable demand " for his final rehearsal footage and that This Is It was an " accompaniment " to the film . Andy Gill of The Independent strongly criticized This Is It describing it as being a " shoddy apology for an album " and felt that it was made just for a profit , commenting ,
As a cash @-@ in attempt to scrape as much money from fans ' memories with as little outlay as possible , however , it rivals RCA 's ruthless ( and still ongoing ) reconfigurations of Elvis Presley 's back catalogue . But then , what should one expect from Jackson 's executors ? His own father 's immediate reaction to Michael 's death seemed to involve the promotion of his own label , while his brothers quickly grabbed the opportunity to scour through a box of tapes and find a tepid old track not previously deemed worthy of release and add their own vocals to it ( before taking the trouble to find out it was co @-@ written by Paul Anka , who understandably sought remuneration for his work ) . Who , exactly , stands to gain from this ? Not the fans , that 's for sure . In the four months since his death , Sony and Motown / Universal between them have issued no fewer than five posthumous album packages : The Collection , Hello World , The Stripped Mixes , The Remix Suite , and now This Is It . That 's a busy promotion schedule for a dead man . At some point , presumably , he will be left to rest in peace .
= = = Awards = = =
The title track , " This Is It " , earned Michael Jackson a Grammy Nomination in 2011 for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
The two versions of " This Is It " along with the second disc contents are available separately as the digital @-@ only EP Selections from Michael Jackson 's This Is It .
" Smooth Criminal " is excluded from the China release .
Despite that a sticker on the album claims all songs on the album are in their original full @-@ length album versions , " Shake Your Body ( Down to the Ground ) " is included in its 7 " edit version .
An eco @-@ friendly version sold only at Walmart includes only the first disc .
= = Charts , certifications and sales = =
= = Release history = =
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= 2nd Commando Regiment ( Australia ) =
The 2nd Commando Regiment is an elite special forces unit of the Australian Army , and is one of three combat @-@ capable units within Special Operations Command . The regiment was established on 19 June 2009 when the 4th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( Commando ) was renamed . It is based at Holsworthy , New South Wales . The 2nd Commando Regiment often trains and deploys with the Special Air Service Regiment , is highly regarded by coalition special operation forces abroad , and has been involved in operations in East Timor , Iraq and Afghanistan , where it was used in a direct action warfighting role . It has also been involved in a number of domestic security operations including the 2006 Commonwealth Games and the 2014 G20 Leaders Summit .
= = Role = =
Part of Special Operations Command ( SOCOMD ) , the 2nd Commando Regiment is one of three combat @-@ capable units within SOCOMD and operates in conjunction with other SOCOMD units , services and interagency organisations in joint and combined operations . According to the Department of Defence the role of the regiment is to conduct special recovery and strike operations , being created " to conduct offensive and recovery operations beyond the range and capability of other ADF elements " . Formed to complement the Special Air Service Regiment ( SASR ) , it is designed to be a " self @-@ contained flexible and rapidly deployable force " and is structured for both domestic counter @-@ terrorism and other special operations . The regiment is capable of operating in the air , land and sea environment and is tasked with conducting advanced force operations and direct action missions in Australia and overseas . In its domestic counter @-@ terrorism role it provides the basis for Tactical Assault Group ( East ) , which is tasked with conducting high @-@ risk missions beyond the capability of civilian authorities to respond to . Meanwhile , as a result of the decision to no longer maintain a conventional parachute capability , after 3 RAR was reorganised as a light infantry battalion in 2011 this role has also been provided by the 2nd Commando Regiment .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
In 1995 , as part of an expansion of the number of Australian Army infantry battalions , the 2nd / 4th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment — then operating as a standard light infantry battalion — was delinked into separate battalions which resumed their original identities as the 2nd and 4th Battalions . The decision was then taken that the 4th Battalion would become a Regular Army commando unit and on 1 February 1997 the unit was renamed to 4th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( Commando ) . The unit would be structured for both conventional operations and domestic counter @-@ terrorism , with an initial establishment of a battalion headquarters , Tactical Assault Group ( East ) , two commando companies , logistic support company , logistic support company , operational support company and a signal squadron . Regular serving members were given the opportunity to undertake special forces training provided by the Commando Training Wing of the Reserve 1st Commando Regiment , or elect to be posted to a conventional forces unit . No General Reserve positions existed in the new structure , and reserve members discharged or posted to reserve units .
The initial years were busy with the unit creating a structure and recruiting members suitable for commando training , while conducting sub @-@ unit and unit training activities . B Company was raised in 1998 , followed by C Company in 1999 , both of which took 24 months to reach full maturity . In 2000 , elements were involved in the evacuation of Australian nationals from the Solomon Islands in June . While later that year the regiment provided a second Tactical Assault Group ( TAG ) to augment that provided by the SASR in support of security arrangements for the Sydney Olympic Games . A period of rapid capability development , equipment acquisition and training subsequently followed . The unit that was developed as a result is highly regarded by coalition special operation forces abroad , and has conducted operations in East Timor , Iraq and Afghanistan . It has also been awarded a number of citations for bravery and meritorious service .
On 19 June 2009 , the battalion was renamed the 2nd Commando Regiment . Regardless , the name 4 RAR remains on the Army 's order of battle and its history , colours and traditions have been preserved , ready to be re @-@ raised as a regular infantry battalion in the future if required . All awards and battle honours received during the time as 4 RAR ( Cdo ) were passed onto the 2nd Commando Regiment , while those awarded before the transformation to a commando battalion were retained by 4 RAR . Along with the renaming , a new badge was chosen to reflect the history and traditions of the Independent Companies that served during the Second World War by including the distinctive " double diamond " unit colour patch shape in the regimental badge along with the traditional commando knife . The unit 's motto is Foras Admonitio , which is Latin for " Without Warning " . Qualified commandos are awarded the Sherwood green commando beret . Distinctive commando parachute wings are worn , depicting a parachute backed by a pair of black drooping wings on a green background . The Australian Army Stiletto dagger is also worn on ceremonial occasions .
= = = East Timor = = =
The 2nd Commando Regiment , then known as 4 RAR ( Cdo ) , was deployed as a part of the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor ( UNTAET ) in 2001 . When notified to replace 1 RAR in East Timor , 4 RAR had not long previously been raised as a commando battalion , developing special forces capabilities to supplement those of the SASR . With the commitment to East Timor continuing , however , 4 RAR was re @-@ roled as a light infantry battalion for deployment to East Timor as AUSBATT IV . This involved reorganising from the existing two commando @-@ companies structure to a light infantry battalion with four companies and a growth in the unit from 220 to 670 personnel . This saw B and C Company remain commando @-@ qualified and A and D Companies filled with Regular infantry soldiers posted in to the unit , with its strength growing to 1 @,@ 100 men . The unit arrived in East Timor in April under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Jeff Sengelman , taking over Area of Operations ( AO ) Matilda in the northern border region .
During its time deployed as a part of UNTAET , the battalion established a security partnership with the East Timorese , focusing strongly on languages and maintaining the relationships previous Australian battalions had established , as well as transferring new technologies to the local security forces . This " intelligence @-@ led " but " people @-@ focused " approach saw the battalion group conduct the majority of its operations in close proximity to the Tactical Coordination Line ( TCL ) on the border with Indonesian West Timor . The battalion saw few contacts while in East Timor . These included a TCL violation on 5 May 2001 which was intercepted by a section from D Company , an outbreak of violence involving a grenade attack by militia members at the Maubasa markets on 29 May which resulted in several people killed and about 50 wounded , and shallow cross @-@ border militia raids in June , including an attack on a section patrol from A Company . The battalion was withdrawn and replaced in October 2001 .
= = = Expansion and domestic security = = =
Following the battalion 's return from East Timor it was again restructured to resume its role as a two @-@ company commando battalion . However , in 2001 the Australian Government directed the permanent establishment of a second TAG to be based on the east coast of Australia . A Company was subsequently raised as a commando company in 2002 . Following the creation of SOCOMD in 2002 and the Bali bombings in October that year , further resources became available . The battalion was subsequently involved in security operations for the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting ( CHOGM ) in Queensland in 2002 . Elements of the battalion were also involved in the boarding of a North Korean freighter , the MV Pong Su — which was suspected of drug smuggling — off Newcastle on 20 April 2003 . In 2005 , a fourth commando company was subsequently raised , with D Company being formed . Later , the battalion was tasked with supporting the security arrangements for the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne . In 2014 , elements of the regiment were deployed to Brisbane to protect the G20 Leaders Summit held in the city on 15 and 16 November .
= = = Iraq = = =
The battalion provided a commando force element as part of the Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq , known as Operation Falconer . A reinforced commando platoon formed an element of the Australian Special Forces Task Group ( SFTG ) , which also included 1 Squadron , SASR , a troop from the Incident Response Regiment , and three CH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopters from the 5th Aviation Regiment . The commandos formed the " quick reaction " element for the task group . The SFTG operated in western Iraq where it was successful in securing its area of operations , including the huge Al Asad Air Base . After the invasion was complete , the 40 @-@ man commando element provided security to humanitarian assistance missions and other security operations , later providing close protection for Australian officials in Baghdad as part of Operation Catalyst . In 2004 , claims appeared in the media that Australian special forces were involved in counter @-@ insurgency operations inside Iraq , although this was denied by the government . The last commando element was withdrawn in 2006 .
= = = Timor Leste = = =
Later , in May 2006 a commando company group was deployed to Timor Leste as part of Operation Astute , after relations between the East Timorese government and military forces broke down . The commandos operated alongside the SASR as part of the Special Forces Component and were tasked with advanced force operations in preparation for the arrival of follow @-@ on forces , focusing on Dili Airport . In March 2007 , the commandos , along with elements of the SASR , took part in the Battle of Same during which five rebels were killed during an unsuccessful attempt to apprehend the rebel leader , Alfredo Reinado . After the battle , the commandos and SASR elements were withdrawn at the request of the East Timorese government in order to start negotiations with the rebels .
= = = Afghanistan = = =
Meanwhile , in August 2005 an Australian Special Forces Task Group ( SFTG ) was deployed to Afghanistan as part of Operation Slipper , operating in the southern province of Uruzgan . The SFTG , based on similar structure deployed during Operation Falconer , was made up of elements from the SASR , a commando company and a troop from the Incident Response Regiment . Two CH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopters from the 5th Aviation Regiment were deployed to Afghanistan in March 2006 to support the SFTG . A forward operating base was subsequently established at Tarin Kowt . During this deployment the Commandos were involved in Operation Perth which resulted in the death of over 150 Taliban and al @-@ Qaeda fighters in nine days of fierce fighting in the Chora district of Uruzgan Province . The SFTG was withdrawn from Afghanistan in September 2006 and replaced by a Reconstruction Taskforce made up of engineers and conventional infantry . During this period the task group was on patrol for 306 days and involved in 139 contacts and sustained 11 soldiers wounded .
A 300 @-@ strong Special Operations Task Group ( SOTG ) was subsequently deployed to support the Reconstruction Taskforce in April 2007 , including a commando company group , elements of the SASR , and an integral combat service support team . In the latter part of 2008 the commando company conducted a disruption operation in Helmand province as part of Operation Eagle 's Summit , which was a major coalition operation conducted in support of the transport and installation of an additional turbine for the Kajaki Dam hydroelectric facility . In March and April 2009 , SOTG killed 80 Taliban fighters in a major four @-@ week operation in Helmand Province , without suffering any casualties . Further operations undertaken include the Battle of Gizab in April 2010 , and the Shah Wali Kot Offensive in June 2010 , which resulted in heavy insurgent casualties . The bulk of SOTG was withdrawn from Afghanistan in late 2013 as part of a drawdown of Australian forces , although some special forces remained after this date as part of the small Australian force maintained in the country . The Regiment lost 12 personnel killed while deployed to Afghanistan , along with one killed during a pre @-@ deployment exercise .
The Regiment served in 20 SOTG rotations in Afghanistan , with deployments ranging from about four to six , seven , and eight months . For its actions , the Regiment was collectively awarded the Unit Citation for Gallantry and the Meritorious Unit Citation . On 26 March 2013 , it was announced that Special Operations Command would receive the first battle honour awarded to an Australian Army unit for actions since the end of the Vietnam War for its performance during the Shah Wali Kot Offensive in Afghanistan from May to June 2010 . The battle honour , titled " Eastern Shah Wali Kot " , was awarded in recognition of the operational actions of the SASR and 2nd Commando Regiment from Australian Special Operations Task Group Rotation XII . A number of the regiment 's personnel have also received individual decorations for their actions in Afghanistan . A posthumous Victoria Cross for Australia was awarded to Cameron Baird for actions in Uruzgan Province in June 2013 . In addition , as of October 2010 six Distinguished Service Crosses , eleven Distinguished Service Medals , seven Medals for Gallantry and three Stars of Gallantry had been awarded to 2nd Commando Regiment personnel for service in Afghanistan .
= = = Military intervention against ISIL = = =
In September 2014 , as part of Operation Okra the Australian Army deployed a Special Operations Task Group ( SOTG ) of approximately 200 personnel to the United Arab Emirates in preparation for operations to assist and advise Iraqi Security Forces following an offensive by Islamic State forces . The soldiers were expected to be deployed to Iraq when a legal framework covering their presence in the country was agreed between the Australian and Iraqi Governments . The majority of the SOTG was reported to be made up of C Company , 2nd Commando Regiment . It began moving into Iraq in early November .
= = Current organisation = =
The regiment consists of a headquarters , four commando companies , a logistics support company , an operational support company and a signals squadron . It is believed to currently be organised as follows :
Regimental Headquarters
A Company
B Company
C Company
D Company
126 Signal Squadron
Operations Support Company
Logistics Support Company
Incorporates the role of Tactical Assault Group ( East ) ( on rotation ) .
= = Selection and training = =
Any member of the Australian Defence Force may apply for entry into the 2nd Commando Regiment . Applicants may also be accepted via the Special Forces Direct Recruitment Scheme ( DRS ) , where selected and screened civilians undertake an accelerated 80 @-@ day infantry training program prior to commencing the Special Forces selection process . If a candidate fails any part of the selection course they will be returned to their unit , or transferred to one of the infantry battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment if they are a DRS candidate . Candidates must complete the Special Forces Screen Test and if successful move onto the six @-@ week Commando Selection and Training Course ( CSTC ) conducted at the Special Forces Training Centre ( SFTC ) , in Singleton , New South Wales . Further training then is undertaken during Commando Initial Employment Training , also known as the " Reinforcement Cycle " . Upon successful completion of all courses soldiers are posted into one of the Commando Companies where further specialist training occurs .
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= New York State Route 321 =
New York State Route 321 ( NY 321 ) is a state highway in Onondaga County , New York , in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) in the village of Skaneateles . Its northern terminus is at an intersection with NY 5 in Bennetts Corners , a hamlet within the town of Camillus . NY 321 is predominantly a north – south highway ; however , a portion of the route through the towns of Elbridge and Camillus follows an east – west alignment . The portion of NY 321 in Camillus between Forward Road and NY 5 is maintained by Onondaga County as part of County Route 66 ( CR 66 ) , a route that continues north of NY 5 to Memphis .
The majority of NY 321 's routing was originally designated as part of NY 26 in 1924 . NY 26 continued east to the village of Camillus by way of Forward Road and modern NY 174 . All of NY 26 north of Skaneateles was renumbered to NY 321 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It initially overlapped NY 174 from Forward Road to Camillus ; however , this concurrency was eliminated in the 1960s . NY 321 was rerouted to follow Bennetts Corners Road in the 1980s .
= = Route description = =
NY 321 begins at an intersection with US 20 ( West Genesee Street ) in the Onondaga County village of Skaneateles . The highway , at first , heads northward , intersecting with local streets in the village . After leaving the village and entering the town of the same name , the highway intersects with the Old Seneca Turnpike ( CR 133 ) . NY 321 continues northward , then veers east as it crosses into the town of Elbridge .
In Elbridge , NY 321 intersects with several county routes , including Halfway Road ( CR 107 ; former NY 368 ) , a connector highway leading to the hamlet of Halfway . Soon afterwards , NY 321 turns to the northeast , heading towards NY 5 . The highway intersects Forward Road ( unsigned NY 931F ) just inside the Camillus town line soon after the turn . Forward Road , a local road that passes through a mixture of open fields and forests , serves as a connector between NY 321 and NY 174 .
Past Forward Road , NY 321 becomes concurrent with CR 66 as maintenance of the roadway shifts from the New York State Department of Transportation to Onondaga County . The state designation comes to an end at NY 5 in the hamlet of Bennetts Corners west of the village of Camillus shortly after ; however , CR 66 continues onward .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The town of Skaneateles was incorporated in the 1800s to help build highways in the area . The highways that were proposed were to be built with stone and other materials . Construction began in 1911 on a highway between the Skaneateles – Elbridge town line and the hamlet of Martisco within the town of Camillus . It was accepted into the New York state highway system on September 17 , 1912 . An extension of the road south into the town of Skaneateles to the village of the same name was constructed in late 1912 and early 1913 and added to the state highway system in September 1913 .
When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the Skaneateles – Martisco highway was included as part of NY 26 , a route extending from Ithaca to Syracuse by way of Skaneateles . North of Martisco , NY 26 followed Ninemile Creek to the village of Camillus , where it intersected NY 5A ( later NY 5 ) .
= = = NY 321 designation = = =
NY 26 was split into several different routes as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . The segment of former NY 26 between US 20 in Skaneateles and NY 5 in Camillus was renumbered to NY 321 . It initially overlapped with NY 174 from Martisco to Camillus . The overlap remained in place until the 1960s when NY 321 was truncated to the southern end of the concurrency in Martisco .
In the early 1950s , the portion of NY 321 south of Forward Road was co @-@ designated as part of NY 20SY , a largely alternate routing of US 20 between Skaneateles and Manlius via Syracuse . Past Sweets Corners , NY 20SY continued north on a previously unnumbered roadway to NY 5 at Bennetts Corners , where it joined NY 5 east into Camillus . The NY 20SY designation was removed c . 1962 , leaving Bennetts Corners Road from Forward Road to NY 5 as an unnumbered roadway once again .
NY 321 was rerouted in the late 1980s to follow Bennetts Corners Road to NY 5 . This part of NY 321 overlapped CR 66 , a highway that began at the junction of Forward and Bennetts Corners Roads and ended in the hamlet of Memphis , and thus became maintained by Onondaga County . The former routing of NY 321 along Forward Road is now designated as NY 931F , an unsigned reference route 1 @.@ 16 miles ( 1 @.@ 87 km ) in length .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Onondaga County .
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= 2015 Tour of Qatar =
The 2015 Tour of Qatar was the 14th edition of the Tour of Qatar cycling stage race . It was organised by the Amaury Sport Organisation ( ASO ) , the organisers of the Tour de France . The race was rated as a 2.HC event , the second highest rating an event can receive , and was part of the 2015 UCI Asia Tour .
The 2015 race consisted of six stages . It started in Dukhan on 8 February 2015 and finished on 13 February in Doha , the capital city of Qatar . The Tour of Qatar puts unusual demands on riders : it has no significant climbs , but almost every stage is affected by strong crosswinds . These conditions make the race ideal preparation for the spring classics season , so many prominent classics riders were present . The flat stages , suitable for sprinters , and individual time trial meant that specialists in these disciplines also chose to ride in Qatar .
The race was won by Dutch rider Niki Terpstra of Etixx – Quick @-@ Step . It was the second successive year that Terpstra won the race after his victory in 2014 and the fourth successive victory for Etixx – Quick @-@ Step . It was the eighth victory for the team in Qatar . Terpstra took the lead of the race with victory in the third stage of the race , the individual time trial , and held the lead of the race to the finish . Maciej Bodnar ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) took second place , six seconds behind Terpstra ; Alexander Kristoff won stages 2 , 4 and 5 on the way to finishing third , nine seconds off the overall lead .
In the race 's other classifications , Kristoff won the silver jersey of the points classification , thanks to his three stage wins . Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) was the winner of the pearl white jersey of the young riders classification as he was the highest placed rider born after 1 January 1990 . The team classification was won by Etixx – Quick @-@ Step .
= = Preview = =
The Tour of Qatar is one of the early races in the season , coming in the middle of three races in the Middle East ( alongside the Dubai Tour and the Tour of Oman ) that see high levels of participation from the top European teams . The race is particularly popular as a preparation race for riders aiming for the spring classics . The significant challenge in the Tour of Qatar is the strong winds across the desert , which frequently cause the peloton to split into echelons . As well as attracting the top classics riders , the flat nature of the course means many stages can be won by sprinters ; the individual time trial also attracts many of the time trial specialists , who have a chance of overall victory .
Etixx – Quick @-@ Step had dominated the race since it began . This included winning the last three editions ( with Tom Boonen , Mark Cavendish and Niki Terpstra ) . Boonen had won the overall race on four previous occasions , as well as winning 22 stages . Boonen and Terpstra were both among the favourites for the overall victory , along with world time @-@ trial champion Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) .
Marcel Kittel ( Giant – Alpecin ) was the most prominent sprinter to travel to Qatar , alongside Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) , and several others .
= = Teams = =
18 teams have been selected to take part in the event , including 13 UCI WorldTeams . Each team was permitted to include between five and eight riders . 15 teams had the full allowance of eight riders ; 3 teams had seven @-@ man teams . The race therefore began with 141 riders . 9 of these withdrew during the course of the event ; 132 finished the final stage .
= = Stages = =
The 2015 event had a very similar format to the previous year 's race . It consisted of six stages , of which five were flat stages and one was an individual time trial . The individual time trial , on the third day of racing , used precisely the same course as the corresponding stage in 2014 .
= = = Stage 1 = = =
The race began with a 136 km ( 85 mi ) route from Dukhan in the west of Qatar to the Sealine Beach Resort , Mesaieed . The route was flat and , as normal in the Tour of Qatar , the principal difficulty was caused by crosswinds .
The initial breakaway was formed early in the race by Luca Sterbini ( Bardiani – CSF ) and Jarl Salomein ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) . They built a lead that reached seven minutes by the half @-@ way point . Midway through the stage , a change in direction meant the peloton was now racing in crosswinds , and Etixx – Quick @-@ Step along with Trek Factory Racing attacked . They formed echelons and split the peloton . Riders such as Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) , Nacer Bouhanni ( Cofidis ) and Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) were left adrift from the front group , but another turn into a headwind meant the groups could come back together .
Shortly before the second intermediate sprint , Tom Boonen ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) were involved in a crash , but were both able to remount and rejoin the peloton . After Nikias Arndt ( Giant – Alpecin ) won that sprint , Greg Van Avermaet made a short @-@ lived attack before a more determined effort from Lars Boom and Lieuwe Westra ( both Astana ) and Matti Breschel ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) . Though they achieved a lead of nearly a minute , the attack was ultimately unsuccessful , due to crosswinds and a combination of Etixx – Quick @-@ Step , Trek Factory Racing and Bora – Argon 18 riding at a high tempo .
In the final 10 km ( 6 mi ) , the peloton split again . The main field was reduced to 51 riders , with Marcel Kittel ( Giant – Alpecin ) , Wiggins , Edvald Boasson Hagen ( MTN – Qhubeka ) , Luca Paolini ( Team Katusha ) and Filippo Pozzato ( Lampre – Merida ) among the notable riders to lose time .
In the final kilometre , José Joaquín Rojas ( Movistar Team ) attached himself to the back of the Etixx – Quick @-@ Step leadout train . He opened his sprint with 300 m ( 1 @,@ 000 ft ) remaining , taking other riders by surprise , and was able to hold them off and take the victory . This was Rojas ' first victory since the 2014 Vuelta a Castilla y León .
Boonen finished second in the sprint , with Arnaud Démare ( FDJ ) third .
= = = Stage 2 = = =
The second stage took the riders 187 @.@ 5 km ( 117 mi ) from Al Wakra , south of Doha , to Al Khor Corniche .
Early in the stage , Etixx – Quick @-@ Step launched an attack , quickly splitting the pack in crosswinds to create a lead group of 30 riders . Riders left behind included the race leader , José Joaquín Rojas ( Movistar Team ) , Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) , Marcel Kittel ( Giant – Alpecin ) and Lars Boom ( Astana ) . The lead group , however , failed to establish a lead of more than half a minute and work from BMC Racing Team and MTN – Qhubeka brought the field back together after 60 km ( 37 mi ) , when the wind changed to a tailwind .
At this point a five @-@ man breakaway formed , including Michael Mørkøv ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) , Johann Van Zyl ( MTN – Qhubeka ) , Jelle Wallays ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , and Mathew Hayman ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) , establishing a lead of nearly four minutes .
At the next change of direction , Etixx – Quick @-@ Step again attacked in the crosswinds . The breakaway was caught after 124 km ( 77 mi ) , with the peloton again splitting . Wiggins , Kittel and Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) had all been dropped . Soon afterwards , further attacks from Etixx – Quick @-@ Step removed Rojas and Arnaud Démare ( FDJ ) from the leading group . Tom Boonen won the second intermediate sprint , earning three bonus seconds .
With 5 km ( 3 mi ) remaining , the leading group was reduced to 15 riders . In the final kilometre , Andrea Guardini and Niki Terpstra had formed a small gap , but Alexander Kristoff bridged up to the pair and launched his sprint with 500 m ( 1 @,@ 640 ft ) remaining . Kristoff was able to win the stage ahead of Guardini , with Van Avermaet in third .
Due to the 10 @-@ second time bonus for winning the stage , Kristoff took over the overall lead of the race , one second ahead of Boonen , who moved into the lead of the points competition . Several riders who had been contenders for the overall victory , including Wiggins and Cancellara , finished over nine minutes behind Kristoff , eliminating them from contention for overall victory .
= = = Stage 3 = = =
The third stage of the race was a 10 @.@ 9 km ( 7 mi ) individual time trial at Lusail . The course followed a route that went past the Lusail Iconic Stadium , Lusail Sports Arena and Lusail International Circuit .
The riders were not allowed to use time trial bicycles as would normally be allowed in an individual time trial ; conventional road bicycles were to be used instead .
Favourites for the stage victory included current world champion Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) , four @-@ time world champion Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) , Matthias Brändle ( IAM Cycling ) and Niki Terpstra ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) . Wiggins was wearing the rainbow jersey of the world time @-@ trial champion in a race for the first time and was riding a road bike with modifications for better aerodynamics .
The first fast time was set by Lars Boom , who took 14 ' 33 " to complete the course , before Matthias Brändle took over the lead with a time of 14 ' 22 " . Wiggins briefly took the lead with a time of 14 ' 13 " , but soon afterwards Cancellara went one second faster . Terpstra , however , rode eight seconds quicker to win the stage and take over the gold jersey of overall leader .
The race leader after stage 2 , Alexander Kristoff , finished 44 seconds behind Terpstra , 36 seconds off the overall lead . Other riders to lose significant time were Tom Boonen and Peter Sagan . Boonen retained his silver jersey , but Sagan lost his white jersey as leader of the young riders classification to Luke Rowe ( Team Sky ) .
= = = Stage 4 = = =
The fourth stage of the race was a 165 @.@ 5 km ( 103 mi ) route from Al Thakhira to the city of Mesaieed . With the wind generally coming from the south , the riders were riding into a headwind most of the day .
Due to the strong winds , the stage started 40 minutes before the scheduled time , as the race organisers were worried about the possibility of sandstorms and of slow racing leading to a late finish . Despite the headwind , three riders formed a breakaway . They were Jaco Venter ( MTN – Qhubeka ) , Dimitry Gruzdev ( Astana ) , and Jarl Salomein ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) . The three riders built a lead that reached nearly four minutes .
Etixx – Quick @-@ Step , riding for race leader Niki Terpstra , controlled the breakaway through most of the day . They were supported towards the end of the race by FDJ . Unlike the earlier road stages , the lack of crosswinds meant that there were no echelons or significant splits in the peloton . The breakaway was caught with 19 km ( 12 mi ) remaining .
In the final kilometres of the stage , several teams tried to ride at the front , including MTN – Qhubeka , Movistar Team , FDJ , Tinkoff – Saxo and Orica – GreenEDGE . The strong pace caused several riders to crash , including Lars Boom ( Astana ) , Theo Bos ( MTN – Qhubeka ) and Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) . All were unhurt and able to finish the stage .
Despite the presence of Marcel Kittel , the team 's principal sprinter , Giant – Alpecin were riding in support of Nikias Arndt . Kittel took a turn in his lead @-@ out train ; since he was in poor form following a period of illness , he had requested the team support Arndt instead .
In the final kilometre , the Katusha team moved to the front before Kristoff again started his sprint early ; again , the other sprinters were unable to catch him and he crossed the finish line first . He was only slightly ahead of Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , who was so close at the finish line that Kristoff was unsure whether he had won . Arndt was third after Giant – Alpecin had done excellent work in the last kilometre .
There was a small split in the peloton at the end of the race . Several riders lost five seconds , including Terpstra , Ian Stannard ( Team Sky ) , Luke Rowe ( Team Sky ) , Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) and Tom Boonen ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) . Kristoff moved up into fifth place in the overall standings thanks to this split and the time bonus for winning the stage . He also took over leadership of the silver jersey of the points classification . Terpstra retained his overall lead , while Rowe remained the leader of the young riders classification .
= = = Stage 5 = = =
Stage 5 was a 153 km ( 95 mi ) route starting at Al Zubarah Fort . The riders first travelled east towards Al Ghuwariyah , before returning to Al Zubarah . The route then took them north @-@ east along the coast , before finishing with two laps of a circuit in Madinat ash Shamal .
Etixx – Quick @-@ Step once again attacked early in the stage , breaking the peloton into echelons in the opening kilometres . Maciej Bodnar ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , in second place overnight , was among the riders who failed to make the lead group . The gap between the groups never extended much beyond half a minute and , after around 60 km ( 37 mi ) of racing , Bodnar 's group was able to rejoin the lead group and the racing , which had been frenetic until that point , calmed down .
At that point a breakaway formed , made up of Ben Hermans ( BMC Racing Team ) , Marco Haller ( Team Katusha ) , Jelle Wallays ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , Dmitriy Gruzdev ( Astana ) and Mathew Hayman ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) . The five riders at one point had a lead of over two and a half minutes . Hayman won both intermediate sprints and at one point was virtual leader of the race , before the peloton behind took up the chase in earnest . The breakaway was caught with 13 km ( 8 mi ) remaining .
In the final six kilometres , Team Katusha and BMC Racing Team attacked and forced another split in the peloton . Tom Boonen was among two Etixx – Quick @-@ Step riders in the 10 @-@ man front group , but Niki Terpstra , the race leader , was not . Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) and Maciej Bodnar were in the lead group , which built a lead of 15 seconds . Terpstra would have lost the race lead , but Etixx – Quick @-@ Step were able to bring the groups back together . After the race , it was revealed that the three Tinkoff – Saxo riders in the leading group were not aware that Terpstra had been dropped and , with team radios banned , directeur sportif Bjarne Riis was not able to inform them .
As they approached the finishing line , Kristoff again opened his sprint early and was able to hold off the rest of the field for his third stage victory of the race . Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) finished second and Nikias Arndt , again sprinting for Giant – Alpecin in place of Marcel Kittel , finished third . Sagan therefore moved into first place in the young riders competition , overtaking Luke Rowe ( Team Sky ) .
Thanks to the time bonus on the finish line , Kristoff was now in third place overall , just 11 seconds behind Terpstra . This meant that Kristoff could win the overall victory in the race if he was able to win the final stage and take time bonuses at the intermediate sprints .
Following the stage , the race organisers announced that Lars Boom ( Astana ) had been disqualified from the race . His bike had developed a puncture about 20 km ( 12 mi ) from the finish and he had attempted to regain contact with the peloton by chasing in the slipstream of his team car .
= = = Stage 6 = = =
The final stage of the 2015 Tour of Qatar started where stage 1 had finished , at the Sealine Beach Resort south of Mesaieed . It took the riders north to Doha . In Doha , the riders rode to the Doha Corniche , where they completed ten laps of a 5 @.@ 7 km ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) finishing circuit .
After the previous stage , Niki Terpstra ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) had indicated that his team would happily allow a breakaway to win the stage in order to deny Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) the possibility of taking overall victory with the aid of the bonus seconds for the stage win and intermediate sprints . A break was allowed to go away early , formed of Marcus Burghardt ( BMC Racing Team ) , Preben Van Hecke ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , Nicola Boem and Stefano Pirazzi ( both Bardiani – CSF ) . They were able to build a lead of over two minute , but Team Katusha took up the chase to support Kristoff in seeking bonus seconds .
The two intermediate sprints were both located on the finish line of the finishing circuit , on the fourth and seventh lap . Burghardt , Van Hecke , and Boem were caught first , while Pirazzi was caught on lap 4 . Etixx – Quick @-@ Step attempted to place riders in the sprint to prevent Kristoff winning the bonus seconds ; they succeeded in winning the sprint with Tom Boonen , but Matteo Trentin was beaten by Kristoff to second place . Kristoff therefore won two bonus seconds , placing him nine seconds behind Terpstra . With a ten @-@ second bonus available to the stage winner , Kristoff was now within reach of the overall win .
Etixx – Quick @-@ Step then sent their rider Iljo Keisse into a breakaway alongside Gijs van Hoecke ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , with the intent of preventing Kristoff winning any more bonus seconds . Keisse won the intermediate sprint with van Hoecke second ; they then allowed the peloton – led by Katusha – to catch them .
In the final kilometres of the stage , Team Katusha , who had done most of the work throughout the day , were unable to maintain their position at the head of the peloton . After the stage , Kristoff admitted that his team was tired from their work during the week . Fabian Cancellara put in an attack in the final five kilometres , but was brought back by the peloton led in particular by IAM Cycling and Astana . In the final kilometre , Tinkoff – Saxo came to the front in support of Peter Sagan .
Sam Bennett ( Bora – Argon 18 ) was given a strong lead @-@ out by his teammates . He was then able to follow Andrea Guardini ( Astana ) , who launched his sprint with 200 m ( 660 ft ) to go . Bennett was then able to come past and take his first win of 2015 , which he later described as the biggest of his career so far .
Kristoff finished 19th ; he therefore failed to gain the bonus seconds he needed for overall victory and finished nine seconds behind Terpstra . Terpstra therefore won the Tour of Qatar for the second successive season . Kristoff won the silver jersey of the points competition , thanks to his three stage wins , while Sagan won the young riders competition . Etixx – Quick @-@ Step won the teams competition .
= = Classification leadership table = =
In the 2015 Tour of Qatar , three different jerseys were awarded . The first of these was the general classification . It was calculated by adding together the times recorded in each stage of the race , then making adjustments to take account of bonus seconds won for stage victories and intermediate sprints in the road stages ( the winner of the individual time trial did not receive bonus seconds ) . The winner of each stage received a ten @-@ second bonus ; the rider coming second received a six @-@ second bonus ; the third rider across the line received a four @-@ second bonus . Similarly , the winner , second @-@ placed and third @-@ placed riders in intermediate sprints won three- , two- and one @-@ second bonuses respectively . If two riders were tied on the same time , the precise time ( to one @-@ hundredths of a second ) recorded in the time trial would have been used to separate the riders . The leader of the general classification wore a gold jersey and the winner of the competition is considered the overall winner of the race .
The points classification was determined by adding together the points that each rider won on each stage . Points were awarded for coming in the top ten in the stage ( the winner won 15 points ; the tenth @-@ placed rider won one point ) . Points were also awarded for coming in the top three in the intermediate sprints that took place on each road stage ( three points for the winner , two for the second @-@ placed rider and one for the third ) . The leader of the points classification was awarded a silver jersey .
The third classification was the young rider classification . This was open to riders born on or after 1 January 1990 . The first eligible rider in the general classification was considered the leader of the young rider classification and was awarded a pearl white jersey .
Finally , there was a classification for teams . After each stage , the times of the first three riders on each team were added together . The team with the lowest cumulative time was the leader of the team classification .
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= Spinal cord injury =
A spinal cord injury ( SCI ) is damage to the spinal cord that causes changes in its function , either temporary or permanent . These changes translate into loss of muscle function , sensation , or autonomic function in parts of the body served by the spinal cord below the level of the lesion . Injuries can occur at any level of the spinal cord and can be classified as complete injury , a total loss of sensation and muscle function , or incomplete , meaning some nervous signals are able to travel past the injured area of the cord . Depending on the location and severity of damage along the spinal cord , the symptoms can vary widely , from pain or numbness to paralysis to incontinence . The prognosis also ranges widely , from full recovery in rare cases to permanent tetraplegia ( also called quadriplegia ) in injuries at the level of the neck , and paraplegia in lower injuries . Complications that can occur in the short and long term after injury include muscle atrophy , pressure sores , infections , and respiratory problems .
In the majority of cases the damage results from physical trauma such as car accidents , gunshots , falls , or sports injuries , but it can also result from nontraumatic causes such as infection , insufficient blood flow , and tumors . Efforts to prevent SCI include individual measures such as using safety equipment , societal measures such as safety regulations in sports and traffic , and improvements to equipment . Known since ancient times to be a catastrophic injury and long believed to be untreatable , SCI has seen great improvements in its care since the middle of the 20th century . Treatment of spinal cord injuries starts with stabilizing the spine and controlling inflammation to prevent further damage . Other interventions needed can vary widely depending on the location and extent of the injury , from bed rest to surgery . In many cases , spinal cord injuries require substantial , long @-@ term physical and occupational therapy in rehabilitation , especially if they interfere with activities of daily living . Research into new treatments for spinal cord injuries includes stem cell implantation , engineered materials for tissue support , and wearable robotic exoskeletons .
= = Classification = =
Spinal cord injury can be traumatic or nontraumatic , and can be classified into three types based on cause : mechanical forces , toxic , and ischemic ( from lack of blood flow ) . The damage can also be divided into primary and secondary injury : the cell death that occurs immediately in the original injury , and biochemical cascades that are initiated by the original insult and cause further tissue damage . These secondary injury pathways include the ischemic cascade , inflammation , swelling , cell suicide , and neurotransmitter imbalances . They can take place for minutes or weeks following the injury .
At each level of the spinal column , spinal nerves branch off from either side of the spinal cord and exit between a pair of vertebrae , to innervate a specific part of the body . The area of skin innervated by a specific spinal nerve is called a dermatome , and the group of muscles innervated by a single spinal nerve is called a myotome . The part of the spinal cord that was damaged corresponds to the spinal nerves at that level and below . Injuries can be cervical 1 – 8 ( C1 – C8 ) , thoracic 1 – 12 ( T1 – T12 ) , lumbar 1 – 5 ( L1 – L5 ) , or sacral ( S1 – S5 ) . A person 's level of injury is defined as the lowest level of full sensation and function . Paraplegia occurs when the legs are affected by the spinal cord damage ( in thoracic , lumbar , or sacral injuries ) , and tetraplegia occurs when all four limbs are affected ( cervical damage ) .
SCI is also classified by the degree of impairment . The International Standards for Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury ( ISNCSCI ) , published by the American Spinal Injury Association ( ASIA ) , is widely used to document sensory and motor impairments following SCI . It is based on neurological responses , touch and pinprick sensations tested in each dermatome , and strength of the muscles that control key motions on both sides of the body . Muscle strength is scored on a scale of 0 – 5 according to the table on the right , and sensation is graded on a scale of 0 – 2 : 0 is no sensation , 1 is altered or decreased sensation , and 2 is full sensation . Each side of the body is graded independently .
= = = Complete and incomplete injuries = = =
In a " complete " spinal injury , all functions below the injured area are lost , whether or not the spinal cord is severed . An " incomplete " spinal cord injury involves preservation of motor or sensory function below the level of injury in the spinal cord . To be classed as incomplete , there must be some preservation of sensation or motion in the areas innervated by S4 to S5 , e.g. voluntary external anal sphincter contraction . The nerves in this area are connected to the very lowest region of the spinal cord , and retaining sensation and function in these parts of the body indicates that the spinal cord is only partially damaged . Incomplete injury by definition includes a phenomenon known as sacral sparing : some degree of sensation is preserved in the sacral dermatomes , even though sensation may be more impaired in other , higher dermatomes below the level of the lesion . Sacral sparing has been attributed to the fact that the sacral spinal pathways are not as likely as the other spinal pathways to become compressed after injury due to the lamination of fibers within the spinal cord .
= = = Spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality = = =
Spinal column injury is trauma that causes fracture of the bone or instability of the ligaments in the spinal column ; this can coexist with or cause injury to the spinal cord , but each injury can occur without the other . Spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality ( SCIWORA ) exists when SCI is present but there is no evidence of spinal column injury on radiographs . Abnormalities might show up on magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) , but the term was coined before MRI was in common use .
= = = Central cord syndrome = = =
Central cord syndrome , almost always resulting from damage to the cervical spinal cord , is characterized by weakness in the arms with relative sparing of the legs , and spared sensation in regions served by the sacral segments . There is loss of sensation of pain , temperature , light touch , and pressure below the level of injury . The spinal tracts that serve the arms are more affected due to their central location in the spinal cord , while the corticospinal fibers destined for the legs are spared due to their more external location . The most common of the incomplete SCI syndromes , central cord syndrome usually results from neck hyperextension in older people with spinal stenosis . In younger people , it most commonly results from neck flexion . The most common causes are falls and vehicle accidents ; however other possible causes include spinal stenosis and impingement on the spinal cord by a tumor or vertebral disk .
= = = Anterior cord syndrome = = =
Anterior cord syndrome , due to damage to the front portion of the spinal cord or reduction in the blood supply from the anterior spinal artery , can be caused by fractures or dislocations of vertebrae or herniated disks . Below the level of injury , motor function , pain sensation , and temperature sensation are lost , while sense of touch and proprioception ( sense of position in space ) remain intact . These differences are due to the relative locations of the spinal tracts responsible for each type of function .
= = = Brown @-@ Séquard syndrome = = =
Brown @-@ Séquard syndrome occurs when the spinal cord is injured on one side much more than the other . It is rare for the spinal cord to be truly hemisected ( severed on one side ) , but partial lesions due to penetrating wounds ( such as gunshot or knife wounds ) or fractured vertebrae or tumors are common . On the ipsilateral side of the injury ( same side ) , the body loses motor function , proprioception , and senses of vibration and touch . On the contralateral ( opposite side ) of the injury , there is a loss of pain and temperature sensations .
= = = Posterior cord syndrome = = =
Posterior cord syndrome , in which just the dorsal columns of the spinal cord are affected , is usually seen in cases of chronic myelopathy but can also occur with infarction of the posterior spinal artery . This rare syndrome causes the loss of proprioception and sense of vibration below the level of injury while motor function and sensation of pain , temperature , and touch remain intact . Usually posterior cord injuries result from insults like disease or vitamin deficiency rather than trauma . Tabes dorsalis , due to injury to the posterior part of the spinal cord caused by syphilis , results in loss of touch and proprioceptive sensation .
= = = Conus medullaris and cauda equina syndromes = = =
Conus medullaris syndrome is an injury to the end of the spinal cord , located at about the T12 – L2 vertebrae in adults . This region contains the S4 – S5 spinal segments , responsible for bowel , bladder , and some sexual functions , so these can be disrupted in this type of injury . In addition , sensation and the Achilles reflex can be disrupted . Causes include growths , physical trauma , and ischemia .
Cauda equina syndrome ( CES ) results from a lesion below the level at which the spinal cord splits into the cauda equina , at levels L2 – S5 below the conus medullaris . Thus it is not a true spinal cord syndrome since it is nerve roots that are damaged and not the cord itself ; however it is common for several of these nerves to be damaged at the same time due to their proximity . CES can occur by itself or alongside conus medullaris syndrome . It can cause low back pain , weakness or paralysis in the lower limbs , loss of sensation , bowel and bladder dysfunction , and loss of reflexes . Unlike in conus medullaris syndrome , symptoms often occur on only one side of the body . The cause is often compression , e.g. by a ruptured intervertebral disk or tumor . Since the nerves damaged in CES are actually peripheral nerves because they have already branched off from the spinal cord , the injury has better prognosis for recovery of function : the peripheral nervous system has a greater capacity for healing than the central nervous system .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Signs ( observed by a clinician ) and symptoms ( experienced by a patient ) vary depending on where the spine is injured and the extent of the injury . A section of skin innervated through a specific part of the spine is called a dermatome , and injury to that part of the spine can cause pain , numbness , or a loss of sensation in the related areas . Paraesthesia , a tingling or burning sensation in affected areas of the skin , is another symptom . A person with a lowered level of consciousness may show a response to a painful stimulus above a certain point but not below it . A group of muscles innervated through a specific part of the spine is called a myotome , and injury to that part of the spinal cord can cause problems with movements that involve those muscles . The muscles may contract uncontrollably ( spasticity ) , become weak , or be completely paralysed . Spinal shock , loss of neural activity including reflexes below the level of injury , occurs shortly after the injury and usually goes away within a day .
The specific parts of the body affected by loss of function are determined by the level of injury .
= = = Lumbosacral = = =
The effects of injuries at or above the lumbar or sacral regions of the spinal cord ( lower back and pelvis ) include decreased control of the legs and hips , genitourinary system , and anus . People injured below level L2 may still have use of their hip flexor and knee extensor muscles . Bowel and bladder function are regulated by the sacral region . It is common to experience sexual dysfunction after injury , as well as dysfunction of the bowel and bladder , including fecal and urinary incontinence . It is also possible for the bladder to fail to empty , leading to a potentially harmful buildup of urine . One sign of spinal cord injury that emergency providers may find is priapism , an erection of the penis .
= = = Thoracic = = =
In addition to the problems found in lower @-@ level injuries , thoracic ( chest height ) spinal lesions can affect the muscles in the trunk . Injuries at the level of T1 to T8 result in inability to control the abdominal muscles . Trunk stability may be affected ; even more so in higher level injuries . The lower the level of injury , the less extensive its effects . Injuries from T9 to T12 result in partial loss of trunk and abdominal muscle control . Thoracic spinal injuries result in paraplegia , but function of the hands , arms , and neck are not affected .
One condition that occurs typically in lesions above the T6 level is autonomic dysreflexia ( AD ) , in which the blood pressure increases to dangerous levels , high enough to cause potentially deadly stroke . It results from an overreaction of the system to a stimulus such as pain below the level of injury , because inhibitory signals from the brain cannot pass the lesion to dampen the excitatory sympathetic nervous system response . Signs and symptoms of AD include anxiety , headache , nausea , ringing in the ears , blurred vision , flushed skin , and nasal congestion . It can occur shortly after the injury or not until years later .
Other autonomic functions may also be disrupted . For example , problems with body temperature regulation mostly occur in injuries at T8 and above . Another serious complication that can result from lesions above T6 is neurogenic shock , which results from an interruption in output from the sympathetic nervous system responsible for maintaining muscle tone in the blood vessels . Without the sympathetic input , the vessels relax and dilate . Neurogenic shock presents with dangerously low blood pressure , low heart rate , and blood pooling in the limbs — which results in insufficient blood flow to the spinal cord and potentially further damage to it .
= = = Cervical = = =
Spinal cord injuries at the cervical ( neck ) level result in full or partial tetraplegia ( also called quadriplegia ) . Depending on the specific location and severity of trauma , limited function may be retained .
Additional signs and symptoms of cervical injuries include low heart rate , low blood pressure , problems regulating body temperature , and breathing dysfunction . If the injury is high enough in the neck to impair the muscles involved in breathing , the person may not be able to breathe without the help of an endotracheal tube and mechanical ventilator .
= = Causes = =
Spinal cord injuries are most often caused by physical trauma . Forces involved can be hyperflexion ( forward movement of the head ) ; hyperextension ( backward movement ) ; lateral stress ( sideways movement ) ; rotation ( twisting of the head ) ; compression ( force along the axis of the spine downward from the head or upward from the pelvis ) ; or distraction ( pulling apart of the vertebrae ) . Traumatic SCI can result in contusion , compression , or stretch injury .
In the US , Motor vehicle accidents are the most common cause of SCIs ; second are falls , then violence such as gunshot wounds , then sports injuries . In some countries falls are more common , even surpassing vehicle crashes as the leading cause of SCI . The rates of violence @-@ related SCI depend heavily on place and time . Of all sports @-@ related SCIs , shallow water dives are the most common cause ; winter sports and water sports have been increasing as causes while association football and trampoline injuries have been declining . Hanging can cause injury to the cervical spine , as may occur in attempted suicide . Military conflicts are another cause , and when they occur they are associated with increased rates of SCI . Another potential cause of SCI is iatrogenic injury , caused by an improperly done medical procedure such as an injection into the spinal column .
SCI can also be of a nontraumatic origin . Nontraumatic lesions cause anywhere from 30 to 80 % of all SCI ; the percentage varies by locale , influenced by efforts to prevent trauma . Developed countries have higher percentages of SCI due to degenerative conditions and tumors than developing countries . In developed countries , the most common cause of nontraumatic SCI is degenerative diseases , followed by tumors ; in many developing countries the leading cause is infection such as HIV and tuberculosis . SCI may occur in intervertebral disc disease , and spinal cord vascular disease . Spontaneous bleeding can occur within or outside of the protective membranes that line the cord , and intervertebral disks can herniate . Damage can result from dysfunction of the blood vessels , as in arteriovenous malformation , or when a blood clot becomes lodged in a blood vessel and cuts off blood supply to the cord . When systemic blood pressure drops , blood flow to the spinal cord may be reduced , potentially causing a loss of sensation and voluntary movement in the areas supplied by the affected level of the spinal cord . Congenital conditions and tumors that compress the cord can also cause SCI , as can vertebral spondylosis and ischemia . Multiple sclerosis is a disease that can damage the spinal cord , as can infectious or inflammatory conditions such as tuberculosis , herpes zoster or herpes simplex , meningitis , myelitis , and syphilis .
= = Prevention = =
Vehicle @-@ related SCI is prevented with measures including societal and individual efforts to reduce driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol , distracted driving , and drowsy driving . Other efforts include increasing road safety ( such as marking hazards and adding lighting ) and vehicle safety , both to prevent accidents ( such as routine maintenance and antilock brakes ) and to mitigate the damage of crashes ( such as head restraints , air bags , seat belts , and child safety seats ) . Falls can be prevented by making changes to the environment , such as nonslip materials and grab bars in bathtubs and showers , railings for stairs , child and safety gates for windows . Gun @-@ related injuries can be prevented with conflict resolution training , gun safety education campaigns , and changes to the technology of guns ( such as trigger locks ) to improve their safety . Sports injuries can be prevented with changes to sports rules and equipment to increase safety , and education campaigns to reduce risky practices such as diving into water of unknown depth or head @-@ first tackling in association football .
= = Diagnosis = =
A radiographic evaluation using an X @-@ ray , CT scan , or MRI can determine if there is damage to the spinal column and where it is located . X @-@ rays are commonly available and can detect instability or misalignment of the spinal column , but do not give very detailed images and can miss injuries to the spinal cord or displacement of ligaments or disks that do not have accompanying spinal column damage . Thus when X @-@ ray findings are normal but SCI is still suspected due to pain or SCI symptoms , CT or MRI scans are used . CT gives greater detail than X @-@ rays , but exposes the patient to more radiation , and it still does not give images of the spinal cord or ligaments ; MRI shows body structures in the greatest detail . Thus it is the standard for anyone who has neurological deficits found in SCI or is thought to have an unstable spinal column injury .
Neurological evaluations to help determine the degree of impairment are performed initially and repeatedly in the early stages of treatment ; this determines the rate of improvement or deterioration and informs treatment and prognosis . The ASIA Impairment Scale outlined above is used to determine the level and severity of injury .
= = Management = =
= = = Prehospital treatment = = =
The first stage in the management of a suspected spinal cord injury is geared toward basic life support and preventing further injury : maintaining airway , breathing , and circulation and immobilizing the spine . In the emergency setting , anyone who has been subjected to forces strong enough to cause SCI is treated as though they have instability in the spinal column and is immobilized to prevent damage to the spinal cord . Injuries or fractures in the head , neck , or pelvis as well as penetrating trauma near the spine and falls from heights are assumed to be associated with an unstable spinal column until it is ruled out in the hospital . High @-@ speed vehicle crashes , sports injuries involving the head or neck , and diving injuries are other mechanisms that indicate a high SCI risk . Since head and spinal trauma frequently coexist , anyone who is unconscious or has a lowered level of consciousness as a result of a head injury is immobilized . A rigid cervical collar is applied to the neck , and the head is held immobile with blocks on either side and the person is strapped to a backboard . Extrication devices are used to move people without moving the spine if they are still inside a vehicle or other confined space .
Modern trauma care includes a step called clearing the cervical spine , ruling out spinal cord injury if the patient is fully conscious and not under the influence of drugs or alcohol , displays no neurological deficits , has no pain in the middle of the neck and no other painful injuries that could distract from neck pain . If these are all absent , no immobilization is necessary . If an unstable spinal column injury is moved , damage may occur to the spinal cord . Between 3 and 25 % of SCIs occur not at the time of the initial trauma but later during treatment or transport . While some of this is due to the nature of the injury itself , particularly in the case of multiple or massive trauma , some of it reflects the failure to immobilize the spine adequately .
SCI can impair the body 's ability to keep warm , so warming blankets may be needed .
= = = Early hospital treatment = = =
Initial care in the hospital , as in the prehospital setting , aims to ensure adequate airway , breathing , cardiovascular function , and spinal immobilization . Imaging of the spine to ascertain presence of SCI may need to wait if emergency surgery is needed to stabilize a life @-@ threatening injury . Acute SCI merits treatment in an intensive care unit , especially injuries to the cervival spinal cord . Patients with SCI need repeated neurological assessments and treatment by neurosurgeons .
If the systolic blood pressure falls below 90 mmHg within days of the injury , blood supply to the spinal cord may be reduced , resulting in further damage . Thus it is important to maintain the blood pressure using a central venous catheter , intravenous fluids , and vasopressors , and to treat cases of shock . Mean arterial blood pressure is measured and kept at 85 to 90 mmHg for seven days after injury . The treatment for shock from blood loss ( hypovolemic shock ) is different from that for neurogenic shock , and could harm people with the latter type , so it is necessary to determine why someone is in shock . However it is also possible for both causes to exist at the same time . Another important aspect of care is prevention of hypoxia ( insufficient oxygen in the bloodstream ) , which could deprive the spinal cord of much @-@ needed oxygen . People with cervical injuries may experience a dangerously slowed heart rate ; treatment to speed it up include atropine and electrical cardiac pacing .
Swelling can cause further damage to the spinal cord by reducing the blood supply and causing ischemia , which can give rise to an ischemic cascade with a release of toxins that damages neurons . Thus treatment is often geared toward limiting this secondary injury . People are sometimes treated with drugs to reduce swelling . The corticosteroid drug methylprednisolone is commonly used within eight hours of the injury , but its use is controversial because of side effects . Studies have shown high dose methylprednisolone may improve outcomes if given within 6 hours of injury . However , the improvement shown by clinical trials has been inconclusive , and comes at the cost of increased risk of serious infection or sepsis , gastrointestinal bleeding , and pneumonia . Thus organizations that set clinical guidelines have increasingly stopped recommending methylprednisolone in the treatment of acute SCI .
Surgery may be necessary , e.g. to relieve excess pressure on the cord , to stabilize the spine , or to put vertebrae back in their proper place . In cases involving instability or compression , failing to operate can lead to worsening of the condition . Surgery is also necessary when something is pressing on the cord , such as bone fragments , blood , material from ligaments or intervertebral discs , or a lodged object from a penetrating injury . Although the ideal timing of surgery is still debated , studies have found that earlier surgical intervention ( within 24 hours of injury ) is associated with better outcomes . Sometimes a patient has too many other injuries to be a surgical candidate this early . Surgery is controversial because it has potential complications ( such as infection ) , so in cases where it is not clearly needed ( e.g. the cord is being compressed ) , doctors must decide whether to perform surgery based on aspects of the patient 's condition and their own beliefs about its risks and benefits . In cases where a more conservative approach is chosen , bed rest , cervical collars , immobilizing devices , and optionally traction are used . Surgeons may opt to put traction on the spine to remove pressure from the spinal cord by putting dislocated vertebrae back into alignment , but herniation of intervertebral disks may prevent this technique from relieving pressure . Gardner @-@ Wells tongs are one tool used to exert spinal traction to reduce a fracture or dislocation and to immobilize the affected areas .
= = = Rehabilitation = = =
SCI patients often require extended treatment in specialized spinal unit or an intensive care unit . The rehabilitation process typically begins in the acute care setting . Usually the inpatient phase lasts 8 – 12 weeks and then the outpatient rehabilitation phase lasts 3 – 12 months after that , followed by yearly medical and functional evaluation . Physical therapists , occupational therapists , recreational therapists , nurses , social workers , psychologists and other health care professionals work as a team under the coordination of a physiatrist to decide on goals with the patient and develop a plan of discharge that is appropriate for the person ’ s condition .
In the acute phase physical therapists focus on the patient ’ s respiratory status , prevention of indirect complications ( such as pressure ulcers ) , maintaining range of motion , and keeping available musculature active .
For people whose injuries are high enough to interfere with breathing , there is great emphasis on airway clearance during this stage of recovery . Weakness of respiratory muscles impairs the ability to cough effectively , allowing secretions to accumulate within the lungs . As SCI patients suffer from reduced total lung capacity and tidal volume , physical therapists teach them accessory breathing techniques ( e.g. apical breathing , glossopharyngeal breathing ) that typically are not taught to healthy individuals . Physical therapy treatment for airway clearance may include manual percussions and vibrations , postural drainage , respiratory muscle training , and assisted cough techniques . Patients are taught to increase their intra @-@ abdominal pressure by leaning forward to induce cough and clear mild secretions . The quad cough technique is done lying on the back with the therapist applying pressure on the abdomen in the rhythm of the cough to maximize expiratory flow and mobilize secretions . Manual abdominal compression is another technique used to increase expiratory flow which later improves coughing . Other techniques used to manage respiratory dysfunction include respiratory muscle pacing , use of a constricting abdominal binder , ventilator @-@ assisted speech , and mechanical ventilation .
The amount of functional recovery and independence achieved in terms of activities of daily living , recreational activities , and employment is affected by the level and severity of injury . The Functional Independence Measure ( FIM ) is an assessment tool that aims to evaluate the function of patients throughout the rehabilitation process following a spinal cord injury or other serious illness or injury . It can track a patient 's progress and degree of independence during rehabilitation . People with SCI may need to use specialized devices and to make modifications to their environment in order to handle activities of daily living and to function independently . Weak joints can be stabilized with devices such as ankle @-@ foot orthoses ( AFOs ) and knee @-@ AFOs , but walking may still require a lot of effort . Increasing activity will increase chances of recovery .
= = Prognosis = =
Spinal cord injuries generally result in at least some incurable impairment even with the best possible treatment . The best predictor of prognosis is the level and completeness of injury , as measured by the ASIA impairment scale . The neurological score at the initial evaluation done 72 hours after injury is the best predictor of how much function will return . Most people with ASIA scores of A ( complete injuries ) do not have functional motor recovery , but improvement can occur . Most patients with incomplete injuries recover at least some function . Chances of recovering the ability to walk improve with each AIS grade found at the initial examination ; e.g. an ASIA D score confers a better chance of walking than a score of C. The symptoms of incomplete injuries can vary and it is difficult to make an accurate prediction of the outcome . A person with a mild , incomplete injury at the T5 vertebra will have a much better chance of using his or her legs than a person with a severe , complete injury at exactly the same place . Of the incomplete SCI syndromes , Brown @-@ Séquard and central cord syndromes have the best prognosis for recovery and anterior cord syndrome has the worst . People with nontraumatic causes of SCI have been found to be less likely to suffer complete injuries and some complications such as pressure sores and deep vein thrombosis , and to have shorter hospital stays . Their scores on functional tests were better than those of people with traumatic SCI upon hospital admission , but when they were tested upon discharge , those with traumatic SCI had improved such that both groups ' results were the same . In addition to the completeness and level of the injury , age and concurrent health problems affect the extent to which a person with SCI will be able to live independently and to walk . However , in general people with injuries to L3 or below will likely be able to walk functionally , T10 and below to walk around the house with bracing , and C7 and below to live independently .
One important predictor of motor recovery in an area is presence of sensation there , particularly pain perception . Most motor recovery occurs in the first year post @-@ injury , but modest improvements can continue for years ; sensory recovery is more limited . Recovery is typically quickest during the first six months . Spinal shock , in which reflexes are suppressed , occurs immediately after the injury and resolves largely within three months but continues resolving gradually for another 15 .
Sexual dysfunction after spinal injury is common . Problems that can occur include erectile dysfunction , loss of ability to ejaculate , insufficient lubrication of the vagina , and reduced sensation and impaired ability to orgasm . Although sexual dysfunction is very common after SCI , many people learn ways to adapt their sexual practices so they can lead satisfying sex lives .
Although life expectancy has improved with better care options , it is still not as good as the uninjured population . The higher the level of injury , and the more complete the injury , the greater the reduction in life expectancy . Mortality is very elevated within a year of injury .
= = Complications = =
Complications of spinal cord injuries include pulmonary edema , respiratory failure , neurogenic shock , and paralysis below the injury site . In the long term , the loss of muscle function can have additional effects from disuse , including atrophy of the muscle . Immobility can lead to pressure sores , particularly in bony areas , requiring precautions such as extra cushioning and turning in bed every two hours ( in the acute setting ) to relieve pressure . In the long term , people in wheelchairs must shift periodically to relieve pressure . Another complication is pain , including nociceptive pain ( indication of potential or actual tissue damage ) and neuropathic pain , when nerves affected by damage convey erroneous pain signals in the absence of noxious stimuli . Spasticity , the uncontrollable tensing of muscles below the level of injury , occurs in 65 – 78 % of chronic SCI . It results from lack of input from the brain that quells muscle responses to stretch reflexes . It can be treated with drugs and physical therapy . Spasticity increases the risk of contractures ( shortening of muscles , tendons , or ligaments that result from lack of use of a limb ) ; this problem can be prevented by moving the limb through its full range of motion multiple times a day . Another problem lack of mobility can cause is loss of bone density and changes in bone structure . Loss of bone density ( bone demineralization ) , thought to be due to lack of input from weakened or paralysed muscles , can increase the risk of fractures . Conversely , a poorly understood phenomenon is the overgrowth of bone tissue in soft tissue areas , called heterotopic ossification . It occurs below the level of injury , possibly as a result of inflammation , and happens to a clinically significant extent in 27 % of people .
People with SCI are at especially high risk for respiratory and cardiovascular problems , so hospital staff must be watchful to avoid them . Respiratory problems ( especially pneumonia ) are the leading cause of death in people with SCI , followed by infections , usually of pressure sores , urinary tract infections and respiratory infections . Pneumonia can be accompanied by shortness of breath , fever , and anxiety .
Another potentially deadly threat to respiration is deep venous thrombosis ( DVT ) , in which blood forms a clot in immobile limbs ; the clot can break off and form a pulmonary embolism , lodging in the lung and cutting off blood supply to it . DVT is an especially high risk in SCI , particularly within 10 days of injury , occurring in over 13 % in the acute care setting . Preventative measures include anticoagulants , pressure hose , and moving the patient 's limbs . The usual signs and symptoms of DVT and pulmonary embolism may be masked in SCI cases due to effects such as alterations in pain perception and nervous system functioning .
Urinary tract infection ( UTI ) is another risk that may not display the usual symptoms ( pain , urgency and frequency ) ; it may instead be associated with worsened spasticity . The risk of UTI , likely the most common complication in the long term , is heightened by use of indwelling urinary catheters . Catheterization may be necessary because SCI interferes with the bladder 's ability to empty when it gets too full , which could trigger autonomic dysreflexia or damage the bladder permanently . The use of intermittent catheterization to empty the bladder at regular intervals throughout the day has decreased the mortality due to kidney failure from UTI in the first world , but it is still a serious problem in developing countries .
An estimated 24 – 45 % of people with SCI suffer disorders of depression , and the suicide rate is as much as six times that of the rest of the population . The risk of suicide is worst in the first five years after injury . In young people with SCI , suicide is the leading cause of death . Depression is associated with an increased risk of other complications such as UTI and pressure ulcers that occur more when self @-@ care is neglected .
= = Epidemiology = =
Worldwide , the incidence ( number of new cases ) since 1995 of SCI ranges from 10 @.@ 4 to 83 people per million per year . This wide range of numbers is probably partly due to differences among regions in whether and how injuries are reported . In North America , about 39 people per every million incur SCI traumatically each year , and in Western Europe the incidence is 16 per million . In the United States , the incidence of spinal cord injury has been estimated to be about 40 cases per 1 million people per year or around 12 @,@ 000 cases per year . In China , the incidence is approximately 60 @,@ 000 per year . The estimated prevalence ( number of people living with SCI ) in the world ranges from 236 to 4187 per million . Estimates vary widely due to differences in how data are collected and what techniques are used to extrapolate the figures . Little information is available from Asia , and even less from Africa and South America . In Western Europe the estimated prevalence is 300 per million people and in North America it is 853 per million . It is estimated at 440 per million in Iran , 526 per million in Iceland , and 681 per million in Australia . In the United States there are between 225 @,@ 000 and 296 @,@ 000 individuals living with spinal cord injuries , and different studies have estimated prevalences from 525 to 906 per million .
SCI is present in about 2 % of all cases of blunt force trauma . Anyone who has undergone force sufficient to cause a thoracic spinal injury is at high risk for other injuries also . In 44 % of SCI cases , other serious injuries are sustained at the same time ; 14 % of SCI patients also suffer head trauma or facial trauma . Other commonly associated injuries include chest trauma , abdominal trauma , pelvic fractures , and long bone fractures .
Males account for four out of five traumatic spinal cord injuries . Most of these injuries occur in men under 30 years of age . The average age at the time of injury has slowly increased from about 29 years in the 1970s to 41 . Rates of injury are at their lowest in children , at their highest in the late teens to early twenties , then get progressively lower in older age groups ; however rates may rise in the elderly . In Sweden between 50 and 70 % of all cases of SCI occur in people under 30 , and 25 % occur in those over 50 . While SCI rates are highest among people age 15 – 20 , fewer than 3 % of SCIs occur in people under 15 . Neonatal SCI occurs in one in 60 @,@ 000 births , e.g. from breach births or injuries by forceps . The difference in rates between the sexes diminishes in injuries at age 3 and younger ; the same number of girls are injured as boys , or possibly more . Another cause of pediatric injury is child abuse such as shaken baby syndrome . For children , the most common cause of SCI ( 56 % ) is vehicle crashes . High numbers of adolescent injuries are attributable in a large part to traffic accidents and sports injuries . For people over 65 , falls are the most common cause of traumatic SCI . The elderly and people with severe arthritis are at high risk for SCI because of defects in the spinal column . In nontraumatic SCI , the gender difference is smaller , the average age of occurrence is greater , and incomplete lesions are more common .
= = History = =
SCI has been known to be devastating for millennia ; the ancient Egyptian Edwin Smith Papyrus from 2500 BC , the first known description of the injury , says it is " not to be treated " . Hindu texts dating back to 1800 BC also mention SCI and describe traction techniques to straighten the spine . The Greek physician Hippocrates , born in the fifth century BC , described SCI in his Hippocratic Corpus and invented traction devices to straighten dislocated vertebrae . But it was not until Aulus Cornelius Celsus , born 30 BC , noted that a cervical injury resulted in rapid death that the spinal cord itself was implicated in the condition . In the second century AD the Greek physician Galen experimented on monkeys and reported that a horizontal cut through the spinal cord caused them to lose all sensation and motion below the level of the cut . The seventh @-@ century Greek physician Paul of Aegina described surgical techniques for treatment of broken vertebrae by removing bone fragments , as well as surgery to relieve pressure on the spine . Little medical progress was made during the Middle Ages in Europe ; it was not until the Renaissance that the spine and nerves were accurately depicted in human anatomy drawings by Leonardo da Vinci and Andreas Vesalius .
In 1762 a surgeon named Andre Louis removed a bullet from the lumbar spine of a patient , who regained motion in the legs . In 1829 the surgeon Gilpin Smith performed a successful laminectomy that improved the patient 's sensation . However , the idea that SCI was untreatable remained predominant until the early 20th century . In 1934 , the mortality rate in the first two years after injury was over 80 % , mostly due to infections of the urinary tract and pressure sores . It was not until the latter half of the century that breakthroughs in imaging , surgery , medical care , and rehabilitation medicine contributed to a substantial improvement in SCI care . The relative incidence of incomplete compared to complete injuries has improved since the mid @-@ 20th century , due mainly to the emphasis on faster and better initial care and stabilization of spinal cord injury patients . The creation of emergency medical services to professionally transport people to the hospital is given partial credit for an improvement in outcomes since the 1970s . Improvements in care have been accompanied by increased life expectancy of people with SCI ; survival times have improved by about 2000 % since 1940 .
= = Research directions = =
Scientists are investigating various avenues for treatment of spinal cord injury . Therapeutic research is focused on two main areas : neuroprotection and neuroregeneration . The former seeks to prevent the harm that occurs from secondary injury in the minutes to weeks following the insult , and the latter aims to reconnect the broken circuits in the spinal cord to allow function to return . Neuroprotective drugs target secondary injury effects including inflammation , damage by free radicals , excitotoxicity ( neuronal damage by excessive glutamate signaling ) , and apoptosis ( cell suicide ) . Several potentially neuroprotective agents that target pathways like these are under investigation in human clinical trials .
Cell transplantation is an important avenue for SCI research : the goal is to replace lost spinal cord cells , allow reconnection in broken neural circuits by regrowing axons , and to create an environment in the tissues that is favorable to growth . A key avenue of SCI research is research on stem cells , which can differentiate into other types of cells — including those lost after SCI . Types of cells being researched for use in SCI include embryonic stem cells , neural stem cells , mesenchymal stem cells , olfactory ensheathing cells , Schwann cells , activated macrophages , and induced pluripotent stem cells . Hundreds of stem cell studies have been done in humans , with promising but inconclusive results .
Another type of approach is tissue engineering , using biomaterials to help scaffold and rebuild damaged tissues . Biomaterials being investigated include natural substances such as collagen or agarose and synthetic ones like polymers and nitrocellulose . They fall into two categories : hydrogels and nanofibers . These materials can also be used as a vehicle for delivering gene therapy to tissues .
One avenue being explored to allow paralyzed people to walk and to aid in rehabilitation of those with some walking ability is the use of wearable powered robotic exoskeletons . The devices , which have motorized joints , are put on over the legs and supply a source of power to move and walk . Several such devices are already available for sale , but investigation is still underway as to how they can be made more useful .
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= Bill Newton =
William Ellis ( Bill ) Newton , VC ( 8 June 1919 – 29 March 1943 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to a member of the British and Commonwealth armed forces . He was honoured for his actions as a bomber pilot in Papua New Guinea during March 1943 when , despite intense anti @-@ aircraft fire , he pressed home a series of attacks on the Salamaua Isthmus , the last of which saw him forced to ditch his aircraft in the sea . Newton was still officially posted as missing when the award was made in October 1943 . It later emerged that he had been taken captive by the Japanese , and executed by beheading on 29 March .
Raised in Melbourne , Newton excelled at sport , playing cricket at youth state level . He joined the Citizen Military Forces in 1938 , and enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in February 1940 . Described as having the dash of " an Errol Flynn or a Keith Miller " , Newton served as a flying instructor in Australia before being posted to No. 22 Squadron , which began operating Boston light bombers in New Guinea late in 1942 . Having just taken part in the Battle of the Bismarck Sea , he was on his fifty @-@ second mission when he was shot down and captured . Newton was the only Australian airman to receive a Victoria Cross for action in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II , and the sole Australian to be so decorated while flying with an RAAF squadron .
= = Family , education and sport = =
Born in the Melbourne suburb of St Kilda on 8 June 1919 , Bill Newton was the youngest child of dentist Charles Ellis Newton and his second wife Minnie . His three older half @-@ siblings from Charles ' earlier marriage included two brothers , John and Lindsay , and a sister , Phyllis . Bill entered Melbourne Grammar School in 1929 , but two years later switched to the nearby St Kilda Park Central School as the family income was reduced through the impact of the Great Depression . In 1934 , aged fifteen , he was able to return to Melbourne Grammar where , despite struggling with his schoolwork , he completed his Intermediate certificate . He gave up further study when his father died suddenly of a heart attack at the age of fifty @-@ one , and began working in a silk warehouse .
Considered while at school to be a future leader in the community , Newton was also a talented all @-@ round sportsman , playing cricket , Australian rules football , golf and water polo . A fast bowler in cricket , he was friends with Keith Miller , and collected the Victorian Cricket Association ( VCA ) Colts bowling trophy for 1937 – 38 , while Miller collected the equivalent batting prize . In January 1938 , Newton dismissed Test batsman Bill Ponsford — still the only Australian to twice score 400 in a first @-@ class innings — for four in a Colts game at the Melbourne Cricket Ground . The following year , he gained selection in the Victorian Second XI . He opened the bowling against the New South Wales Second XI — his first and only match — taking a total of 3 / 113 including the wickets of Ron Saggers and Arthur Morris who , like Miller , went on to become members of the Invincibles .
= = Early career = =
Newton had been a sergeant in his cadet corps at school , and joined the Citizens Military Force on 28 November 1938 , serving as a private in the machine @-@ gun section of the 6th Battalion , Royal Melbourne Regiment . Still employed in the silk warehouse when World War II broke out in September 1939 , he resigned to join the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) on 5 February 1940 . He had earlier attempted to enlist when he turned eighteen in 1937 , but his mother refused to give her permission ; with Australia now at war , she acquiesced . His brothers — dentists by profession , like their father — also enlisted in the armed forces , John as a surgeon lieutenant in the Royal Australian Navy and Lindsay as a captain in the Army Medical Corps .
Newton undertook his initial training with No. 1 Elementary Flying Training School in Parafield , South Australia , flying De Havilland Tiger Moths , and with No. 21 ( City of Melbourne ) Squadron at RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , flying CAC Wirraways . He was awarded his wings and commissioned as a pilot officer on 28 June 1940 . Following advanced training on Avro Ansons with No. 1 Service Flying Training School at RAAF Point Cook in September , he was selected to become a flight instructor . He completed the requisite course at Central Flying School in Camden , New South Wales , and was promoted to flying officer on 28 December . He subsequently began training students under the Empire Air Training Scheme at No. 2 Service Flying Training School near Wagga Wagga , under the command of Group Captain Frederick Scherger .
In October 1941 , Newton transferred to No. 5 Service Flying Training School at Uranquinty . He found instruction frustrating , as he longed for a combat assignment . His fortunes changed in February 1942 , when he was selected for the navigation course on Ansons at the General Reconnaissance School based at Laverton . From there he was sent to No. 1 Operational Training Unit at Sale , Victoria , for conversion to Lockheed Hudson twin @-@ engined light bombers during March and April .
Promoted to flight lieutenant on 1 April 1942 , Newton was posted the following month to No. 22 ( City of Sydney ) Squadron , based at RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales . Previously equipped with Hudsons , the unit had just begun converting to the more advanced Douglas Boston when Newton arrived . A comrade described him as a " big brash , likeable man who could drink most of us under the table , was a good pilot , good at sports , and had a way with girls " . No. 22 Squadron was engaged in convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine patrols off Sydney from July to September , before moving north to Townsville , Queensland . In November , it was deployed to Port Moresby in Papua New Guinea , under the control of No. 9 Operational Group RAAF .
= = New Guinea campaign = =
Newton undertook the first of his fifty @-@ two operational sorties on 1 January 1943 , under the leadership of his commanding officer , Squadron Leader Keith Hampshire . During February , Newton flew low @-@ level missions through monsoon conditions and hazardous mountain terrain , attacking Japanese forces ranged against Allied troops in the Morobe province . In early March , he took part in the Battle of the Bismarck Sea , one of the key engagements in the South West Pacific theatre , bombing and strafing Lae airfield to prevent its force of enemy fighters taking off to intercept Allied aircraft attacking the Japanese fleet . Newton gained a reputation for driving straight at his targets without evasive manoeuvre , and always leaving them in flames ; this earned him the nickname " The Firebug " . The Japanese gunners , however , reportedly knew him as " Blue Cap " , from his habit of wearing an old blue cricket cap on operations . In spite of the hazards of the air war in New Guinea , he was quoted as saying , " The troops on the ground should get two medals each , before any airman gets one " .
= = = Attacks on Salamaua = = =
On 16 March 1943 , Newton led a sortie on the Salamaua Isthmus in which his Boston was hit repeatedly by Japanese anti @-@ aircraft fire , damaging fuselage , wings , fuel tanks and undercarriage . In spite of this he continued his attack and dropped his bombs at low level on buildings , ammunition dumps and fuel stores , returning for a second pass at the target in order to strafe it with machine @-@ gun fire . Newton managed to get his crippled machine back to base , where it was found to be marked with ninety @-@ eight bullet holes . Two days later , he and his two @-@ man crew made a further attack on Salamaua with five other Bostons . As he bombed his designated target , Newton 's plane was seen to burst into flames , raked by cannon fire from the ground . Attempting to keep his aircraft aloft as long as possible to get his crew away from enemy lines , he was able to ditch in the sea approximately 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) offshore .
The Boston 's navigator , Sergeant Basil Eastwood , was killed in the forced landing but Newton and his wireless operator , Flight Sergeant John Lyon , survived and managed to swim ashore . Several of the other aircraft in the flight circled the area ; one returned to base straight away to inform Hampshire , and the remainder were later forced to depart through lack of fuel . Newton and Lyon originally made their way inland with the help of natives , aiming to contact an Australian Coastwatcher , but subsequently returned to the coast . There they were captured by a Japanese patrol of No. 5 Special Naval Landing Force . The two airmen were taken to Salamaua and interrogated until 20 March , before being moved to Lae where Lyon was bayoneted to death on the orders of Rear Admiral Ruitaro Fujita , the senior Japanese commander in the area . Newton was brought back to Salamaua where , on 29 March 1943 , he was ceremonially beheaded with a Samurai sword by Sub @-@ Lieutenant Uichi Komai , the naval officer who had captured him . Komai was killed in the Philippines soon after , and Fujita committed suicide at the end of the war .
= = = Revelations and reactions = = =
It was initially believed that Newton had failed to escape from the Boston after it ditched into the sea , and he was posted as missing . Squadron Leader Hampshire had immediately dispatched a sortie to recover the pair that were last seen swimming for shore , but no sign of them was found . Two weeks later , he wrote a letter to Newton 's mother in which he described her son 's courage and expressed the hope that he might yet be found alive . Hampshire concluded , " Bill is one of those rare fellows I shall miss for a long time , and if it is to be , remember for an age " . The details of his capture and execution were only revealed later that year in a diary found on a Japanese soldier . Newton was not specifically named , but circumstantial evidence clearly identified him , as the diary entry recorded the beheading of an Australian flight lieutenant who had been shot down by anti @-@ aircraft fire on 18 March 1943 while flying a Douglas aircraft . The Japanese observer described the prisoner as " composed " in the face of his impending execution , and " unshaken to the last " . After the decapitation , a seaman slashed open the dead man 's stomach , declaring " Something for the other day . Take that . "
General Headquarters South West Pacific Area , while releasing details of the execution on 5 October , initially refused to name Newton . Aside from the lack of absolute certainty as to identification , Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock , Air Officer Commanding RAAF Command , contended that naming him would change the impact of the news upon Newton 's fellow No. 22 Squadron members " from the impersonal to the closely personal " and hence " seriously affect morale " . News of the atrocity provoked shock in Australia . In an attempt to alleviate anxiety among the families of other missing airmen , the Federal government announced on 12 October that the relatives of the slain man had been informed of his death .
= = = Victoria Cross = = =
Newton was awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions on 16 – 18 March , becoming the only Australian airman to earn the decoration in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II , and the only one while flying with an RAAF squadron . The citation , which incorrectly implied that he was shot down on 17 March rather than the following day , and as having failed to escape from his sinking aircraft , was promulgated in the London Gazette on 19 October 1943 :
Air Ministry , 19th October , 1943 .
The KING has been graciously pleased , on the advice of Australian Ministers , to confer the VICTORIA CROSS on the undermentioned officer in recognition of most conspicuous bravery : —
Flight Lieutenant William Ellis NEWTON ( Aus . 748 ) , Royal Australian Air Force , No. 22 ( R.A.A.F. ) Squadron ( missing ) .
Flight Lieutenant Newton served with No. 22 Squadron , Royal Australian Air Force , in New Guinea from May , 1942 , to March , 1943 , and completed 52 operational sorties .
Throughout , he displayed great courage and an iron determination to inflict the utmost damage on the enemy . His splendid offensive flying and fighting were attended with brilliant success . Disdaining evasive tactics when under the heaviest fire , he always went straight to his objectives . He carried out many daring machine @-@ gun attacks on enemy positions involving low @-@ flying over long distances in the face of continuous fire at point @-@ blank range .
On three occasions , he dived through intense anti @-@ aircraft fire to release his bombs on important targets on the Salamaua Isthmus . On one of these occasions , his starboard engine failed over the target , but he succeeded in flying back to an airfield 160 miles away . When leading an attack on an objective on 16th March , 1943 , he dived through intense and accurate shell fire and his aircraft was hit repeatedly . Nevertheless , he held to his course and bombed his target from a low level . The attack resulted in the destruction of many buildings and dumps , including two 40 @,@ 000 @-@ gallon fuel installations . Although his aircraft was crippled , with fuselage and wing sections torn , petrol tanks pierced , main @-@ planes and engines seriously damaged , and one of the main tyres flat , Flight Lieutenant Newton managed to fly it back to base and make a successful landing .
Despite this harassing experience , he returned next day to the same locality . His target , this time a single building , was even more difficult but he again attacked with his usual courage and resolution , flying a steady course through a barrage of fire . He scored a hit on the building but at the same moment his aircraft burst into flames .
Flight Lieutenant Newton maintained control and calmly turned his aircraft away and flew along the shore . He saw it as his duty to keep the aircraft in the air as long as he could so as to take his crew as far away as possible from the enemy 's positions . With great skill , he brought his blazing aircraft down on the water . Two members of the crew were able to extricate themselves and were seen swimming to the shore , but the gallant pilot is missing . According to other air crews who witnessed the occurrence , his escape @-@ hatch was not opened and his dinghy was not inflated . Without regard to his own safety , he had done all that man could do to prevent his crew from falling into enemy hands .
Flight Lieutenant Newton 's many examples of conspicuous bravery have rarely been equalled and will serve as a shining inspiration to all who follow him .
= = Legacy = =
Buried initially in an unmarked bomb crater in Salamaua , Newton 's body was recovered and re @-@ interred in Lae War Cemetery after Salamaua 's capture by Allied troops in September 1943 . In early 1944 , the recently constructed No. 4 Airfield in Nadzab was renamed Newton Field in his honour . For many years , the story of Newton 's death was intertwined with that of an Australian commando , Sergeant Len Siffleet , who had also been captured in New Guinea . A famous photograph showing Siffleet about to be executed with a katana was discovered by American troops in April 1944 and was thought to have depicted Newton in Salamaua . However , no photograph of the airman 's execution is known to exist .
Newton 's mother Minnie was presented with her son 's Victoria Cross by the Governor @-@ General , the Duke of Gloucester , on 30 November 1945 . She donated it to the Australian War Memorial , Canberra , where it remains on display with his other medals . Newton is also commemorated on Canberra 's Remembrance Driveway . In the 1990s , his friend Keith Miller successfully fought to ensure that the Victoria Racing Club abandoned a plan to rename the William Ellis Newton Steeplechase — run on Anzac Day — after a commercial sponsor . Later in the decade , Miller also publicly questioned Australia Post 's exclusion of Newton from a series of stamps featuring notable Australians such as cricketer Sir Donald Bradman . A plaque dedicated to No. 22 Squadron was unveiled at the Australian War Memorial by the Chief of Air Force , Air Marshal Angus Houston , on 16 March 2003 , the sixtieth anniversary of Newton 's attack on Salamaua .
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