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= Hispanics in the United States Navy =
Hispanics in the United States Navy can trace their tradition of naval military service to men such as Lieutenant Jordi Farragut Mesquida , who served in the American Revolution . Hispanics , such as Seaman Philip Bazaar and Seaman John Ortega , have distinguished themselves in combat and have been awarded the Medal of Honor , the highest military decoration of the United States . Hispanics have also reached the top ranks of the Navy , serving their country in sensitive leadership positions on domestic and foreign shores . Among those who have reached the highest ranks in the Navy are Commodore Uriah Phillips Levy , of Sephardic and Ashkenazic Jewish descent , who participated in the War of 1812 as an assistant Sailing master ; Admiral David Glasgow Farragut , for whom the rank of Admiral in the U.S. Navy was created during the American Civil War ; and Admiral Horacio Rivero , who led the Navy during the Cuban Missile Crisis .
Hispanic is an ethnic term employed to categorize any citizen or resident of the United States , of any racial background , of any country , and of any religion , who has at least one ancestor from the people of Spain or is of non @-@ Hispanic origin , but has an ancestor from Mexico , Puerto Rico , Cuba , Central or South America , or some other Hispanic origin . The three largest Hispanic groups in the United States are the Mexican @-@ Americans , Puerto Ricans , and Cubans .
According to the U.S. Census Bureau the estimated Hispanic population of the United States is over 50 million , or 16 % of the U.S. population , and Hispanics are the nation 's largest ethnic or racial minority . The 2010 U.S. Census estimate of over 50 million Hispanics in the U.S. does not include the 3 @.@ 9 million residents of Puerto Rico .
More than 43 @,@ 000 people of Hispanic origin are sailors and civilians serving with the U.S. Navy .
The United States Navy has implemented aggressive recruitment programs directed towards this group . One of those programs is El Navy , whose principal aim is to attract those who speak Spanish . It has resulted in increased recruitment of Hispanics for entrance to the United States Naval Academy . As of April 2007 , thirteen Hispanic Americans who were graduates of the USNA , and nine who were commissioned after attending the Navy 's officer candidate school , have reached the rank of Rear Admiral and above .
= = American Revolution and the War of 1812 = =
The United States Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy , which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was disbanded shortly thereafter . The United States Constitution provided the legal basis for a seaborne military force by giving Congress the power " to provide and maintain a navy . " Attacks against American shipping by Barbary Coast corsairs spurred Congress to employ this power by passing the Naval Act of 1794 ordering the construction and manning of six frigates .
Lieutenant Jordi Farragut Mesquida , ( 1755 – 1817 ) was a Spanish – Catalan by descent and a Minorquin by birth . He immigrated to the American colonies and participated in the American Revolution as a lieutenant in the South Carolina Navy . During the Revolution , he fought the British at Savannah , Georgia , and in 1780 was captured during the battle of Charleston , South Carolina . He was released in a prisoner exchange and volunteered in the militia which fought at the Battle of Cowpens and Wilmington , North Carolina . Farragut Mesquida married Elizabeth Shine and had two sons , one of them was David Farragut .
Commodore Uriah Phillips Levy ( 1792 – 1862 ) , a Sephardic Jew whose ancestors were from Portugal , born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . He was the great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Dr. Samuel Nunez , the leader of the first Jewish colonists who helped found Savannah , Georgia . Levy was assigned sailing master on the USS Argus , which interdicted English ships in the English Channel during the War of 1812 . The ship confiscated more than twenty vessels , but was captured in 1813 and Levy and rest of the crew were taken prisoner until the end of the war .
Upon his return to the United States , Levy served as the sailing master on the 74 @-@ gun ship USS Franklin and in 1817 was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant . He was promoted to the rank of master commandant in 1837 , and the rank of captain in 1844 . In 1855 , Levy was given the courtesy title of commodore , in recognition of his superior abilities , making him one of the Navy 's highest @-@ ranking officers and the first Sephardic Jew of Hispanic descent to reach the rank , which at the time was the highest rank in the U.S. Navy .
= = American Civil War = =
= = = Union Navy = = =
During the American Civil War , the government of the United States recognized that the rapidly expanding Union Navy was in need of admirals . Therefore , on July 16 , 1862 Congress proceeded to authorize the appointment of nine officers to the rank of rear admiral , making Flag Officer David Glasgow Farragut the first Hispanic @-@ American to be appointed said grade .
David Glasgow Farragut ( 1801 – 1870 ) was born on at Campbell 's Station , near Knoxville , Tennessee , to Jordi and Elizabeth Farragut . After Farragut 's mother died from yellow fever in his 1808 , his father gave him up for adoption , and he was adopted by future @-@ U.S. Navy Captain David Porter .
On December 17 , 1810 , Farragut entered the Navy as a midshipman aboard the USS Essex . He was 12 years old when , during the War of 1812 , he was given the assignment to bring a ship captured by the USS Essex , safely to port .
In April 1862 , Farragut was the " flag officer " in command of the West Gulf Blockading Squadron . With his flagship , the USS Hartford , he ran past Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip and the Chalmette , Louisiana , batteries to take the city and port of New Orleans , Louisiana . This victory was an influential factor when in 1862 , Congress created the rank of Admiral and named Farragut and eight other naval officers ( which also included his foster brother David Dixon Porter ) as rear admirals . Thus , Farragut became the first Hispanic @-@ American admiral in the United States Navy .
Farragut 's greatest victory was the Battle of Mobile Bay on August 5 , 1864 . Mobile , Alabama , at the time was the Confederacy 's last major port open on the Gulf of Mexico . The bay was heavily mined with tethered naval mines , also known as torpedoes . When the USS Tecumseh , one of the ships under his command , struck a mine and went down , Farragut shouted through a trumpet from his flagship to the USS Brooklyn , " What 's the trouble ? " " Torpedoes ! " was the reply , to which Farragut then shouted his now famous words " Damn the torpedoes ! Full speed ahead ! " The fleet succeeded in entering the bay . Farragut then triumphed over the opposition of heavy batteries in Fort Morgan and Fort Gaines to defeat the squadron of Admiral Franklin Buchanan . Farragut was promoted to vice admiral on December 21 , 1864 , and to full admiral on July 25 , 1866 , after the war , thereby becoming the first person to be named full admiral in the Navy 's history .
= = = Medal of Honor = = =
The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government . It is bestowed on a member of the United States armed forces who distinguishes himself " … conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States .
Seaman John Ortega ( born in 1840 in Spain ) , was a resident of Pennsylvania who joined the Union Navy in his adopted hometown in Pennsylvania . Ortega was assigned to the USS Saratoga during the Civil War . The USS Saratoga was ordered to proceed to Charleston , South Carolina , for duty in the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron . Ortega was a member of the landing parties from the ship who made several raids in August and September in 1864 , which resulted in the capture of many prisoners and the taking or destruction of substantial quantities of ordnance , ammunition , and supplies . A number of buildings , bridges , and salt works were destroyed during the expedition . For his actions Seaman John Ortega was awarded the Medal of Honor and promoted to acting master 's mate .
Seaman Philip Bazaar , born in Chile , South America , was a resident of Massachusetts , who joined the Union Navy at New Bedford . He was assigned to the USS Santiago de Cuba , a wooden , brigantine @-@ rigged , side @-@ wheel steamship under the command of Rear Admiral David D. Porter . In the latter part of 1864 , Union General Ulysses S. Grant ordered an assault on Fort Fisher , a Confederate stronghold. which protected the vital trading routes of Wilmington 's port , at North Carolina . On January 12 , 1865 , both ground and naval Union forces attempted a second land assault , after the failure of the first . During the land assault , Bazaar and 5 other crew members carried dispatches from Rear Admiral Porter to Major General Alfred Terry , while under heavy fire from the Confederates to Major General Alfred Terry . Bazaar was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions .
= = = Confederate States Navy = = =
Hispanics also fought for the Confederate States Navy . One such case was Captain Michael Philip Usina ( 1840 - 1903 ) . Usina was born in St. Augustine , Florida , to Spanish parents . As Captain of several blockade runners , Usina managed to avoid capture on his many successful missions . Usina fought in Co . B in the 8th Georgia Infantry of the Confederate Army before being transferred to the Navy . He was wounded and captured in the Battle of Manassas , but managed to escape and reach the Southern lines .
= = World War I = =
On April 6 , 1917 , the U.S. Congress declared war on Germany and officially entered World War I. At the time , soldiers and sailors with Spanish surnames or Spanish accents were sometimes the objects of ridicule and relegated to menial jobs . However , Hispanics continued to join the military and serve their nation .
Captain Robert F. Lopez retired from the Navy in 1911 . During World War I , he was recalled to active duty and given the rank of Commodore ( equivalent to a one star admiral rank , typically used during war time ) to command the Mare Island Naval Shipyard .
Luis de Florez graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) in 1911 before joining the Navy . During World War I he became a Naval Aviator . Commander de Flores is credited with numerous inventions which made better flight simulators and equipment for flight safety .
Lieutenant Frederick Lois Riefkohl ( 1889 – 1969 ) , a native of Maunabo , Puerto Rico , became the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the USNA , and served as Commander of the Armed Guard of the USS Philadelphia . On August 2 , 1917 , after engaging an enemy submarine , he was awarded the Navy Cross , the second highest medal that can be awarded by the U.S. Navy
George E. Fernandez a Water Tender ( a first @-@ class petty officer in charge in a fireroom ) aboard the USS Shaw was awarded the Navy Cross on October 9 , 1918 , after his actions aboard the USS Shaw on October 9 , 1918 , when the Shaw collided with the RMS Aquitania and was cut in two and set on fire . Fernandez threw the ammunition that was piled on the deck of the Shaw overboard , saving the lives of many of his fellow crewmen .
= = World War II = =
On December 7 , 1941 , when the Empire of Japan attacked the United States Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor , many sailors with Hispanic surnames were among those who perished . When the United States officially entered World War II , Hispanic Americans were among the many American citizens who joined the ranks of the Navy as volunteers or through the draft . Of the Hispanics who served actively in the European and Pacific Theatres of war , five would eventually earn the rank of Rear Admiral and above .
In 1941 , Commander Luis de Florez played an instrumental role in the establishment of the Special Devices Division of the Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics ( what would later become the NAWCTSD ) . He was later assigned as head of the new Special Devices Desk in the Engineering Division of the Navy ’ s Bureau of Aeronautics . De Florez , who has been credited with over sixty inventions , urged the Navy to undertake development of " synthetic training devices " to increase readiness . During World War II , he was promoted to Captain and in 1944 , to Rear Admiral .
= = = Pacific Theatre = = =
Admiral Horacio Rivero , Jr. served aboard the USS San Juan ( CL @-@ 54 ) and was involved in providing artillery cover for Marines landing on Guadalcanal , Marshall Islands , Iwo Jima , and Okinawa . For his service he was awarded the Bronze Star with Combat " V " ( " V " stands for valor in combat ) . Rivero was reassigned to the USS Pittsburgh ( CA @-@ 72 ) and is credited with saving his ship without a single life lost when the ship 's bow had been torn off during a typhoon . He was awarded the Legion of Merit for his actions . Rivero also participated in the Battle of Santa Cruz Islands , the attack on Bougainville in the Solomons , the capture of the Gilbert Islands and a series of carrier raids on Rabaul . On June 5 , 1945 , Rivero was present during the first carrier raids against Tokyo during operations in the vicinity of Nansei Shoto . Rivero , served as a technical assistant on the Staff of Commander Joint Task Force One for Operation Crossroads from February 1946 to June 1947 , and was on the Staff of Commander , Joint Task Force Seven during the atomic weapons tests in Eniwetok in 1948 .
Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl served as Captain of the USS Vincennes was assigned to the Fire Support Group , LOVE ( with Transport Group XRAY ) under the command of Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turner 's Task Force TARE ( Amphibious Force ) during the landing in the Solomon Islands on August 7 , 1942 . On August 9 , 1942 , the Vincennes was engaged in combat against a fleet of Japanese ships under the command of Japanese Admiral Mikawa just off Guadalcanal in what is known as the Battle of Savo Island and received 85 direct hits . Riefkohl , who was awarded the Purple Heart medal for the wounds which he received during the battle , ordered his men to abandon ship and to man the life rafts .
On February 23 , 1945 , Antonio F. Moreno witnessed the first flag raising photographed by Staff Sergeant Louis R. Lowery and the second flag raising photographed by Joe Rosenthal on Mount Suribachi . On March 8 , 1945 , Moreno , a Navy medical corpsman assigned to the 2d Platoon , Company E , 27th Marine Regiment , tried to save the life of Lt. Jack Lummus after Lummus had stepped on a land mine a few feet away from Moreno . Lt. Lummus was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor .
Rear Admiral Henry G. Sanchez commanded ( as a Lieutenant Commander ) VF @-@ 72 , an F4F squadron of 37 aircraft , on board the USS Hornet ( CV @-@ 8 ) from July to October 1942 . His squadron was responsible for shooting down 38 Japanese airplanes during his command tour , which included the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands .
Captain Marion Frederic Ramírez de Arellano ( 1913 – 1980 ) , who was the first Hispanic submarine commanding officer , participated in five war patrols . He led the effort to rescue five Navy pilots and one enlisted gunner off Wake Island , and contributed to the sinking of two Japanese freighters and damaging a third . For his actions , he was awarded a Silver Star Medal and a Legion of Merit Medal .
After a brief stint at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard , he was reassigned to the USS Skate , a Balao @-@ class submarine . He participated in the Skates first three war patrols and was awarded a second Silver Star Medal for his contribution in sinking the Japanese light cruiser Agano on his third patrol . The Agano had survived a previous torpedo attack by submarine USS Scamp .
In April 1944 , Ramirez de Arellano was named Commanding Officer of the USS Balao . He participated in his ship 's war patrols 5 , 6 and 7 . On July 5 , 1944 , Ramirez de Arellano led the rescue of three downed Navy pilots in the Palau area . On December 4 , 1944 , the Balao departed from Pearl Harbor to patrol in the Yellow Sea . The Balao engaged and sunk the Japanese cargo ship Daigo Maru on January 8 , 1945 . Ramirez de Arellano was awarded a Bronze Star Medal with Combat V and a Letter of Commendation .
Captain Charles Kenneth Ruiz was a crew member of the cruiser USS Vincennes ( CA @-@ 44 ) , during the Battle of Savo Island . After being rescued at sea and sent to Pearl Harbor , he was invited by Admiral Chester Nimitz to join the Submarine Service . He served aboard the submarine USS Pollack and participated in eight war patrols in the hostile waters of the Pacific during World War II .
= = = European Theatre = = =
Rear Admiral Edmund Ernest García was the commander of the destroyer escort USS Sloat and saw action in the invasions of Africa , Sicily , and France . The USS Sloat ( DE @-@ 245 ) was an Edsall @-@ class destroyer escort which was launched on January 21 , 1943 , and commissioned on August 16 , 1943 , under the command of then Lieutenant Commander Garcia . From June 15 to July 15 , the Sloat operated in the Caribbean and Atlantic Ocean in search of German U @-@ boats .
Rear Admiral Jose M. Cabanillas , was assigned Executive Officer of the USS Texas ( BB @-@ 35 ) . On November 8 , the Texas participated in the invasion of North Africa by destroying an ammunition dump near Port Lyautey . Cabanillas also participated in the invasion of Normandy on ( D @-@ Day ) . On June 6 , 1944 , the ship 's secondary battery went to work on another target on the western end of " Omaha " beach .
In 1945 , Cabanillas became the first Commanding officer of the USS Grundy ( APA @-@ 111 ) , which was commissioned on January 3 , 1945 . The Grundy helped in the evacuation of Americans from China during the Chinese Civil War . In December 1945 , he was reassigned to Naval Station Norfolk located in Norfolk , Virginia , as Assistant Chief of Staff ( Discipline ) , 5th Naval District .
Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benítez was a Lieutenant Commander who saw action aboard submarines and on various occasions weathered depth charge attacks . For his actions , he was awarded the Silver and Bronze Star Medals .
Lieutenant Edward Hidalgo was born in Mexico City . After immigrating to the United States , he joined and served in the U.S. Naval Reserve . In this capacity he held several positions . From 1942 to 1943 he served in Montevideo , Uruguay , as a legal advisor to the ambassador to the Emergency Advisory for Political Defense . For the remainder of the war he was assigned to the carrier USS Enterprise as an air combat intelligence officer and was awarded a Bronze Star Medal for his service . In October 1979 , Hidalgo became the first Hispanic to serve as U.S. Secretary of the Navy .
Of the 2 @,@ 889 Navy Crosses which were awarded to the members of the Navy during World War II , two were awarded to Hispanic sailors : Elguterio Joe Marquez , Pharmacist 's Mate Third Class and Lieutenant Eugene Anthony Valencia , both from San Francisco , California .
= = = The " WAVES " = = =
Prior to World War II , traditional Hispanic cultural values expected women to be homemakers and they rarely left the home to earn an income and were discouraged from joining the military . However , with the outbreak of World War II , cultural prohibitions began to change . With the creation of the Women 's Army Auxiliary Corps ( WAAC ) , predecessor of the Women 's Army Corps ( WAC ) , and the U.S. Navy Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service ( WAVES ) , women could attend to certain administrative duties left open by the men who were reassigned to combat zones . While most women who served in the military joined the WAACs , a smaller number of women served in the Naval Women 's Reserve ( the WAVES ) .
Maria Menefee , was born in Guadalajara , Mexico , she joined the WAVES in 1944 and was assigned to Bronson Field , Florida . Lieutenant Junior Grade ( LTJG ) Maria Rodriguez Denton was the first woman of Puerto Rican descent who became an officer in the United States Navy as member of the WAVES . The Navy assigned LTJG . Denton as a library assistant at the Cable and Censorship Office in New York City . It was LTJG . Denton who forwarded the news ( through channels ) to President Harry S. Truman that the war had ended .
= = Cold War Era = =
The " Cold War " was the period of conflict , tension and competition between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies from the mid @-@ 1940s until the early 1990s . Throughout the period , the rivalry between the two superpowers was played out in multiple arenas : military coalitions ; military ; costly defense spending ; a massive conventional and nuclear arms race ; and many proxy wars .
= = = The Cochino incident = = =
During the latter part of 1949 , Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benítez was given the command of the submarine USS Cochino . On August 12 , 1949 , the Cochino , along with the USS Tusk , departed from the harbor of Portsmouth , England . Both diesel submarines were reported to be on a cold @-@ water training mission . However , the submarines were equipped with snorkels that allowed them to spend long periods underwater , largely invisible to an enemy , and with electronic gear designed to detect far @-@ off radio signals – were part of an American intelligence operation .
The mission of the Cochino and Tusk was to eavesdrop on communications that revealed the testing of submarine @-@ launched Soviet missiles that might soon carry nuclear warheads . This was the first American undersea spy mission of the cold war .
On August 25 , one the Cochino 's 4 @,@ 000 @-@ pound batteries caught fire , emitting hydrogen gas and smoke . Unable to receive any help from the Tusk , Commander Benitez directed the firefighting . He ordered the Cochino to surface and had the crew members lash themselves to the deck rails with ropes while others fought the blaze . Benitez tried to save his ship and at the same time save his men from the toxic gases . He realized that the winds were about to tear the ropes and ordered his men to form a pyramid on the ship 's open bridge , which was designed to hold seven men .
The ocean waters became calmer during the night and the Tusk was able to approach the Cochino . All of the crew , with the exception of Commander Benitez and two of the crew who perished during the ordeal , boarded the Tusk . Finally , the crew members of the Tusk convinced Benitez to board the Tusk , which he did two minutes before the Cochino sank off the coast of Norway .
In 1952 , Benitez was named chief of the United States naval mission to Cuba , a position which he held until 1954 . In 1955 , Rear Admiral Benitez was given the command of the destroyer USS Waldron . The Waldron resumed normal operations along the east coast and in the West Indies under his command after having completed a circumnavigation of the globe . Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benítez was the recipient of two Silver Star Medals .
= = = Korean War = = =
The Korean War was an escalation of a civil war between two rival Korean regimes , each of which was supported by external powers , with each of the regimes trying to topple the other through political and guerrilla tactics . The conflict was expanded by the United States and the Soviet Union 's involvement as part of the larger Cold War . The main hostilities were during the period from June 25 , 1950 , until the armistice ( ceasefire agreement ) was signed on July 27 , 1953 .
In August 1950 , the USS Noble , under the command of Admiral Horacio Rivero , Jr . , steamed to Korea to participate in the September Inchon amphibious assault . Rivero 's ship assisted in the transport of U.S. and foreign troops and equipment to and from the Korean combat zone . In July 1953 , the ship participated in Operation Big Switch , moving Communist North Korean prisoners from Koje Do to Inchon pursuant to the armistice agreement . Rivero studied at the National War College and in 1954 he became Assistant Chief of Staff for Naval Operations . In 1955 , he was promoted to the rank of Rear Admiral and was a member of the Staff of the Commander in Chief , Western Atlantic Area .
Of the 46 Navy Crosses awarded by the Navy during the Korean War , one went to a Hispanic sailor , Robert Serrano , a Hospital Corpsman from El Paso , Texas .
On September 12 , 1951 , Medical Corpsman Serrano was serving with the 3rd Battalion , Seventh Marines , 1st Marine Division ( Reinforced ) , in Korea . The Battalion came under heavy enemy attack and fearlessly dashed through the heavy enemy fire to reach a wounded Marine , he accidentally tripped the wire of a hidden anti @-@ personnel mine . Hearing the snap of the fuse primer , and realizing that his wounded comrade lay helpless beside the deadly explosive , he courageously and with complete disregard for his own personal safety threw himself on the man to shield him from the explosion . Although he was seriously wounded in the back and legs by fragments , and was blown several feet by the concussion , he crawled back to his comrade and administered first aid to him . Although suffering severe pain from his multiple wounds , he refused to seek medical aid for himself until he had completed treatment of his comrade , and then , refusing a stretcher , crawled part of the way to the aid station .
= = = Cuban Missile Crisis = = =
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba . On October 22 , 1962 , Admiral Horacio Rivero was the commander of the American fleet sent by President John F. Kennedy to set up a quarantine ( blockade ) of the Soviet ships . On October 28 , Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev ordered the removal of the Soviet missiles in Cuba , and Kennedy ordered an end of the quarantine of Cuba on November 20 , bringing an end to the crisis .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
The Vietnam War , was a conflict between the Democratic Republic of Vietnam ( DRVN , or North Vietnam ) and the Republic of Vietnam ( RVN , or South Vietnam ) , which eventually involved their respective allies including the United States .
On July 31 , 1964 , Horacio Rivero became the first Puerto Rican , and first Hispanic to become a four @-@ star Admiral in the modern era US Navy . During the Vietnam War , Rivero oversaw the day @-@ to @-@ day work of the Navy as the Vice Chief of Naval Operations . He was a stern supporter of a " brown @-@ water navy " , or riverine force , on the rivers of South Vietnam .
In 1964 , Lieutenant Commander Benjamin F. Montoya was deployed to Guam with the Naval Mobile Construction Battalion Three . He led an advance party in Vietnam to supervise the construction of the first base camp built by SeaBees in Da Nang . He returned in 1966 to Chu Lai , and was responsible for the construction of a base camp , supply point , hospital and a Marine Corp helicopter base .
Lieutenant Commander Everett Alvarez Jr. endured one of the longest periods as a prisoner of war ( POW ) in American history . The grandson of immigrants from Mexico , Alvarez joined the United States Navy in 1960 and was selected for pilot training . On August 5 , 1964 , during Operation Pierce Arrow , Ensign Alvarez 's A @-@ 4 Skyhawk was shot down over North Vietnam and became the first American POW of the Vietnam War . Alvarez endured eight years and seven months of brutal captivity in which he was repeatedly beaten and tortured . He was released from the prisoner of war camp in 1973 and retired as Commander in 1980 .
Captain Charles Kenneth Ruiz commanded the aircraft carrier USS Bon Homme Richard ( CV @-@ 31 ) in the Vietnam War . The Bon Homme Richard was sent to Vietnam as the war escalated in early 1965 . Ruiz , who commanded the aircraft carrier was deployed on five Southeast Asia combat tours over the next six years . Under Ruiz 's command , the Bon Homme Richard 's aircraft battled North Vietnamese MiGs ( supersonic jet fighter aircraft made in Russia ) on many occasions , downing several , as well as striking transportation and infrastructure targets . Ruiz was awarded the Bronze Star Medal with Combat V and other awards for service in Vietnam .
Hospitalman Third Class ( then Hospitalman ) Phil Isadore Valdez , from New Mexico , was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross for his actions on January 29 , 1967 . On that date Valdez ran over seventy @-@ five yards of open terrain , under constant enemy fire , to aid a fallen Marine . He then moved the wounded man to a safe area and , quickly and competently , rendered medical assistance . Again exposing himself to enemy fire , Valdez moved across approximately fifty yards of open ground to another Marine . While treating the second Marine , he positioned himself between the man and the hostile fire . It was at this time that Valdez was mortally wounded by enemy small @-@ arms fire .
Lieutenant Diego E. Hernández flew two combat tours in Vietnam during the war . He also served as Aide and Flag Lieutenant to Commander , Carrier Division 14 . At sea , he was the commander of a fighter squadron , a carrier air wing , and a fleet oiler ( the USS Truckee ) .
= = = NATO commander = = =
Admiral Horacio Rivero Jr . , was the North Atlantic Treaty Organization 's commander in chief of the Allied Forces in Southern Europe from 1968 until his retirement from the Navy in 1972 . He was responsible for the land , sea and air forces of five nations deployed in the Mediterranean area : Italy , Greece , Turkey , Britain and the United States . During his years as commander , some 215 @,@ 000 of the 310 @,@ 000 American troops in Europe were stationed in West Germany .
= = Latter part of the 20th Century = =
Latino representation in the Navy has been rising and there has been dramatic increases in the percentage of Latinos ( of both sexes ) among active duty enlisted personnel . In 1975 , Lieutenant Al Cisneros , became the first Hispanic pilot to serve with the Blue Angels . In 1981 , four women of Hispanic descent became the first women of their heritage from the U.S. Naval Academy . Among the four women was Commander Lilia L. Ramirez ( Ret . ) who is currently the Director of the International Programs Office , for the Department of Homeland Security , Science and Technology Directorate . By September 2006 , Hispanics constituted 14 percent of Navy enlisted personnel , about the same as in the Marine Corps that year . The various recruitment efforts do have critics , both within and outside the Hispanic community , particularly during this time of war and a growing number of reported Hispanic casualties .
= = = Skirmish with Libyan Air Force = = =
On June 27 , 1980 , Captain Diego E. Hernández took command of the aircraft carrier USS John F. Kennedy which is capable of anti @-@ submarine warfare ( ASW ) , making it an all @-@ purpose carrier . On September 19 , 1980 , Libyan Air Force planes engaged in an unprecedented number of sorties in the vicinity of USS John F. Kennedy 's Battle Group over international waters . F @-@ 14 's under E @-@ 2 control intercepted two Libyan sections , and six and eighteen sections , respectively , on September 20 and 21 .
= = = Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm = = =
Many Hispanic servicewomen served overseas during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm . Among the many women who served was Captain Haydee Javier Kimmich from Cabo Rojo , Puerto Rico . Capt. Kimmich was the highest ranking Hispanic female in the Navy at the time . She was assigned as the Chief of Orthopedics at the Navy Medical Center in Bethesda and she reorganized their Reservist Department during the war .
During Operation Just Cause in December 1989 , Navy Reserve Commodore Maria Morales from Puerto Rico was deployed to Panama and served at Rodman Naval Station . According to Morales , in Panama she had her first real experience with the anguish and impact of an armed conflict , not only on military service members , but on families as well .
Rear Admiral Jose Luis Betancourt , Jr. served as commanding officer of the USS Merrill ( DD @-@ 976 ) , during its deployment to the Persian Gulf during Operation Desert Storm , where during extensive mine clearance operations his ship served as flagship .
= = = Operation Iraqi Freedom = = =
Even though Brigadier General Joseph V. Medina of the Marine Corps was not a member of the Navy , he made naval history when on June 10 , 2004 he became the first Marine general ever assigned commander of naval ships . During Operation Iraqi Freedom , Medina oversaw the manning and equipping of ESG @-@ 3 . From his flagship , the USS Belleau Wood ( LHA @-@ 3 ) , he then led the Belleau Wood Strike Group ( BWDESG ) through a 6 @-@ month deployment in support of where he was assigned as Commander Task Force 58 .
Hospitalman Apprentice Luis E. Fonseca was awarded the Navy Cross . According to his citation , Fonseca was serving as Corpsman for the Amphibious Assault Vehicle Platoon , Company C , First Battalion , Second Marines , Regimental Combat Team TWO , Task Force Tarawa , First Marine Expeditionary Force , in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom on March 23 , 2003 . After an amphibious assault vehicle was struck by a rocket @-@ propelled grenade inflicting five casualties , Fonseca evacuated the wounded Marines from the burning vehicle and tended to their wounds . He established a casualty collection point inside the unit 's medical evacuation amphibious assault vehicle , calmly and methodically stabilizing two casualties with lower limb amputations by applying tourniquets and administering morphine . His vehicle was rendered immobile by enemy direct and indirect fire , however he directed the movement of four casualties from the vehicle by organizing litter teams from available Marines . He personally carried one critically wounded Marine over open ground to another vehicle . Fonseca again exposed himself to enemy fire to treat Marines wounded along the perimeter .
= = Hispanics in sensitive domestic leadership positions = =
Hispanics have been underrepresented in the all @-@ volunteer armed forces , especially among officers . Despite the fact that Hispanics make up large percentage of the total Navy population they makeup only 4 @.@ 9 % of the officers corps . This is beginning to change , as increasing numbers of Hispanics enter the military . The following Hispanics ( in alphabetical order ) either have or are currently serving their country in sensitive domestic leadership positions :
Rear Admiral Jose Luis Betancourt , Jr . ( Surface Warfare ) ( Ret . ) , was Commander , Mine Warfare Command , headquartered at Naval Air Station ( NAS ) Corpus Christi , Texas .
Rear Admiral Patrick H. Brady is a submarine commander who in July 2007 became the first person of Hispanic descent to be named Commander of the Naval Undersea Warfare Center ( N87B ) .
Rear Admiral Jay A. DeLoach ( Ret . ) was the Assistant Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Resources , Requirements and Assessments . DeLoach played an instrumental role in implementing a visionary " Memorandum of Understanding " between the Submarine Force Active component and the Reserve component . He helped pioneer many key initiatives that have since been adopted Navy @-@ wide .
Rear Admiral Alberto Díaz , Jr . ( Medical Corps ) ( Ret . ) , was the first Hispanic to become the Director of the San Diego Naval District and Balboa Naval Hospital .
Rear Admiral Philip A. Dur ( Ret . ) was the Director , Political Military Affairs on the staff of the National Security Council .
Rear Admiral Albert Garcia , Civil Engineer Corps , is assumed the duties of Deputy Commander of the First Naval Construction Division .
Rear Admiral George " Rico " Mayer is the Commander of the Naval Safety Center .
Rear Admiral Rodrigo C. Melendez ( Dental Corps ) ( Ret . ) , served as Assistant Chief for Education , Training and Personnel , Bureau of Medicine and Surgery in Washington , D.C.
Rear Admiral Marc Y.E. Pelaez , from 1990 to 1993 , he served as the Executive Assistant to the Assistant Secretary of the Navy and from 1993 to 1996 as director of submarine technology at the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ) , and Chief of the Office of Naval Research .
Rear Admiral Will Rodriguez is the Chief Engineer for the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command ( SPAWAR 05 ) .
In March 2005 , Capt. Kathlene Contres , the Navy 's highest ranking female Hispanic Line Officer on active duty , became the first Hispanic woman and the thirteenth Commandant to lead the Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute ( DEOMI ) since it was established in 1971 . She oversaw the joint @-@ service school supporting all Department of Defense and U.S. Coast Guard equal opportunity and equal employment opportunity ( EO / EEO ) program and research requirements . She is also the president of the Association of Naval Service Officers .
Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy Joe R. Campa Jr . , is the 11th Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy | Master Chief Petty Officer of the United States Navy . His duty assignments include USS Ogden ( LPD @-@ 5 ) , San Diego , California ; Naval Medical Center , San Diego , California ; Seventh Marine Regiment , First Marine Division , Camp Pendleton ; Naval Hospital , Long Beach , California ; Third Force Service Support Group , Fleet Marine Force , Okinawa , Japan and Naval Hospital Bremerton , Washington .
= = Increase in Hispanic enlistment = =
Hispanic immigrants have played an important role in the military of the United States since the American Revolution when Lieutenant Jordi Farragut Mesquida , an immigrant from Spain , fought in the Battle of Charleston , South Carolina .
On July 3 , 2002 , President George W. Bush issued an order to speed up the process of citizenship for immigrants serving in the nation 's military services . Immigrant service members can now qualify for citizenship after serving honorably for one year in the armed forces or for serving on active duty during an authorized period of conflict , among other qualifications listed under the Immigration and Nationality Act , Section 328 .
One of the privileges that goes with American citizenship is the opportunity to become a commissioned officer in the Navy . A person can be drafted as a resident alien or he / she can join the Navy voluntarily as a foreigner , but can not become an officer unless they are a U.S. citizen .
The number of Hispanics in the Navy over @-@ represent their percentage of the population . Today the United States Department of Defense faces a nationwide problem in recruiting men for the all volunteer Armed Forces because of the war in Iraq and Afghanistan . The United States Navy has implemented an aggressive recruitment programs directed towards this group . One of those programs is El Navy whose principal aim is to attract those who speak Spanish and as a consequence many Hispanics have joined the Navy as enlisted personnel and many others have applied for entrance to the Naval Academy .
= = = United States Naval Academy = = =
The United States Naval Academy ( USNA ) is an institution for the undergraduate education of officers of the United States Navy and Marine Corps . Hispanics in the United States Naval Academy account for the largest minority group in the institution . According to the Academy , the Class of 2009 includes 271 ( 22 @.@ 2 % ) minority midshipmen . Out of these 271 midshipmen , 115 are of Hispanic heritage . According to the July 2004 issue of Latina Style magazine , of the total of 736 female midshipmen , 74 ( 10 % ) of the female midshipmen were of Hispanic descent .
The first Hispanic @-@ American to graduate from the academy was Commodore Robert F. Lopez , Class of 1879 . The first Hispanic to graduate from the academy and to reach the rank of admiral was a Puerto Rican , Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl . Class of 1911 . Commander Lilia L. Ramirez and Midshipman Carmel Gilliland were among the first four Hispanic female graduates of the academy in 1981 . A total of 31 Americans of Hispanic descent who served in the Navy were alumni of the naval academy .
= = = Hispanic Heritage Month = = =
On September 17 , 1968 , President Lyndon B. Johnson designated a week in mid @-@ September as National Hispanic Heritage Week . In 1988 , President Ronald Reagan extended that week to a month @-@ long observance . The National Hispanic Heritage Month is a time for Americans to educate themselves about the influences Hispanic culture has had on society . The Navy has realized that the fastest growing group in both the United States and the Navy are Hispanics , and have joined the rest of the United States in the celebration of the contributions which Hispanics in the United States Navy have made to that military institution by celebrating National Hispanic Heritage Month from September 15 through October 15 .
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= Remember the Time =
" Remember the Time " is a single by American singer @-@ songwriter Michael Jackson recorded at Record One Studios . The song was released by Epic Records on January 14 , 1992 , as the second single from Jackson 's eighth studio album , Dangerous . Written and composed by Teddy Riley , Michael Jackson and Bernard Belle , the song was produced by Riley and Jackson . " Remember the Time " was a successful attempt by Jackson to create a dance @-@ oriented , new jack swing @-@ flavored jam with the accompaniment of co @-@ producer Riley . The lyrics are about remembering being in love with someone .
" Remember the Time " was generally well received by contemporary critics . The song was commercially successful , peaking at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart and number one on Billboard 's R & B singles chart . Internationally , the song was a top ten hit in nine countries , peaking at number one in New Zealand , as well at number two in Spain and three in the United Kingdom . The song reached the top twenty in all major territories . A nine @-@ minute music video directed by John Singleton , marketed as a " short film " , was released for the song . The video is set in ancient Egypt and features appearances by Eddie Murphy , Iman , Tommy " Tiny " Lister and Magic Johnson .
= = Background and composition = =
" Remember the Time " was released as the second single from Michael Jackson 's eighth studio album , Dangerous on January 14 , 1992 . The song was written by Teddy Riley , Michael Jackson and Bernard Belle , and was produced by Riley and Jackson . " Remember the Time " is three minutes fifty nine seconds long . The song 's music was compared to Jackson 's 1979 single , " Rock with You " from his Off the Wall album . The song was rumored to be about Jackson 's relationship with Debbie Rowe in the late 1980s and early 1990s . Co @-@ writer Teddy Riley , who was quoted to have said so in an interview with the Los Angeles Times in 1996 , denied the song being about Rowe in 2011 in reply to a fan on Twitter .
However , it should also be mentioned that when the single was originally released in 1992 , Jackson dedicated the song with love to Diana Ross . Jermaine Jackson also confirmed this in his book , " You Are Not Alone : Michael : Through a Brother 's Eyes . " On page 194 Jermaine writes , " ... that song was , as Michael told me , written with Diana Ross in mind ; the one great love that , as far as he was concerned , escaped him . "
" Remember the Time " is a new jack swing song . The lyrics recall a youthful love affair : " Do you remember when we fell in love / We were young and innocent then " . The song is set in the key of an original F Minor with Jackson 's voice range from Eb3 to C5 . The song 's tempo is moderate at 116 beats per minute .
" Remember the Time " did not feature on the setlist for the Dangerous World Tour , but it was rehearsed . At the 1993 Soul Train Music Awards , the song won the award for Best R & B / Soul Single - Male . Jackson appeared with an injured foot and on crutches , but was able to perform the song seated in a chair , surrounded by dancers . However , it was later claimed that this was a publicity stunt to promote the single , and Jackson was in fact not injured .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Remember the Time " was generally well received by contemporary music critics . Martin Short , a writer for Allmusic , commented that the album Dangerous had " plenty " of " professional craftsmanship at its peak " because of " such fine singles " like " In the Closet " and " Remember the Time " . Erlewine listed " Remember the Time " as being a highlight from Dangerous . Alan Light , a writer for Rolling Stone , stated that he felt " Remember the Time " was the " most lighthearted musical track on the album " and described the song 's lyrics as telling of a " blissful romance only to ask , ' So why did it end ? ' " Jon Parales of The New York Times commented that " titles like ' Remember the Time ' , ' She Drives Me Wild ' and ' Give in to Me ' " tell the lyrics ' " whole story - though they don 't suggest the wretched tone he has when he sings them . " Richard Harrington , a writer for The Washington Post , described " Remember the Time " as being " wistful , " commenting that he felt that the song featured Jackson 's " least affected vocal performance " but that it " builds an engaging , radio @-@ friendly momentum " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Remember the Time " peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 on March 7 , 1992 , five weeks after the single release . The song saw similar success on other Billboard charts ; topping the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs on March 7 , and peaking at number two in Dance / Club Play Songs on April 4 , 1992 , and number 15 in Adult Contemporary on March 21 in the same year . The song peaked at number two on Billboards Hot Dance Music / Maxi Singles Sales . It was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for the shipment of over 500 @,@ 000 units in the United States in March 1992 . The song saw similar commercial success internationally , charting in the top 20 in all major territories at the time of its release . In the United Kingdom , " Remember the Time " first entered the chart on February 15 , 1992 , placing at number six . The following week , on February 22 , the song charted at number three , where it peaked ; the song remained on the charts for a total of eight weeks .
" Remember the Time " topped the New Zealand charts for two consecutive weeks , having first entered the chart at number three on February 23 . It peaked at number four in the Netherlands and Switzerland . The song also charted within the top ten on the French , Australian , Swedish , Italian , and Norwegian charts ; peaking at number five , six , eight and ten . It charted in the top 20 , peaking at number 16 , in Austria . Having been re @-@ issued for Jackson 's Visionary campaign in 2006 , " Remember the Time " peaked at number two in Spain on the charts issue date on May 14 , 2006 . After Jackson 's death in June 2009 , his music saw a surge in popularity . In the United Kingdom , on the chart of July 11 , the song re @-@ entered at number 81 .
= = Music video = =
As part of promotion for " Remember the Time " , a music video , which was filmed in mid @-@ January 1992 , was released . Prior to the release of the video , Jackson 's record label promoted it by releasing clips , as well as releasing behind the scenes clips of making the video . The nine @-@ minute video was promoted as a " short film " . It premiered on MTV , Fox and Black Entertainment Television on February 2 , 1992 . After the video premiered on MTV , the channel aired a " rockumentary " called " More Dangerous Than Ever " which included glimpses of the making of the video . Jackson 's record label would not release the video 's budget figures . Directed by John Singleton and choreographed by Fatima Robinson , the video was an elaborate production and became one of Jackson 's longest videos at over nine minutes . It was set in ancient Egypt and featured groundbreaking visual effects and appearances by Eddie Murphy , Iman , The Pharcyde , Magic Johnson , Tom " Tiny " Lister , Jr. and Wylie Draper , who portrayed Jackson as an adult in the made for TV movie The Jacksons : An American Dream and died shortly after appearing in this video . The video also featured Michael 's first on screen kiss .
Jackson appears in the video as a hooded wizard who enters an Egyptian palace and attempts to entertain the Pharaoh 's bored Queen . Two other entertainers have failed , and she has sent them to be executed . The Queen sees that this wizard is different — instead of juggling or eating fire , he walks up the steps to her throne and sings to her , asking her if she " remembers the time " they were together . The Pharaoh ( played by Murphy ) hardly appreciates this move and summons his guards . Jackson runs away to another room and begins elaborate , Egyptian @-@ style choreography with the Pharaoh 's servants . When the guards find him , the servants disappear as does Jackson , in a swirl and a cloud of golden dust . In the video , Jackson was dressed in a costume made of gold satin . He wore golden chain mail , a white skirt with a phallic dangling sash , black pants and black boots . This video features a physically complicated dance routine that became the centerpiece of other videos from the Dangerous album .
The music video was generally well received by music critics . Ira Robbins of Entertainment Weekly described " Remember the Time " as being a " gorgeous ancient Egyptian extravaganza " video . The music video appeared on the video albums : Dangerous – The Short Films , Video Greatest Hits – HIStory and Michael Jackson 's Vision . The music video , along with other videos from Dangerous , was frequently shown on MTV .
= = Official remixes = =
Album version – 3 : 59
A cappella – 3 : 35
New Jack Mix – 6 : 48
New Jack Main Mix – 6 : 50
New Jack Radio Mix – 4 : 00
New Jack Jazz ( 21 ) – 5 : 06
12 " Main Mix – 4 : 47
7 " Main Mix – 3 : 59
Bonus Beats 3 – 4 : 46
Silky Soul 12 " Mix – 7 : 05
Silky Soul 7 " Mix – 4 : 18
Silky Dub – 6 : 17
E @-@ Smoove 's Late Nite Mix – 7 : 20
E @-@ Smoove 's Late Nite Dub – 5 : 35
Maurice 's Underground Mix – 7 : 29
Mo @-@ Mo 's Instrumental – 5 : 20
" Remember the Time " / " Bad ( Immortal version ) – 4 : 39
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Charts = = =
= = = End of year charts = = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = Personnel = =
Written and composed by Teddy Riley , Michael Jackson and Bernard Belle
Produced by Teddy Riley and Michael Jackson
Recorded and mixed by Bruce Swedien , Teddy Riley and Dave Way
Solo and background vocals , vocal arrangement by Michael Jackson
Keyboards , synthesizers , Drum Programming and synthesizer arrangements by Teddy Riley
Sequencing and programming by Wayne Cobham
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= Alexander Edler =
Ulf Niklas Alexander Edler ( born 21 April 1986 ) is a Swedish professional ice hockey defenceman currently playing for the Vancouver Canucks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He was drafted out of Sweden 's third @-@ tier ice hockey league by the Canucks in the third round , 91st overall , in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft , and played junior ice hockey with Modo of the J20 SuperElit and the Kelowna Rockets of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) .
Edler turned professional in North America with the Canucks ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Manitoba Moose , in 2006 – 07 , seeing some time in the NHL over the course of the season . He became a full @-@ time member of the Canucks the following season , and has since been named to one NHL All @-@ Star Game ( 2012 ) .
Internationally , he has competed for Sweden on four occasions — at the 2006 World Junior Championships , the 2008 and 2013 IIHF World Championships ( winning gold ) and the 2014 Winter Olympics ( winning silver ) . Edler is an offensive defenceman noted for his calm on @-@ ice demeanor and strong slapshot .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Sweden and junior ( 2001 – 06 ) = = =
Edler played at the under @-@ 17 level with his hometown district team of Jämtland in 2001 and 2002 , competing at TV @-@ pucken , a national Swedish tournament . In 2003 – 04 , he joined the professional Jämtlands HF . He played with the club in Sweden 's third @-@ tier league , recording three goals and nine points in 24 games , while also appearing in six games for Jämtlands HF 's junior team .
Edler was largely unknown during his NHL Draft year , unranked by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau the entire season . He was brought to the attention of the Vancouver Canucks by the team 's head scout in Sweden , Thomas Gradin , who saw Edler playing with Jämtlands HF . Although Gradin would refer to the team 's level of play as little more than beer @-@ league @-@ calibre , he was impressed with Edler and encouraged Canucks management to draft him ( Edler 's number 23 with the Canucks would later be chosen by team trainers in honour of Gradin ) . The Canucks traded up in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft to acquire the Dallas Stars ' third @-@ round draft pick in exchange for their own third @-@ round pick in the 2005 Draft , and used the pick to select Edler 91st overall . The deal was made with the Stars in lieu of speculation that the Detroit Red Wings had a high interest in Edler and wanted to draft him in the third round as well . Detroit had discovered Edler in Sweden through their European scout Håkan Andersson , who was responsible for such previous Red Wings late @-@ round picks as Henrik Zetterberg and Pavel Datsyuk . At the time of his draft , Canucks General Manager Dave Nonis described Edler as a " smooth skater [ and a ] big guy . " Nonis added that , " He needs some time [ to develop ] , but in terms of raw skill , he 's got quite a bit of it . "
After being selected by the Canucks , Gradin brokered a move for Edler to play with Modo Hockey 's junior club of the J20 SuperElit . Edler had previously tried out for Modo 's youth program , but was cut . Future Canucks teammates Markus Näslund , Henrik Sedin and Daniel Sedin had also played in the Modo system before joining the NHL . In Edler 's lone season with Modo , he recorded eight goals and 23 points over 33 games in 2004 – 05 . He ranked second in point @-@ scoring among league defensemen to Modo teammate Tommy Enström , who recorded 33 .
On 29 June 2005 , Edler 's major junior rights were obtained by the Kelowna Rockets of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) ; he was chosen by Kelowna in the first round , 58th overall , of the Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) Import Draft . The Canucks encouraged Edler to move from Sweden to play junior in North America . After reporting to training camp with the Canucks ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Manitoba Moose , in September 2005 , he was assigned to junior with the Rockets . In his lone WHL season , Edler collected 13 goals and 53 points over 62 games in 2005 – 06 , ranking fifth among WHL defencemen and fourth among total rookies in scoring . He went on to help Kelowna to the second round of the WHL playoffs , where they were eliminated by the Everett Silvertips . In 12 post @-@ season games , Edler added eight points .
= = = Vancouver Canucks ( from 2006 ) = = =
The following off @-@ season , Edler was signed to an entry @-@ level contract by the Canucks on 24 July 2006 . Reporting to the Canucks ' training camp in September 2006 , his play had the Canucks slotting him in as the team 's seventh defenseman . However , a hip injury saw him assigned to the Manitoba Moose . Following an injury to Canucks defenseman Sami Salo , he was called up to the NHL on 3 November 2006 , two games into his AHL season . He made his NHL debut the following day against the Colorado Avalanche . Eleven days later , however , he was reassigned to the Moose , only to be recalled on 24 November . He scored his first NHL goal on 30 November , a slap shot that beat Anaheim Ducks goaltender Jean @-@ Sébastien Giguère in a 2 – 1 loss . Edler was reassigned between Manitoba and Vancouver on several more occasions over the course of the 2006 – 07 season . He appeared in 22 games total for the Canucks , recording a goal and two assists . With the Moose , he scored five goals and 26 points over 49 games and was named Manitoba 's Rookie of the Year .
Playing in his rookie season with the Canucks the following season , Edler was chosen to compete in the 2008 NHL YoungStars Game . Representing the Western Conference , his team was defeated by the Eastern Conference by a 7 – 6 score . Playing amidst numerous injuries on the Canucks ' blueline , Edler appeared in the most games among team defensemen with 75 . With all the injuries to his teammates , he was given additional time on the power play and penalty kill . His eight goals ranked second among rookie defensemen in the NHL , while his 20 points was fifth overall .
At the start of the 2008 – 09 season , Edler was re @-@ signed to a four @-@ year , $ 13 million contract extension on 9 October 2008 . The contract , a raise from his 2008 – 09 salary of $ 550 @,@ 000 , took into effect the following campaign . The following month , he missed two games sidelined with the flu . Later in the season , he recorded a personal best four @-@ point game ( one goal and three assists ) in a game against the Chicago Blackhawks on 7 February 2009 . He finished with 37 points , including a career @-@ high ten goals . In the 2009 Stanley Cup playoffs , Edler led all team defensemen with seven points in ten games as the Canucks were eliminated in the second round by Chicago . In his first few seasons in the NHL , Edler was often paired with veteran blueliner and countryman Mattias Öhlund , who he considered a mentor for him ( Öhlund left the Canucks to free agency in the 2009 off @-@ season and signed with the Tampa Bay Lightning ) .
The following campaign , Edler improved to career @-@ highs of 37 assists , first among team defensemen , and 42 points , second to Christian Ehrhoff . He missed six games near the midpoint of the campaign due to a left arm injury , sustained in December 2009 . In the post @-@ season , he added six points in 12 games as the Canucks lost again in the second round to the Blackhawks . Edler was injured in the sixth and deciding game of the series after opposing forward Dustin Byfuglien stepped on his right ankle after hitting him along the boards . Requiring a walking cast for five weeks , he rehabilitated his ankle during the off @-@ season .
Recovering in time for the 2010 – 11 season , Edler continued to improve and was on pace to record new career @-@ highs in goals , assists and points when he suffered a back injury in January 2011 . Canucks General Manager Mike Gillis told reporters that Edler had been experiencing tightness in his back at several times in the season , but an open @-@ ice hit against Dallas Stars forward Jamie Benn during a game on 24 January might have contributed to his back problems . Edler underwent microdisectomy surgery to relieve pressure on a herniated disk and was sidelined for two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months , returning for the second @-@ last game of the regular season . Finishing the season with eight goals and 33 points over 51 games , he ranked second among team defencemen in scoring , behind Ehrhoff . His 24 minutes and 17 seconds of average ice time per game also led the Canucks . As the Canucks won the Presidents ' Trophy for the first time in franchise history , the team entered the 2011 playoffs with the first seed in the West . Eliminating the Chicago Blackhawks , Nashville Predators and San Jose Sharks , the Canucks advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time in 17 years . Facing the Boston Bruins , the team lost the series in seven games . Following their defeat , it was revealed that several Canucks players had been playing with injuries , including Edler , who played Game 7 with two broken fingers . He ranked second among Canucks defensemen and third in the League overall with 11 points ( 2 goals and 9 assists ) in 25 games .
With the departure of Christian Ehrhoff , the Canucks ' leading defensive scorer from the previous two seasons , to the Buffalo Sabres in the off @-@ season , Edler assumed a larger role on the team 's blueline in the 2011 – 12 season . By mid @-@ January 2012 , Edler was ranked fourth among NHL defenceman in scoring with seven goals and 24 points . That month , he was selected to his first NHL All @-@ Star Game . He was selected to the competition alongside Canucks teammates Daniel and Henrik Sedin , as well as Cody Hodgson , who was named to the rookie squad . Playing for Team Alfredsson , Edler logged 21 minutes of ice time in a 12 – 9 loss to Team Chara . Edler finished the campaign having played all 82 games for the first time in his career . He recorded personal bests and team @-@ highs among defensemen in all major statistical categories with 11 goals , 38 assists and 49 points . League @-@ wide , he ranked seventh among defensemen in point @-@ scoring . Out of eight attempts , his four shootout goals was first among NHL defensemen . His efforts helped the Canucks to a second consecutive Presidents ' Trophy . Individually , he earned four fifth @-@ place votes for the James Norris Memorial Trophy to rank 15th overall . Defending their Campbell Bowl as Western Conference champions from the previous year , the Canucks lost in the first round of the 2012 playoffs to the Los Angeles Kings . Edler recorded two goals in the five @-@ game series .
On 18 January 2013 , Edler signed a six @-@ year , $ 30 million contract extension to remain with the Canucks . During the summer Edler was the talk of trade rumors at the trade deadline . The Red Wings were the team most interested in Edler and GM Mike Gills tried to move Edler before his NTC ( No trade clause ) went into effect on 1 July . In the end no deal was made and Edler stayed with the Canucks .
= = International play = =
Eder made his first appearance for Sweden at the under @-@ 20 level , competing in the 2006 World Junior Championships in British Columbia . He notched his lone point of the tournament , an assist , in a 10 – 2 round @-@ robin win against Latvia . Sweden went on to finish in fifth place , having lost their quarterfinal game to Finland . Two years later , Edler debuted with Sweden 's men 's team at the 2008 IIHF World Championships in Halifax and Quebec City . He scored his first international goal on the powerplay against French goaltender Fabrice Lhenry in a 9 – 0 round @-@ robin win . Sweden went on to the bronze medal game , where they were defeated by Canada 5 – 4 . Edler finished with a goal and two assists in eight games . His 19 : 02 minutes of average ice time per game ranked third among team defencemen .
Edler was responsible for a knee @-@ on @-@ knee hit to Carolina Hurricanes captain Eric Staal in the quarterfinals of the 2013 IIHF World Championship , and was suspended for the final two games of the championship . Sweden went on to win the gold medal , and Edler was awarded a medal even though he did not play in the gold medal game . On 29 July 2013 , the IIHF extended the suspension to cover Sweden 's first two games of the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi . Edler later joined team Sweden during the Olympics after his two @-@ game suspension . He recored a goal and two assists in the tournament , helping Sweden earn the silver medal .
= = Playing style = =
Edler plays in the style of an offensive defenseman . One of his strongest offensive assets is his slapshot . At the Canucks ' 2008 SuperSkills event , he beat the team 's reigning hardest shooter , Sami Salo , with a 99 @.@ 3 mile @-@ per @-@ hour shot and has gone on to win the competition in 2009 and 2010 , as well . He is also known for his poise and confidence with the puck , allowing him to make strong first passes out of the defensive zone to forwards . Many within the Canucks organization , such as Assistant Coach Rick Bowness , have asserted this as a reflection of his calm off @-@ ice demeanor .
Despite Edler 's imposing physical characteristics , he was not known to be an aggressive defender early in his NHL career . However , he has gradually shown a capability for physicality and to hit opposing players hard . Looking back on his transition to North American hockey with the Kelowna Rockets , Edler noted the most difficult adjustment was the physical aspect of the game , which was more pronounced than in Sweden . During the Canucks ' 2011 playoff run , teammate Kevin Bieksa compared him to Edler 's former defensive partner , Mattias Öhlund , commenting , " He [ Edler ] was like Bambi when he first came into the league but now he realized how big and strong he is . When he hits guys , he hurts them . "
= = Personal life = =
Edler was born in Östersund , Sweden . He has a brother , Jens , and a sister , Katarina . He began playing hockey at the age of six .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
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= Rokeby Venus =
The Rokeby Venus ( / ˈroʊkbi / ; also known as The Toilet of Venus , Venus at her Mirror , Venus and Cupid , or La Venus del espejo ) is a painting by Diego Velázquez , the leading artist of the Spanish Golden Age . Completed between 1647 and 1651 , and probably painted during the artist 's visit to Italy , the work depicts the goddess Venus in a sensual pose , lying on a bed and looking into a mirror held by the Roman god of physical love , her son Cupid . The painting is in the National Gallery , London .
Numerous works , from the ancient to the baroque , have been cited as sources of inspiration for Velázquez . The nude Venuses of the Italian painters , such as Giorgione 's Sleeping Venus ( c . 1510 ) and Titian 's Venus of Urbino ( 1538 ) , were the main precedents . In this work , Velázquez combined two established poses for Venus : recumbent on a couch or a bed , and gazing at a mirror . She is often described as looking at herself on the mirror , although this is physically impossible since viewers can see her face reflected in their direction . This phenomenon is known as the Venus effect . In a number of ways the painting represents a pictorial departure , through its central use of a mirror , and because it shows the body of Venus turned away from the observer of the painting .
The Rokeby Venus is the only surviving female nude by Velázquez . Nudes were extremely rare in seventeenth @-@ century Spanish art , which was policed actively by members of the Spanish Inquisition . Despite this , nudes by foreign artists were keenly collected by the court circle , and this painting was hung in the houses of Spanish courtiers until 1813 , when it was brought to England to hang in Rokeby Park , Yorkshire . In 1906 , the painting was purchased by National Art Collections Fund for the National Gallery , London . Although it was attacked and badly damaged in 1914 by the suffragette Mary Richardson , it soon was fully restored and returned to display .
= = The painting = =
= = = Description = = =
The Rokeby Venus depicts the Roman goddess of love , beauty and fertility reclining languidly on her bed , her back to the viewer — in Antiquity , portrayal of Venus from a back view was a common visual and literary erotic motif — and her knees tucked . She is shown without the mythological paraphernalia normally included in depictions of the scene ; jewellery , roses , and myrtle are all absent . Unlike most earlier portrayals of the goddess , which show her with blond hair , Velázquez 's Venus is a brunette . The female figure can be identified as Venus because of the presence of her son , Cupid .
Venus gazes into a mirror held by Cupid , who is without his usual bow and arrows . When the work was first inventoried , it was described as " a nude woman " , probably owing to its controversial nature . Venus looks outward at the viewer of the painting through her reflected image in the mirror . However , the image is blurred and reveals only a vague reflection of her facial characteristics ; the reflected image of the head is much larger than it would be in reality . The critic Natasha Wallace has speculated that Venus 's indistinct face may be the key to the underlying meaning of the painting , in that " it is not intended as a specific female nude , nor even as a portrayal of Venus , but as an image of self @-@ absorbed beauty . " According to Wallace , " There is nothing spiritual about face or picture . The classical setting is an excuse for a very material aesthetic sexuality — not sex , as such , but an appreciation of the beauty that accompanies attraction . "
Intertwining pink silk ribbons are draped over the mirror and curl over its frame . The ribbon 's function has been the subject of much debate by art historians ; suggestions include an allusion to the fetters used by Cupid to bind lovers , that it was used to hang the mirror , and that it was used to blindfold Venus moments before . The critic Julián Gallego found Cupid 's facial expression to be so melancholy that he interprets the ribbons as fetters binding the god to the image of Beauty , and gave the painting the title " Amor conquered by Beauty " .
The folds of the bed sheets echo the goddess 's physical form , and are rendered to emphasise the sweeping curves of her body . The composition mainly uses shades of red , white , and grey , which are used even in Venus 's skin ; although the effect of this simple colour scheme has been much praised , recent technical analysis has shown that the grey sheet was originally a " deep mauve " , that has now faded . The luminescent colours used in Venus 's skin , applied with " smooth , creamy , blended handling " , contrast with the dark greys and black of the silk she is lying on , and with the brown of the wall behind her face .
The Rokeby Venus is the only surviving nude by Velázquez , but three others by the artist are recorded in 17th @-@ century Spanish inventories . Two were mentioned in the Royal collection , but may have been lost in the 1734 fire that destroyed the main Royal Palace of Madrid . A further one was recorded in the collection of Domingo Guerra Coronel . These records mention " a reclining Venus " , Venus and Adonis , and a Psyche and Cupid .
Although the work is widely thought to have been painted from life , the identity of the model is subject to much speculation . In contemporary Spain it was acceptable for artists to employ male nude models for studies ; however , the use of female nude models was frowned upon . The painting is believed to have been executed during one of Velázquez 's visits to Rome , and Prater has observed that in Rome the artist " did indeed lead a life of considerable personal liberty that would have been consistent with the notion of using a live nude female model " . It has been claimed that the painting depicts a mistress Velázquez is known to have had while in Italy , who is supposed to have borne his child . Others have claimed that the model is the same as in Coronation of the Virgin and Las Hilanderas , both in the Museo del Prado , and other works .
The figures of both Venus and Cupid were significantly altered during the painting process , the result of the artist 's corrections to the contours as initially painted . Pentimenti can be seen in Venus 's upraised arm , in the position of her left shoulder , and on her head . Infra @-@ red reveals that she was originally shown more upright with her head turned to the left . An area on the left of the painting , extending from Venus 's left foot to the left leg and foot of Cupid , is apparently unfinished , but this feature is seen in many other works by Velázquez and was probably deliberate . The painting was given a major cleaning and restoration in 1965 – 66 , which showed it to be in good condition , and with very little paint added later by other artists , contrary to what some earlier writers had asserted .
= = Nudes in 17th @-@ century Spain = =
The portrayal of nudes was officially discouraged in 17th @-@ century Spain . Works could be seized or repainting demanded by the Inquisition , and artists who painted licentious or immoral works were often excommunicated , fined , or banished from Spain for a year . However , within intellectual and aristocratic circles , the aims of art were believed to supersede questions of morality , and there were many , generally mythological , nudes in private collections .
Velázquez 's patron , the art @-@ loving King Philip IV , held a number of nudes by Titian and Rubens , and Velázquez , as the king 's painter , need not have feared painting such a picture . Leading collectors , including the King , tended to keep nudes , many mythological , in relatively private rooms ; in Phillip 's case " the room where His Majesty retires after eating " , which contained the Titian poesies he had inherited from Phillip II , and the Rubens he had commissioned himself . The Venus would be in such a room while in the collections of both Haro and Godoy . The court of Philip IV greatly " appreciated painting in general , and the nude in particular , but ... at the same time , exerted unparalleled pressure on artists to avoid the depiction of the naked human body . "
The contemporary Spanish attitude toward paintings of nudes was unique in Europe . Although such works were appreciated by some connoisseurs and intellectuals within Spain , they were generally treated with suspicion . Low necklines were commonly worn by women during the period , but according to the art historian Zahira Veliz , " the codes of pictorial decorum would not easily permit a known lady to be painted in this way " . For Spaniards of the 17th century , the issue of the nude in art was tied up with concepts of morality , power , and aesthetics . This attitude is reflected in the literature of the Spanish Golden Age , in works such as Lope de Vega 's play La quinta de Florencia , which features an aristocrat who commits rape after viewing a scantily clad figure in a mythological painting by Michelangelo .
In 1632 , an anonymous pamphlet — attributed to the Portuguese Francisco de Braganza — was published with the title " A copy of the opinions and censorship by the most revered fathers , masters and senior professors of the distinguished universities of Salamanca and Alcalá , and other scholars on the abuse of lascivious and indecent figures and paintings , which are mortal sin to be painted , carved and displayed where they can be seen " . The court was able to exert counter @-@ pressure , and a piece by the famous poet and preacher Fray Hortensio Félix Paravicino , which proposed the destruction of all paintings of the nude , and was written to be included in the pamphlet , was never published . Paravicino was a connoisseur of painting , and therefore believed in its power : " the finest paintings are the greatest threat : burn the best of them " . As his title shows , Braganza merely argued that such works should be kept from the view of a wider public , as was in fact mostly the practice in Spain .
In contrast , French art of the period often depicted women with low necklines and slender corsets ; however , the mutilation by the French royal family of the Correggio depiction of Leda and the Swan and their apparent destruction of the famous Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo paintings of the same subject , show that nudity could be controversial in France also . In northern Europe it was seen as acceptable to portray artfully draped nudes . Examples include Rubens 's Minerva Victrix , of 1622 – 25 , which shows Marie de ' Medici with an uncovered breast , and Anthony van Dyck 's 1620 painting , The Duke and Duchess of Buckingham as Venus and Adonis .
In 17th @-@ century Spanish art , even in the depiction of sibyls , nymphs , and goddesses , the female form was always chastely covered . No painting from the 1630s or 1640s , whether in the genre , portrait , or history format , shows a Spanish female with her breasts exposed ; even uncovered arms were only rarely shown . In 1997 , the art historian Peter Cherry suggested that Velázquez sought to overcome the contemporary requirement for modesty by portraying Venus from the back . Even in the mid @-@ 18th century , an English artist who made a drawing of the Venus when it was in the collection of the Dukes of Alba noted it was " not hung up , owing to the subject " .
Another attitude to the issue was shown by Morritt , who wrote to Sir Walter Scott of his " fine painting of Venus ' backside " , which he hung above his main fireplace , so that " the ladies may avert their downcast eyes without difficulty and connoisseurs steal a glance without drawing the said posterior into the company " .
= = Provenance = =
The Rokeby Venus was long held to be one of Velázquez 's final works . In 1951 , it was found recorded in an inventory of June 1 , 1651 from the collection of Gaspar Méndez de Haro , 7th Marquis of Carpio , a close associate of Philip IV of Spain . Haro was the great @-@ nephew of Velázquez 's first patron , the Count @-@ Duke of Olivares , and a notorious libertine . According to the art historian Dawson Carr , Haro " loved paintings almost as much as he loved women " , and " even his panegyrists lamented his excessive taste for lower @-@ class women during his youth " . For these reasons it seemed likely that he would have commissioned the painting . However , in 2001 the art historian Ángel Aterido discovered that the painting had first belonged to the Madrid art dealer and painter Domingo Guerra Coronel , and was sold to Haro in 1652 following Coronel 's death the previous year . Coronel 's ownership of the painting raises a number of questions : how and when it came into Coronel 's possession , and why Velázquez 's name was omitted from Coronel 's inventory . The art critic Javier Portús has suggested that the omission may have been due to the painting 's portrayal of a female nude , " a type of work which was carefully supervised and whose dissemination was considered problematic " .
These revelations make the painting difficult to date . Velázquez 's painting technique offers no assistance , although its strong emphasis on colour and tone suggest that the work dates from his mature period . The best estimates of its origin put its completion in the late 1640s or early 1650s , either in Spain or during Velázquez 's last visit to Italy . If this is the case , then the breadth of handling and the dissolution of form can be seen to mark the beginning of the artist 's final period . The conscientious modelling and strong tonal contrasts of his earlier work are here replaced by a restraint and subtlety which would culminate in his late masterpiece , Las Meninas .
The painting passed from Haro into the collection of his daughter Catalina de Haro y Guzmán , the eighth Marchioness of Carpio , and her husband , Francisco Álvarez de Toledo , the tenth Duke of Alba . In 1802 , Charles IV of Spain ordered the family to sell the painting ( with other works ) to Manuel de Godoy , his favourite and chief minister . He hung it alongside two masterpieces by Francisco Goya that he may have commissioned himself , The Nude Maja and The Clothed Maja . These bear obvious compositional similarities with Velázquez 's Venus , although unlike Velázquez , Goya clearly painted his nude in a calculated attempt to provoke shame and disgust in the relatively unenlightened climate of 18th @-@ century Spain .
Venus was brought to England in 1813 , where it was purchased by John Morritt for £ 500 ( £ 29 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , and on the advice of his friend Sir Thomas Lawrence . Morritt hung it in his house at Rokeby Park , Yorkshire — thus the painting 's popular name . In 1906 , the painting was acquired for the National Gallery by the newly created National Art Collections Fund , its first campaigning triumph . King Edward VII greatly admired the painting , and anonymously provided £ 8 @,@ 000 ( £ 780 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) towards its purchase , and became Patron of the Fund thereafter .
= = Legacy = =
In part because he was overlooked until the mid @-@ 19th century , Velázquez found no followers and was not widely imitated . In particular , his visual and structural innovations in this portrayal of Venus were not developed by other artists until recently , largely owing to the censorship of the work . The painting remained in a series of private rooms in private collections until it was exhibited in 1857 at the Manchester Art Treasures Exhibition , along with 25 other paintings at least claimed to be by Velázquez ; it was here that it became known as the Rokeby Venus . It does not appear to have been copied by other artists , engraved or otherwise reproduced , until this period . In 1890 it was exhibited in the Royal Academy in London , and in 1905 at Messrs. Agnews , the dealers who had bought it from Morritt . From 1906 it was highly visible in the National Gallery and became well @-@ known globally through reproductions . The general influence of the painting was therefore long delayed , although individual artists would have been able to see it on occasion throughout its history .
Velázquez 's portrait is a staging of a private moment of intimacy and a dramatic departure from the classical depictions of sleep and intimacy found in works from antiquity and Venetian art that portray Venus . However , the simplicity with which Velázquez displays the female nude — without jewellery or any of the goddess 's usual accessories — was echoed in later nude studies by Ingres , Manet , and Baudry , among others . In addition , Velázquez 's depiction of Venus as a reclining nude viewed from the rear was a rarity before that time , although the pose has been painted by many later artists . Manet , in his stark female portrayal Olympia , paraphrased the Rokeby Venus in pose and by suggesting the persona of a real woman rather than an ethereal goddess . Olympia shocked the Parisian art world when it was first exhibited in 1863 . Olympia gazes directly out at the viewer , as does Velázquez 's Venus , only through the reflection of the mirror .
= = Vandalism , 1914 = =
On March 10 , 1914 , the suffragette Mary Richardson walked into the National Gallery and attacked Velázquez 's canvas with a meat cleaver . Her action was ostensibly provoked by the arrest of fellow suffragette Emmeline Pankhurst the previous day , although there had been earlier warnings of a planned suffragette attack on the collection . Richardson left seven slashes on the painting , particularly causing damage to the area between the figure 's shoulders . However , all were successfully repaired by the National Gallery 's chief restorer Helmut Ruhemann .
Richardson was sentenced to six months ' imprisonment , the maximum allowed for destruction of an artwork . In a statement to the Women 's Social and Political Union shortly afterwards , Richardson explained , " I have tried to destroy the picture of the most beautiful woman in mythological history as a protest against the Government for destroying Mrs. Pankhurst , who is the most beautiful character in modern history . " She added in a 1952 interview that she didn 't like " the way men visitors gaped at it all day long " .
The feminist writer Lynda Nead observed , " The incident has come to symbolize a particular perception of feminist attitudes towards the female nude ; in a sense , it has come to represent a specific stereotypical image of feminism more generally . " Contemporary reports of the incident reveal that the picture was not widely seen as mere artwork . Journalists tended to assess the attack in terms of a murder ( Richardson was nicknamed " Slasher Mary " ) , and used words that conjured wounds inflicted on an actual female body , rather than on a pictorial representation of a female body . The Times described a " cruel wound in the neck " , as well as incisions to the shoulders and back .
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= Dürer 's Rhinoceros =
Dürer 's Rhinoceros is the name commonly given to a woodcut executed by German painter and printmaker Albrecht Dürer in 1515 . The image is based on a written description and brief sketch by an unknown artist of an Indian rhinoceros that had arrived in Lisbon in 1515 . Dürer never saw the actual rhinoceros , which was the first living example seen in Europe since Roman times . In late 1515 , the King of Portugal , Manuel I , sent the animal as a gift for Pope Leo X , but it died in a shipwreck off the coast of Italy in early 1516 . A live rhinoceros was not seen again in Europe until a second specimen , named Abada , arrived from India at the court of Sebastian of Portugal in 1577 , being later inherited by Philip II of Spain around 1580 .
Dürer 's woodcut is not an entirely accurate representation of a rhinoceros . He depicts an animal with hard plates that cover its body like sheets of armour , with a gorget at the throat , a solid @-@ looking breastplate , and rivets along the seams . He places a small twisted horn on its back , and gives it scaly legs and saw @-@ like rear quarters . None of these features are present in a real rhinoceros , although the Indian rhinoceros does have deep folds in its skin that can look like armor from a distance . Despite its anatomical inaccuracies , Dürer 's woodcut became very popular in Europe and was copied many times in the following three centuries . It was regarded by Westerners as a true representation of a rhinoceros into the late 18th century . Eventually , it was supplanted by more realistic drawings and paintings , particularly those of Clara the rhinoceros , who toured Europe in the 1740s and 1750s . It has been said of Dürer 's woodcut : " probably no animal picture has exerted such a profound influence on the arts " .
= = The rhinoceros = =
On 20 May 1515 , an Indian rhinoceros arrived in Lisbon from the Far East . In early 1514 , Afonso de Albuquerque , governor of Portuguese India , sent ambassadors to Sultan Muzafar II , ruler of Cambay ( modern Gujarat ) , to seek permission to build a fort on the island of Diu . The mission returned without an agreement , but diplomatic gifts were exchanged , including the rhinoceros . At that time , the rulers of different countries would occasionally send each other exotic animals to be kept in a menagerie . The rhinoceros was already well accustomed to being kept in captivity . Albuquerque decided to forward the gift , known by its Gujarati name of ganda , and its Indian keeper , named Ocem , to King Manuel I of Portugal . It sailed on the Nossa Senhora da Ajuda , which left Goa in January 1515 . The ship , captained by Francisco Pereira Coutinho , and two companion vessels , all loaded with exotic spices , sailed across the Indian Ocean , around the Cape of Good Hope and north through the Atlantic , stopping briefly in Mozambique , Saint Helena and the Azores .
After a relatively fast voyage of 120 days , the rhinoceros was finally unloaded in Portugal , near the site where the Manueline Belém Tower was under construction . The tower was later decorated with gargoyles shaped as rhinoceros heads under its corbels . A rhinoceros had not been seen in Europe since Roman times : it had become something of a mythical beast , occasionally conflated in bestiaries with the " monoceros " ( unicorn ) , so the arrival of a living example created a sensation . In the context of the Renaissance , it was a piece of classical antiquity which had been rediscovered , like a statue or an inscription .
The animal was examined by scholars and the curious , and letters describing the fantastic creature were sent to correspondents throughout Europe . The earliest known image of the animal illustrates a poemetto by Florentine Giovanni Giacomo Penni , published in Rome on 13 July 1515 , fewer than eight weeks after its arrival in Lisbon . The only known copy of the original published poem is held by the Institución Colombina in Seville .
It was housed in King Manuel 's menagerie at the Ribeira Palace in Lisbon , separate from his elephants and other large beasts at the Estaus Palace . On Trinity Sunday , 3 June , Manuel arranged a fight with young elephant from his collection , to test the account by Pliny the Elder that the elephant and the rhinoceros are bitter enemies . The rhinoceros advanced slowly and deliberately towards its foe ; the elephant , unaccustomed to the noisy crowd that turned out to witness the spectacle , fled the field in panic before a single blow was struck .
Manuel decided to give the rhinoceros as a gift to the Medici Pope Leo X. The King was keen to curry favour with the Pope , to maintain the papal grants of exclusive possession to the new lands that his naval forces had been exploring in the Far East since Vasco da Gama discovered the sea route to India around Africa in 1498 . The previous year , the Pope had been very pleased with Manuel 's gift of a white elephant , also from India , which the Pope had named Hanno . Together with other precious gifts of silver plate and spices , the rhinoceros , with its new collar of green velvet decorated with flowers , embarked in December 1515 for the voyage from the Tagus to Rome . The vessel passed near Marseille in early 1516 . King Francis I of France was returning from Saint @-@ Maximin @-@ la @-@ Sainte @-@ Baume in Provence , and requested a viewing of the beast . The Portuguese vessel stopped briefly at an island off Marseilles , where the rhinoceros disembarked to be beheld by the King on 24 January .
After resuming its journey , the ship was wrecked in a sudden storm as it passed through the narrows of Porto Venere , north of La Spezia on the coast of Liguria . The rhinoceros , chained and shackled to the deck to keep it under control , was unable to swim to safety and drowned . The carcass of the rhinoceros was recovered near Villefranche , and its hide was returned to Lisbon , where it was stuffed . Some reports say that the mounted skin was sent to Rome , arriving in February 1516 , to be exhibited impagliato ( Italian for " stuffed with straw " ) , although such a feat would have challenged 16th @-@ century methods of taxidermy , which were still primitive . If a stuffed rhinoceros did arrive in Rome , its fate remains unknown : it might have been removed to Florence by the Medici , or destroyed in the 1527 sack of Rome . In any event , there was not the popular sensation in Rome that the living beast had caused in Lisbon , although a rhinoceros was depicted in contemporary paintings in Rome by Giovanni da Udine and Raphael .
= = Dürer 's woodcut = =
Valentim Fernandes , a Moravian merchant and printer , saw the rhinoceros in Lisbon shortly after it arrived and wrote a letter describing it to a friend in Nuremberg in June 1515 . The original letter in German has not survived , but a copy in Italian is held in the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale in Florence . A second letter of unknown authorship was sent from Lisbon to Nuremberg at around the same time , enclosing a sketch by an unknown artist . Dürer – who was acquainted with the Portuguese community of the factory at Antwerp – saw the second letter and sketch in Nuremberg . He made a pen and ink drawing and printed a reversed reflection of it .
The German inscription on the woodcut , drawing largely from Pliny 's account , reads :
Dürer 's woodcut is not an accurate representation of a rhinoceros . He depicts an animal with hard plates that cover its body like sheets of armour , with a gorget at the throat , a solid @-@ looking breastplate , and rivets along the seams . He places a small twisted horn on its back , and gives it scaly legs and saw @-@ like rear quarters . None of these features is present in a real rhinoceros . It is possible that a suit of armour was forged for the rhinoceros 's fight against the elephant in Portugal , and that these features depicted by Dürer are parts of the armour . Alternatively , Dürer 's " armour " may represent the heavy folds of thick skin of an Indian rhinoceros , or , as with the other inaccuracies , may simply be misunderstandings or creative additions by Dürer . Dürer also draws a scaly texture over the body of the animal , including the " armour " . This may be Dürer 's attempt to reflect the rough and almost hairless hide of the Indian rhinoceros , which has wart @-@ like bumps covering its upper legs and shoulders . On the other hand , his depiction of the texture may represent dermatitis induced by the rhinoceros ' close confinement during the four @-@ month journey by ship from India to Portugal .
A second woodcut was executed by Hans Burgkmair in Augsburg around the same time as Dürer 's in Nuremberg . Burgkmair corresponded with merchants in Lisbon and Nuremberg , but it is not clear whether he had access to a letter or sketch as Dürer did , perhaps even Dürer 's sources , or saw the animal himself in Portugal . His image is truer to life , omitting Dürer 's more fanciful additions and including the shackles and chain used to restrain the rhinoceros ; however , Dürer 's woodcut is more powerful and eclipsed Burgkmair 's in popularity . Only one impression ( example ) of Burgkmair 's image has survived , whereas Dürer 's print survives in many impressions . Dürer produced a first edition of his woodcut in 1515 , in the first state , which is distinguished by only five lines of text in the heading . Many further printings followed after Dürer 's death in 1528 , including two in the 1540s , and two more in the late 16th century . Later printings have six lines of descriptive text .
The block passed into the hands of the Amsterdam printer and cartographer Willem Janssen ( also called Willem Blaeu amongst other names ) . By this time the block was very damaged ; the border lines were chipped , there were numerous woodworm holes and a pronounced crack had developed through the rhino 's legs . Janssen decided to re @-@ issue the block with the addition of a new tone block printed in a variety of colours , olive @-@ green and dark green , as well as blue @-@ grey . The resulting chiaroscuro woodcut , which entirely omitted the text , was published after 1620 . There is an example in the British Museum . This was the seventh of the eight editions in all of the print .
Despite its errors , the image remained very popular , and was taken to be an accurate representation of a rhinoceros until the late 18th century . Dürer may have anticipated this and deliberately chosen to create a woodcut , rather than a more refined and detailed engraving , as this was cheaper to produce and more copies could be printed . Images derived from it were included in naturalist texts , including Sebastian Münster 's Cosmographiae ( 1544 ) , Conrad Gessner 's Historiae Animalium ( 1551 ) , Edward Topsell 's Histoire of Foure @-@ footed Beastes ( 1607 ) and many others . A rhinoceros that was clearly based on Dürer 's woodcut was chosen by Alessandro de ' Medici as his emblem in June 1536 , with the motto " Non vuelvo sin vencer " ( old Spanish for " I shall not return without victory " ) . A sculpture of a rhinoceros based on Dürer 's image was placed at the base of a 70 @-@ foot ( 21 m ) high obelisk designed by Jean Goujon and erected in front of the Church of the Sepulchre in the rue Saint @-@ Denis in Paris in 1549 for the royal entry welcoming the arrival of the new King of France , Henry II . A similar rhinoceros , in relief , decorates a panel in one of the bronze west doors of Pisa Cathedral . The rhinoceros was depicted in numerous other paintings and sculptures , and became a popular decoration for porcelain . The popularity of the inaccurate Dürer image remained undiminished despite an Indian rhinoceros spending eight years in Madrid from 1580 to 1588 ( although a few examples of a print of the Madrid rhinoceros sketched by Philippe Galle in Antwerp in 1586 , and derivative works , have survived ) , and the exhibition of a live rhinoceros in London a century later , from 1684 – 86 , and of a second individual after 1739 .
The pre @-@ eminent position of Dürer 's image and its derivatives declined from the mid @-@ to @-@ late @-@ 18th century , when more live rhinoceroses were transported to Europe , shown to the curious public , and depicted in more accurate representations . Jean @-@ Baptiste Oudry painted a life @-@ size portrait of Clara the rhinoceros in 1749 , and George Stubbs painted a large portrait of a rhinoceros in London around 1790 . Both of these paintings were more accurate than Dürer 's woodcut , and a more realistic conception of the rhinoceros gradually started to displace Dürer 's image in the public imagination . In particular , Oudry 's painting was the inspiration for a plate in Buffon 's encyclopedic Histoire naturelle , which was widely copied . In 1790 , James Bruce 's travelogue Travels to discover the source of the Nile dismissed Dürer 's work as " wonderfully ill @-@ executed in all its parts " and " the origin of all the monstrous forms under which that animal has been painted , ever since " . Even so , Bruce 's own illustration of the African white rhinoceros , which is noticeably different in appearance to the Indian rhinoceros , still shares conspicuous inaccuracies with Dürer 's work . Semiotician Umberto Eco argues that Dürer 's " scales and imbricated plates " became a necessary element of depicting the animal , even to those who might know better , because " they knew that only these conventionalized graphic signs could denote « rhinoceros » to the person interpreting the iconic sign . " He also notes that the skin of a rhinoceros is rougher than it visually appears and that such plates and scales portray this non @-@ visual information to a degree .
Until the late 1930s , Dürer 's image appeared in school textbooks in Germany as a faithful image of the rhinoceros ; and it remains a powerful artistic influence . It was one of the inspirations for Salvador Dalí ; a reproduction of the woodcut hung in his childhood home and he used the image in several of his works .
= = Sale history = =
Although very popular , few prints have survived and impressions of the first edition are very rare . A fine example was sold at Christie 's New York in 2013 for $ 866 @,@ 500 , setting a new auction record for the artist .
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= Ontario Highway 130 =
King 's Highway 130 , commonly known as Highway 130 , is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . It begins at a junction with Highway 61 and travels 15 @.@ 4 km ( 9 @.@ 6 mi ) north @-@ west to the Trans @-@ Canada Highway , Highway 11 and Highway 17 , west of Thunder Bay . Highway 130 is a short connecting highway , and passes entirely through the outskirts of Thunder Bay , connecting several minor communities and providing a shortcut for traffic travelling from the south to the west or vice versa . The speed limit along the highway is 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) ; it is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police .
Highway 130 has retained most of its current route since the mid @-@ 1970s , but was longer prior to then , when it extended north of Arthur Street to Oliver Road and then along that road into downtown Thunder Bay , ending at what is now Water Street . The route was originally designated in late 1955 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 130 is situated in the municipality of Oliver Paipoonge , in Thunder Bay District . The short route serves to connect Highway 61 with Highways 11 and 17 west of Thunder Bay , a distance of 15 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 6 mi ) .
Beginning at Highway 61 in the south , the route proceeds straight north along a concession road midway between Monteith Road to the west and Hanna Road to the east . Surrounded almost entirely by farmland , the highway encounters McCluskey Drive one kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) along its route and Candy Mountain Drive two kilometres north of that . At the latter is the small community of Slate River Valley , though relatively few residences are located on the highway . At Barrie Drive , two kilometres north of the community , the highway turns east ; a channelized right turn lane is provided for northbound traffic while southbound traffic is given the right of way at the intersection . The highway travels east to Hanna Road where it turns north ; this junction features a channelized lane for southbound traffic while giving northbound traffic the right of way at the intersection .
Now surrounded by residences to the west and a farm to the west , the highway travels north a short distance before curving to the southeast to cross the Kaministiquia River . Gradually curving back to the north , the route features residences to the south and woodland to the north . It enters the community of Twin City , acting as the main street and intersecting Rosslyn Road immediately north of a Canadian National Railway crossing and the Paipoonge Museum . At Arthur Street , the highway turns west until it ends at Highway 11 and Highway 17 .
= = History = =
Highway 130 was first designated in late 1955 and early 1956 . At that time the route ended in the midst of McIntyre Township ; it began at Algoma Road ( now Water Street ) , then the route of Highway 17 , and followed John Street and Oliver Road . The Department of Highways assumed the portion within McIntyre Township on December 7 , 1955 . Three months later , the route was extended south to Highway 61 when the department assumed the section in Paipoonge Township on March 7 , 1956 .
This route remained in place until the mid @-@ 1970s , when Highway 130 was decommissioned north of Arthur Street ; the section within the newly formed City of Thunder Bay was transferred to the city on October 1 , 1970 , while the section within McIntyre Township remained until at least 1973 . On August 17 , 2007 , the highway was extended by 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) when Highway 11 and Highway 17 , which until then travelled along Arthur Street , were transferred onto the Shabaqua Bypass to the north . As a result , Highway 130 was extended west along Arthur Street to its current terminus at the bypass .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 130 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in Thunder Bay District .
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= No. 91 Wing RAAF =
No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) wing that operated during the Korean War and its immediate aftermath . It was established in October 1950 to administer RAAF units deployed in the conflict : No. 77 ( Fighter ) Squadron , flying North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs ; No. 30 Communications Flight , flying Austers and Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas ; No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron ; and No. 491 ( Maintenance ) Squadron . The wing was headquartered at Iwakuni , Japan , as were its subordinate units with the exception of No. 77 Squadron , which was based in Korea and came under the operational control of the United States Fifth Air Force .
No. 30 Communications Flight was re @-@ designated No. 30 Communications Unit in November 1950 , and No. 30 Transport Unit a year later , before re @-@ forming as No. 36 ( Transport ) Squadron in March 1953 . It undertook medical evacuation , cargo and troop transport , and courier flights . No. 77 Squadron converted to Gloster Meteor jets between April and July 1951 , and operated primarily in the ground attack role from December that year . It remained in Korea on garrison duty following the July 1953 armistice , and returned to Australia in November 1954 ; No. 491 Squadron disbanded the same month . No. 36 Squadron returned to Australia in March 1955 , leaving four aircraft to equip the newly formed RAAF Transport Flight ( Japan ) , which briefly came under No. 91 Wing 's control . The following month , No. 391 Squadron and No. 91 Wing headquarters were disbanded .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and formation = = =
When the Korean War broke out on 25 June 1950 , No. 77 ( Fighter ) Squadron of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) was based at Iwakuni , Japan . For the previous four years , equipped mainly with North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs , it had served with the British Commonwealth Air Group , the air component of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) , initially as part of No. 81 Wing RAAF . No. 81 Wing was disbanded in November 1948 , leaving No. 77 Squadron as Australia 's sole air unit in Japan . It was now the largest squadron in the RAAF , comprising 299 officers and men , forty Mustangs , three CAC Wirraways , two Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas and two Austers . The squadron was preparing to return to Australia when it was placed on standby for action over Korea ; it began flying missions as part of the United Nations ( UN ) peacekeeping force a week later . No. 77 Squadron 's commanding officer , Wing Commander Lou Spence , was killed in action on 9 September 1950 , and Air Commodore Alan Charlesworth , Chief of Staff at BCOF , temporarily took charge at Iwakuni , pending the formation of an overarching organisation for support and administration at the base . Squadron Leader Dick Cresswell arrived on 17 September to assume command of No. 77 Squadron .
Following the landing at Inchon and the northward advance of UN troops , No. 77 Squadron relocated to Pohang , South Korea , on 12 October 1950 . It left behind its main support elements at Iwakuni . No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing was established at the base on 20 October . The term " composite " referred to an RAAF formation made up of disparate operational elements , rather than one comprising a single type such as bombers or fighters . Commanded by Group Captain A.D. ( Dallas ) Charlton , No. 91 Wing was given administrative responsibility for all RAAF units operating during the Korean War . As well as No. 77 Squadron , this included the newly formed No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron and No. 491 ( Maintenance ) Squadron , and No. 30 Communications Flight , formerly the No. 77 Squadron Communications Flight and initially comprising its two Dakotas and two Austers . Apart from No. 77 Squadron , the wing 's units were all headquartered at Iwakuni . Elements of the US Far East Air Forces command favoured the establishment of a British Commonwealth Wing , to include No. 77 Squadron and the Mustang @-@ equipped No. 2 Squadron of the South African Air Force , then en route to Korea , but the South African government vetoed the idea .
= = = Operations = = =
No. 77 Squadron 's tasking was controlled by the United States Fifth Air Force from the time it commenced operations in Korea , and this arrangement was not affected by the formation of No. 91 Wing . It moved forward from Pohang to Yonpo , near Hamhung , in November 1950 , continuing its support of UN forces as they advanced up the peninsula . North Korea 's counter @-@ attack , augmented by Chinese forces , led to the squadron being hurriedly withdrawn to Pusan on 3 December . Poor radio communications with No. 91 Wing dogged the evacuation from Yonpo , which was effected through US Air Force support supplementing the efforts of RAAF Dakotas . Cresswell believed that the Iwakuni @-@ based wing headquarters was not always in tune with frontline requirements , and he often dealt directly with Lieutenant General Sir Horace Robertson , BCOF commander and the theatre 's senior Australian officer , and the RAAF 's Deputy Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal Frederick Scherger .
In response to the threat of Chinese Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 15 jet fighters , No. 77 Squadron was withdrawn to Iwakuni in April 1951 , to re @-@ equip with Gloster Meteors . Four Royal Air Force officers with Meteor experience were seconded to No. 91 Wing to assist with training . The squadron returned to action with its new aircraft on 29 July , operating out of Kimpo , South Korea . The Mustangs had been highly effective in close support , but No. 77 Squadron 's main role in the RAAF was interception , and it was expected that with the Meteor it could again focus on fighter duties . According to the official history of Australia in the Korean War , the unit proved its value diplomatically as well as operationally : having been one of the first UN squadrons to go into action , it comprised one @-@ third of the jet fighter force in the latter part of 1951 , when clashes in " MiG Alley " were at their height . However , dogfights between Meteors and MiGs that August convinced the new commanding officer , Wing Commander Gordon Steege , that the Australian jets were outmatched , and Fifth Air Force agreed to take them out of an offensive air @-@ to @-@ air combat role in favour of escort and local air defence . The squadron 's loss rate by the end of the year was one in four killed or captured .
Beginning in December 1951 under Steege 's replacement , Wing Commander Ron Susans , No. 77 Squadron again took up an offensive role , namely ground attack , which constituted its primary tasking for the rest of the war . Flight Lieutenant J.C. Smith , No. 91 Wing 's armament officer , played a key role in developing " Flaming Onion " , napalm @-@ tipped air @-@ to @-@ ground rockets that were used in several operations in 1952 and 1953 . No. 77 Squadron remained in Korea on garrison duty — initially at Kimpo , later at Kunsan — following the armistice in July 1953 . It had lost forty @-@ one pilots killed during the war . A further seven pilots became prisoners of war . Aircraft losses totalled almost sixty , including over forty Meteors , mostly to ground fire . The squadron flew 18 @,@ 872 sorties , including 3 @,@ 872 in Mustangs and 15 @,@ 000 in Meteors . It was credited with shooting down five MiG @-@ 15s and destroying 3 @,@ 700 buildings , 1 @,@ 408 vehicles , ninety @-@ eight locomotives and carriages , and sixteen bridges .
No. 30 Communications Flight included Robertson 's personal Dakota , operating under his direction . The unit 's complement of two Dakotas and two Austers was soon augmented by two more Dakotas from Australia . On 1 November 1950 , No. 30 Communications Flight was renamed No. 30 Communications Unit . The same month , it received another four Dakotas from No. 38 Squadron , of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing in Malaya , giving it a strength of eight Dakotas and two Austers . The unit supported all Australian forces in Korea . One of its key functions was medical evacuation , but it was also responsible for supply drops , search and rescue , reconnaissance , and mail delivery , as well as transporting cargo , troops , and VIPs . Unlike No. 77 Squadron , it was not tasked by Fifth Air Force but instead operated under Australian control , which was exercised through BCOF headquarters in Japan . No. 30 Communications Unit was re @-@ formed as No. 30 Transport Unit on 5 November 1951 , and as No. 36 ( Transport ) Squadron on 10 March 1953 . During the war it transported around 100 @,@ 000 passengers and over 6 @,@ 000 tons of cargo . No. 91 Wing 's records listed 12 @,@ 762 medical evacuations from Korea to Japan , and over 2 @,@ 000 from Japan to Australia or Britain . The transportation unit lost an Auster and a Wirraway to crashes , resulting in four deaths .
= = = Support = = =
When the Korean War broke out , No. 77 Squadron was self @-@ supporting . The added burden of combat operations made this situation untenable after the squadron went into action in Korea , leading to the formation of No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron at Iwakuni , at the same time as No. 91 Wing headquarters . RAAF base squadrons were responsible for administrative , logistical , medical , communications and security functions . Staffed mainly by former No. 77 Squadron members , in the first year of its existence No. 391 Squadron had to contend with severe shortages of winter clothing and equipment . Further problems arose following the introduction of the Meteor , as spares for the British @-@ made jet were harder to obtain than for the American Mustang . Along with its RAAF responsibilities , No. 391 Squadron supported Australian Army and other UN personnel travelling through Iwakuni . It ran No. 91 Wing 's " Transit Hotel " , which accommodated business people and entertainers , as well as military personnel . The squadron 's medical contingent was heavily engaged in the preparation and escort of injured personnel from Korea to Iwakuni and then to other destinations .
No. 491 Squadron was also formed in tandem with No. 91 Wing on 20 October 1950 . Headquartered at Iwakuni , it was responsible for all maintenance of the wing 's aircraft except day @-@ to @-@ day servicing . A section was attached to No. 77 Squadron in Korea to assist ground staff with daily maintenance . Personnel from Iwakuni were regularly rotated through this section , and augmented by additional No. 491 Squadron staff as needed for repair or salvage work . The standard RAAF working days for technicians at Iwakuni contrasted with shifts of up to sixteen hours near the front line in Korea . Korea was one of the coldest climates in which RAAF ground crews had ever worked ; Squadron Leader Cresswell recalled seeing maintenance staff with tools frozen to their hands . Both Nos. 391 and 491 Squadrons used Japanese technicians as well as Australian , which was unusual for the time ; during the occupation of Japan following its surrender in World War II , the RAAF had only employed Japanese workers for menial tasks .
= = = Disbandment = = =
No. 77 Squadron stood down at Kunsan on 7 October 1954 and flew its Meteors to Iwakuni five days later . It departed for Australia in November and became operational again at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales , on 4 January 1955 . Its eleven @-@ year absence from Australia , beginning in the Pacific during World War II and continuing in Japan as part of BCOF , was a record for an RAAF unit . No. 491 Squadron disbanded at Iwakuni on 13 December 1954 . No. 36 Squadron ceased flying on 13 March 1955 and returned to Australia , leaving behind three Dakotas and a Wirraway that equipped RAAF Transport Flight ( Japan ) , formed the following day under No. 91 Wing . No. 391 Squadron and No. 91 Wing headquarters were disbanded at Iwakuni on 30 April 1955 . Transport Flight ( Japan ) flew a courier service to South Korea and remained operational until 8 July 1956 , when its last Dakota — the last RAAF aircraft in Japan — departed Iwakanu .
= = Commanding officers = =
No. 91 Wing was commanded by the following officers :
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= Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts =
Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts is an action @-@ adventure video game developed by Rare and published by Microsoft Game Studios . The third instalment of the Banjo @-@ Kazooie series , it was released for the Xbox 360 worldwide in November 2008 . The game takes place eight years after the events of Banjo @-@ Tooie , and marks the return of series antagonist Gruntilda , who plans to take over Spiral Mountain . In order to defeat Gruntilda , series protagonists Banjo and Kazooie must compete in a set of vehicle @-@ based challenges .
The game revolves around vehicle construction , in which the player must design their own vehicles ranging from automobiles , motorbikes , boats and aeroplanes . Gameplay itself is centred on completing a series of challenges depending on the specific vehicle , although some parts of the game retain platforming traits . Development of the game first began as a remake of the original Banjo @-@ Kazooie , although a game which involved " more traditional platforming " was conceptualised . Eventually , the project evolved into a construction @-@ orientated game which was inspired by connecting Lego blocks .
Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts received mixed reviews upon release . Critics were largely divided over the concept of vehicle @-@ orientated gameplay , however some critics praised its mechanics and innovation . The game sold a total of 140 @,@ 000 units by the end of 2008 in the United States . The game has also achieved " Platinum Hits " status , which means it sold at least 400 @,@ 000 units during its first nine months of release . In 2010 , the game was included as one of the titles in the book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die . The game is also included in the Rare Replay retrospective compilation , released for the Xbox One in 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts primarily revolves around vehicle construction , in which the player must construct their own vehicles after collecting specific vehicle parts . In contrast to its predecessors , there are no conventional " moves " for Banjo and Kazooie to use , apart from melee attacks Kazooie performs with her spanner . The game 's hub world is Showdown Town , which contains various portals that lead to six worlds . Each world contains three levels , one boss level , and a series of various challenges , although exploration of these worlds are optional . The key part of the game is to earn " Jiggies " in order to unlock new worlds , and accumulate enough Jiggies to unlock the final world , which contains the final boss .
The centre of Showdown Town houses L.O.G 's factory , which dispenses " game globes " whenever a certain Jiggy total is reached . Placing the globes onto special stands unlocks the game 's levels . Each level features a set of challenges , which vary from races , combat and objectives such as salom jumping . The game also features vehicular @-@ combat ; players may equip weapons onto their vehicles to use against opposing vehicles . Players who surpass a challenge 's best score will be rewarded with a Trophy ; collecting four trophies will earn them an additional Jiggy from Trophy Thomas . Each Jiggy extracted from the levels appears in " Jig @-@ o @-@ Vend " collection units scattered in crates around Showdown Town . The player must vend the Jiggies and physically carry them over to the central " Jiggy Bank " device to affect the total of Jiggies . Showdown Town also houses Mumbo 's Motors , a workshop where the player may create and design their own vehicles .
Vehicles play a prominent role in the game , replacing the moves and transformations featured in its predecessors . The vehicles can be built freely by the player from over 1600 different components available , such as body panels , engines , wheels , wings , propellers , fuel tanks and weapons . Vehicles range from automobiles , motorbikes , boats and aeroplanes . In order to create vehicles , the player must collect vehicle parts and bluepints which are scattered throughout the hub world , or can be earned after winning specific challenges . The player may also purchase preset blueprints and vehicle parts from Humba Wumba in Showdown Town . In addition , players can also send and receive blueprints over Xbox Live .
The game retains some platforming traits ; the player may disembark from a vehicle and explore the environment in a manner similar to that of the previous games . On foot the duo can grab ledges , swim underwater , balance on tightropes and perform basic jumps . Kazooie 's spanner can also be used as a melee weapon outside of the vehicle , in addition to levitating lopsided vehicles . Banjo and Kazooie have limited attack power and agility on foot at first , but the duo can upgrade their speed , stamina and strength by visiting Boggy 's gym in the game 's hub world . Scattered around the game 's six worlds are musical notes , which serve as currency for the player to purchase certain items such as blueprints , parts , and access to advanced vehicles . Musical notes vary in value as determined by its colour ; gold , silver or bronze . Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts also features an online multiplayer ; players can compete in challenges such as races and combat over Xbox Live . In addition , players can share their own vehicle designs and blueprints online .
Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts and Bolts features bonus content unlocked through the use of " Stop ' N ' Swop " , a feature first introduced in the original Banjo @-@ Kazooie . By collecting the six Mystery Eggs and Ice Key in the Xbox Live Arcade re @-@ release of Banjo @-@ Kazooie , players will be able to find special vehicle part crates in Nuts & Bolts ' overworld , which can be used to unlock novelty vehicle parts , such as a disco ball or fuzzy dice . By using the Stop ' N ' Swop items in the XBLA version of Banjo @-@ Tooie as well , players who purchase the " L.O.G. ' s Lost Challenges " DLC gain access to seven additional vehicle blueprints created by fans who won a blueprint design contest held by Rare .
= = Plot = =
The game takes place eight years following the conclusion of Banjo @-@ Tooie , in which Gruntilda 's body was destroyed and vapourised by Banjo and Kazooie . The two have become obese since their last adventure , and have since spent eight years overeating , playing video games and listening to the radio . They soon discover Gruntilda 's detached head returning to their home , Spiral Mountain , who is planning revenge on Banjo and Kazooie . They are about to fight when they are stopped by the sudden appearance of the Lord of Games ( L.O.G. ) , the creator of all video games . He decides to settle the conflict between the two by devising a series of worlds and challenges . He uses his powers to give Gruntilda an artificial body and to restore the duo 's physical fitness , but not their moves from previous games , claiming that they will not need them .
L.O.G. transports the characters to Showdown Town , his headquarters , and starts the contest . The winner would be set to own Spiral Mountain ; the loser must endure eternal hardship at L.O.G. ' s video game factory . While Banjo and Kazooie seek to win by completing the challenges , Gruntilda uses her powers and abilities to try to stop the duo , with a cat named Piddles and an army of mechanical robots assisting the witch in her goal . The game ends with Gruntilda and Banjo participating in a final duel in Spiral Mountain . Banjo and Kazooie destroy all of Gruntilda 's vehicles and prepare to fight back as she gets back up , but L.O.G. returns and declares Banjo the winner . After L.O.G. sends Gruntilda off to work at his video game factory , he rewards Banjo and Kazooie by giving them the deeds to Spiral Mountain and restoring their moves , while Banjo 's friends reveal that they have restored his house after its destruction in Banjo @-@ Tooie . Meanwhile , Gruntilda declares that bringing her to the factory was a mistake and vows that she will make her own video game .
= = Development = =
According to designer Gregg Mayles , the first idea was to create a remake of the first Banjo @-@ Kazooie for the Xbox 360 , and the team 's second choice was to involve " more traditional platforming " , however they felt that the latter was a " stale " approach and deemed the former too similar to previous titles to have an impact . Ed Bryan revealed that the next idea the team wanted to conceive was a game " where you could build stuff " . Initially , Rare co @-@ founder Tim Stamper suggested that game revolve around an " interactive lego set " ; the team designed a prototype sandbox which involved the player putting blocks together to create vehicles . According to designer Steve Mulpass , the prototype was set in the first level of the cancelled Banjo @-@ Kazooie remake , and the most difficult part of initial designing stages was creating a user interface for players to design vehicles with . Furthermore , Mayles stated that understanding how to construct vehicle parts in a three @-@ dimensional space was exceptionally difficult , and making the vehicles playable was a " colossal challenge " . While the game was in early development , Mayles hinted at the new direction :
On 17 October 2007 , designer Justin Cook revealed in an interview with PC Zone that the then @-@ untitled project was in designing stages , with the entire core team from the original Banjo @-@ Kazooie giving it full @-@ time attention . During development , Mayles asserted that getting the in @-@ game editor powerful enough to ensure that players could build " what they liked " . For re @-@ designing the characters of Banjo and Kazooie , Mayles and Bryan were tasked with finding a suitable way to update the two characters . Initially , they designed high @-@ resolution characters for the protagonists , however Bryan recalled that they lacked " the charm " the original game held . Later during development , Bryan suggested that the characters in the game should appear cuboid , and thus finalised the designs with smooth edges , whilst retaining the two character 's original appearances . Due to the game revolving around the theme of construction , the team went to lengths to ensure that the game 's aesthetics look like " everything was constructed " with patchwork , to give the illusion that " everything was patched together " . Mayles stated that all of the voice @-@ work from the characters were performed in @-@ house by Rare staff ; Banjo @-@ Kazooie lead programmer Chris Sutherland reprised his role of voicing Banjo and Kazooie .
= = = Music = = =
The music was composed by Robin Beanland , Grant Kirkhope and Dave Clynick . Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts was the final game worked on by Kirkhope , a Rare employee since 1995 . The soundtrack is orchestrated and features both remastered arrangements of existing music from the series , and new pieces entirely . The music was performed by The City of Prague Philharmonic Orchestra . On 29 June 2009 , Rare announced that the game 's soundtrack would be released and available to purchase on Amazon and iTunes . The soundtrack was released by the label Sumthing Else .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
A downloadable add @-@ on for Nuts & Bolts , titled " L.O.G. ' s Lost Challenges " , was released on 7 April 2009 . The content is set in the " Test @-@ o @-@ Track " area of Mumbo 's Motors , and includes six new missions with twelve additional Jiggies to earn : six for completing the missions with pre @-@ determined vehicles , and six for completing the missions with vehicles designed by the player . Collecting all twelve Jiggies will unlock " Hero Klungo Sssavesss Teh Universsse " , a set of new levels for the " Hero Klungo Sssavesss Teh World " minigame . The add @-@ on also includes seven new multiplayer game types .
= = Reception = =
The game received a mixed reception from the community for not featuring certain key elements found in previous games . According to Rare , the early reception was " expected " . The game received mostly positive reviews from critics upon release . It holds an average score of 79 / 100 at Metacritic , based on an aggregate of 71 reviews . The vehicular @-@ based mechanics of the game were met with scepticism from many reviewers . Tom Bradwell of Eurogamer criticised the overall design of vehicles and the lack of traditional platforming as " unfair " , alongside citing a " weak mission design " . Ben Reeves of Game Informer stated that the mission structure was a " mixed bag " , asserting that racing was largely repetitive and " derivative " . Tom McShea of GameSpot praised the variety of the mission structure and vehicle building , stating that each " problem " requires creative thinking and innovation . However , McShea criticised the controls and physics of some of the vehicles , thus adding difficulty to the overall experience . Sterling McGarvey of GameSpy called Rare 's decision to " move the emphasis away from platforming " and toward creation as bold , however he criticised the game 's mechanics and manoeuvrability of land @-@ based vehicles , although he noted that aeroplanes and helicopters were easy to utilise . McGarvey furthermore criticised the manoeuvrability of vehicles , stating that it was overall frustrating on how much the game relied on the awkward mechanics .
Brad Shoemaker of Giant Bomb praised the driving mechanics and vehicle construction , despite initially being frustrated with the game 's controls . Shoemaker praised the innovation the game offered ; stating that the vehicle @-@ building and enormous variety of mission types would attract all audiences . A reviewer of GamesRadar heavily criticised the overall mechanics and vehicular gameplay , stating that it was both " ridiculously complicated " and unsuitable for a Banjo game . The reviewer of GamesRadar also criticised Rare 's " old habit " of " collect @-@ a @-@ thons " , asserting that all the elements of the game were " clumsily put together " and the aspects of unlocking new levels were difficult to understand due to the many items that were pre @-@ required . Andrew Reiner of Game Informer heralded the vehicle construction as " fun " , however he criticised Rare 's " habit of forcing the player " to collect large quantities of items to build their vehicles and progress through the game . A reviewer of GameTrailers similarly criticised the vehicular theme of the game , citing that the sensitive physics and controls adds up to an overall frustrating experience . Erik Brudvig of IGN US praised the game 's absence of platform elements , and asked fans of Banjo @-@ Kazooie not to " write the game off " due to its change in genre . Brudvig also heralded the vehicle @-@ creation as " powerful " and the depth of the game 's mechanics . However , Matt Wales of IGN UK criticised the new direction of the game 's genre , summarising the lack of platforming action as " screwed up " . Wales stated that the game 's mechanics and vehicle construction " fails badly " due to the lack of " any fundamentally engaging " framework to support the game 's creative elements . Tom Orry of VideoGamer praised the complex construction of vehicles and stated that it was the most rewarding aspect of the game . Chris Kohler of Wired heavily criticised the mechanics , challenges and new genre of the game , panning the overall experience as a " disappointing , simplistic sandbox " . Kohler also added that the racing missions were " boring " and frustrating , similarly stating the same for vehicle customisation . In a retrospective review , David Roberts of GamesRadar stated that Nuts & Bolts " laid down groundwork " for future games that revolve around construction , such as Fallout 4 and Kerbal Space Program .
Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts sold a total of 140 @,@ 000 units by the end of 2008 in the United States . The game has also achieved " Platinum Hits " status , which means it sold at least 400 @,@ 000 units during its first nine months of release . The game also surpassed 100 @,@ 000 units in the United Kingdom . In 2010 , the game was included as one of the titles in the book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die .
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= Thunder ( mascot ) =
Thunder is the stage name for the horse who is the official live animal mascot for the Denver Broncos football team . Three purebred Arabians have held this role since 1993 , all gray horses whose coats lightened with age until they turned completely white . Sharon Magness @-@ Blake has owned all three horses , and Ann Judge has been their rider since 1998 and trainer since 1999 . As of 2016 , Thunder has appeared in four Super Bowls with the team since 1998 . The original Thunder performed in Super Bowl XXXII and Super Bowl XXXIII and Thunder III appeared in Super Bowl XLVIII and Super Bowl 50 . Thunder III also made appearances in Times Square and on television morning news shows in New York City as part of the pre @-@ game promotion for Super Bowl XLVII . He routinely appears in parades , makes hospital and school visits , and attends various other public functions . He has been flown on airplanes , ridden in elevators , and appeared indoors at press conferences and banquets .
Thunder 's duties as mascot typically include leading the team onto the field at the start of every home game , and a gallop down the length of the field whenever the team scores a touchdown or field goal . Thunder and his rider also interact with fans before the game ; the horse is particularly popular with children , who are allowed to pet him . The horses who have served as Thunder need to remain calm in situations that would normally frighten most horses , such as being in football stadiums with thousands of cheering fans , exploding pyrotechnics , cheerleaders waving pom @-@ poms , and other spectacles common to National Football League ( NFL ) games . Thunder shares mascot duties with Miles , a human who wears a horse head mask atop a Broncos uniform .
The original Thunder , later named " Thunder , Sr. " , was described as bold and courageous . He was a stallion registered as JB Kobask , a former show horse , who was team mascot for the Broncos from 1993 until his retirement in 2004 . He continued making community appearances until his death in 2009 . Thunder , Sr. was succeeded in 2004 by " Thunder II " , an Arabian gelding registered as Winter Solstyce . He had been the personal pleasure riding horse of Magness @-@ Blake . Judge described him as being somewhat timid when he first began his role as mascot but eventually grew into it . He retired from mascot duties in early 2014 but appeared in the 2016 Super Bowl 50 victory parade in downtown Denver following the Broncos win over the Carolina Panthers . " Thunder III " , a gelding registered as Me N Myshadow , was the understudy to Thunder II , and trained specifically for mascot duties beginning at age three when he was started under saddle . He began performing at preseason games in 2013 . Although Thunder II was still active as team mascot during the 2013 – 14 season , Thunder III was sent to Super Bowl XLVIII because he was younger and better able to handle air travel . He is described as laid @-@ back , preferring to doze off during games when not performing .
= = History = =
The original " Thunder " , JB Kobask , was loaned to the Denver Broncos by Sharon Magness @-@ Blake of Magness Arabians after she received a phone call from team officials asking if she had a " white " horse . Thunder 's debut as team mascot was on September 12 , 1993 during the Denver Broncos ' victory over the San Diego Chargers . Angela Moore , his rider at the time , galloped him down the field after each Bronco touchdown . Thunder 's mascot duties were expanded to include delivering the game ball to the referees at the start of each home game . Spectators were allowed to interact with Thunder and pet him prior to the game . Magness said , " Thunder is friendly , and Broncos fans think it 's good luck for the opposing team to pet our mascot " . He was particularly popular with children , appeared on T @-@ shirts , and was referred to as the " second most popular Bronco " after former quarterback John Elway . Thunder appeared at Elway 's 1999 retirement gala . When team uniforms were redesigned in 1997 , Thunder was the inspiration to incorporate a horse @-@ head profile as part of the logo on the team 's helmets . During a February 4 , 1997 press conference introducing the new logo , the team president and the art director for Nike , creators of the new design , described it as " a powerful horse with a fiery eye and mane . "
The original Thunder , also known as Thunder , Sr. , was retired in 2004 after serving 11 years as the team mascot . Magness @-@ Blake replaced him with Thunder II , a 1994 Arabian gelding registered as Winter Solstyce . He was Magness @-@ Blake 's personal pleasure riding horse prior to taking on his new role as team mascot . As Thunder II grew older , Magness @-@ Blake anticipated the need for a replacement and added a third gray horse to the team . He became known as Thunder III , a 2000 Arabian gelding registered as Me N Myshadow . Thunder III initially served as the understudy for Thunder II , and was trained specifically for the role of team mascot from his start under saddle .
= = Mascot duties = =
Thunder leads the team onto the field at the beginning of each home game , and typically gallops from one end of the field to the other whenever the team makes a touchdown . He may also make a run after a field goal , but not a safety . Each time he makes a run , a four @-@ person crew runs down the sidelines to the end zone to escort Thunder back to his sideline position . Extra handlers ensure the safety of the horse and surrounding people . Thunder 's helpers also remove any manure that he might drop while on the field . As well as his support crew , Thunder has a bodyguard who travels to the games . Thunder shares mascot duties with Miles , a human who wears a horse head mask atop a Broncos uniform .
The horses who have served as Thunder have been trained to remain calm in situations that would normally cause a horse to respond with a fight @-@ or @-@ flight response , such as the flashing explosions of a pyrotechnic display , or items suddenly landing on the field including skydivers with parachutes and various objects thrown by spectators , or loud music and the sounds associated with tens of thousands of cheering fans at Mile High . Ann Judge has explained that because so many unexpected things can happen , it is important that the people working with him remain calm ; it is trust in his rider and handlers , not just desensitization , that helps the horse remain steady : " You want them to look to you for the appropriate response and for confidence and faith so that the flight response doesn ’ t get initiated . " She describes the process by saying , " if something is fearful to him , as long as he looks to me , and I tell him he ’ s OK , he ’ s OK . " The only frightening stimuli that was an ongoing problem for both Thunder Sr. and Thunder II was when the crowd would perform the wave ; Thunder Sr. would stand still , but tremble . Thunder II would become tense , requiring ground handlers and his rider to help steady him . Thunder III is the first of the mascots to tolerate wearing earplugs , which help protect his hearing from loud noises during games .
Magness @-@ Blake said one of the most dangerous parts of Thunder 's job is at the beginning of the game when he leads the team onto the field , as there are cheerleaders ahead of him waving their pom @-@ poms and a team of excited football players behind him . Ann Judge has also remarked about the team getting " amped up " with energy and excitement as Thunder leads them onto the field , explaining that " To him , amped up means danger . " On one occasion , a person walked out unexpectedly in front of Thunder as he was leading the players onto the field . Thunder stopped immediately , averting a potentially dangerous situation . Another unexpected event occurred in 2014 during Super Bowl XLVIII when the pyrotechnics display was supposed to have been executed before Thunder led the team out but it went off unexpectedly during his run . Thunder responded to the situation with aplomb , continuing to run forward onto the field , though he performed flying lead changes with each explosion .
Thunder 's record number of runs may have been during a 52 – 20 win on September 29 , 2013 , when he crossed the field eight times . Broncos quarterback Peyton Manning joked , " Might have to give ol ' Thunder an I.V. after this one . " Judge said Thunder , age 19 at the time , was not tired at all , describing him as " full of spit and vinegar " the next day .
Thunder appears primarily at home games , but has been transported out @-@ of @-@ state when the Broncos played in the Super Bowl . While at home , Thunder arrives at Mile High approximately two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours before kickoff . He is trailered into the stadium via the visitor 's tunnel . He has a large private box stall located next to the visitor 's locker room , and has hay , water and treats , including a big basket of carrots and apples . Judge signs autographs for about 45 minutes before each game , allowing fans , particularly children , an opportunity to become better acquainted with Thunder . Thunder usually leaves the field before the game is over . He is loaded into a horse trailer and hauled out of the stadium at the two @-@ minute warning .
Thunder has other duties off the field , and has appeared at many public exhibitions and charity functions in the Denver area , including visits to schools and hospitals . He has appeared frequently as part of the color guard at Denver 's annual National Western Stock Show . Thunder has gone up elevators , walked through indoor tunnels , has been ridden among the banquet tables at Magness @-@ Blake 's Western Fantasy fundraiser , and has attended indoor and outdoor press conferences .
= = = Super Bowl appearances = = =
At Super Bowl XXXII in 1998 in San Diego , Thunder Sr. appeared on the field after touchdowns . It was his first away game , and required 26 hours of trailering to reach the destination . Upon returning home , he led the team 's victory parade in front of 600 @,@ 000 fans in Denver . Thunder also attended Super Bowl XXXIII in Miami in 1999 .
In early 2014 , Thunder was again granted permission by the NFL to appear at Super Bowl XLVIII . Thunder III , age 14 at the time , made the trip because of concerns over Thunder II 's age ( 20 yrs ) and the stress some horses experience during air travel . It was the first time a Thunder mascot had been flown . He was transported to the east coast in a FedEx cargo plane , designed and equipped by Dutta Corporation specifically for transporting horses . FedEx sponsored the plane trip for its promotional value ; the cost for which normally runs about $ 20 @,@ 000 . The day after his arrival in Newark , New Jersey , Thunder was hauled into New York City for television appearances on Today , and Fox & Friends . He also walked through Times Square .
At Super Bowl XLVIII , Thunder led the team onto the field at the start of the game , making it the first Super Bowl where he was allowed to do so . Thunder was also allowed to run in the end zone after a touchdown , but because MetLife Stadium was considered a neutral zone for both teams , he was not allowed to run the length of the field .
For Super Bowl 50 , Thunder III was trailered to San Francisco , a two @-@ day trip that took four days because of ice and snow , further complicated by a 24 @-@ hour closure of I @-@ 80 . Upon arrival , Thunder was stabled at the Stanford Equestrian Center . Thunder II , who was retired at the end of the 2013 – 2014 season after the Broncos won the AFC Championship game , had remained in Denver . On the following Tuesday , he led the team in the Denver victory parade while Thunder III was still on the road heading home .
= = Background = =
= = = People = = =
Magness @-@ Blake owned all three of the Arabian horses that portrayed Thunder . She grew up poor in Philadelphia , and did not ride a horse until she was 20 years old . She married Bob Magness , founder of Tele @-@ Communications Inc . , who also loved horses , and together they began an Arabian breeding operation that at its peak had 900 horses . Following the death of her husband in November 1996 , Magness @-@ Blake downsized the horse operation and currently owns about 15 horses . In 2004 , she married Ernie Blake , an attorney and the mayor of Breckenridge who also loves horses . The couple , along with two other people , are part of Thunder 's ground crew at football games .
The first horse trainer for JB Kobask as Thunder was Tom Hudson , the trainer for Magness Arabians at the time . The mascot 's first rider was Angela Moore , then a 19 @-@ year @-@ old assistant trainer to Hudson and a graduate of Colorado State University . Ann Judge , also known as Ann Judge @-@ Wegener , became Thunder 's rider in 1998 . A year later , Judge took over as trainer as well as rider . She has been the trainer and rider of Thunder II for his entire career with the Broncos , and also does so for Thunder III . Judge grew up on an Arabian horse farm near West Lafayette , Indiana , and graduated from Purdue University in 1980 with a degree in English Education . She has ridden horses since she was five years old , was a participant in 4 @-@ H as a youth , and after finishing college became a horse trainer , first working in South Carolina and then in Colorado . Judge has been described by Broncos ' management as an " accomplished equestrian " . She has competed at the national level in Arabian and Pinto horse show competition . She is also a horse show judge who has adjudicated national and international events . Both Thunder II and Thunder III are stabled at Judge 's farm in Bennett , Colorado .
= = = Horses = = =
= = = = Thunder Sr. = = = =
JB Kobask , a purebred Arabian stallion foaled in 1983 , became the first live horse mascot for the Broncos in 1993 after a successful horse show career . He was a son of the reserve U.S. National Champion Arabian Stallion GG Jabask , and a grandson of the Polish @-@ bred Arabian * Bask , a multiple U.S. National Champion after his importation to the United States . JB Kobask also had a substantial amount of Crabbet breeding in his pedigree .
The stallion was kicked by a mare in a 1997 breeding accident , resulting in a fracture that required two arthroscopic surgeries on his stifle , akin to knee surgery on a human , and was out of commission for six weeks ; another two months was needed before he could gallop at full speed . Following his recovery , he resumed his mascot duties and appeared at Super Bowl XXXII in January 1998 . He served as the Broncos mascot for 11 years and was retired in 2004 after developing arthritis , which made it difficult for him to gallop down the field . He continued to make community appearances until his death in 2009 at age 27 .
Thunder , Sr. was noted for his bold personality , and was described by Magness @-@ Blake as having " a strong ego " . He had been trained to rear on command . Yet he remained calm and controlled in very intense situations , and Judge believed he had a sixth sense for when to be energetic for a performance and when to calm down . The stallion was notably gentle around children who wanted to pet him . During games , when he was waiting to perform , he had a tendency to watch players on the field .
= = = = Thunder II = = = =
Winter Solstyce , an Arabian gelding foaled in 1994 , became " Thunder II " in 2004 . He was Magness @-@ Blake 's personal riding horse for several years prior to becoming the Broncos ' mascot . His paternal grandsire is * Salon , a Russian @-@ bred Arabian stallion from the Tersk Stud exported first to Germany and later brought to the United States . Winter Solstyce 's maternal grandsire is * Gondolier , who was a Polish National Champion and World Champion Arabian stallion at the Salon du Cheval in Paris , imported to the U.S. in 1981 . The remainder of his lineage traces back to the Arabian horse breeding programs of Poland and Russia . He is linebred to the stallion Negatiw , who appears four times in his pedigree .
Thunder II stands 14 @.@ 3 hands ( 59 inches , 150 cm ) tall and weighs over 900 pounds ( 410 kg ) . Nicknamed " Dos " by Judge , Thunder II has been described as somewhat timid with a more subdued personality than his predecessor . Initially , he was nervous of the white markings on the football field and would try to jump over them . He was also afraid of the cheerleaders ' pom @-@ poms . For desensitization training , Judge and the rest of Thunder 's team would haul him to the football field at a local high school to work with people carrying pom @-@ poms and to run across a marked field . His handlers used operant conditioning with positive reinforcement , associating pom @-@ poms with a carrot treat . Eventually , he began turning to his handlers anticipating a treat whenever he saw a cheerleader with pom @-@ poms .
Thunder II would look attentively with his ears forward , seemingly on cue , for his picture to be taken whenever a photographer pointed a camera at him . He is known for being people @-@ friendly and particularly gentle with children who became acquainted with him prior to each game . Instead of watching players on the field the way Thunder Sr. did , Thunder II liked to observe the people in the stands . When bored , he has entertained himself by grabbing the zipper pulls of his handlers ' jackets and running them up and down . He also learned how to unscrew water bottles and squeeze them to get water . Officially retired in 2014 , Thunder II occasionally makes public appearances .
= = = = Thunder III = = = =
Thunder III is Me N Myshadow , a 2000 Arabian gelding , and third purebred Arabian to serve as team mascot . Ann Judge calls him " Tres " . Me N Myshadow is sired by Monarch AH out of a * Gondolier daughter , making him a distant cousin to Winter Solstyce . Monarch AH was a race horse who won 19 of his 23 races , including several graded stakes races for Arabians , earning US $ 213 @,@ 646 . He was a son of the Polish import * Wiking , an all @-@ time leading sire of Arabian racehorses . When Magness @-@ Blake downsized her horse breeding program , Monarch AH was sold to Sheikh Sultan Bin Zayad Al Nahyan of the United Arab Emirates .
Thunder III began his mascot duties as the understudy to Thunder II . He appeared at a few preseason home games in 2013 , and made most public appearances as team mascot in the Denver community that same year . His major public debut was in 2014 as team mascot at Super Bowl XLVIII in New Jersey .
Thunder III had been trained specifically for the role of Thunder , beginning at age three when Judge first started working with him under saddle . He was exposed to a variety of situations , including open horse shows where he could become accustomed to crowds and activity . Like Thunder II , he has appeared at Magness @-@ Blake 's annual Western Fantasy fundraising banquet for the Volunteers of America . He is people friendly and has been described as " social " and " quite the poser " . Unlike his predecessors , he tends to ignore the antics at football games , preferring to doze off when not performing .
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= Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky =
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky ( / ˈpjoʊtər ɪˈljɪtʃ tʃaɪˈkɒfski / ; Russian : Пётр Ильи ́ ч Чайко ́ вский ; tr . Pyotr Ilyich Chaykovsky ; 25 April / 7 May 1840 – 25 October / 6 November 1893 ) , often anglicized as Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky , was a Russian composer of the late @-@ Romantic period , some of whose works are among the most popular music in the classical repertoire . He was the first Russian composer whose music made a lasting impression internationally , bolstered by his appearances as a guest conductor in Europe and the United States . Tchaikovsky was honored in 1884 , by Emperor Alexander III , and awarded a lifetime pension .
Although musically precocious , Tchaikovsky was educated for a career as a civil servant . There was scant opportunity for a musical career in Russia at that time and no system of public music education . When an opportunity for such an education arose , he entered the nascent Saint Petersburg Conservatory , from which he graduated in 1865 . The formal Western @-@ oriented teaching he received there set him apart from composers of the contemporary nationalist movement embodied by the Russian composers of The Five , with whom his professional relationship was mixed . Tchaikovsky 's training set him on a path to reconcile what he had learned with the native musical practices to which he had been exposed from childhood . From this reconciliation , he forged a personal but unmistakably Russian style — a task that did not prove easy . The principles that governed melody , harmony and other fundamentals of Russian music ran completely counter to those that governed Western European music ; this seemed to defeat the potential for using Russian music in large @-@ scale Western composition or from forming a composite style , and it caused personal antipathies that dented Tchaikovsky 's self @-@ confidence . Russian culture exhibited a split personality , with its native and adopted elements having drifted apart increasingly since the time of Peter the Great . This resulted in uncertainty among the intelligentsia about the country 's national identity — an ambiguity mirrored in Tchaikovsky 's career .
Despite his many popular successes , Tchaikovsky 's life was punctuated by personal crises and depression . Contributory factors included his early separation from his mother for boarding school followed by his mother 's early death , the death of his close friend and colleague Nikolai Rubinstein , and the collapse of the one enduring relationship of his adult life , which was his 13 @-@ year association with the wealthy widow Nadezhda von Meck . His homosexuality , which he kept private , has traditionally also been considered a major factor , though some musicologists now downplay its importance . Tchaikovsky 's sudden death at the age of 53 is generally ascribed to cholera ; there is an ongoing debate as to whether cholera was indeed the cause of death , or if it was accidental or self @-@ inflicted .
While his music has remained popular among audiences , critical opinions were initially mixed . Some Russians did not feel it was sufficiently representative of native musical values and expressed suspicion that Europeans accepted the music for its Western elements . In an apparent reinforcement of the latter claim , some Europeans lauded Tchaikovsky for offering music more substantive than base exoticism , and said he transcended stereotypes of Russian classical music . Others dismissed Tchaikovsky 's music as " lacking in elevated thought , " according to longtime New York Times music critic Harold C. Schonberg , and derided its formal workings as deficient because they did not stringently follow Western principles .
= = Life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky was born in Votkinsk , a small town in Vyatka Governorate ( present @-@ day Udmurtia ) in the Russian Empire , into a family with a long line of military service . His father , Ilya Petrovich Tchaikovsky , had served as a lieutenant colonel and engineer in the Department of Mines , and would manage the Kamsko @-@ Votkinsk Ironworks . His grandfather , Petro Fedorovych Chaika , served first as a physician 's assistant in the army and later as city governor of Glazov in Viatka . His great @-@ grandfather , a Ukrainian Cossack named Fyodor Chaika ( accordingly , ' Tchaikovsky ' is the derivative of the Ukrainian family name ' Chaika ' ) , distinguished himself under Peter the Great at the Battle of Poltava in 1709 . Tchaikovsky 's mother , Alexandra Andreyevna née d 'Assier , was the second of Ilya 's three wives , 18 years her husband 's junior and French on her father 's side . Both Ilya and Alexandra were trained in the arts , including music — a necessity as a posting to a remote area of Russia also meant a need for entertainment , whether in private or at social gatherings . Of Tchaikovsky 's six siblings , he was close to his sister Alexandra and twin brothers Anatoly and Modest . Alexandra 's marriage to Lev Davydov would produce seven children and lend Tchaikovsky the only real family life he would know as an adult , especially during his years of wandering . One of those children , Vladimir Davydov , whom the composer would nickname ' Bob ' , would become very close to him .
In 1844 , the family hired Fanny Dürbach , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old French governess . Four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year @-@ old Tchaikovsky was initially thought too young to study alongside his older brother Nikolai and a niece of the family . His insistence convinced Dürbach otherwise . By the age of six , he had become fluent in French and German . Tchaikovsky also became attached to the young woman ; her affection for him was reportedly a counter to his mother 's coldness and emotional distance from him , though others assert that the mother doted on her son . Dürbach saved much of Tchaikovsky 's work from this period , which includes his earliest known compositions , and became a source of several childhood anecdotes .
Tchaikovsky began piano lessons at age five . Precocious , within three years he had become as adept at reading sheet music as his teacher . His parents , initially supportive , hired a tutor , bought an orchestrion ( a form of barrel organ that could imitate elaborate orchestral effects ) , and encouraged his piano study for both aesthetic and practical reasons . However , they decided in 1850 to send Tchaikovsky to the Imperial School of Jurisprudence in Saint Petersburg . They had both graduated from institutes in Saint Petersburg and the School of Jurisprudence , which mainly served the lesser nobility , would prepare Tchaikovsky for a career as a civil servant . Regardless of talent , the only musical careers available in Russia at that time – except for the affluent aristocracy – were as a teacher in an academy or as an instrumentalist in one of the Imperial Theaters . Both were considered on the lowest rung of the social ladder , with individuals in them enjoying no more rights than peasants . His father 's income was also growing increasingly uncertain , so both parents may have wanted Tchaikovsky to become independent as soon as possible . As the minimum age for acceptance was 12 and Tchaikovsky was only 10 at the time , he was required to spend two years boarding at the Imperial School of Jurisprudence 's preparatory school , 1 @,@ 300 kilometres ( 800 mi ) from his family . Once those two years had passed , Tchaikovsky transferred to the Imperial School of Jurisprudence to begin a seven @-@ year course of studies .
Tchaikovsky 's early separation from his mother caused an emotional trauma that lasted the rest his life and was intensified by her death from cholera in 1854 , when he was fourteen . Her loss also prompted Tchaikovsky to make his first serious attempt at composition , a waltz in her memory . Tchaikovsky 's father , who had also contracted cholera but recovered fully , sent him back to school immediately in the hope that classwork would occupy the boy 's mind . Isolated , Tchaikovsky compensated with friendships with fellow students that became lifelong ; these included Aleksey Apukhtin and Vladimir Gerard . Music , while not an official priority at school , also bridged the gap between Tchaikovsky and his peers . They regularly attended the opera and Tchaikovsky would improvise at the school 's harmonium on themes he and his friends had sung during choir practice . " We were amused , " Vladimir Gerard later remembered , " but not imbued with any expectations of his future glory . " Tchaikovsky also continued his piano studies through Franz Becker , an instrument manufacturer who made occasional visits to the school ; however , the results , according to musicologist David Brown , were " negligible " .
In 1855 , Tchaikovsky 's father funded private lessons with Rudolph Kündinger and questioned him about a musical career for his son . While impressed with the boy 's talent , Kündinger said he saw nothing to suggest a future composer or performer . He later admitted that his assessment was also based on his own negative experiences as a musician in Russia and his unwillingness for Tchaikovsky to be treated likewise . Tchaikovsky was told to finish his course and then try for a post in the Ministry of Justice .
= = = Civil service ; pursuing music = = =
On 10 June 1859 , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Tchaikovsky graduated as a titular counselor , a low rung on the civil service ladder . Appointed to the Ministry of Justice , he became a junior assistant within six months and a senior assistant two months after that . He remained a senior assistant for the rest of his three @-@ year civil service career .
Meanwhile , the Russian Musical Society ( RMS ) was founded in 1859 by the Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna ( a German @-@ born aunt of Tsar Alexander II ) and her protégé , pianist and composer Anton Rubinstein . Previous tsars and the aristocracy had focused almost exclusively on importing European talent . The aim of the RMS was to fulfill Alexander II 's wish to foster native talent . It hosted a regular season of public concerts ( previously held only during the six weeks of Lent when the Imperial Theaters were closed ) and provided basic professional training in music . In 1861 , Tchaikovsky attended RMS classes in music theory taught by Nikolai Zaremba at the Mikhailovsky Palace ( now the Russian Museum ) . These classes were a precursor to the Saint Petersburg Conservatory , which opened in 1862 . Tchaikovsky enrolled at the Conservatory as part of its premiere class . He studied harmony and counterpoint with Zaremba and instrumentation and composition with Rubinstein .
The Conservatory benefited Tchaikovsky in two ways . It transformed him into a musical professional , with tools to help him thrive as a composer , and the in @-@ depth exposure to European principles and musical forms gave him a sense that his art was not exclusively Russian or Western . This mindset became important in Tchaikovsky 's reconciliation of Russian and European influences in his compositional style . He believed and attempted to show that both these aspects were " intertwined and mutually dependent " . His efforts became both an inspiration and a starting point for other Russian composers to build their own individual styles .
Rubinstein was impressed by Tchaikovsky 's musical talent on the whole and cited him as " a composer of genius " in his autobiography He was less pleased with the more progressive tendencies of some of Tchaikovsky 's student work . Nor did he change his opinion as Tchaikovsky 's reputation grew . He and Zaremba clashed with Tchaikovsky when he submitted his First Symphony for performance by the RMS in Saint Petersburg . Rubinstein and Zaremba refused to consider the work unless substantial changes were made . Tchaikovsky complied but they still refused to perform the symphony . Tchaikovsky , distressed that he had been treated as though he were still their student , withdrew the symphony . It was given its first complete performance , minus the changes Rubinstein and Zaremba had requested , in Moscow in February 1868 .
Once Tchaikovsky graduated in 1865 , Rubinstein 's brother Nikolai offered him the post of Professor of Music Theory at the soon @-@ to @-@ open Moscow Conservatory . While the salary for his professorship was only 50 rubles a month , the offer itself boosted Tchaikovsky 's morale and he accepted the post eagerly . He was further heartened by news of the first public performance of one of his works , his Characteristic Dances , conducted by Johann Strauss II at a concert in Pavlovsk Park on 11 September 1865 ( Tchaikovsky later included this work , re @-@ titled , Dances of the Hay Maidens , in his opera The Voyevoda ) .
From 1867 to 1878 , Tchaikovsky combined his professorial duties with music criticism while continuing to compose . This exposed him to a range of contemporary music and afforded him the opportunity to travel abroad . In his reviews , he praised Beethoven , considered Brahms overrated and , despite his admiration , took Schumann to task for poor orchestration . He appreciated the staging of Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen at its inaugural performance in Bayreuth , Germany , but not the music , calling Das Rheingold " unlikely nonsense , through which , from time to time , sparkle unusually beautiful and astonishing details . " A recurring theme he addressed was the poor state of Russian opera .
= = = = Relationship with The Five = = = =
In 1856 , while Tchaikovsky was still at the School of Jurisprudence and Anton Rubinstein lobbied aristocrats to form the RMS , critic Vladimir Stasov and an 18 @-@ year @-@ old pianist , Mily Balakirev , met and agreed upon a nationalist agenda for Russian music , one that would take the operas of Mikhail Glinka as a model and incorporate elements from folk music , reject traditional Western practices and use exotic harmonic devices such as the whole tone and octatonic scales . They saw Western @-@ style conservatories as unnecessary and antipathetic to fostering native talent . Eventually , Balakirev , César Cui , Modest Mussorgsky , Nikolai Rimsky @-@ Korsakov and Alexander Borodin became known as the moguchaya kuchka , translated into English as the Mighty Handful or The Five . Rubinstein criticized their emphasis on amateur efforts in musical composition ; Balakirev and later Mussorgsky attacked Rubinstein for his musical conservatism and his belief in professional music training . Tchaikovsky and his fellow conservatory students were caught in the middle .
While ambivalent about much of The Five 's music , Tchaikovsky remained on friendly terms with most of its members . In 1869 , he and Balakirev worked together on what became Tchaikovsky 's first recognized masterpiece , the fantasy @-@ overture Romeo and Juliet , a work which The Five wholeheartedly embraced . The group also welcomed his Second Symphony , subtitled the Little Russian . Despite their support , Tchaikovsky made considerable efforts to ensure his musical independence from the group as well as from the conservative faction at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory .
= = = = Growing fame ; budding opera composer = = = =
The infrequency of Tchaikovsky 's musical successes , won with tremendous effort , exacerbated his lifelong sensitivity to criticism . Nikolai Rubinstein 's private fits of rage critiquing his music , most famously attacking the First Piano Concerto , did not help matters . His popularity grew , however , as several first @-@ rate artists became willing to perform his compositions . Hans von Bülow premiered the First Piano Concerto and championed other Tchaikovsky works both as pianist and conductor . Other artists included Adele Aus der Ohe , Max Erdmannsdörfer , Eduard Nápravník and Sergei Taneyev .
Another factor that helped Tchaikovsky 's music become popular was a shift in attitude among Russian audiences . Whereas they had previously been satisfied with flashy virtuoso performances of technically demanding but musically lightweight compositions , they gradually began listening with increasing appreciation of the music itself . Tchaikovsky 's works were performed frequently , with few delays between their composition and first performances ; the publication from 1867 onward of his songs and great piano music for the home market also helped boost the composer 's popularity .
During the late 1860s , Tchaikovsky began to compose operas . His first , The Voyevoda , based on a play by Alexander Ostrovsky , premiered in 1869 . The composer became dissatisfied with it , however , and , having re @-@ used parts of it in later works , destroyed the manuscript . Undina followed in 1870 . Only excerpts were performed and it , too , was destroyed . Between these projects , Tchaikovsky started to compose an opera called Mandragora , to a libretto by Sergei Rachinskii ; the only music he completed was a short chorus of Flowers and Insects .
The first Tchaikovsky opera to survive intact , The Oprichnik , premiered in 1874 . During its composition , he lost Ostrovsky 's part @-@ finished libretto . Tchaikovsky , too embarrassed to ask for another copy , decided to write the libretto himself , modelling his dramatic technique on that of Eugène Scribe . Cui wrote a " characteristically savage press attack " on the opera . Mussorgsky , writing to Vladimir Stasov , disapproved of the opera as pandering to the public . Nevertheless , The Oprichnik continues to be performed from time to time in Russia .
The last of the early operas , Vakula the Smith ( Op.14 ) , was composed in the second half of 1874 . The libretto , based on Gogol 's Christmas Eve , was to have been set to music by Alexander Serov . With Serov 's death , the libretto was opened to a competition with a guarantee that the winning entry would be premiered by the Imperial Mariinsky Theatre . Tchaikovsky was declared the winner , but at the 1876 premiere the opera enjoyed only a lukewarm reception . After Tchaikovsky 's death , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wrote an opera based on the same story , Christmas Eve .
Other works of this period include the Variations on a Rococo Theme for cello and orchestra , the Second and Fourth Symphonies , the ballet Swan Lake , and the opera Eugene Onegin .
= = = Emotional life = = =
Discussion of Tchaikovsky 's personal life , especially his sexuality , has perhaps been the most extensive of any composer in the 19th century and certainly of any Russian composer of his time . It has also at times caused considerable confusion , from Soviet efforts to expunge all references to same @-@ sex attraction and portray him as a heterosexual , to efforts at armchair analysis by Western biographers . Biographers have generally agreed that Tchaikovsky was gay . He sought the company of other men in his circle for extended periods , " associating openly and establishing professional connections with them . " However , the degree to which the composer might have felt comfortable with his sexual nature has remained open to debate . It is still unknown whether Tchaikovsky , according to musicologist and biographer David Brown , " felt tainted within himself , defiled by something from which he finally realized he could never escape " or whether , according to Alexander Poznansky , he experienced " no unbearable guilt " over his sexual nature and " eventually came to see his sexual peculiarities as an insurmountable and even natural part of his personality ... without experiencing any serious psychological damage . " Relevant portions of his brother Modest 's autobiography , where he tells of the composer 's sexual orientation , have been published , as have letters previously suppressed by Soviet censors in which Tchaikovsky openly writes of it .
Tchaikovsky lived as a bachelor for most of his life . In 1868 he met Belgian soprano Désirée Artôt . They became infatuated with each other and were engaged to be married but due to Artôt 's refusal to give up the stage or settle in Russia , the relationship ended . Tchaikovsky later claimed she was the only woman he ever loved . In 1877 , at the age of 37 , he wed a former student , Antonina Miliukova . The marriage was a disaster . Mismatched psychologically and sexually , the couple lived together for only two and a half months before Tchaikovsky left , overwrought emotionally and suffering from an acute writer 's block . Tchaikovsky 's family remained supportive of him during this crisis and throughout his life . He was also aided by Nadezhda von Meck , the widow of a railway magnate who had begun contact with him not long before the marriage . As well as an important friend and emotional support , she became his patroness for the next 13 years , which allowed him to focus exclusively on composition . Tchaikovsky 's marital debacle may have forced him to face the full truth about his sexuality ; he never blamed Antonina for the failure of their marriage .
= = = Years of wandering = = =
Tchaikovsky remained abroad for a year after the disintegration of his marriage . During this time , he completed Eugene Onegin , orchestrated his Fourth Symphony , and composed the Violin Concerto . He returned briefly to the Moscow Conservatory in the autumn of 1879 For the next few years , assured of a regular income from von Meck , he traveled incessantly throughout Europe and rural Russia , mainly alone , and avoided social contact whenever possible . During this time , Tchaikovsky 's foreign reputation grew and a positive reassessment of his music also took place in Russia , thanks in part to Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky 's call for " universal unity " with the West at the unveiling of the Pushkin Monument in Moscow in 1880 . Before Dostoyevsky 's speech , Tchaikovsky 's music had been considered " overly dependent on the West . " As Dostoyevsky 's message spread throughout Russia , this stigma toward Tchaikovsky 's music evaporated . An unprecedented acclaim for him even drew a cult following among the young intelligentsia of Saint Petersburg , including Alexandre Benois , Léon Bakst and Sergei Diaghilev .
Two musical works from this period stand out . With the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour nearing completion in Moscow in 1880 , the 25th anniversary of the coronation of Alexander II in 1881 , and the 1882 Moscow Arts and Industry Exhibition in the planning stage , Nikolai Rubinstein suggested that Tchaikovsky compose a grand commemorative piece . Tchaikovsky agreed and finished it within six weeks . He wrote to Nadezhda von Meck that this piece , the 1812 Overture , would be " very loud and noisy , but I wrote it with no warm feeling of love , and therefore there will probably be no artistic merits in it . " He also warned conductor Eduard Nápravník that " I shan 't be at all surprised and offended if you find that it is in a style unsuitable for symphony concerts . " Nevertheless , the overture became , for many , " the piece by Tchaikovsky they know best . "
On 23 March 1881 , Nikolai Rubinstein died in Paris . That December , Tchaikovsky started work on his Piano Trio in A minor , " dedicated to the memory of a great artist . " First performed privately at the Moscow Conservatory on the first anniversary of Rubinstein 's death , the piece became extremely popular during the composer 's lifetime ; in November 1893 , it would become Tchaikovsky 's own elegy at memorial concerts in Moscow and St. Petersburg .
= = = Return to Russia = = =
In 1884 Tchaikovsky began to shed his unsociability and restlessness . That March , Tsar Alexander III conferred upon him the Order of St. Vladimir ( fourth class ) , which included a title of hereditary nobility and a personal audience with the Tsar . This was seen as a seal of official approval which advanced Tchaikovsky 's social standing and might have been cemented in the composer 's mind by the success of his Orchestral Suite No. 3 at its January 1885 premiere in Saint Petersburg . In 1885 , Alexander III requested a new production of Eugene Onegin at the Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre in Saint Petersburg . By having the opera staged there and not at the Mariinsky Theatre , he served notice that Tchaikovsky 's music was replacing Italian opera as the official imperial art . In addition , thanks to Ivan Vsevolozhsky , Director of the Imperial Theaters and a patron of the composer , Tchaikovsky was awarded a lifetime annual pension of 3 @,@ 000 rubles from the Tsar . This made him the premier court composer , in practice if not in actual title .
Despite Tchaikovsky 's disdain for public life , he now participated in it as part of his increasing celebrity and out of a duty he felt to promote Russian music . He helped support his former pupil Sergei Taneyev , who was now director of Moscow Conservatory , by attending student examinations and negotiating the sometimes sensitive relations among various members of the staff . He served as director of the Moscow branch of the Russian Musical Society during the 1889 – 1890 season . In this post , he invited many international celebrities to conduct , including Johannes Brahms , Antonín Dvořák and Jules Massenet .
During this period , Tchaikovsky also began promoting Russian music as a conductor , In January 1887 he substituted , on short notice , at the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow for performances of his opera Cherevichki . Within a year , he was in considerable demand throughout Europe and Russia . These appearances helped him overcome life @-@ long stage fright and boosted his self @-@ assurance . In 1888 Tchaikovsky led the premiere of his Fifth Symphony in Saint Petersburg , repeating the work a week later with the first performance of his tone poem Hamlet . Although critics proved hostile , with César Cui calling the symphony " routine " and " meretricious " , both works were received with extreme enthusiasm by audiences and Tchaikovsky , undeterred , continued to conduct the symphony in Russia and Europe . Conducting brought him to America in 1891 , where he led the New York Music Society 's orchestra in his Festival Coronation March at the inaugural concert of Carnegie Hall .
= = = Belyayev circle and growing reputation = = =
In November 1887 , Tchaikovsky arrived at Saint Petersburg in time to hear several of the Russian Symphony Concerts , devoted exclusively to the music of Russian composers . One included the first complete performance of his revised First Symphony ; another featured the final version of Third Symphony of Nikolai Rimsky @-@ Korsakov , with whose circle Tchaikovsky was already in touch . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov , with Alexander Glazunov , Anatoly Lyadov and several other nationalistically minded composers and musicians , had formed a group known as the Belyayev circle , named after a merchant and amateur musician who became an influential music patron and publisher . Tchaikovsky spent much time in this circle , becoming far more at ease with them than he had been with the ' Five ' and increasingly confident in showcasing his music alongside theirs . This relationship lasted until Tchaikovsky 's death .
In 1892 , Tchaikovsky was voted a member of the Académie des Beaux @-@ Arts in France , only the second Russian subject to be so honored ( the first was sculptor Mark Antokolski ) . The following year , the University of Cambridge in England awarded Tchaikovsky an honorary Doctor of Music degree .
= = = Death = = =
On 28 October / 9 November 1893 Tchaikovsky conducted the premiere of his Sixth Symphony , the Pathétique in Saint Petersburg . Nine days later , Tchaikovsky died there , aged 53 . He was interred in Tikhvin Cemetery at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery , near the graves of fellow @-@ composers Alexander Borodin , Mikhail Glinka , and Modest Mussorgsky ; later , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov and Balakirev were also buried nearby .
While Tchaikovsky 's death has traditionally been attributed to cholera , most probably contracted through drinking contaminated water several days earlier from the local river , many writers have theorized that his death was a suicide . Opinion has been summarized as follows : " The polemics over [ Tchaikovsky 's ] death have reached an impasse ... Rumors attached to the famous die hard ... As for illness , problems of evidence offer little hope of satisfactory resolution : the state of diagnosis ; the confusion of witnesses ; disregard of long @-@ term effects of smoking and alcohol . We do not know how Tchaikovsky died . We may never find out ..... "
= = Music = =
Tchaikovsky wrote many works that are popular with the classical music public , including his Romeo and Juliet , the 1812 Overture , his three ballets ( The Nutcracker , Swan Lake , The Sleeping Beauty ) and Marche Slave . These , along with his First Piano Concerto and his Violin Concerto , the last three of his six numbered symphonies and his operas The Queen of Spades and Eugene Onegin , are among his most familiar works . Almost as popular are the Manfred Symphony , Francesca da Rimini , the Capriccio Italien and the Serenade for Strings .
= = = Creative range = = =
Tchaikovsky displayed an unusually wide stylistic and emotional range , from salon works of innocuous charm to symphonies of tremendous depth , power and grandeur . Some of his works , such as the Variations on a Rococo Theme , employ a poised " Classical " form reminiscent of 18th @-@ century composers such as Mozart ( the composer whose work was his favorite ) . Other compositions , such as his Little Russian symphony and his opera Vakula the Smith , flirt with musical practices more akin to those of the Five , especially in their use of folk song . Other works , such as Tchaikovsky 's last three symphonies , employ a personal musical idiom that facilitated intense emotional expression .
= = = Ukrainian folk elements = = =
Many of Tchaikovsky 's works have Ukrainian subjects or incorporate Ukrainian folk songs or melodies . Among these are the operas Mazepa ( based on Aleksandr Pushkin 's poem ) , Little Shoes , and Night before Christmas ( or Vakula the Smith , based on Nikolai Gogol 's story ) ; symphonies No. 2 ( Little Russian ) , No. 4 , and No. 7 ( finished and edited by Semyon Bogatyrev ) ; the Concerto for Piano and Orchestra No. 1 in B @-@ flat Minor ; the 1812 Overture , the opening of which is based on the first mode of the Kievan chant ; the transcription for piano solo of Aleksandr Dargomyzhsky 's orchestral fantasy Kozachok ; and songs to Russian translations of Taras Shevchenko , such as ‘ Sadok Vyshnevyi ’ ( Cherry Orchard ) .
= = = Compositional style = = =
= = = = Melody = = = =
American music critic and journalist Harold C. Schonberg wrote of Tchaikovsky 's " sweet , inexhaustible , supersensuous fund of melody , " a feature that has ensured his music 's continued success with audiences . Tchaikovsky 's complete range of melodic styles was as wide as that of his compositions . Sometimes he used Western @-@ style melodies , sometimes original melodies written in the style of Russian folk song ; sometimes he used actual folk songs . According to The New Grove , Tchaikovsky 's melodic gift could also become his worst enemy in two ways . The first challenge arose from his ethnic heritage . Unlike Western themes , the melodies that Russian composers wrote tended to be self @-@ contained ; they functioned with a mindset of stasis and repetition rather than one of progress and ongoing development . On a technical level , it made modulating to a new key to introduce a contrasting second theme exceedingly difficult , as this was literally a foreign concept that did not exist in Russian music . The second way melody worked against Tchaikovsky was a challenge that he shared with the majority of Romantic @-@ age composers . They did not write in the regular , symmetrical melodic shapes that worked well with sonata form , such as those favored by Classical composers such as Haydn , Mozart or Beethoven , but were complete and independent in themselves . This completeness hindered their use as structural elements in combination with one another . This challenge was why the Romantics " were never natural symphonists . " . All a composer like Tchaikovsky could do with them was to essentially repeat them , even when he modified them to generate tension , maintain interest and satisfy listeners .
= = = = Harmony = = = =
Harmony could be a potential trap for Tchaikovsky , according to Brown , since Russian creativity tended to focus on inertia and self @-@ enclosed tableaux , while Western harmony worked against this to propel the music onward and , on a larger scale , shape it . Modulation , the shifting from one key to another , was a driving principle in both harmony and sonata form , the primary Western large @-@ scale musical structure since the middle of the 18th century . Modulation maintained harmonic interest over an extended time @-@ scale , provided a clear contrast between musical themes and showed how those themes were related to each other . One point in Tchaikovsky 's favor was " a flair for harmony " that " astonished " Rudolph Kündinger , Tchaikovsky 's music tutor during his time at the School of Jurisprudence . Added to what he learned at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory studies , this talent allowed Tchaikovsky to employ a varied range of harmony in his music , from the Western harmonic and textural practices of his first two string quartets to the use of the whole tone scale in the center of the finale of the Second Symphony , a practice more typically used by The Five .
= = = = Rhythm = = = =
Rhythmically , Tchaikovsky sometimes experimented with unusual meters . More often , he used a firm , regular meter , a practice that served him well in dance music . At times , his rhythms became pronounced enough to become the main expressive agent of the music . They also became a means , found typically in Russian folk music , of simulating movement or progression in large @-@ scale symphonic movements — a " synthetic propulsion , " as Brown phrases it , which substituted for the momentum that would be created in strict sonata form by the interaction of melodic or motivic elements . This interaction generally does not take place in Russian music . ( For more on this , please see Repetition below . )
= = = = Structure = = = =
Tchaikovsky struggled with sonata form . Its principle of organic growth through the interplay of musical themes was alien to Russian practice . According to Brown and musicologists Hans Keller and Daniel Zhitomirsky , Tchaikovsky found his solution to large @-@ scale structure while composing the Fourth Symphony . He essentially sidestepped thematic interaction and kept sonata form only as an " outline , " as Zhitomirsky phrases it . Within this outline , the focus centered on periodic alternation and juxtaposition . Tchaikovsky placed blocks of dissimilar tonal and thematic material alongside one another , with what Keller calls " new and violent contrasts " between musical themes , keys and harmonies . This process , according to Brown and Keller , builds momentum and adds intense drama . While the result , Warrack charges , is still " an ingenious episodic treatment of two tunes rather than a symphonic development of them " in the Germanic sense , Brown counters that it took the listener of the period " through a succession of often highly charged sections which added up to a radically new kind of symphonic experience " ( italics Brown ) , one that functioned not on the basis of summation , as Austro @-@ German symphonies did , but on one of accumulation .
Partly due to the melodic and structural intricacies involved in this accumulation and partly due to the composer 's nature , Tchaikovsky 's music became intensely expressive . This intensity was entirely new to Russian music and prompted some Russians to place Tchaikovsky 's name alongside that of Dostoyevsky . German musicologist Hermann Kretzschmar credits Tchaikovsky in his later symphonies with offering " full images of life , developed freely , sometimes even dramatically , around psychological contrasts ... This music has the mark of the truly lived and felt experience . " Botstein , in elaborating on this comment , suggests that listening to Tchaikovsky 's music " became a psychological mirror connected to everyday experience , one that reflected on the dynamic nature of the listener ’ s own emotional self . " This active engagement with the music " opened for the listener a vista of emotional and psychological tension and an extremity of feeling that possessed relevance because it seemed reminiscent of one ’ s own ' truly lived and felt experience ' or one ’ s search for intensity in a deeply personal sense . "
= = = = Repetition = = = =
As mentioned above , repetition was a natural part of Tchaikovsky 's music , just as it is an integral part of Russian music . His use of sequences within melodies ( repeating a tune at a higher or lower pitch in the same voice ) could go on for extreme length . The problem with repetition is that , over a period of time , the melody being repeated remains static , even when there is a surface level of rhythmic activity added to it . Tchaikovsky kept the musical conversation flowing by treating melody , tonality , rhythm and sound color as one integrated unit , rather than as separate elements . By making subtle but noticeable changes in the rhythm or phrasing of a tune , modulating to another key , changing the melody itself or varying the instruments playing it , Tchaikovsky could keep a listener 's interest from flagging . By extending the number of repetitions , he could increase the musical and dramatic tension of a passage , building " into an emotional experience of almost unbearable intensity , " as Brown phrases it , controlling when the peak and release of that tension would take place . Musicologist Martin Cooper calls this practice a subtle form of unifying a piece of music and adds that Tchaikovsky brought it to a high point of refinement . ( For more on this practice , see the next section . )
= = = = Orchestration = = = =
Like other late Romantic composers , Tchaikovsky relied heavily on orchestration for musical effects . Tchaikovsky , however , became noted for the " sensual opulence " and " voluptuous timbrel virtuosity " of his scoring . Like Glinka , Tchaikovsky tended toward bright primary colors and sharply delineated contrasts of texture . However , beginning with the Third Symphony , Tchaikovsky experimented with an increased range of timbres Tchaikovsky 's scoring was noted and admired by some of his peers . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov regularly referred his students at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory to it and called it " devoid of all striving after effect , [ to ] give a healthy , beautiful sonority . " This sonority , musicologist Richard Taruskin points out , is essentially Germanic in effect . Tchaikovsky 's expert use of having two or more instruments play a melody simultaneously ( a practice called doubling ) and his ear for uncanny combinations of instruments resulted in " a generalized orchestral sonority in which the individual timbres of the instruments , being thoroughly mixed , would vanish . "
= = = = Pastiche ( Passé @-@ ism ) = = = =
In works like the Serenade for Strings and the Variations on a Rococo Theme , Tchaikovsky showed he was highly gifted at writing in a style of 18th century European pastiche . In the ballet The Sleeping Beauty and the opera The Queen of Spades , Tchaikovsky graduated from imitation to full @-@ scale evocation . This practice , which Alexandre Benois calls " passé @-@ ism , " lends an air of timelessness and immediacy , making the past seem as though it were the present . On a practical level , Tchaikovsky was drawn to past styles because he felt he might find the solution to certain structural problems within them . His Rococo pastiches also may have offered escape into a musical world purer than his own , into which he felt himself irresistibly drawn . ( In this sense , Tchaikovsky operated in the opposite manner to Igor Stravinsky , who turned to Neoclassicism partly as a form of compositional self @-@ discovery . ) Tchaikovsky 's attraction to ballet might have allowed a similar refuge into a fairy @-@ tale world , where he could freely write dance music within a tradition of French elegance .
= = = Antecedents and influences = = =
Of Tchaikovsky 's Western contemporaries , Robert Schumann stands out as an influence in formal structure , harmonic practices and piano writing , according to Brown and musicologist Roland John Wiley . As mentioned earlier , Asafyev comments that Schumann left his mark on Tchaikovsky not just as a formal influence but also as an example of musical dramaturgy and self @-@ expression . Leon Botstein claims the music of Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner also left their imprints on Tchaikovsky 's orchestral style . The late @-@ Romantic trend for writing orchestral suites , begun by Franz Lachner , Jules Massenet and Joachim Raff after the rediscovery of Bach 's works in that genre , may have influenced Tchaikovsky to try his own hand at them . His teacher Anton Rubinstein 's opera The Demon became a model for the final tableau of Eugene Onegin . So did Léo Delibes ' ballets Coppélia and Sylvia for The Sleeping Beauty and Georges Bizet 's opera Carmen ( a work Tchaikovsky admired tremendously ) for The Queen of Spades . Otherwise , it was to composers of the past that Tchaikovsky turned — Beethoven , whose music he respected ; Mozart , whose music he loved ; Glinka , whose opera A Life for the Tsar made an indelible impression on him as a child and whose scoring he studied assiduously ; and Adolphe Adam , whose ballet Giselle was a favorite of his from his student days and whose score he consulted while working on The Sleeping Beauty . Beethoven 's string quartets may have influenced Tchaikovsky 's attempts in that medium . Other composers whose work interested Tchaikovsky included Hector Berlioz , Felix Mendelssohn , Giacomo Meyerbeer and Henry Litolff .
= = = Aesthetic impact = = =
Maes maintains that , regardless of what he was writing , Tchaikovsky 's main concern was how his music impacted his listeners on an aesthetic level , at specific moments in the piece and on a cumulative level once the music had finished . What his listeners experienced on an emotional or visceral level became an end in itself . Tchaikovsky 's focus on pleasing his audience might be considered closer to that of Mendelssohn or Mozart . Considering that he lived and worked in what was probably the last 19th century feudal nation , the statement is not actually that surprising . And yet , even when writing so @-@ called ' programme music , for example his Romeo and Juliet fantasy overture , he cast it in sonata form . His use of stylized 18th @-@ century melodies and patriotic themes was geared toward the values of Russian aristocracy . He was aided in this by Ivan Vsevolozhsky , who commissioned The Sleeping Beauty from Tchaikovsky and the libretto for The Queen of Spades from Modest with their use of 18th century settings stipulated firmly . Tchaikovsky also used the polonaise frequently , the dance being a musical code for the Romanov dynasty and a symbol of Russian patriotism . Using it in the finale of a work could assure its success with Russian listeners .
= = = Reception = = =
= = = = Dedicatees and collaborators = = = =
Tchaikovsky 's relationship with collaborators was mixed . Like Nikolai Rubinstein with the First Piano Concerto , virtuoso and pedagogue Leopold Auer rejected the Violin Concerto initially but changed his mind ; he played it to great public success and taught it to his students , who included Jascha Heifetz and Nathan Milstein . Wilhelm Fitzenhagen " intervened considerably in shaping what he considered ' his ' piece , " the Variations on a Rococo Theme , according to music critic Michael Steinberg . Tchaikovsky was angered by Fitzenhagen 's license but did nothing ; the Rococo Variations were published with the cellist 's amendments . His collaboration on the three ballets went better and in Marius Petipa , who worked with him on the last two , he might have found an advocate . When The Sleeping Beauty was seen by its dancers as needlessly complicated , Petipa convinced them to put in the extra effort . Tchaikovsky compromised to make his music as practical as possible for the dancers and was accorded more creative freedom than ballet composers were usually accorded at the time . He responded with scores that minimized the rhythmic subtleties normally present in his work but were inventive and rich in melody , with more refined and imaginative orchestration than in the average ballet score .
= = = = Critics = = = =
Critical reception to Tchaikovsky 's music has also varied but also improved over time . Even after 1880 , some inside Russia held it suspect for not being nationalistic enough and thought Western European critics lauded it for exactly that reason . There might have been a grain of truth in the latter , according to musicologist and conductor Leon Botstein , as German critics especially wrote of the " indeterminacy of [ Tchaikovsky 's ] artistic character ... being truly at home in the non @-@ Russian . " Of the foreign critics who did not care for his music , Eduard Hanslick lambasted the Violin Concerto as a musical composition " whose stink one can hear " and William Forster Abtrop wrote of the Fifth Symphony , " The furious peroration sounds like nothing so much as a hoard of demons struggling in a torrent of brandy , the music growing drunker and drunker . Pandemonium , delerium tremens , raving , and above all , noise worse confounded !
The division between Russian and Western critics remained through much of the 20th century but for a different reason . According to Brown and Wiley , the prevailing view of Western critics was that the same qualities in Tchaikovsky 's music that appealed to audiences — its strong emotions , directness and eloquence and colorful orchestration — added up to compositional shallowness . The music 's use in popular and film music , Brown says , lowered its esteem in their eyes still further . There was also the fact , pointed out earlier , that Tchaikovsky 's music demanded active engagement from the listener and , as Botstein phrases it , " spoke to the listener ’ s imaginative interior life , regardless of nationality . " Conservative critics , he adds , may have felt threatened by the " violence and ' hysteria ' " they detected and felt such emotive displays " attacked the boundaries of conventional aesthetic appreciation — the cultured reception of art as an act of formalist discernment — and the polite engagement of art as an act of amusement . "
There has also been the fact that the composer did not follow sonata form strictly , relying instead on juxtaposing blocks of tonalities and thematic groups . Maes states this point has been seen at times as a weakness rather than a sign of originality . Even with what Schonberg termed " a professional reevaluaton " of Tchaikovsky 's work , the practice of faulting Tchaikovsky for not following in the steps of the Viennese masters has not gone away entirely , while his intent of writing music that would please his audiences is also sometimes taken to task . In a 1992 article , New York Times critic Allan Kozinn writes , " It is Tchaikovsky 's flexibility , after all , that has given us a sense of his variability .... Tchaikovsky was capable of turning out music — entertaining and widely beloved though it is — that seems superficial , manipulative and trivial when regarded in the context of the whole literature . The First Piano Concerto is a case in point . It makes a joyful noise , it swims in pretty tunes and its dramatic rhetoric allows ( or even requires ) a soloist to make a grand , swashbuckling impression . But it is entirely hollow . "
In the 21st century , however , critics are reacting more positively to Tchaikovsky 's tunefulness , originality , and craftsmanship . " Tchaikovsky is being viewed again as a composer of the first rank , writing music of depth , innovation and influence , " according to cultural historian and author Joseph Horowitz . Important in this reevaluation is a shift in attitude away from the disdain for overt emotionalism that marked half of the 20th century . " We have acquired a different view of Romantic ' excess , ' " Horowitz says . " Tchaikovsky is today more admired than deplored for his emotional frankness ; if his music seems harried and insecure , so are we all . "
= = = = Public = = = =
Horowitz maintains that , while the standing of Tchaikovsky 's music has fluctuated among critics , for the public , " it never went out of style , and his most popular works have yielded iconic sound @-@ bytes [ sic ] , such as the love theme from Romeo and Juliet . " Along with those tunes , Botstein adds , " Tchaikovsky appealed to audiences outside of Russia with an immediacy and directness that were startling even for music , an art form often associated with emotion . " Tchaikovsky 's melodies , stated with eloquence and matched by his inventive use of harmony and orchestration , have always ensured audience appeal . His popularity is considered secure , with his following in many countries , including Great Britain and the United States , second only to that of Beethoven . His music has also been used frequently in the realms of popular music and film .
= = = Legacy = = =
According to Wiley , Tchaikovsky was a pioneer in several ways . " Thanks in large part to Nadezhda von Meck " , Wiley writes , " he became the first full @-@ time professional Russian composer . " This , Wiley adds , allowed him the time and freedom to consolidate the Western compositional practices he had learned at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory with Russian folk song and other native musical elements to fulfill his own expressive goals and forge an original , deeply personal style . He made an impact not only in absolute works such as the symphony but also in program music and , as Wiley phrases it , " transformed Liszt 's and Berlioz 's achievements ... into matters of Shakespearean elevation and psychological import . " Wiley and Holden both note that Tchaikovsky did all this without a native school of composition upon which to fall back . They point out that only Glinka had preceded him in combining Russian and Western practices and his teachers in Saint Petersburg had been thoroughly Germanic in their musical outlook . He was , they write , for all intents and purposes alone in his artistic quest .
Maes and Taruskin write that Tchaikovsky believed that his professionalism in combining skill and high standards in his musical works separated him from his contemporaries in The Five . Maes adds that , like them , he wanted to produce music that reflected Russian national character but which did so to the highest European standards of quality . Tchaikovsky , according to Maes , came along at a time when the nation itself was deeply divided as to what that character truly was . Like his country , Maes writes , it took him time to discover how to express his Russianness in a way that was true to himself and what he had learned . Because of his professionalism , Maes says , he worked hard at this goal and succeeded . The composer 's friend , music critic Hermann Laroche , wrote of The Sleeping Beauty that the score contained " an element deeper and more general than color , in the internal structure of the music , above all in the foundation of the element of melody . This basic element is undoubtedly Russian . "
Tchaikovsky was inspired to reach beyond Russia with his music , according to Maes and Taruskin . His exposure to Western music , they write , encouraged him to think it belonged not just to Russia but to the world at large . Volkov adds that this mindset made him think seriously about Russia 's place in European musical culture — the first Russian composer to do so . It steeled him to become the first Russian composer to personally acquaint foreign audiences with his own works , Warrack writes , as well as those of other Russian composers . In his biography of Tchaikovsky , Anthony Holden recalls the dearth of Russian classical music before Tchaikovsky 's birth , then places the composer 's achievements into historical perspective : " Twenty years after Tchaikovsky 's death , in 1913 , Igor Stravinsky 's The Rite of Spring erupted onto the musical scene , signalling Russia 's arrival into 20th @-@ century music . Between these two very different worlds Tchaikovsky 's music became the sole bridge . "
= = Tchaikovsky 's voice = =
The following recording was made in Moscow in January 1890 , by Julius Block on behalf of Thomas Edison .
Problems listening to the files ? See media help .
According to musicologist Leonid Sabaneyev , Tchaikovsky was not comfortable with being recorded for posterity and tried to shy away from it . On an apparently separate visit from the one related above , Block asked the composer to play something on a piano or at least say something . Tchaikovsky refused . He told Block , " I am a bad pianist and my voice is raspy . Why should one eternalize it ? "
= = = Public domain sheet music = = =
Mutopia Project Tchaikovsky Sheet Music at Mutopia
Free scores by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky at the International Music Score Library Project
[ 2 ] Tchaikovsky Arias and Piano works performed live in Brussels
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= Hibiki 's Magic =
Hibiki 's Magic ( ヒビキのマホウ , Hibiki no Mahō ) , subtitled a continental chronicle in the original version , is a Japanese manga series written by Jun Maeda and illustrated by Rei Izumi . The story centers on a young girl named Hibiki who is the apprentice to a very skilled wizard named Shirotsuki . Hibiki does not have much skill with magic , and the only thing she is really good at is making tea . After an accident where her teacher nearly dies , Hibiki comes to stay at a famous magic academy and works as a teacher herself .
Hibiki 's Magic started serialization in the August 2004 issue of Kadokawa Shoten 's Shōnen Ace , but later transferred to Kadokawa 's Comp Ace in November 2005 , and concluded in the May 2016 issue . Tokyopop licensed the series in North America , and released the first two volumes in 2007 . The manga is described by Anime News Network as having an " inspirational tone " with a very cute style of storytelling . IGN Comics describes the manga as a " solid story that breaks out of that cuteness mold . "
= = Plot = =
Hibiki 's Magic revolves around the title character Hibiki , a lonely young girl under the wing of a skilled wizard named Shirotsuki . At the story 's onset , Hibiki is living with Shirotsuki and is in training as an assistant to learn the art of magic . Shirotsuki , whom Hibiki refers to as " Master " , is searching for the key to immortality . He is a renowned expert at the craft known as Magic Circles , which draws its power from the art of elaborate circles that enact various enchantments . Even though Shirotsuki invites Hibiki to learn what he knows , she is unskilled in magic and rarely succeeds in anything she does . In spite of repeatedly failing , she keeps trying with her teacher 's encouragement .
Shirotsuki 's research is interrupted when a group of men break into his house during an experiment . Shirotsuki 's soul becomes trapped inside a squirrel @-@ like creature called a gusk , and his real body is lost in a fire that results from his magical protection wards ; Hibiki and the gusk barely escape alive . With nowhere else to go , Hibiki takes up residence in the nearby capital city Kamigusk . Hibiki is surprised that Shirotsuki 's reputation precedes him , and she is taken to the local Kamisaid Magic Academy where she is given the position of professor . Hibiki 's attempts to convince the administration of her shortcomings meet with failure . Hibiki is forced to learn to cope with being a professor in the most famous magic school in the country and meets many new people that help her along the way .
Hibiki meets a hard @-@ to @-@ handle student named Ahito who hates magic , and while he and Hibiki are eventually able to become friends , Ahito continues to hate magic . With the help of her master , Hibiki creates a homunculus in the form of a young girl which names herself Shiraasan . While she is hard to keep in line , Hibiki and Shiraasan share a close relationship . Hibiki meets a cursed girl named Nazuna Shireiyu , and Hibiki tries to help alleviate her curse , and in doing so becomes her friend . Nazuna turns out to be the granddaughter of the king of the land where Hibiki 's Magic takes place .
In the world of Hibiki 's Magic , in order to gain magic one must make a sacrifice . It can be a physical sacrifice , such as Ahito experiencing pain , or a mental sacrifice , such as Shirotsuki losing his memories . Hibiki tries to help by making the sacrifices a little more bearable .
= = Characters = =
Hibiki ( ヒビキ )
Hibiki is a young girl with little confidence in her abilities , except in tea making . When she met Shirotsuki , Hibiki was a shy girl who would hide in the corner of a room in his house speechlessly . Eventually , Hibiki warmed up to Shirotsuki 's affectionate personality and came to consider him a very important person . Hibiki can be very lighthearted , and always helps people who need it . She has no talent for magic , and relies on her master to help her in this regard . She is a crybaby and somewhat clumsy , but does her best and wins people over with her abundant kindness and warm heart .
Shirotsuki ( シロツキ )
Shirotsuki is a very skilled wizard who took Hibiki into his home in order to train her as an assistant to his craft . Despite Hibiki 's constant failures , Shirotsuki never gets angry with her and lets her take her time to get it right . He had been in love with a young woman his age named Yui , but had sacrificed his memories of her and his loved ones for his magic .
Ahito ( アヒト )
Ahito is a young man enrolled as a student at Kamisaid Magic Academy . In spite of this , he does not believe that magic is useful to mankind He had been forced to go to the academy by his grandmother . His parents had died in a war while conducting horrible experiments and he remarks that " they deserved it " . This attitude stems from a series of painful magical experiments he was involved in as a child so he could save a girl his age named Mizuki , but she died prematurely . Ahito becomes friends with Hibiki , and starts to act a little more nicely to her . Ahito sacrificed going though pain for his magic ; he is physically injured after gazing upon someone with his healing eyes .
Shiraasan ( シイラアサン , Shiiraasan )
Shiraasan , also known as Shi @-@ chan , is a female homunculus , or artificial human , created by a joint effort of Hibiki and Shirotsuki . Despite looking like a very young girl , Shiraasan has the maturity of an adult who finds nothing wrong with reading newspapers or smoking cigarettes . Since homunculi were originally created as weapons in Hibiki 's Magic , Shiraasan can procure guns and other weapons to use as she pleases , such as taking care of stray flies . Shiraasan has a very independent personality and does not like to be told what she can and cannot do . After it is confirmed that she is a stable lifeform , Shiraasan warms up to Hibiki and loves her very much .
Asuma ( アスマ )
Asuma is a male wizard with a frivolous personality and is the director of Kamisaid Magic Academy . He likes using magic to surprise others , such as making flowers and small birds appear out of nowhere . His sacrifice for magic is that he ages quickly . For example , when Misaki was saved by him , she was surprised he had aged a few years in one day .
Misaki ( ミサキ )
Misaki is Asuma 's assistant and is the first person that Hibiki meets from Kamisaid Magic Academy . When Hibiki makes a mistake , Misaki lectures her and informs her how a member of the faculty should act , even when it may not entirely be her fault . Due to Hibiki 's low magical experience , Misaki worries about Hibiki succeeding as a member of the staff . Like Hibiki , Misaki cannot perform magic , though she still has a vast knowledge of magic at her disposal . She had been adopted by a man that constantly abused her and the only thing that could cheer her up was a book from a magic user . She had been saved by Asuma and hopes to be of use to him .
Ikko ( イッコ )
Ikko is a female teacher at Kamisaid Magic Academy whose specialty is curses . While normally a sweet , young woman , her personality becomes sinister when she is performing her curses . She shows a skill in sewing when she is asked by Hibiki to make new clothes for Shiraasan .
Yukko ( ユッコ )
Yukko is a woman around the same age as Ikko , her older sister . Yukko lost her young daughter Nanako in the last war , and since then has spent all her time researching how to make a homunculus in human form , though has never been able to produce one that looks human . After the incident with Shiraasan , Yukko is finally able to accept her daughter 's death and ceases to make more homunculi . Yukko sacrificed her slumber for her magic .
Nazuna Shireiyu ( ナズナ = シレイユ )
Nazuna is a young girl whose grandfather is the king of the land of Kamisaid . She is a skilled sword @-@ fighter , but is followed by the dead spirits of baby chicks , who believe her to be their mother , and rest on her , thus interfering in her sword @-@ training . Hibiki is able to help her initially by making some of them disappear , though the chicks come back .
= = Production and release = =
The manga series Hibiki 's Magic is written by Jun Maeda and illustrated by Rei Izumi . As stated at the back of the first volume , Maeda first conceived Hibiki 's Magic as a short story he wrote as a student , and the story contains an unspecified theme that he has carried through a lot of stories since . In 2003 , he wanted to collaborate with Izumi , one of his favorite artists , and remembered his earlier concept that would become Hibiki 's Magic . After Izumi drew some early character designs for Hibiki , Maeda wanted to continue the story and start a manga with Izumi as the artist .
The manga premiered in the August 2004 issue of Kadokawa Shoten 's Shōnen Ace . It was later transferred to Kadokawa Shoten 's Comp Ace magazine on November 26 , 2005 . Hibiki 's Magic went on hiatus after the release of Comp Ace volume 15 on May 26 , 2007 , during which only three chapters were released : the first in Comp Ace 's August 2008 issue , next as a bonus chapter in the September 2008 issue of Comp Ace , and finally in a special edition of the magazine 's July 2011 issue titled Key Station . The manga resumed regular publication with the April 2013 issue of Comp Ace , and concluded with the May 2016 issue . The first tankōbon volume was released on August 10 , 2005 ; four volumes have been released as of February 26 , 2015 .
At Comic @-@ Con International 2006 , Tokyopop announced that it had acquired Hibiki 's Magic for distribution in English in North America . Tokyopop released the first volume on January 9 , 2007 , followed by the second volume on September 11 , 2007 . Kadokawa Media licensed the series in Chinese .
= = Reception = =
Anime News Network 's ( ANN ) review of the first volume states that " Hibiki 's Magic ... focus [ es ] on the ways that magic effects the everyday lives of its users . The personal focus is welcome , but the book is a little too compressed and rushed to evoke exactly the emotional response that it desires . " While at the same time describing the first volume as having an " inspirational tone " , the review ends by saying , " Don 't come to Hibiki 's Magic expecting a life @-@ changing re @-@ examination of magic . It 's a heavy dose of pure cuteness for those who like their sweet @-@ and @-@ sour drama with lots of cheese . " The first volume of Hibiki 's Magic was featured in ANN 's Right Turn Only column in January 2007 , where Carlo Santos compares the series to " Someday 's Dreamers with more guts and heart , " which portrays magicians as similar to normal people with " weaknesses and all " as opposed to " other tales of magic [ which ] focus on how cool and different magicians are [ compared to normal people ] . " Visually , the series is described as being too similar to " every other fantasy series " and even cites similarities with " Hogwarts ' magic robes and school logo . " IGN Comics ' review said , " This book ought to be fairly popular for its intended age group .... Make no mistake , this book is cute in every sense of the word ... but at the same time it 's a solid story that breaks out of that cuteness mold . "
In a review at Comic Book Bin , the reviewer Leroy Douresseaux praised Jun Maeda for crafting a " gentle , yet highly engaging story about deep friendship and strong love and devotion . " Douresseaux also cited Rei Izumi 's art as " cute " and how her " visuals are also emotionally potent . " In a review at Mania , Michelle Ramonetti follows with other reviewers , citing the series as " deceptively cute " , but also describing it as " often funny , but mostly bittersweet--and a real tear @-@ jerker . " The manga 's theme is thought to be related to " finding hope in times of pain and grief . " In the online appendix to Manga : The Complete Guide , Jason Thompson cites Hibiki 's Magic as " a cross between Someday 's Dreamers and Atelier Marie and Elie , " though describes it as being " less optimistic than Someday 's Dreamers . " Thompson goes on to pan the manga as a " dull moe title " with " crude , generic art . "
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= Music for a Time of War =
Music for a Time of War is a 2011 concert program and subsequent album by the Oregon Symphony under the artistic direction of Carlos Kalmar . The program consists of four compositions inspired by war : Charles Ives ' The Unanswered Question ( 1906 ) , John Adams ' The Wound @-@ Dresser ( 1989 ) , Benjamin Britten 's Sinfonia da Requiem ( 1940 ) and Ralph Vaughan Williams ' Symphony No. 4 ( 1935 ) . The program was performed on May 7 , 2011 , at the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall in Portland , Oregon , and again the following day . Both concerts were recorded for album release . On May 12 , the Oregon Symphony repeated the program at the inaugural Spring for Music Festival , at Carnegie Hall . The performance was broadcast live by KQAC and WQXR @-@ FM , the classical radio stations serving Portland and the New York City metropolitan area , respectively . The concerts marked the Oregon Symphony 's first performances of The Wound @-@ Dresser as well as guest baritone Sanford Sylvan 's debut with the company .
In October 2011 the recording of the Portland performances was released on CD by Dutch record label PentaTone Classics . The album marked the orchestra 's first release in eight years and Kalmar 's first with the Oregon Symphony . The live performances and album received favorable reviews ; the recording debuted at number 31 on Billboard 's Classical Albums chart , and made several lists of the best classical recordings of 2011 . The album earned three recognitions from the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences for the 2013 Grammy Awards . Kalmar and the Oregon Symphony were nominated in the categories Best Orchestral Performance and Best Engineered Album , Classical ( along with engineers Jesse Lewis and John Newton , and mastering engineer Jesse Brayman ) . Producer Blanton Alspaugh received the award for Producer of the Year , Classical for his contributions to Music for a Time of War and other recordings .
= = Program = =
Music for a Time of War contains four 20th @-@ century classical compositions based on the theme of war . Kalmar stated that the program was not inspired by current events and that not every composition was written specifically because of war . He also warned that audiences should not attend the performances anticipating an optimistic conclusion :
There is redemption in our concert , but not at the end . I think that is an important point . I don 't think that anybody who goes to this concert will come out and think everything is alright . I think the pacing is good because nothing is alright . If we humans have to live with war , that is pretty much what the message should be .
The program began with Charles Ives ' The Unanswered Question , originally the first of Two Contemplations , composed in 1906 ( along with its counterpart Central Park in the Dark ) . Theodore Bloomfield , who served as music director of the Oregon Symphony from 1955 to 1959 , conducted its world premiere at the Juilliard School in New York in 1946 . The Oregon Symphony had first performed the work in January 1974 , under Lawrence Leighton Smith , and had played it under Kalmar in January 2007 . The Unanswered Question , which is approximately six minutes in length , contains parts for two flutes , oboe , clarinet , trumpet and strings . The composition starts softly and builds with a repeated " ambiguous " question delivered by an offstage trumpet solo , answered by other instruments .
The second composition was The Wound @-@ Dresser , American minimalist composer John Adams ' portrayal of Walt Whitman 's experience as a medic during the American Civil War . The work refers to Whitman 's 1865 eponymous poem , part of a greater collection of poems related to the conflict . Adams wrote the composition following his father 's death from Alzheimer 's disease under his mother 's care . According to the program notes , Adams was influenced by friends who died of HIV / AIDS during the 1980s and how their struggles impacted loved ones . In his own notes , Adams wrote : " I was plunged into an awareness not only of dying but also of the person who cares for the dying ... The bonding that takes place between the two is one of the most extraordinary human events that can happen – something deeply personal of which most of us are completely unaware . " The work , which is approximately 20 minutes in length , employs solo baritone , piccolo , flute , two oboes , two clarinets ( one doubling bass clarinet ) , two bassoons , two horns , piccolo trumpet , timpani , synthesizer and strings . In Kalmar 's program the guest baritone soloist is Sanford Sylvan , for whom the piece was written in 1989 . Adams premiered the piece with the Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra and Sylvan in February 1989 ; Sylvan 's performance subsequently earned him a Grammy Award nomination . The live recording sessions marked the first performances of The Wound @-@ Dresser by the Oregon Symphony as well as Sylvan 's debut with the orchestra .
The program continued with Benjamin Britten 's Sinfonia da Requiem ( 1940 ) , commissioned by the Japanese government to commemorate the 2,600th anniversary of the Japanese Empire . Britten , a pacifist , took the opportunity to compose a work that expressed his anti @-@ war sentiments as well as his grief over his parents ' deaths . The Japanese were displeased by the work 's Christian connotations and melancholic tone , deeming it unsuitable for the national ceremony . Britten was unapologetic about his composition . Sinfonia da Requiem contains three movements — " Lacrymosa " ( " Weeping " ) , " Dies Irae " ( " Day of Wrath " ) and " Requiem Aeternam " ( " Eternal Rest " ) — and alludes to the Catholic Church 's Requiem . The work premiered in March 1941 at Carnegie Hall , performed by the New York Philharmonic , John Barbirolli conducting . The Oregon Symphony premiered the composition on February 26 , 2005 , under Kalmar 's baton ; these performances marked the orchestra 's last before Music for a Time of War . Approximately 18 minutes in length , the symphony includes three flutes ( one doubling alto flute and one doubling piccolo ) , two oboes , English horn , three clarinets ( one doubling bass clarinet ) , alto saxophone , two bassoons , contrabassoon , four horns , three trumpets , three trombones , tuba , timpani , bass drum , cymbals , snare drum , tambourine , whip , xylophone , piano , harp and strings . Its end completed the program 's first half . Kalmar requested that the audience hold their applause from the start of the program until the end of Britten 's symphony .
The performance ended with Ralph Vaughan Williams ' Symphony No. 4 , composed during 1931 – 1934 . Williams did not write the symphony on a specific subject ; once he quipped that the work was " about F minor " and his wife insisted he had " [ experimented ] with purely musical ideas " . Critics perceived the piece as a reflection of the political situation in Europe . The BBC Symphony Orchestra , conducted by Adrian Boult , premiered the work at Queen 's Hall in London in April 1935 . Boult considered this " dissonant " work , inspired by Beethoven , to be a " ' magnificent gesture of disgust ' against war and fascism " . The Oregon Symphony first performed the work in February 1959 with Bloomfield conducting ; prior to 2011 , the ensemble had not performed the symphony since October 2001 , with James Judd conducting . Approximately 34 minutes in length , it employs three flutes ( one doubling piccolo ) , three oboes ( one doubling English horn ) , two clarinets , bass clarinet , tenor saxophone , two bassoons , contrabassoon , four horns , two trumpets , three trombones , tuba , timpani , bass drum , cymbals , snare drum , triangle and strings .
= = Performances and broadcasts = =
The Oregon Symphony presented the program at the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall in Portland the evening of May 7 and the afternoon of May 8 , 2011 . Both performances were recorded for album release by the Boston @-@ based company Soundmirror . The Portland and subsequent New York performances were dedicated to Harold Schnitzer , the businessman and philanthropist who died in April 2011 .
On May 12 , the Oregon Symphony repeated the program at the inaugural Spring for Music Festival , marking the orchestra 's Carnegie Hall debut . The festival invites orchestras " dedicated to distinctive and adventurous programming " to perform " unusual repertoire " . The Symphony raised $ 300 @,@ 000 to fund travel and hotel expenses for the concert series . In addition to the Oregon Symphony , the inaugural festival presented seven ensembles within nine days , including the Albany Symphony Orchestra , Dallas Symphony Orchestra , Montreal Symphony Orchestra , Orpheus Chamber Orchestra , Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra and Toledo Symphony Orchestra . Orchestras were invited based on their submitted program proposals . No other ensemble presented a program themed by a single topic . In February 2011 , three months before the Carnegie Hall performance , The Oregonian reported that nearly half of the 1 @,@ 000 tickets reserved for distribution by the Oregon Symphony had been sold . Kalmar later confirmed that 450 Oregonians traveled to New York City to witness the performance .
The Carnegie Hall performance was broadcast live across the United States . Portland 's classical radio station , KQAC , broadcast the concert live throughout the Pacific Northwest as part of an ongoing partnership with the Symphony . WQXR @-@ FM , the classical radio station licensed to Newark , New Jersey and serving the New York City metropolitan area , broadcast the performance live in 3D sound in collaboration with the design and engineering consulting company Arup . WQXR also hosted a live chat on their website . Prior to the live broadcast , WQXR 's Q2 Music provided their own take on the Oregon Symphony 's war @-@ themed concert by airing a program with works by Lowell Liebermann , Seppo Pohjola , Steve Reich , Frederic Rzewski , Dmitri Shostakovich and John Adams . KQAC rebroadcast the program in November . In April 2012 , the station broadcast the album recording and has since aired individual works .
= = = Reception ( concert ) = = =
The concert program received a positive reception . The Oregonian 's David Stabler wrote that during the May 7 performance the orchestra displayed peak condition and " played with a precision and intensity that would have been unattainable a decade ago " . He complimented Sylvan 's diction and " emotional engagement " , but noted that some words were difficult to make out . Stabler called the timpanist 's performance during Britten 's symphony " fierce " and the orchestra 's playing " clear and intentional " . In his review of the Carnegie Hall performance , Stabler opined that the Oregon Symphony 's program ( which he described as one of " rage , brutality and fleeting beauty that required the utmost precision and ferocity from the musicians " ) focused more on playing , while the programs by other orchestras drew attention to the music . Stabler wrote : " Everyone knows orchestras are fighting to survive , but on this night , the Oregon Symphony breathed long and deep of triumph . " In a separate article summarizing reviews by New York critics , Stabler called the Symphony a " virtuosos band " that " now plays with more acute rhythmic precision , more clarity , more informed style ... and more extreme dynamics and tempos " . James Bash of Oregon Music News wrote a positive review of the New York performance , describing it as more enhanced , dramatic and intense than the Portland concerts , partly because of the venue 's superior acoustics . Bash described the orchestra 's performance of The Unanswered Question as " compelling and auspicious " and wrote that Sylvan 's vocals during The Wound @-@ Dresser " conveyed the sensitive text superbly " . In addition to complimenting the Symphony overall , Bash singled out solo performers by name . After noting the audience 's enthusiastic response to the performance , including multiple bravos and particular recognition for Kalmar , Bash quipped " the Oregon Symphony may be regional in terms of size and budget , but they are world @-@ class when they play " .
Following the New York concert , music critic Alex Ross tweeted : " Triumphant Carnegie debut for the Oregon Symphony -- best of Spring for Music so far . Eloquent Sylvan , explosive Vaughan Williams . " On his blog , " The Rest Is Noise " , Ross called the Symphony 's performance " extraordinary " , one of the " most gripping events of the current season " . In his two @-@ page review of Spring for Music for The New Yorker , Ross devoted more coverage to the Oregon Symphony than the other featured ensembles and considered Music for a Time of War the festival 's highpoint . He complimented the orchestra for playing with " controlled intensity " and said of Symphony No. 4 : " The Oregonians ' furious rendition of that symphony would have been impressive in any context , but as the capstone to a brilliantly worked @-@ out program it had shattering force . " The review contained an illustration of Kalmar , " hair flying and all " . Sedgwick Clark of Musical America called the orchestra 's performance of the Williams ' piece " positively searing ... with fearless edge @-@ of @-@ seat tempos ... breathtakingly negotiated by all . " After Clark 's review was published , Ross posted on his blog that he and Clark concurred : the Symphony 's performance was the most " remarkable " of the season . Ross included the Symphony 's concert on his list of the most memorable classical performances of 2011 . Allan Kozinn , music critic for The New York Times , considered the program " pained " and " thought @-@ provoking " , and wrote that Sylvan performed with his " characteristic acuity " . He called the woodwind and brass playing in Sinfonia da Requiem " superb " , specifically highlighting the " pointed " percussion in " Dies Irae " and the " haunting " string tone in " Requiem Aeternam " . Like Ross , Kozinn thought Symphony No. 4 was performed " with a furious , incendiary energy " that made an ideal ending to the program .
Elaine Calder , then president of the Oregon Symphony , called the Carnegie Hall performance a " game changer " . She also confirmed that the Toledo Symphony Orchestra expressed interest in performing the Music for a Time of War program in the future . In September 2011 , the Symphony confirmed that Kalmar 's contract , previously set to expire in 2013 , had been extended until 2015 . According to the organization , his contract was renewed " in recognition of his significant accomplishments " , specifically acknowledging the Carnegie Hall performance . The orchestra was invited to perform again at the 2013 Spring for Music Festival as one of two returning ensembles . Kalmar said of the return invitation , " To be invited once is a thrill . To be invited twice is clear proof that we are in the artistic big leagues . " However , in October 2012 the Symphony announced it would not accept the invitation for financial reasons .
= = Album = =
Music for a Time of War was released on CD by the Dutch record label PentaTone Classics on October 25 , 2011 . It was recorded in hybrid multichannel ( surround sound ) Super Audio CD format . Blanton Alspaugh served as producer . John Newton and Jesse Lewis were the recording engineers ; mastering and authoring was conducted by Jesse Brayman . In addition to recording the performances , Soundmirror edited , mixed and mastered the audio .
The album contains nine tracks ( Sinfonia da Requiem and Symphony No. 4 are divided into separate tracks for each movement ) and totals just over 78 minutes in length . Program notes for the recording were written by Steven Kruger . The album 's cover art photo is credited to orchestra member Martha Warrington .
Music for a Time of War marked the orchestra 's first recording in eight years as well as Kalmar 's first with the Oregon Symphony . The recording is the first of four albums to be produced by the Symphony and PentaTone through the end of the 2014 – 2015 season , all under Kalmar 's artistic leadership .
= = = Reception ( album ) = = =
The album performed well commercially and received favorable reviews . Music for a Time of War debuted and peaked at number 31 on Billboard 's Classical Albums chart the week of November 19 , 2011 . On November 19 , BBC Radio 3 reviewed the album on its program " CD Review " , which discusses and recommends new classical music recordings . AllMusic 's Mike Brownell awarded the album 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and wrote that the Symphony " prove [ d ] they can easily stand alongside the world 's great orchestras " . Audiophile Audition 's John Sunier thought the program was " well @-@ chosen to offer great variety in sound and compositional techniques " . Michael Miller of The Berkshire Review appreciated the " precision and sensitivity " of the playing and Karlmar 's " lucid , straightforward , and ... virile " approach to the program . Miller also complimented Sylvan 's performance and called the recording " memorable " and " thrilling " , recommending it for any classical music library . Brian Horay , a classical music critic for The Huffington Post , questioned Kalmar 's claim that his selections should not be interpreted as political , writing that listeners " [ encounter ] a more difficult and nuanced 20th @-@ century musical landscape of existential questions , gruesome descriptions , defiant submissions and cold dissonance . " Horay continued , " Music for a Time of War serves as a powerful acoustic journey of peaceful resistance and questioning of power " . Barry Forshaw of the Islington Gazette thought the war theme was " tendentious " but called the collection " enterprising " . James Bash of Oregon Music News called the album a " brilliant stunner " , mirroring his positive review of the Carnegie Hall performance .
Soundmirror also received compliments . Andrew Quint of The Absolute Sound described the sound as " vivid , highly detailed , and dynamic " as well as avoiding " digital steeliness " . Quint called the front @-@ to @-@ back layering outstanding . John Sunier said the recording 's " rich surround sonics " bring together excellent performances and " first @-@ rate fidelity " . He also noted the lack of audience interference , suggesting either good behavior by attendees or subtle work by audio engineers . Michael Miller complimented the quality of the recording for having " no problems of intonation or ensemble " and said the album " belongs in the reference collection of any audiophile , whether they are inclined to multichannel playback or not " . Miller specifically appreciated Alspaugh and the engineers for capturing the loudness and subtleties of Sinfonia da Requiem . International Record Review 's Nigel Simeone recommended the recording , calling it " impressive " and writing that the live sound is " exceptionally vibrant " . Kalman Rubinson of Stereophile commended the ensemble , PentaTone and Soundmirror for providing " spacious , transparent , powerful sound " . Rubinson , who designated the recording as the year 's best concept album , praised the program for being " thought @-@ provoking and restorative " and appreciated the range of emotions it summoned .
Several publications included Music for a Time of War on their lists of the best classical recordings of 2011 . Eugene Weekly recommended the album as a " stocking stuffer " on their list of the best Oregon classical music recordings of the year . Contributor Brett Campbell called the recording one of the year 's " most compelling " , with " blistering , committed , sharply etched performances " that illustrate the orchestra 's quality under Kalmar 's leadership . Similarly , Portland Monthly included Music for a Time of War on its list of fifteen " giftable " Portland albums . Alex Ross of The New Yorker included the album on his list of the ten most " exceptional " classical music recordings of the year . New York City 's Time Out included the album as number seven on their list of the ten " Best Classical Albums of 2011 " . The publication 's Steve Smith called the collection " greater than the sum of its parts " . James Manishen of the Winnipeg Free Press included Music for a Time of War as number three on his list of the ten best classical recordings of the year , calling the performances " superbly prepared " . The album received its second pressing in February 2012 .
Music for a Time of War earned three recognitions from the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences for the 2013 Grammy Awards . Kalmar and the Oregon Symphony were nominated in the categories Best Orchestral Performance and Best Engineered Album , Classical ( along with engineers Jesse Lewis and John Newton and mastering engineer Jesse Brayman ) . Producer Alspaugh received the award for Producer of the Year , Classical for his contributions to the album and other recordings . The nominations marked the orchestra 's first from the Grammy Awards since 2004 .
= = = Track listing = = =
The Unanswered Question ( Charles Ives ) – 5 : 44
The Wound @-@ Dresser ( John Adams ) – 20 : 18
Sinfonia da Requiem , Op. 20 ( Benjamin Britten )
" Lacrymosa ( Andante ben misurato ) " – 8 : 34
" Dies Irae ( Allegro con fuoco ) " – 4 : 53
" Requiem Aeternam ( Andante molto tranquillo ) " – 5 : 36
Symphony No. 4 in F minor ( Ralph Vaughan Williams )
" Allegro " – 8 : 57
" Andante moderato " – 10 : 01
" Scherzo : Allegro molto " – 5 : 22
" Finale con epilogo fugato : Allegro molto – con anima " – 8 : 33
Track listing adapted from AllMusic and the album 's liner notes .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic .
= = = Orchestra roster = = =
Orchestra roster adapted from the album 's liner notes .
" * " designates acting orchestra members ; " * * " designates musicians on a leave of absence ; " * * * " designates guest musicians .
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= Maurice Fernandes =
Maurius Pacheco " Maurice " Fernandes , ( 12 August 1897 – 8 May 1981 ) was a West Indian Test cricketer who played first @-@ class cricket for British Guiana between 1922 and 1932 . He made two Test appearances for the West Indies , in 1928 and 1930 . Fernandes played as a right @-@ handed top @-@ order batsman and occasional wicket @-@ keeper . He scored 2 @,@ 087 first @-@ class runs in 46 appearances at an average of 28 @.@ 20 .
Graduating from playing at the Demerara Cricket Club as a teenager , to play for British Guiana in 1922 , Fernandes took part in tours of England in 1923 and 1928 . He made his debut Test appearance during the 1928 tour , playing in the first of the three Tests . His next , and final Test match came during the English tour of the West Indies in 1930 . At the time , the West Indies had a practice of picking their captain from the colony that the match was being played in , and Fernandes was granted the honour for the match in British Guiana . The West Indies won the match , their maiden victory in Test cricket . After the match , Fernandes only played one further first @-@ class match , and retired from first @-@ class cricket in 1932 .
= = Early life and career = =
Maurius Pacheco Fernandes was born in Georgetown , Demerara , British Guiana on 12 August 1897 . He played for the Demerara Cricket Club as a teenager , gaining a reputation as a good cricketer , and made his debut for British Guiana during the 1922 Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament , facing Trinidad . Playing as an opening batsman , Fernandes scored a duck in his first innings , but made 25 runs in the second .
He was part of the West Indian team that toured England in 1923 , playing twenty first @-@ class matches against county and representative opposition . Fernandes played in over half of the matches , and passed fifty on three occasions against first @-@ class opposition . He had reached 83 not out when his side declared against Northamptonshire , and reached 73 runs in the second innings against Lancashire in the next match , having narrowly missed out in the first innings , when he scored 49 . His highest score of the tour , and his maiden first @-@ class century came against Leicestershire , when he hit 110 runs . In A History of Cricket , H. S. Altham and E. W. Swanton describe the touring side as one which " proved themselves equal to the best . " The team relied heavily on the batting of George Challenor , who struck six centuries , and it was only Challenor that Fernandes trailed in the batting averages on the tour : he scored 523 runs at an average of 34 @.@ 86 , and was one of only two players other than Challenor to score a century for the West Indies .
During the Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament in October 1925 , Fernandes made significant scores in each of British Guiana 's matches : he scored 89 runs in the first innings of their match against Barbados , helping his side to open up a 144 @-@ run first innings lead , which they converted into an eight wicket victory . In the subsequent match against Trinidad , he reached 124 , but lacked support from his teammates , three of whom fell just short of half @-@ centuries . British Guiana eventually lost the match by two wickets . In the following February , the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) toured the West Indies , playing matches in Barbados , Trinidad , British Guiana and Jamaica . Three of the matches , one in each location excluding Jamaica , was against representative West Indies sides : Fernandes played in the match held in British Guiana , but not in either of the others , and also played in both matches between British Guiana and the touring MCC . In the last of these matches , he was selected as captain of the British Guiana side , and marked the occasion by scoring 120 in his team 's only innings of a drawn match . He remained as captain for the colony 's 1927 match against Barbados , in which their opponents scored 715 / 9 declared : the second highest innings score made against the team .
= = Test cricket = =
Fernandes was part of the West Indian side which toured England in 1928 . After the success of their 1923 tour , three of the matches were granted Test status . The team played 30 first @-@ class matches , but in contrast to their previous tour , they won just five of them . Altham and Swanton describe the side as being " substantially less formidable combination than the West Indies of ' 23 . " The touring side lacked a regular wicket @-@ keeper , and as a result Fernandes and the West Indian captain Karl Nunes shared the duties , though Nunes kept in all three Tests . Both were expensive on occasion : against Ireland , Fernandes allowed 25 byes in one innings , and Nunes the same number against Nottinghamshire . Fernandes ' batting was significantly less effective than it had been five years before ; he passed fifty on only three occasions , making 73 against both Ireland , and Cambridge University , and 54 against Middlesex . He played in the first Test match , the West Indies ' first appearance in Test cricket , facing England at Lord 's . Batting at number three in each innings , he scored a duck in the first , and eight runs in the second after the West Indies had been forced to follow @-@ on . England won the match by an innings and 58 runs . Fernandes played 20 of the first @-@ class matches in the tour , and scored 581 runs at an average of 18 @.@ 15 .
During the 1929 Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament , Fernandes made the highest score of his first @-@ class career during a seven @-@ day match against Barbados . After the early dismissal of captain Maurice Green , Fernandes joined Jeremy McKenzie at the crease . The pair added 177 runs for the second wicket before McKenzie was run out for 74 . Fernandes then shared another century partnership with Frank de Caires , before being dismissed for 141 . British Guiana won the match by 391 runs to progress to the final , in which they faced Trinidad . Fernandes scored half @-@ centuries in both innings of the final , scoring 88 runs in the first and 54 runs in the second to help his side to a four wicket victory .
Early the following year , a weakened English cricket team toured the West Indies , playing four Tests and eight other first @-@ class matches . Fernandes captained British Guiana in both of their matches against the MCC , each of which was lost by an innings . Generally , the West Indies named a different captain for each of their home matches , commonly selecting a player from the host colony for the honour due to financial constraints . Fernandes was chosen as captain for the Test played at Bourda , Georgetown , British Guiana . The first two Tests had resulted in a draw and an English victory . Fernandes won the toss and elected to bat first . Clifford Roach and Errol Hunte opened the batting for the West Indies and scored 144 runs together for the opening partnership before Hunte was out for 53 . George Headley then joined Roach at the crease , and the pair took the score onto 336 before Roach was dismissed after reaching his double century . Fernandes and Headley took the score up to 400 , of which Fernandes added 22 . The remaining batsmen were dismissed for a combined 71 ; Headley scored a century and the West Indies were all out for 471 . The England team was then bowled out for 145 , a first innings deficit of 326 . Despite the healthy lead , Fernandes chose not to enforce the follow @-@ on , and the West Indies batted again to score 290 , leaving England requiring 617 runs in the fourth innings to achieve victory . Patsy Hendren scored a century for the visitors , but no other batsman reached 50 runs , and with just four minutes of the match remaining , the West Indies secured their maiden Test win by 289 runs .
= = Later career and life = =
After his single match as West Indies Test captain , Fernandes did not appear for the West Indies again , and only made one further appearance for British Guiana , scoring 78 and 7 against Trinidad in the 1932 Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament final . Fernandes is described in his Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack obituary as being " an obdurate batsman " , and was praised for his cutting and driving during the 1923 tour of England . He remained a private individual throughout his cricketing career , a characteristic which became stronger after his retirement from cricket . He had one son , Leslie , who played one first @-@ class match for Guyana in the 1960 – 61 season , and died in a car accident in 1978 aged 39 . After this , Fernandes ' health , already poor , deteriorated rapidly , and he died on 8 May 1981 , aged 83 .
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= Jevons paradox =
In economics , the Jevons paradox ( / ˈdʒɛvənz / ; sometimes Jevons effect ) occurs when technological progress increases the efficiency with which a resource is used ( reducing the amount necessary for any one use ) , but the rate of consumption of that resource rises because of increasing demand . The Jevons paradox is perhaps the most widely known paradox in environmental economics . However , governments and environmentalists generally assume that efficiency gains will lower resource consumption , ignoring the possibility of the paradox arising .
In 1865 , the English economist William Stanley Jevons observed that technological improvements that increased the efficiency of coal @-@ use led to the increased consumption of coal in a wide range of industries . He argued that , contrary to common intuition , technological progress could not be relied upon to reduce fuel consumption .
The issue has been re @-@ examined by modern economists studying consumption rebound effects from improved energy efficiency . In addition to reducing the amount needed for a given use , improved efficiency also lowers the relative cost of using a resource , which increases the quantity demanded . This counteracts ( to some extent ) the reduction in use from improved efficiency . Additionally , improved efficiency accelerates economic growth , further increasing the demand for resources . The Jevons paradox occurs when the effect from increased demand predominates , and better efficiency leads to more resources being used .
Considerable debate exists about the size of the rebound in energy efficiency and the relevance of Jevons paradox to energy conservation . Some dismiss the paradox , while others worry that it may be self @-@ defeating to pursue sustainability by increasing energy efficiency . Environmental economists have proposed that efficiency gains be coupled with conservation policies that keep the cost of use the same ( or higher ) to avoid the Jevons paradox . Conservation policies ( such as cap and trade ) do not display the paradox , and can be used to control the rebound effect .
= = History = =
The Jevons paradox was first described by the English economist William Stanley Jevons in his 1865 book The Coal Question . Jevons observed that England 's consumption of coal soared after James Watt introduced the Watt steam engine , which greatly improved the efficiency of the coal @-@ fired steam engine from Thomas Newcomen 's earlier design . Watt 's innovations made coal a more cost @-@ effective power source , leading to the increased use of the steam engine in a wide range of industries . This in turn increased total coal consumption , even as the amount of coal required for any particular application fell . Jevons argued that improvements in fuel efficiency tend to increase ( rather than decrease ) fuel use , writing : " It is a confusion of ideas to suppose that the economical use of fuel is equivalent to diminished consumption . The very contrary is the truth . "
At that time , many in Britain worried that coal reserves were rapidly dwindling , but some experts opined that improving technology would reduce coal consumption . Jevons argued that this view was incorrect , as further increases in efficiency would tend to increase the use of coal . Hence , improving technology would tend to increase the rate at which England 's coal deposits were being depleted , and could not be relied upon to solve the problem .
Although Jevons originally focused on the issue of coal , the concept has since been extended to the use of any resource , including , for example , water usage . It is perhaps the most widely known paradox in environmental economics .
= = Cause = =
Economists have observed that consumers tend to travel more when their cars are more fuel efficient , causing a ' rebound ' in the demand for fuel . An increase in the efficiency with which a resource ( e.g. fuel ) is used , causes a decrease in the cost of using that resource when measured in terms of what it can achieve ( e.g. travel ) . Generally speaking , a decrease in the cost ( or price ) of a good or service will increase the quantity demanded ( the law of demand ) . With a lower cost for travel , consumers will travel more , increasing the demand for fuel . This increase in demand is known as the rebound effect , and it may or may not be large enough to offset the original drop in demand from the increased efficiency . The Jevons paradox occurs when the rebound effect is greater than 100 % , exceeding the original efficiency gains .
The size of the rebound effect is determined by the price elasticity of demand for the good . In a perfectly competitive market where fuel is the sole input used , if the price of fuel remains constant but efficiency is doubled , the effective price of travel would be halved ( twice as much travel can be purchased ) . If in response , the amount of travel purchased more than doubles ( i.e. demand is price elastic ) , then fuel consumption would increase , and the Jevons paradox would occur . If demand is price inelastic , the amount of travel purchased would less than double , and fuel consumption would decrease . However , goods and services generally use more than one type of input ( e.g. fuel , labour , machinery ) , and other factors besides input cost may also affect price . These factors tend to reduce the rebound effect , making the Jevons paradox less likely to occur .
= = Khazzoom – Brookes postulate = =
In the 1980s , economists Daniel Khazzoom and Leonard Brookes revisited the Jevons paradox for the case of society 's energy use . Brookes , then chief economist at the UK Atomic Energy Authority , argued that attempts to reduce energy consumption by increasing energy efficiency would simply raise demand for energy in the economy as a whole . Khazzoom focused on the narrower point that the potential for rebound was ignored in mandatory performance standards for domestic appliances being set by the California Energy Commission .
In 1992 , the economist Harry Saunders dubbed the hypothesis that improvements in energy efficiency work to increase ( rather than decrease ) energy consumption the Khazzoom – Brookes postulate , and argued that the hypothesis is broadly supported by neoclassical growth theory ( the mainstream economic theory of capital accumulation , technological progress and long @-@ run economic growth ) . Saunders showed that the Khazzoom – Brookes postulate occurs in the neoclassical growth model under a wide range of assumptions .
According to Saunders , increased energy efficiency tends to increase energy consumption by two means . First , increased energy efficiency makes the use of energy relatively cheaper , thus encouraging increased use ( the direct rebound effect ) . Second , increased energy efficiency leads to increased economic growth , which pulls up energy use for the whole economy . At the microeconomic level ( looking at an individual market ) , even with the rebound effect , improvements in energy efficiency usually result in reduced energy consumption . That is , the rebound effect is usually less than 100 % . However , at the macroeconomic level , more efficient ( and hence comparatively cheaper ) energy leads to faster economic growth , which increases energy use throughout the economy . Saunders argued that , taking into account both microeconomic and macroeconomic effects , technological progress that improves energy efficiency will tend to increase overall energy use .
= = Energy conservation policy = =
Jevons warned that fuel efficiency gains can lead to an increase in the use of fuel , which cancels out any efficiency gains . But this does not imply that improved fuel efficiency is worthless ; higher fuel efficiency enables greater production and a higher material quality of life . For example , a more efficient steam engine allowed the cheaper transportation of both goods and people who contributed to the Industrial Revolution . However , if the Khazzoom – Brookes postulate is correct , increased fuel efficiency , by itself , will not reduce the rate of depletion of fossil fuels .
There is considerable debate about whether the Khazzoom @-@ Brookes Postulate is correct , and of the relevance of Jevons paradox to energy conservation policy . Most governments , environmentalists and NGOs pursue policies that improve efficiency , holding that it will lower resource consumption and reduce environmental problems . Others , including many environmental economists , doubt this ' efficiency strategy ' towards sustainability , and worry that efficiency gains may in fact lead to higher production and consumption . They hold that for resource use to fall , efficiency gains should be coupled with other policies that limit resource use .
The Jevons paradox is sometimes used to argue that energy conservation efforts are futile , for example , that more efficient use of oil will lead to increased demand , and will not slow the arrival or the effects of peak oil . This argument is usually presented as a reason not to enact environmental policies or pursue fuel efficiency ( e.g. if cars are more efficient , it will simply lead to more driving ) . Several points have been raised against this argument . First , in the context of a mature market such as for oil in developed countries , the direct rebound effect is usually small , and so increased fuel efficiency usually reduces resource use , other conditions remaining constant . Second , even if increased efficiency does not reduce the total amount of fuel used , there remain other benefits associated with improved efficiency . For example , increased fuel efficiency may mitigate the price increases , shortages and disruptions in the global economy associated with peak oil . Third , environmental economists have pointed out that fuel use will unambiguously decrease if increased efficiency is coupled with an intervention ( e.g. a fuel tax ) that keeps the cost of fuel use the same or higher .
The Jevons paradox indicates that increased efficiency by itself may not reduce fuel use , and that sustainable energy policy must rely on other types of government interventions . As the Jevons paradox applies only to technological improvements that increase fuel efficiency , the imposition of conservation standards or other government interventions that increase costs do not display the paradox and can be used to control the rebound effect . To ensure that efficiency @-@ enhancing technological improvements reduce fuel use , efficiency gains can be paired with government intervention that reduces demand ( e.g. green taxes , cap and trade , or higher emissions standards ) . The ecological economists Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees have suggested that any cost savings from efficiency gains be " taxed away or otherwise removed from further economic circulation . Preferably they should be captured for reinvestment in natural capital rehabilitation . " By mitigating the economic effects of government interventions designed to promote ecologically sustainable activities , efficiency @-@ improving technological progress may make the imposition of these interventions more palatable , and more likely to be implemented .
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= Mick Aston =
Michael Antony " Mick " Aston , FSA ( 1 July 1946 – 24 June 2013 ) was an English archaeologist who specialised in Early Medieval landscape archaeology . Over the course of his career , he lectured at both the University of Bristol and University of Oxford and published fifteen books on archaeological subjects . A keen populariser of the discipline , Aston was widely known for appearing as the resident academic on the Channel 4 television series Time Team from 1994 to 2011 .
Born in Oldbury , Worcestershire to a working @-@ class family , Aston developed an early interest in archaeology , studying it as a subsidiary to geography at the University of Birmingham . In 1970 , he began his career working for Oxford City and County Museum and there began his work in public outreach by running extramural classes in archaeology and presenting a series on the subject for Radio Oxford . In 1974 , he was appointed as the first County Archaeologist for Somerset , there developing an interest in aerial archaeology and establishing a reputation as a pioneer in landscape archaeology – a term that he co @-@ invented with Trevor Rowley – by authoring some of the earliest books on the subject . In 1978 he began lecturing at the University of Oxford and in 1979 became a tutor at the University of Bristol , supplementing these activities by working as an archaeological tour guide in Greece .
In 1988 , Aston teamed up with television producer Tim Taylor and together they created two shows which focused on bringing archaeology into British popular consciousness . The first was the short @-@ lived Time Signs ( 1991 ) , although this was followed by the more successful Time Team , which was produced for Channel 4 from 1994 to 2013 . Aston was responsible for identifying sites for excavation and for selecting specialists to appear on the show , and through the programme became well known to the viewing public for his trademark colourful jumpers and flowing , untidy hairstyle . In 1996 he was appointed to the specially @-@ created post of Professor of Landscape Archaeology at Bristol University , and undertook a ten @-@ year project investigating the manor at Shapwick , Somerset . He retired from his university posts in 2004 , but continued working on Time Team until 2011 and in 2006 commenced writing regular articles for British Archaeology magazine until his death . Although Aston did not believe that he would leave a significant legacy behind him , after his death various archaeologists claimed that he had a major impact in helping to popularise the discipline among the British public .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education : 1946 – 69 = = =
Aston was born on 1 July 1946 into a working @-@ class family in Oldbury , West Midlands , to cabinet @-@ maker Harold Aston and his wife Gladys . He developed an early interest in archaeology , although teachers at Oldbury Grammar School attempted to dissuade him from pursuing it . His father gave him two books on archaeology as a Christmas present , and he subsequently spent much time visiting archaeological sites , sometimes playing truant to do so . The first of his family to attend university , Aston studied geography at the University of Birmingham , albeit with a subsidiary in archaeology , graduating in 1967 . He taught himself more about archaeology by enrolling in various excavations , and was influenced by such figures as his thesis supervisor Harry Thorpe , as well as the geographer Trevor Rowley and archaeologists Philip Rahtz and Philip Barker . His dissertation was on the development of settlement in the West Penwith peninsula .
= = = Early career : 1970 – 87 = = =
Aston first gained full @-@ time employment in 1970 , working as a field officer at the Oxford City and County Museum in Oxfordshire . For a time living in a tent , he worked on the sites and monuments record and taught several extramural classes while based at the museum . This extramural teaching fitted closely with Aston 's staunch belief that archaeology should be open to all who were interested in it . As part of this devotion to public outreach , he presented a radio series on archaeology that was broadcast on Radio Oxford . In 1974 he moved to Taunton to become the first County Archaeologist for Somerset , where he set up a new site record and oversaw the excavation of sites revealed by the construction of the M5 motorway . Again he also taught extramural adult education classes , this time for the University of Bristol . It was here that he developed a passion for aerial archaeology , and would often charter private planes in order to undertake aerial photography . Becoming a pioneer of landscape archaeology , along with Trevor Rowley he was responsible for coining the term in their 1974 book , Landscape Archaeology . With archaeologist James Bond he authored The Landscape of Towns ( 1976 ) , in which he extended his use of landscape archaeology to urban areas . Recognising his contribution to the discipline , in 1976 , he was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London .
Tiring of his position as county archaeologist , finding it " too safe , pensionable and superannuable " , in 1978 he returned to Oxfordshire to take up a temporary position as a tutor in archaeology and local studies at Oxford University 's External Studies Department . That year he co @-@ ran his first study tour to Greece with Peter Hardy ; he would continue to run these annually for a number of years , most often visiting Santorini . In 1979 he returned to the West Country as tutor in archaeology at the University of Bristol 's Extra @-@ Mural Department , through which he organised weekend and evening courses throughout the region , introducing thousands of interested people to archaeology . During this period he also authored Interpreting the Landscape ( 1985 ) .
= = = Founding Time Team : 1988 – 95 = = =
In June 1988 the producer Tim Taylor invited Aston to work on a new four @-@ episode television series for Channel 4 called Time Signs , broadcast in June and July 1991 . The series focused on the historical development of the area about to be flooded by the Roadford Reservoir in Devon , making heavy use of archaeological data . Aston brought archaeologist Phil Harding into the project in order to explain techniques of experimental archaeology to the audience . Meanwhile , in August 1989 , Aston was promoted to the position of Reader in Landscape Archaeology at Bristol University . He also continued to write on the subject , authoring the book Monasteries ( 1993 ) ; he had initially planned to title the volume Monasteries in the Landscape but his publisher , Batsford , had insisted on the shorter title .
Aston and Taylor subsequently decided to work together on a new archaeological television series , devising the format for Time Team . Whilst Taylor organised the film production side of the project with Channel 4 , Aston located suitable sites to excavate , and gathered together a team of specialists to appear on the show , among them field archaeologists Harding and Carenza Lewis , artist Victor Ambrus , and historian Robin Bush . He knew the actor and television presenter Tony Robinson after they had met on an archaeological course in Greece , and successfully requested that he present the show . From an early stage , they had agreed that every episode would feature a practical process or a re @-@ enactment alongside the field archaeology .
Time Team was first broadcast in 1994 , and would attract around four million viewers per episode , with Aston becoming " an icon to the viewing public . " Writing in The Guardian , Christopher Dyer noted that Aston 's " unkempt hair and beard , multicoloured sweaters and Black Country accent made him instantly recognisable " to the British public , describing him as " a popular success " who had attracted " a large public following " . Aston acted as chief archaeological adviser to the programme until the end of series nineteen , starring in almost every episode , although he would later comment that when it first started he had no idea it would continue for so long . Aston enjoyed working with the Time Team crew , commenting that they were " a great gang ... There are some real party people . "
Aston saw Time Team as an extension of his work as an extramural tutor , telling a 2013 interviewer that it was " a way of reaching 3 million people rather than 30 people in the village hall . " Commenting on the popularity of Time Team , and its role in exposing the British public to archaeology , in a 2010 interview Aston remarked that " My motive was to get as many people as possible interested in archaeology , because we [ in the profession ] all enjoy it and think it interesting . That was my personal aim ... and on that basis I think it is a success . " Time Team encouraged wider public interest in archaeology and led to increasing numbers of students applying to study archaeological courses at British universities , while subscriptions to Current Archaeology magazine quadrupled to 18 @,@ 000 in the show 's first five years . In autumn 1998 , Channel 4 started a Time Team fan club , which had 16 @,@ 000 members within a few months , while Aston became a supporter of the Council for British Archaeology 's Young Archaeologists ' Club ( YAC ) , and with Harding gave regular talks to YAC branches . Aston found himself giving up to 20 public lectures a year on the subject of Time Team , describing the public feedback as " embarassingly encouraging " .
= = = Professorship : 1996 – 2011 = = =
In 1996 , Aston was appointed to the position of Professor of Landscape Archaeology at Bristol University 's Department of Continuing Education , a post designed explicitly for him . In 1998 the post was moved to the Centre for the Historic Environment within the Department of Archaeology . He would subsequently be instrumental in setting up the master 's degree in archaeology and screen media at the department . By 1996 , Aston was feeling " a bit frustrated " with Time Team , primarily because he was always " number two " to Robinson . He proceeded to present his own six @-@ episode series , Time Traveller , in which he explored various archaeological sites in the counties around Bristol . It was broadcast on HTV over July and August 1997 , and gained the largest local audiences for its time slot .
The archaeology students of King Alfred 's College , Winchester also participated in a 10 @-@ year project led by Aston to investigate the manor of Shapwick in Somerset . It became the " type site for the study of the development of medieval villages " . Aston published the results of the project in The Shapwick Project , Somerset : A Rural Landscape Explored ( 2007 ) , co @-@ written with Christopher Gerrard , and this was followed by a more popular account of the project , Interpreting the English Village , in 2013 .
Alongside his academic publications , Aston wrote two books on archaeology for a more general audience , both of which were published by Channel 4 Books as a spin @-@ off from the Time Team television series . The first of these was Time Team 's Timechester : A Companion to Archaeology , co @-@ written with Carenza Lewis and Phil Harding and first published in 2000 . Based around the fictional British town of Timechester , the book looks at how the settlement would have progressed from the Palaeolithic through to the modern day , and examines the remains that each period would have left behind in the archaeological record . This was followed in 2002 by Archaeology is Rubbish : A Beginner 's Guide , which Aston co @-@ wrote with Tony Robinson and dedicated to Harding . Archaeology is Rubbish describes a fictional excavation site in an ordinary suburban back garden , and discusses the evidence from different archaeological periods , the field methods and techniques used by the excavators , and the legal proceedings and problems that archaeologists in Britain face .
Aston retired from Bristol University in 2004 , subsequently becoming Professor Emeritus . He was also appointed an Honorary Visiting Professor at the University of Exeter , University of Durham , and the University of Worcester . That year , the University of Winchester awarded him an honorary Doctor of Letters . In 2006 Aston began writing a regular column , " Mick 's Travels " , for the bimonthly journal British Archaeology , the publication of the Council for British Archaeology . In 2007 , Worcester University awarded Aston an honorary doctorate ; that same year a number of his colleagues released a festschrift in his honour entitled People and Places : Essays in Honour of Michael Aston .
= = = Final years : 2012 – 13 = = =
In February 2012 it was reported that Aston had left Time Team . He explained his position to the Western Daily Press , stating that the show 's producers had made a number of changes to the series without consulting him , and that in the process Time Team had been " dumbed down " , something he considered bad for archaeology . He was annoyed that a number of archaeologists — including surveyor Stewart Ainsworth , small finds specialist Helen Geake and illustrator Victor Ambrus — had seen their roles diminished while a new co @-@ presenter , Mary @-@ Ann Ochota ( a former model with a bachelor 's degree in archaeology and anthropology ) , had been introduced , and that as a result the episodes now contained " a lot of faffing about . " In an interview with the magazine British Archaeology Aston said : " The time had come to leave . I never made any money out of it , but a lot of my soul went into it . I feel really , really angry about it . "
In July Aston received a lifetime achievement award at the British Archaeological Awards , with Bristol University 's Professor Mark Horton praising him for making " the past accessible to all " . In October , Channel 4 announced that the twentieth series of Time Team would be its last as the show was being axed . In December Aston signed a petition advocating his support for the revamp of the Somerset Rural Life Museum in Glastonbury , which was then seeking financial backers .
On 24 June 2013 it was announced that Aston had died unexpectedly at his home in Somerset .
Ralph Lee , head of Channel 4 's factual programming , announced that they had been " terribly saddened " by the news , and that they were planning a " tribute night " to Aston consisting of Time Team episodes to be screened on More4 on 13 July .
= = Selected works = =
= = Personal life = =
Aston was known for his " unfailing commitment and integrity " , with his life being dominated by " old @-@ fashioned idealism and loyalty " . He was a vegetarian and a naturist , as well as an anarchist and an atheist . Describing himself as " a keen European " , a friend of his noted that he " railed against right wing politics , reserving special venom for Margaret Thatcher , and fought against all manner of authority , including university paperwork , and most especially if it came in a uniform . "
His hobbies included gardening , pottery , astronomy , listening to classical music and cooking . He supported a number of charities and other causes , including Greenpeace , the Woodland Trust , Oxfam and Sightsavers International . He liked to live a private , hermit @-@ like life , and once commented that " For some of the time I feel I could be a monk " but that he " couldn 't cope with the celibacy . " A self @-@ described " solitary person " , he found it somewhat annoying being a television celebrity and being recognised by members of the public .
Aston had a son , James , and a stepdaughter , Kathryn , both children of his former partner Carinne Allinson , with whom he broke up in 1998 . He later entered into a relationship with landscape historian Teresa Hall , who survived him on his death . He lived in what he called " a rather grotty ' 60s bungalow " in Somerset . The reporter Steve Eggington visited Aston 's home in 2008 , where he noted that it was filled with " a labyrinth of books and maps , seemingly with different projects at different stages in each room . "
Aston commented that throughout his life he suffered from poor health ; he was afflicted with aspergillosis from the early 1980s , and was also asthmatic . He suffered a brain haemorrhage in March 2003 , and was hospitalised for two weeks . The experience sent him into depression for eighteen months , during which time he read the autobiography of actress Jane Lapotaire , who had gone through the same experience , something which he believed aided his recovery more than anything else .
= = Legacy = =
Aston did not believe that he would leave a significant legacy behind him . He commented that this was the case because Britain 's archaeological community had failed to develop the work that he had done with Time Team and with extramural teaching , and that all the public outreach he had accomplished would die with him . He felt that there was no " celebrity archaeologist " to replace him , and ultimately felt that the situation in British archaeology made him " angry and sad . "
In British Archaeology magazine , Aston was described as " the Mortimer Wheeler of our times " because , despite strong differences between their personalities , both had done much to bring archaeology to the British public . It went on to note that Aston reminded archaeologists that " their job is to do archaeology , and if that was an archaeology that meant nothing to ordinary people , there was no point in it – and government would be among the first to notice . " Two of Aston 's colleagues from Bristol University , Stuart Prior and Mark Horton , commented that " Mick brought archaeology into the living rooms of half the nation , and left a legacy that will shape the discipline for decades to come . " Writing for the website of Antiquity , Christopher Gerrard described him as " perhaps the best known face in British archaeology " , adding that " in so many different areas of medieval archaeology his legacy will live on " . Emma McFarnon described Aston as " Somerset 's premier archaeologist " in her obituary on the This is Somerset website .
Following Aston 's death , former colleague Francis Pryor noted that Aston was a " remarkable archaeologist who could really dig " , being a " warm , loving , nice man . " Another colleague , Phil Harding , commented on Aston 's " incredible knowledge " and " effortless way of making archaeology accessible to people . " Tony Robinson wrote of him : " Mick was a real child of the ' 60s and a bit of a rebel , but he was also a series of contradictions . He was one of the best academic archaeologists in the country , yet his real love was teaching ordinary people . He was the grumpiest old Black Country curmudgeon you could imagine , but he had a heart of absolute gold . " He also noted that " archaeology is now a subject that tens of thousands of people enjoy and value , and this is almost solely down to him . " Ralph Lee , head of Channel 4 's factual programming , described Aston as a " brilliant communicator " who helped make archaeology " so popular " in the UK .
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= The Vinyl Conflict =
The Vinyl Conflict is a box set by the thrash metal band Slayer , released October 12 , 2010 . It includes all ten of Slayer 's studio albums since 1986 and their 1991 live album Decade of Aggression . The idea of releasing a second box set was made public in August 2010 . It was first released with a price of $ 199 @.@ 99 . The albums are all in vinyl and are remastered . It received generally positive reception from critics .
= = Conception = =
In August 2010 , it was announced that band would be releasing a second box set after Soundtrack to the Apocalypse ( 2003 ) , and would include every one of Slayer 's studio albums from 1986 's Reign In Blood to 2009 's World Painted Blood . It originally had a price tag of $ 199 @.@ 99 , but is now sold at retail price of $ 149 @.@ 98 . It was released through American Recordings and Sony . Blabbermouth.net noted that they are " treating the albums the way they would treat a great jazz , classical , Bob Dylan or Miles Davis record , something that isn 't normally done for metal records . " To increase quality , Lacquers were cut several times , and the original albums were remastered . It was released as a high @-@ quality 180 gram audiophile vinyl , pressed at RTI , an American pressing plant . The vinyl discs are packaged in a standard , clear inner sleeve to preserve the vinyl , and are also in high @-@ quality litho @-@ wrapped jackets , and boxed in a slipcase . Reproductions of the original albums inner sleeve artwork were converted to 12 inch square inserts to fit the standard vinyl disc covers .
Adam Farber of Sony Music Entertainment explained : " The vinyl box is a real treat for fans , especially with today 's renewed and increased interest in vinyl . " It is the first time that ten of Slayer 's studio albums have been mass @-@ produced on vinyl . Dino Paredes of American Records relates : " It 's been years and years since the Slayer vinyl has been in print — only the two most recent albums are currently available on vinyl , the rest have been out of print for years and very hard to find . These albums sound spectacular — they sound like you 've never heard them before . Everything about ' The Vinyl Conflict ' — the look of it , the feel of it — is very strong , very powerful , very Slayer , from the music to the dripping , bloody pentagram on the front of the box . It 's perfect . "
= = Reception = =
John Kosik of the Associated Press criticized its price , stating : " For $ 200 , casual fans may want to steer clear . " Kosik also said that what it " offers the hard @-@ core listener goes beyond the distinct romance of vinyl 's warm , earthy sound . " Bob Gendron of TONEAudio wrote that the box set was a " godsend " and also said that they were " amazingly produced LPs that bring to life several of the greatest metal records ever made … " Guitar World praised the box set for its mastering , saying the benefits of the treatment " are immediately clear when you drop the needle onto one of these babies . Basically all the songs Slayer fans lose their mind over are here , sounding heavier , livelier and more brutal than ever . " He also said that the remastering made a listener want to thoroughly listen to the music .
= = Album listing = =
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= AMX @-@ 30E =
The AMX @-@ 30E ( E stands for España , Spanish for Spain ) is a Spanish main battle tank based on France 's AMX @-@ 30 . Although originally the Spanish government sought to procure the German Leopard 1 , the AMX @-@ 30 was ultimately awarded the contract due to its lower price and the ability to manufacture it in Spain . 280 units were manufactured by Santa Bárbara Sistemas for the Spanish Army , between 1974 and 1983 .
First acquired in 1970 , the tank was to supplement Spain 's fleet of M47 and M48 Patton United States tanks and to reduce Spain 's reliance on American equipment in its army . The first 19 AMX @-@ 30 tanks were acquired from France in 1970 , while another 280 were assembled in Spain . It was Spain 's first mass @-@ produced tank and developed the country 's industry to the point where the government felt it could produce a tank on its own , leading to the development of the Lince tank project in 1985 . It also offered Santa Bárbara Sistemas the experience which led to the production of the Leopard 2E in late 2003 . Although final assembly was carried out by Santa Bárbara Sistemas , the production of the AMX @-@ 30E also included other companies in the country . Total production within Spain amounted to as much as 65 % of the tank .
Spain 's AMX @-@ 30E fleet went through two separate modifications in the late 1980s , a modernization program and a reconstruction program . The former , named the AMX @-@ 30EM2 ( 150 tanks ) , sought to modernize and improve the vehicle 's automotive characteristics , while the latter , or the AMX @-@ 30EM1 ( 149 tanks ) , resulted in a more austere improvement of the tank 's power plant by maintaining the existing engine and replacing the transmission . Both programs extended the vehicle 's lifetime . Spain 's fleet of AMX @-@ 30EM1s was replaced in the late 1990s by the German Leopard 2A4 , and the AMX @-@ 30EM2s were replaced by Centauro wheeled anti @-@ tank vehicles in the early 21st century .
Although 19 AMX @-@ 30Es were deployed to the Spanish Sahara in 1970 , the tank never saw combat . In 1985 Indonesia expressed interest in the AMX @-@ 30E , while in 2004 the Spanish and Colombian governments discussed the possible sale of around 40 AMX @-@ 30EM2s . Both trade deals fell through .
= = Background = =
In 1960 , Spain 's tank fleet was composed mainly of American M47 Patton tanks , with some newer M48 Patton tanks . The M47s had been acquired by the Spanish army in the mid @-@ 1950s , replacing the previous fleet of 1930s @-@ vintage Panzer I , T @-@ 26 and Panzer IV tank designs . During the 1957 @-@ 58 Ifni War , the United States ' ban on the usage of American ordnance supplied earlier as military aid to Spain pushed Spain to look for alternative equipment which could be freely employed in the Spanish Sahara .
In the early 1960s , Spain looked towards its European neighbors for a new tank . The Spanish government first approached Krauss @-@ Maffei , the German manufacturer of the Leopard 1 , and the company applied for an export license from the German Economics Ministry . Spain 's status as a non @-@ NATO country meant that the decision to grant the export license had to be reviewed by the Bundessicherheitsrat ( Federal Security Council ) , or the BSR , which was responsible for the coordination of the national defense policy . Ultimately , the council ruled that Krauss @-@ Maffei could sign an export contract with Spain . The deal was , however , stalled by pressure from the United Kingdom 's Labour Party on the basis that the Leopard 's 105 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) L7 tank gun was British technology . Meanwhile , Spain tested the French AMX @-@ 30 between 2 and 10 June 1964 .
The Leopard 1 and the AMX @-@ 30 originated from a joint tank development program known as the Europanzer . For a tank , the AMX @-@ 30 had a low silhouette ; the height of the tank was 2 @.@ 28 meters ( 7 @.@ 48 ft ) , compared to the Leopard 's 2 @.@ 6 meters ( 8 @.@ 53 ft ) . In terms of lethality , the AMX @-@ 30 's Obus G high @-@ explosive anti @-@ tank ( HEAT ) round was one of the most advanced projectiles at the time . Because HEAT warheads become less efficient during spin stabilization induced by the rifling of a tank @-@ gun barrel , the Obus G was designed so that the shaped charge warhead was mounted on ball bearings within an outer casing , allowing the round to be spin stabilized through the rifling of the gun without affecting the warhead inside . The Obus G was designed to penetrate up to 400 millimeters ( 15 @.@ 75 in ) of steel armor . On the other hand , the Leopard was armed with the L7A3 tank gun , capable of penetrating the frontal armor of most contemporary tanks . Although the Leopard boasted greater armor than the AMX @-@ 30 — partially accounting for the weight difference between the two tanks — the latter was sold at a cheaper price .
In May 1970 , the Spanish government decided to sign a contract with the French company GIAT to begin production of the AMX @-@ 30 . However , it was not the advantages of the French vehicle itself that influenced the decision . Rather , it was the UK 's unwillingness to sell their L7 tank @-@ gun , the low cost of the AMX @-@ 30 , and the French offer to allow Spain to manufacture the tank , that led the Spanish Army to favor the French armored vehicle .
= = Production = =
On 22 June 1970 , the Spanish Ministry of Defense signed an agreement of military cooperation with France , which outlined plans for the future acquisition of around 200 tanks for the Spanish Army . Of these , 180 were to be manufactured under license in Spain and 20 were to be manufactured by France . Ultimately , GIAT was contracted to manufacture 19 tanks . These were delivered to the Spanish Legion 's Bakali company , deployed in the Spanish Sahara . The first six AMX @-@ 30s were delivered by rail to the Spanish border city of Irún , in the Basque Country , and then transferred to Bilbao . Finally , they were shipped by the Spanish Navy , on the transport Almirante Lobo , to El Aaiún in the Spanish Sahara . This unit existed until 1975 , when it was disbanded and its tanks transferred to the Uad @-@ Ras Mechanized Infantry Regiment .
This agreement laid the foundations for the upcoming tank plant at the industrial polygon of Las Canteras , near the town of Alcalá de Guadaíra . Several parts of the tank were subcontracted to other Spanish companies , including Astilleros Españoles ( turret ) , Boetticher , Duro Felguera and E. N. Bazán . The grade of local production varied per batch . The first 20 tanks were to have 18 % of each vehicle manufactured in Spain ; the next 40 would have 40 % of the vehicle manufactured in Spain . The other 120 had 65 % of the tank manufactured in the country . Production began in 1974 , at a rate of five tanks per month , and ended on 25 June 1979 . The first five tanks were delivered to the Uad Ras Mechanized Infantry Regiment on 30 October 1974 . This batch also replaced the M41 Walker Bulldog light tanks and M48 Patton tanks in the Armored Cavalry Regiment Villaviciosa and the Armored Infantry Regiment Alcázar de Toledo , receiving 23 and 44 tanks , respectively .
On 27 March 1979 , prior to the end of production of the first batch , the Spanish Army and Santa Bárbara Sistemas signed a contract for the production and delivery of a second batch of 100 AMX @-@ 30Es . In 1980 , after the 200th AMX @-@ 30E was delivered to the Spanish Army , the tank 's patent was awarded to Spain . This allowed minor modifications to be done to the vehicle without having to consult GIAT . It also meant that the degree of local construction of each vehicle augmented considerably . Production of the second batch lasted between 1979 and 1983 . By the time production ended , the Spanish Army fielded 299 AMX @-@ 30Es ( 280 produced between 1974 and 1983 , and 19 delivered from France in 1970 ) and 4 training vehicles delivered in 1975 . Santa Bárbara Sistemas also manufactured 18 Roland España ( denominated AMX @-@ 30RE ) anti @-@ air vehicles and 10 AMX @-@ 30D armored recovery vehicles . The average cost per tank , in the first batch , was 45 million pesetas ( US $ 642 @,@ 800 ) . Cost per tank increased during the second batch to 62 million pesetas ( 885 @,@ 700 dollars ) .
Although brand new , the AMX @-@ 30E entered service with automotive issues , including problems with the antiquated 5SD @-@ 200D transmission . Consequently , as the first production batch began to end , the Spanish Army and Santa Bárbara Sistemas began to study possible upgrades . The main objectives were to increase the power and the reliability of the power pack , an improvement to the tank 's firepower and accuracy , as well as to increase the vehicle 's ballistic protection and overall survivability . A number of modernization packages were proposed , including a suggestion to mount the AMX @-@ 30E 's turret on a Leopard 1 's chassis . Other options included swapping the existing power pack for a new American diesel engine and transmission or exchanging the power pack for a new German diesel engine and transmission . More austere versions of these same options were offered , pairing the existing HS @-@ 110 engine with the already mentioned transmissions . Another prototype was produced using the Leopard 's more modern tracks , and another similar prototype mounted a new 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) machine gun for the loader 's position . France 's GIAT also offered to modernize Spain 's AMX @-@ 30Es to AMX @-@ 30B2 standards , a modernization being applied to French AMX @-@ 30s .
= = = Modernization = = =
Ultimately , a mixed solution named Tecnología Santa Bárbara @-@ Bazán ( Santa Bárbara @-@ Bazán Technology ) ( or TSB ) was chosen . The improvement of the tank 's mobility entailed replacing the HS @-@ 110 diesel engine with an MTU 833 Ka @-@ 501 diesel engine , producing 850 metric horsepower ( 625 kW ) , and the transmission with a German ZF LSG @-@ 3000 , compatible with engines of up to 1 @,@ 500 metric horsepower ( 1103 kW ) . The first 30 engines were to have 50 % of the engine manufactured in Spain ; the rest , 73 % were to be produced indigenously . This new engine gave the modernized tank a power ratio of 23 metric horsepower per tonne ( 21 @.@ 13 hp / S / T ) . The new engine was coupled with the AMX @-@ 30B2 's improved torsion @-@ bar suspension , which used larger diameter torsion @-@ bars and new shocks .
To improve the tank 's firepower , the gun mount around the loader 's turret hatch was modified to allow the installation of a 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) machine gun , while the main gun 's firepower was augmented through the introduction of the new CETME437A armor @-@ piercing , fin @-@ stabilized discarding sabot ( APFSDS ) . The gun 's accuracy was improved through the installation of the new Mark 9 modification A / D fire control system , designed by Hughes Aircraft Company . The new system allowed firing during the day and during night operations , and increased the likelihood of a first round impact . The fire control system was also modernized through the exchange of the old M282 gunner 's periscope with a new periscope and a new Nd : YAG laser rangefinder . A new ballistics computer , the NSC @-@ 800 , was issued , as well as a new digital panel for the gunner , designed and manufactured by the Spanish company INISEL . The tank commander also received a control unit that allowed the choice of ammunition for the gun and provided information on the ballistics of the round and the target to be engaged . As a result , the loader received a presentation unit to display information on which round to load into the gun 's breech and to communicate ballistic data received , including angular velocity , wind velocity , gun elevation and vehicle inclination . The fire control system also allowed for the future upgrade to a more sophisticated stabilization system for the tank 's main gun . Survivability improvements included the addition of new steel side @-@ skirts , a new smoke generating system linked to the engine and a new fire suppression system .
One hundred fifty AMX @-@ 30Es received this modernization package and were designated AMX @-@ 30EM2s . The program began in 1989 and ended in 1993 . Ultimately , Spain 's AMX @-@ 30EM2s were replaced by brand @-@ new Centauro anti @-@ tank vehicles , which were partially manufactured in Spain , in the early 21st century .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
The other 149 AMX @-@ 30Es were reconstructed to improve their mobility . The reconstruction consisted of the replacement of the original French transmission with the American Allison CD @-@ 850 @-@ 6A . Furthermore , several parts of the tank , such as the brakes , were renovated in order to bring them up to their original standards . The CD @-@ 850 @-@ 6A was an automatic transmission , with a triple differential providing two forward velocities and one reverse velocity . However , the new transmission resulted in a new problem . The excessive heat produced by the transmission reduced the vehicle 's range . The reconstruction of the 149 AMX @-@ 30Es began in 1988 , and these were designated AMX @-@ 30EM1s . In the early 1990s Spain received a large number of M60 Patton tanks , replacing its fleet of M47s and M48s , as well as its AMX @-@ 30EM1s .
= = Export = =
In the mid @-@ 1980s Indonesia approached Spain in an attempt to procure armaments for the modernization of its armed forces . Of the possible armaments for sale , Indonesia expressed interest in the procurement of the AMX @-@ 30 . Although this deal fell through , in 2004 the Spanish and Colombian governments agreed on the sale of between 33 and 46 second @-@ hand AMX @-@ 30EM2s , which had recently been replaced in the Spanish Army . However , the deal was canceled after José María Aznar was replaced by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero as prime minister of Spain — the new Spanish government declared that Spain didn 't even have enough AMX @-@ 30EM2s in working condition to sell to Colombia .
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= Selena ( album ) =
Selena is the self @-@ titled debut studio album by American Tejano singer Selena , released on October 17 , 1989 by EMI Latin . Its music incorporates a range of contemporary genres with a mix of cumbia and regional styles of Mexican music . The album was released after EMI Latin president Jose Behar 's request for a crossover album was denied by the heads of EMI Records ' pop division . The majority of the recordings were composed by A.B. Quintanilla — Selena 's brother and principal record producer and songwriter . Aside from A.B. , Selena worked with two Mexican songwriters , Alejandro Montealegre and Reinaldo Ornelas . Selena peaked at number seven on the U.S. Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart .
The recording lead Selena to win Female Vocalist of the Year and Female Entertainer of the Year at the 1990 Tejano Music Awards . The album was more successful than her local independent label albums . It outsold other female Tejano singers albums at the time of its release , and as a result increased the singer 's popularity . Selena became a sex icon after the album 's release . Selena had a mixture of music genres , which became her trademark . The lead single " Contigo Quiero Estar " peaked at number eight on the U.S. Billboard Hot Latin Tracks . Two other singles released from the album — " Mentiras " and " Sukiyaki " — were commercially less successful .
= = Production = =
José Behar , president of EMI Latin , attended the 1989 Tejano Music Awards , and was scouring the area for new acts . After Selena performed , Behar called his boss and told him about her . Behar thought he found the next " Gloria Estefan " , to which his manager thought he was illogical . Selena later signed with EMI Latin later that year and became the first artist to sign with them . Recording began immediately after she signed with them in 1989 . Initially , EMI Latin did not want Selena 's brother A.B. Quintanilla III to write and produce any of her songs ; they felt that they were " gambling " when they opened a Latin division of EMI Records . The company allowed A.B. to write and produce Selena after the family argued that the recording label should give him a chance . A.B. said in 2002 that Selena displayed a mix of music genres that became a standard practice when he began producing Selena 's career . Their father and manager Abraham Quintanilla , Jr. gave the job to A.B , after he successfully produced several recordings in Selena 's musical career prior to their arrival at EMI Latin . Selena recorded most of the songs in San Antonio , Texas at AMEN Studios , while " Sukiyaki " and " My Love " were recorded in Houston , Texas at Sunrise Studios . The former was written by Selena , who wanted the song to be on the album . A.B. believed " My Love " echoed works by Exposé and Sweet Sensation that had a " club feel " .
The only tracks A.B. did not composed were " Sukiyaki " , " Contigo Quiero Estar " , and " No Te Vayas " . The latter was an original 1960s Japanese recording by Kyu Sakamoto . The lyrics Selena used were a Spanish version of an English version of the song by Janice Marie Johnson . Keyboardist of Los Dinos , Ricky Vela and backup dancer Pete Astudillo helped with the translation of " Sukiyaki " ; Vela confessed in 2002 that his Spanish wasn 't perfect and cited Astudillo as having done the majority of the songwriter for the track . Vela also said that he used a music sequencer and began " elaborating " Selena 's music with the start of " Sukiyaki " . Selena 's sister and drummer of the band , Suzette Quintanilla , said in 2002 that " Sukiyaki " was her favorite track off Selena . Texas Monthly called " Sukiyaki " a " sentimental " song . " Contigo Quiero Estar " was written by Mexican songwriter Alejandro Montealegre while " No Te Vayas " was written by Reinaldo Ornelas . Abraham called the recording a " Tejano ranchera " tune . The song was produced with a D50 synthesizer , handled by Joe Ojeda who joined the band a few days prior to the recording session of " Contigo Quiero Estar " . A.B. wanted " No Te Vayas " on the album because of its reggae feel , he thought it would make the album " exotic " from other Spanish @-@ language albums that were released at that time . " Tengo Ganas de Llorar " was the last song recorded and included on Selena .
= = Release = =
Selena was released on October 17 , 1989 through EMI Latin . In its first week on the U.S. Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart ( December 2 , 1989 ) , it was positioned at number 17 . It peaked at number seven on March 24 , 1990 . It was on the chart for another three weeks . On May 5 , 1990 , it reentered the chart at number 14 , after the release of Ven Conmigo ( 1990 ) . However , it slipped off the charts once again . It reentered the chart again two times in August 1990 . " Contigo Quiero Estar " , " Mentiras " , and " Sukiyaki " were released as singles . The lead single , " Contigo Quiero Estar " peaked at number eight on the U.S. Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart . The album was a moderate success for Selena .
At the 1990 Tejano Music Awards , Selena won Female Vocalist of the Year and Female Entertainer of the Year . " Amame , Quiéreme " , a duet with Astudillo , was nominated for " Vocal Duo of the Year " at the 1990 Tejano Music Awards . On August 27 , 2002 , Selena was re @-@ released as part of the 20 Years of Music series . It had one bonus track ( " La Bamba " ) and spoken liner notes by the singer 's family , friends , and former band .
= = Legacy and reception = =
Her album Selena performed better than albums from other female Tejano singers . Lee Stacy wrote in her book Mexico and the United States ( 2002 ) , that Selena " achieved reasonable success " . According to Billboard magazine , Selena 's recordings were not successful until she signed with EMI Latin in 1989 and released her debut album with them . Manuel Pena wrote in his book Música Tejana : The Cultural Economy of Artistic Transformation , that after 1989 , Selena 's popularity increased and she became a sex icon following her album 's release . According to Latin Style magazine , the tracks " Sukiyaki " , " Contigo Quiero Estar " , and " Besitos " , were " pivotal " recordings that showcased Selena 's " mixed rhythm and sound " which the magazine attributed it as being her " trademark " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits = =
Credits are taken from the album 's liner notes .
Selena — vocals
Pete Astudillo — backing vocals
Ricky Vela — keyboardist , synthesizer
Jose " Pepe " Ojeda — keyboardist
Suzette Quintanilla — drums
Roger Garcia — guitarist
A.B. Quintanilla III — bass guitar , backing vocalist , music producer , songwriter , music arranger
Manny Rodriguez Guerra — recording engineer
Brian " Red " Moore — co @-@ producer
Lisette Lorenzo — cover designer ( 2002 re @-@ issue )
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Books = =
Peña , Manuel ( 2002 ) . Música tejana : the cultural economy of artistic transformation . Texas A & M Univ . Pr . ISBN 9 @-@ 7808 @-@ 90968 @-@ 888
Stacy , Lee ( 2002 ) . Mexico and the United States . Marshall Cavendish . ISBN 0761474021 .
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= Brian Wilson ( baseball ) =
Brian Patrick Wilson ( born March 16 , 1982 ) is a former American professional baseball relief pitcher . He has pitched in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the San Francisco Giants and Los Angeles Dodgers . He stands 6 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) tall and weighs 205 pounds ( 93 kg ) . He throws and bats right @-@ handed . He throws a four @-@ seam fastball , a cutter , a slider , and a two @-@ seam fastball .
Wilson pitched collegiately at Louisiana State University . His college career ended during his junior season , when he injured his elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery . The San Francisco Giants selected him in the 2003 draft . He reached the major leagues in 2006 and had become the Giants ' regular closer by the end of 2007 . In 2010 , he led the National League ( NL ) with 48 saves and posted a 1 @.@ 81 ERA , and he saved clinching games at every level of the playoffs , including the World Series .
In the first week of the 2012 season , Wilson injured his elbow and subsequently underwent his second Tommy John surgery . He completed his recovery midway through the 2013 season and signed with the Los Angeles Dodgers , pitching effectively with them as a late @-@ inning reliever through the playoffs . However , he was not able to continue his success in 2014 , and the Dodgers released him after that season .
Wilson is known for his large black beard , which he began growing during the 2010 pennant race .
= = Early life = =
Wilson was born in Winchester , Massachusetts on March 16 , 1982 . While he was in second grade , he moved to Londonderry , New Hampshire . Today , he talks little of his childhood except to discuss his father , Mike Wilson , who was an Air Force veteran and a demanding perfectionist . During fall , he would have Brian bag leaves and bury them in the woods ; and in winter , he would have Brian spend seven hours shoveling snow on weekends . Brian said in a 2011 interview , " I think that 's how you need to be raised . It 's not your friend , it 's your dad . And he 's going to be strict . And one day you 're going to understand why . And sometimes , it 's a little too late . They might pass away , and you might not get that chance to say thanks or understand why you did those things . But when you become a man , you understand why . "
When Wilson was 12 years old , his father was diagnosed with cancer . His father fought the disease for five years before dying while Wilson was attending Londonderry High School ; Wilson today says he had to become a man when his father was diagnosed . In a 2011 story , ESPN.com writer Elizabeth Merrill said about Wilson 's high school years , " He was an honor roll student at Londonderry , but clashed with various authority figures who didn 't appreciate his occasional lack of a filter . " In the same story , a number of Londonderry faculty speculated that some teachers didn 't understand Wilson 's life situation at the time . Art Psaledas , an assistant principal at the school , added , " It happened at probably the worst time anybody could lose your dad . Watching his dad deteriorate over the years was probably the singular thing that formed his personality . "
= = High school career = =
Bob Napolitano , Wilson 's coach at Londonderry High School , noticed Wilson 's ability to concentrate on baseball . Napolitano specifically remembered the first home game of Wilson 's senior year , which happened shortly after his father 's death . No fewer than 29 professional scouts , all with radar guns , showed up to see him pitch . According to Napolitano , Wilson was completely oblivious to their appearance ; he ate and drank in the dugout , warmed up , and pitched a two @-@ hitter while apparently not noticing that scouts were there . The Cleveland Indians offered him a contract straight out of high school , but he did not sign , opting to attend college instead .
= = College career = =
After a coach saw Wilson pitch well at a tournament in California , he was offered a scholarship to Louisiana State University ( LSU ) , where he played for the LSU Tigers baseball team , eventually becoming their No. 2 starter . In his time at LSU , Wilson pitched in 51 games ( 22 starts ) and accumulated 18 wins , 10 losses , and five saves . He was in the middle of his third season on March 28 , 2003 , when he injured his elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery . He also played for the Keene Swamp Bats of the New England Collegiate Baseball League , a summer league for collegiate prospects . Despite facing extensive rehabilitation , Wilson chose to enter the 2003 Major League Baseball draft .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Coming off his surgery , Wilson was drafted by the San Francisco Giants in the 24th round in 2003 . He began his career with the Hagerstown Suns of the Class @-@ A South Atlantic League in 2004 . In 23 games , he had a 2 – 5 record , a 5 @.@ 34 earned run average ( ERA ) , 41 strikeouts , and 22 walks in 57 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He made three starts that year , the only time he ever started games professionally . The Giants switched single @-@ A affiliates the next year and Wilson began pitching for the Augusta GreenJackets . In 26 games , he had a 5 – 1 record , a 0 @.@ 82 ERA , 30 strikeouts , and seven walks in 33 innings pitched while notching 13 saves , good for second in the league behind Brett Campbell 's 19 . His performance with Augusta caused Mark Camps of the San Francisco Chronicle to mention him in his " Minor Report " on May 15 . He also pitched for the Norwich Navigators of the double @-@ A Eastern League ( posting no record , eight saves , a 0 @.@ 57 ERA , 22 strikeouts , five walks , and 15 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 15 games ) and the Fresno Grizzlies of the Triple @-@ A Pacific Coast League ( posting a 1 – 1 record , no saves , a 3 @.@ 97 ERA , 13 strikeouts , eight walks , and 11 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in nine games ) .
= = = San Francisco Giants = = =
= = = = 2006 season = = = =
Wilson began 2006 with the Grizzlies before getting called up to the majors on April 23 to replace Tyler Walker , who was designated for assignment after struggling to begin the season . He made his major league debut that day in relief , pitching two innings , surrendering two hits and no runs while striking out three . He later revealed that he hurt himself during his first inning but continued pitching through the second without informing anyone of his injury . Afterward he was placed on the disabled list for a month . On May 23 , he returned from the DL . He was optioned to Fresno on June 7 when Tim Worrell was activated from the DL ; Giants ' manager Felipe Alou said Wilson was not getting enough playing time . Wilson would go on to have three more stints with the Giants in 2006 . On July 2 , he got his first career save , stranding three inherited runners in the eighth inning and throwing 1 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings in a 6 – 2 victory over the San Diego Padres . In 31 games , he had a 2 – 3 record , a 5 @.@ 40 ERA , 23 strikeouts , and 21 walks in 30 innings pitched . In 24 games with Fresno , he had a 1 – 3 record , a 2 @.@ 89 ERA , 30 strikeouts , and 14 walks in 28 innings pitched .
= = = = 2007 season = = = =
Wilson competed for the closer role with Armando Benítez in 2007 spring training . After he struggled and posted a 7 @.@ 71 ERA , the Giants optioned him to the minors to start the season . After building a 1 – 2 record , 2 @.@ 10 ERA , 37 strikeouts , 24 walks , 11 saves , and 34 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 31 games with Fresno , Wilson was called up on August 11 when Jonathan Sánchez was demoted . He was initially used as the setup man for closer Brad Hennessey , but he took over as closer on September 11 when Hennessey lost the role due to ineffectiveness . He went on to pitch in 24 games , recording a 1 – 2 record , a 2 @.@ 28 ERA , 18 strikeouts , six walks , 23 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched , and six saves .
= = = = 2008 season = = = =
Wilson remained the Giants ' closer in 2008 and kept the role all season . He recorded 24 consecutive saves from May 3 through August 17 , the longest streak by a Giant since Robb Nen had 28 straight in 2000 . Wilson was named to the All @-@ Star Game after leading the NL in saves with 25 in the first half of the season . He gave up no hits and struck out one in 2 / 3 innings in a 4 – 3 loss to the American League . He continued to lead the league in saves until José Valverde passed him at the end of August . Despite posting a 4 @.@ 04 ERA through September 6 , Wilson converted 37 of 40 save opportunities . In his final seven games of the year , however , he posted a 9 @.@ 56 ERA while converting just four out of seven opportunities . In 63 games , he had a 3 – 2 record , a 4 @.@ 62 ERA , 67 strikeouts , and 28 walks in 62 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He converted 41 saves in 47 attempts ; his 41 saves were tied with Brad Lidge 's total for second in the league behind Valverde 's 44 .
= = = = 2009 season = = = =
On June 5 , 2009 , Wilson saved Randy Johnson 's 300th win . Johnson , searching for his 300th win , gave up one unearned run in six innings in Game 1 of a doubleheader against the Washington Nationals ; the Giants had a 2 – 1 lead in the eighth inning . With runners on first and second for the Nationals and two outs , Wilson was called on to get the save . He walked Ryan Zimmerman to load the bases and bring up Adam Dunn . He then loaded the count against Dunn before throwing a called strike three to end the inning . Wilson then pitched a scoreless ninth , preserving the victory for Johnson . On September 24 , with two outs and two strikes in the ninth inning and the Giants leading the Chicago Cubs by a 2 – 1 score , Wilson gave up a two @-@ run home run to Jeff Baker . The loss hurt the Giants ' chances of reaching the playoffs . In 68 games , Wilson had a 5 – 6 record , a 2 @.@ 74 ERA , 83 strikeouts , and 27 walks in 72 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He blew seven saves , but his 38 saves tied for third in the NL with Ryan Franklin 's total behind Heath Bell 's 42 and Francisco Cordero 's 39 . He led the league in saves requiring four outs or more , with eight .
= = = = 2010 season = = = =
In 2010 spring training , Wilson was asked whether or not he thought himself one of baseball 's elite closers . In what would turn out to be a very prophetic quote , he replied :
An elite closer is a closer who 's part of a World Series win . If you get that final out in the final win of the season , then you can consider yourself elite .
On March 25 , Wilson agreed to a contract extension with the Giants . He struck out five batters in 1 2 ⁄ 3 innings on May 9 while recording a save in a 6 – 5 victory over the New York Mets . On May 15 , against the Houston Astros with the bases loaded , two outs , and the Giants leading 2 – 1 in the ninth inning , Wilson struck out Kazuo Matsui in a 15 @-@ pitch at bat to end the game . The next day , against Houston with runners on first and second , two outs , and the Giants leading 4 – 3 in the ninth , Wilson retired Matsui to end the game . On June 12 , Wilson entered in the eighth inning with one out , the bases loaded , and the Giants leading the Oakland Athletics 5 – 4 . Wilson struck out Adam Rosales and retired Rajai Davis to end the inning ; he then pitched a scoreless ninth to earn the save . He recorded 22 saves in his first 24 chances and was named to the All @-@ Star Game in which he threw a scoreless eighth inning in the contest , a 3 – 1 victory over the AL . On October 3 ( the final day of the regular season ) , the Giants faced the Padres , whom they led by one game in the NL West . Wilson threw a scoreless inning to earn the save and clinch the division for the Giants . Wilson converted his 48th save that day , tying the Giants ' single season save record of 48 held by Rod Beck . He finished the season with a 3 – 3 record , a 1 @.@ 81 ERA , 93 strikeouts , 26 walks , and 74 2 ⁄ 3 inning pitched in 70 games . He converted 48 of 53 save opportunities and led the majors in saves as well as leading the major leagues in saves of four outs or more ( 10 ) . He was named the This Year in Baseball Closer of the Year after the season . He finished 13th in NL Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) voting .
= = = = 2010 postseason = = = =
Wilson made his playoff debut in Game 2 of the NL Division Series against the Atlanta Braves ; he blew a save , but that was partly because of an error by Pablo Sandoval . He earned saves in Games 3 and 4 as the Giants defeated the Braves in four games . In the NL Championship Series , the Giants faced the Philadelphia Phillies . In Game 4 , Wilson threw a scoreless inning and earned the win in the 6 – 5 victory . In Game 6 , Wilson entered with one out in the eighth inning , runners on first and second , and the Giants leading 3 – 2 . He got Carlos Ruiz to line into a double play . He then pitched the ninth inning , striking out Ryan Howard with two runners on base , clinching the series for the Giants . He joined Dennis Eckersley , Mitch Williams , and John Wetteland as the only pitchers since 1969 to win or save four games in a postseason series . ( In 2014 Greg Holland of Kansas City matched this feat . )
The Giants faced the Texas Rangers in the World Series . Wilson appeared in three games , allowing no runs . He recorded the save in the series @-@ clinching Game 5 as the Giants won their first World Series since 1954 .
= = = = 2011 season = = = =
Wilson strained an oblique muscle in 2011 spring training and opened the season on the DL . He was activated from the DL on April 6 . After posting a 3 @.@ 75 ERA in his first two games , Wilson posted a 1 @.@ 26 ERA in his next 35 outings . During a game against the Detroit Tigers on July 1 , Wilson blew a save for a second straight game and was taken out of the game by Bruce Bochy . Upon entering the dugout , Wilson took out his frustrations by throwing a Gatorade cooler and smashing it with a bat . The Giants still won the game 4 – 3 as Jeremy Affeldt got the save . Wilson was elected to his third All @-@ Star Game ; he earned the save in a 5 – 1 victory over the AL .
Wilson was placed on the DL on August 21 due to inflammation in his right elbow . At the time of his injury , he was third in the NL in saves , behind Craig Kimbrel and John Axford . On September 18 , the Giants reactivated him from the DL . After two games back , Bochy decided to shut down Wilson for the final two games of the season . In 57 games , he had a 6 – 4 record , a 3 @.@ 11 ERA , 54 strikeouts , and 31 walks in 55 innings pitched . He converted 36 of his 41 save opportunities which tied Juan Carlos Oviedo for eighth in the NL .
= = = = 2012 season = = = =
Wilson 's 2012 season would be short @-@ lived . With the Giants leading the Colorado Rockies 4 – 1 entering the bottom of the ninth inning on April 12 , he made his second appearance of the season to get the save for the Giants . He walked in a run to make it 4 – 2 , but retired Marco Scutaro with the bases loaded to earn the save . He injured his elbow during the game and underwent Tommy John surgery for the second time in his career on April 19 , causing him to miss the remainder of the season . During his injury @-@ shorted season , Wilson made only 2 appearances with an ERA of 9 @.@ 00 and 1 save . The Giants went on to win their second World Series in three years . Wilson expressed confidence in an interview on April 15 that he would return to the Giants in 2013 . However , because he was coming off an injury and would be owed at least $ 6 @.@ 8 million for 2013 , he was non @-@ tendered after the season , which made him a free agent for the first time in his career . As of the end of the 2012 season , he ranked third all @-@ time in saves as a Giant with 171 , behind only Robb Nen ( 206 ) and Rod Beck ( 199 ) .
= = = 2012 – 2013 free agency = = =
Wilson chose not to sign with any team before the 2013 season because he wanted to be 100 % recovered from surgery when he attempted his comeback . On July 25 , he threw a bullpen session in front of various teams ' scouts with the hope to sign with a contender .
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers = = =
On July 30 , 2013 , Wilson agreed to a contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers for the remainder of the 2013 season . After a few weeks at the Dodgers training facility in Arizona , he began a minor league rehab assignment .
He joined the Dodgers active roster on August 19 and made his debut with the team on August 22 against the Miami Marlins at Marlins Park . He appeared in 18 games for the Dodgers with a 2 @-@ 1 record and a 0 @.@ 66 ERA . Regardless of signing for the team late in the season , Wilson made 3 relief appearances in the postseason without giving up an earned run until the Dodgers lost in the 2013 NLCS to the St. Louis Cardinals .
On December 5 , 2013 , Wilson agreed to a one @-@ year , $ 10 million contract to return to the Dodgers . The deal also contained a player option for the 2015 season . His numbers were not as good in 2014 , as he had a 4 @.@ 66 ERA in 61 appearances . On October 8 , 2014 , he announced that he would be exercising his player option for 2015 . However , the Dodgers designated him for assignment on December 16 , 2014 . He was released by the Dodgers on December 19 and became a free agent .
= = Scouting report = =
Wilson was a power pitcher . He has a repertoire of four pitches . He throws a straight four @-@ seam fastball around 92 @-@ 95 mph ; this is one of his main pitches . He also has a slider , a cut fastball , and a two @-@ seam fastball . His slider traveled around 89 mph . His cut fastball has allowed him to use fewer four @-@ seam fastballs . In 2011 , he started throwing the two @-@ seam fastball as well . The two @-@ seamer starts away on a right @-@ handed hitter ( or in to a left @-@ handed hitter ) and has dramatic inward ( or outward ) movement over the plate . He has also experimented with curveballs , screwballs , and knuckleballs .
Wilson has said that when pitching , players cannot be worried about the potential outcome .
This is a man 's sport . You can 't go in there with doubts . You can 't accept failure , and you certainly can 't go into a situation thinking , ' Oh , gosh , what 's going to happen ? ' You make what 's going to happen . ... This game isn 't for negative emotions , or being scared .
= = Personality = =
Wilson is noted for his flamboyant personality .
In the 2010 MLB All @-@ Star Game , Wilson debuted a pair of bright orange cleats and continued to wear them throughout the season . On July 27 , Marlins ' manager Edwin Rodríguez complained that the shoes were too bright . Wilson received a $ 1 @,@ 000 fine from MLB the next day , and he responded by coloring half of the shoes black with a marker . He said afterwards , " The fact that he ( Rodríguez ) thinks these shoes throw 97 – 100 with cut might be a little far @-@ fetched . I guess we should probably have these checked for performance @-@ enhancing cleats . " He also stated that he was punished " for having too much awesome on my feet . "
In addition to his mohawk hairstyle , Wilson has a large black beard which he began growing and presumably dyeing during the Giants ' playoff run in 2010 . He never admitted to dyeing it , saying in 2010 , " It 's dark because we play a lot of day games . It 's tanned . It 's focused . " He decided he would not shave until the Giants ' season was over , and only if they failed to win the World Series . During the Giants ' playoff run in 2010 , Giants ' fans began growing their own beards or wearing fake beards . Many fans chanted " Fear the Beard " , and held up signs bearing the same motto . Teammate Sergio Romo also began growing a beard in 2010 ; he has had it intermittently ever since .
Wilson has a number of tattoos . On his left shoulder , he has a dragon to honor his father which represents the " protection from fear " that Wilson 's dad gave him . Across his chest , he has the words " In nomine patris " ( " In the name of the father " ) , and on his right wrist he has a Celtic cross with lettering that says " All Honor To Him " in Gaelic ; both of these tattoos symbolize his Christian faith . Finally , he has Japanese Kanji characters on his arm which symbolize his faith ; they say , " Father . Son . Eternal Strength . "
Wilson has enjoyed a great deal of media attention during his career . He once had a locally produced , self @-@ filmed reality show called Life of Brian . He has often been on The Cheap Seats . Following the World Series in 2010 , a photo of Wilson celebrating with teammate Buster Posey appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated . Wilson also appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and Lopez Tonight . He has frequently starred in commercials .
Wilson became a Christian at the age of 23 . He has adopted a gesture of crossing his arms , with his left hand in his glove and his right hand underneath pointing with the index finger while looking at the sky , which both honors The Holy Trinity as well as his late father who died of cancer when Wilson was 17 . He performs it when he records a save or closes out a game .
On May 30 , 2011 ( Memorial Day ) , Wilson announced that in memory of his father , an Air Force veteran , he would endow two scholarships for LSU Air Force ROTC cadets . The scholarship will be a need based scholarship available to any college junior or senior . Later that year , on July 7 , Wilson gave away 1 @,@ 000 baseball gloves to members of the Giants Community Fund 's Junior Giants baseball program .
Frequently , Wilson has made references to " The Machine " , a character from the movie 8mm . In an episode of The Cheap Seats , he had someone dressed as " The Machine " walk past in the background in full BDSM leather fetish apparel , supposedly unknown to him . Another time , in an interview with Rome , Wilson appeared to receive a call from " The Machine " and pulled a leather mask ( allegedly " The Machine 's " ) out of his pocket to show to Rome .
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= Croatian Natural History Museum =
The Croatian Natural History Museum ( Croatian : Hrvatski prirodoslovni muzej ) is the oldest and biggest natural history museum and the main body for natural history research , preservation and collection in Croatia . Located on Dimitrije Demeter Street in Gornji Grad , one of the oldest neighbourhoods of the Croatian capital Zagreb , it owns one of the biggest museum collections in Croatia , with over 2 million artefacts , including over 1 @.@ 1 million animal specimens . It was founded in 1846 as the " National Museum " . The National Museum was later split up into five museums , three of which were in 1986 merged as departments of the newly named Croatian Natural History Museum . The museum contains a large scientific library open to the public , and publishes the first Croatian natural history scientific journal , Natura Croatica .
The permanent display of the Croatian Natural History Museum consists of mineralogical , petrographical and zoological collections , as well as two permanent exhibits in the atrium : the Rock Map of Croatia and the Geological Pole . It is home to the remains of the Neanderthal from Krapina .
= = History = =
The history of the Croatian Natural History Museum begins with the founding of the so @-@ called " National Museum " ( Narodni muzej ) on 10 September 1846 , the first museum for historic and pre @-@ historic objects related to Croatia . In 1867 , it was moved to its current address . The National Museum grew and was split into five new museums by the end of the 19th century . Three of them covered natural history : the Croatian National Zoological Museum ( Hrvatski narodni zoološki muzej ) , the Geological – Palaeontological Museum ( Geološko @-@ paleontološki muzej ) and the Mineralogical – Petrographic Museum ( Mineraloško @-@ petrografski muzej ) . All three were housed in the same building on Demeter Street 1 , and , in 1986 , united into the Croatian Natural History Museum .
The museum 's current building was earlier home to Amadeo 's theatre , the first theatre in Zagreb . Formed in 1797 by Antal Amade de Varkony , the prefect of Zagreb County , it operated until 1834 . In 2000 , Amadeo 's theatre was revived as a yearly summer series of theatrical plays entitled Scena Amadeo ( " Amadeo Scene " ) held in the museum atrium .
= = Library = =
The museum is home to a large scientific library open to the public . Its oldest books were printed in 17th @-@ century Italy , and includes works by Ulisse Aldrovandi , Niccolò Gualtieri and Carl Linné . The library was founded in 1868 by a newly appointed museum director , Spiridon Brusina . Starting from a meager corpus acquired from the National Library , including only three books on zoology , Brusina traveled throughout then @-@ Austria @-@ Hungary in order to acquire books . In 1875 , the museum acquired the large library and natural history collection of Francesco Lanza , a physician and archaeologist from Split , Croatia . Brusina retired in 1901 , reporting a collection 1 @,@ 800 works in 3 @,@ 948 volumes three years earlier . In 1928 , it was recorded that the library held 5 @,@ 838 books in 9 @,@ 901 volumes . As the library was not professionally maintained during the Croatian War of Independence or inventoried since , it is not known how many titles it holds . A 1999 estimate is 30 @,@ 000 volumes and 13 @,@ 100 monographs .
= = Journals = =
In 1885 , Brusina led a successful initiative to publish The Journal of the Croatian Natural History Society ( Glasnik Hrvatskoga naravoslovnoga družtva ) . The journal is published since 1972 under the title Periodicum biologorum , and focuses on biology and biomedicine , forestry and biotechnology . In 1992 , the museum began publishing Natura Croatica , a peer @-@ reviewed biological and geological academic journal . The natural history journal was the first of its kind in Croatia , despite the existence of seven natural history museums . The journal is published quarterly in English , and reviewed by both Croatian and foreign scholars .
= = Holdings = =
The museum is divided into Mineralogical – Petrographical , Geological – Palaeontological , Zoological and Botanical Departments . The first three are successors to the National Museum 's 19th @-@ century offspring museums , while the Botanical Department was established in 1990 .
The museum 's holdings number over 2 million rocks , minerals , fossils , and other artefacts collected all over the country . The zoological collection consists of 1 @,@ 135 @,@ 000 animal specimens , including a tissue bank for DNA analysis . It also holds the remains of the Neanderthal man found near Krapina by Dragutin Gorjanović @-@ Kramberger , a former director of the National Museum . The original remains are held in the museum 's vault , while a replica is being exhibited in the Krapina museum .
The museum 's permanent display encompasses mineralogical and petrographical collections , as well as a collection of animals , the bulk of which dates back to the 19th century . The zoological collection is on the second floor of the museum . It includes the skeleton of a Mediterranean monk seal , a basking shark native to the Adriatic Sea and an Atlantic puffin , a bird today native to the Arctic area , which is believed to have nested in the Adriatic in the 19th century .
The mineralogical and petrographical collections are divided into three exhibitions . " From a Collection to a Museum " ( Od zbirke do muzeja ) showcases the work of Croatian mineralogists and petrographers thorugh history , including a geological map of Moslavačka gora in central Croatia by Ljudevit Vukotinović , as well as the work of Đuro Pilar , one of the first Croatian academic geologists . " The Empire of Minerals " ( Carstvo minerala ) displays a collection of minerals assembled by location of discovery , including collections of agate from Lepoglava and opal , gemstones rare in Croatia . " Rocky Planet Earth " ( Stjenoviti planet Zemlja ) is organized by rock types , and also contains meteorites , lava from Vesuvius and speleothems . In 2014 , the exhibitions were made accessible to blind people .
The atrium of the museum contains two exhibits : the Rock Map of Croatia ( Kamenospisna karta Hrvatske ) and the Geological Pole ( Geološki stup ) . The Rock Map of Croatia is a mosaic map assembled from various pieces of rock found in Croatia into the country 's shape .
= = Exhibitions = =
Exhibitions at the Croatian Natural History Museum have included " Dormice : in Biology and the Kitchen " and " Lion 's Pit " , exhibiting the remains of a cave lion ( Panthera leo spelaea ) , found deep in Vrtare Male , a pit cave near Dramalj , Croatia . With a body length of 3 @.@ 6 metres ( 12 ft ) , the lion was at the time of discovery claimed to be one of the biggest found in the world thus far . Another notable exhibition displayed the reconstruction of a Megalodon , an extinct giant shark found in the plains of northern Croatia , where the Paratethys ocean once stood . The museum held the first moss animal exhibition in the world in 2006 , entitled " Neptune 's Lace " . In 2009 , visitors had the opportunity to view crocodile fossils from the island Pag , while eighty live snakes owned by the Slovenian breeder Aleš Mlinar were exhibited in 2013 .
The museum takes part in the Croatian Museum Night ( Noć muzeja ) , an annual event whereby the public is allowed free entrance to many museums in Croatia during one night in the year . In the 2014 event , the museum was visited by more than 11 @,@ 000 people .
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= Tropical Storm Arlene ( 1959 ) =
Tropical Storm Arlene was a short lived , pre @-@ season tropical storm which made landfall on the central Louisiana coastline on May 30 , 1959 , causing minor damages and one fatality . Arlene developed out of a tropical wave which was first noted near the Dominican Republic on May 23 . Development of the system was slow before it gained enough convection to be declared Tropical Storm Arlene on May 28 . The storm slowly intensified and reached its peak intensity of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) on May 30 . Rapid weakening took place as the storm neared land and Arlene made landfall with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) later that night . Arlene weakened to what is now classified as a Tropical Depression early the next morning . The system degenerated into a remnant low on the afternoon of May 31 and fully dissipated late on June 2 while located over South Carolina .
Arlene dropped heavy rains totaling over 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) in localized areas as it moved into the Southeast United States . The maximum rainfall amount was 13 @.@ 55 in ( 344 mm ) , recorded in Merrill , Mississippi , over a three @-@ day period . The heavy rains caused minor flooding in Louisiana and property damage from the storm amounted to $ 500 @,@ 000 ( $ 3 @.@ 7 million 2008 USD ) . One death was indirectly attributed to the storm when a man drowned in rough surf off the Texas coast .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Arlene developed out of a tropical wave which was first noted near the Dominican Republic on May 23 . The wave slowly developed as it moved westward through the Caribbean Sea and developed into an area of low pressure on May 25 . By May 27 , the low entered the Gulf of Mexico and a ship report the next day showed that the low had developed a closed low @-@ level circulation . Early the next morning , the low was determined to have intensified into Tropical Storm Arlene , the first storm of the season , while located 300 mi ( 480 km ) south @-@ southeast of New Orleans , Louisiana with winds estimated at 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Arlene was moving towards the northwest at 10 to 15 mph ( 16 to 24 km / h ) . Arlene slowly intensified throughout the day as it continued towards the northwest at 12 to 15 mph ( 19 to 24 km / h ) . On May 29 , Arlene turned towards the west and its foreword motion slowed before becoming nearly stationary that night .
The storm was located 150 mi ( 240 km ) south of Lafayette , Louisiana as it drifted northward and winds were estimated to have peaked at 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . However , in the post @-@ season , it was determined that Arlene peaked near landfall with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . As Arlene neared the coast , the storm began to weaken due to the interaction with land . Arlene made landfall about 40 mi ( 65 km ) southeast of Lafayette , Louisiana at 2100 UTC ( 4 p.m. CST ) . The operational landfall intensity was 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) but it was lowered to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) in the post season . Upon making landfall , Arlene became the earliest landfalling tropical cyclone in Louisiana history . Arlene weakened quickly to a tropical depression shortly after landfall . The storm further degenerated to a remnant area of low @-@ pressure on the afternoon of May 31 . The remnant of the storm lingered in the Southern United States until June 2 , when it dissipated over South Carolina . Although the original low pressure system dissipated , a new , non tropical center formed further north over Virginia . This new low quickly tracked northeast , brushing the southern coast of New England before moving over Nova Scotia and losing its identity on June 3 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
The low that eventually became Arlene prompted wind warnings and small craft advisories for both coasts in southern Florida on May 27 . The small craft advisory was significantly expanded the next day when the low was upgraded to Tropical Storm Arlene . The new warnings stretched from Sabine Pass , Texas to Saint Marks , Florida . Gale warnings were also issued upon the upgrade from Morgan City , Louisiana to Pascagoula , Mississippi . Rough seas and tides of two to four feet ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 2 metres ) — also known as storm surge — were expected in the areas under the gale warning . By May 29 , all craft were advised not to leave port in Louisiana . Memories of Hurricane Audrey led to numerous residents evacuating coastal areas upon hearing about Arlene . In Pierre , 50 families evacuated to higher grounds . Officials reported that 25 families were also evacuated from low @-@ lying areas in Vermilion Parish . As Arlene neared landfall , the small craft advisory was canceled from Pensacola , Florida southward . The new warnings extended from Pensacola to Galveston , Texas . The gale warnings shifted more towards the west , now extending from Galveston , Texas to Grand Isle , Louisiana .
Arlene produced winds up to 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) with gusts up to 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) upon landfall . The lowest pressure recorded on land was 999 @.@ 7 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 52 inHg ) , which was rounded up to 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) for the minimum pressure of the storm . Minor storm surge up to three feet was recorded at Weeks Island and Point Au Fer , Louisiana . Heavy rains fell across much of the southeastern Louisiana coastline . During a 24 ‑ hour span , 10 @.@ 92 in ( 277 mm ) of rain fell in Moisant International Airport . Roughly 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water flooded the control tower at the airport , forcing traffic control workers to relocate to the new tower which was under @-@ construction . A state maximum rainfall of 13 @.@ 13 in ( 334 mm ) fell in Houma . Along the coast , a few towns reported downed trees and electrical lines from high winds , resulting in scattered power outages .
At the height of the storm , several of the main roads in New Orleans were shut down due to flooding . At least 100 homes were flooded by the storm . In Baton Rouge , dozens of people were evacuated from a flooded home via ambulance and wagon to safer areas . In nearby Mississippi , rainfall from the storm was mainly confined to the southeastern counties ; however , significant accumulations , peaking at 13 @.@ 55 in ( 344 mm ) , were recorded . Rain from the remnant low spread into Georgia . Some stream flooding and crop damage were reported but overall , the damage was minor . In all , Arlene caused $ 500 @,@ 000 ( $ 3 @.@ 7 million 2010 USD ) in damage . One death was related to Arlene ; a man drowned in rough surf off the Galveston coast . After the initial low dissipated over the southeastern United States , the extratropical remnants of Arlene brought moderate rainfall to parts of the Mid @-@ Atlantic States and New England .
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= The Cool Kids =
The Cool Kids is an American alternative hip hop duo composed of rappers Antoine " Sir Michael Rocks " Reed ( originally from Matteson , Illinois ) and Evan " Chuck Inglish " Ingersoll ( originally from Mount Clemens , Michigan ) . The Cool Kids ' music had been released primarily to the independent Chocolate Industries via their own label C.A.K.E. Recordings , but as of 2010 are no longer with Chocolate Industries .. Reed and Ingersoll have made appearances in numerous forms of media , as well as in collaborations with other artists such as Chip tha Ripper , Asher Roth , Yelawolf , Kenna , Ivan Ives , The Bloody Beetroots , Drake , Travis Barker , Lil Wayne , Pac Div , Ludacris , Mac Miller , Maroon 5 , Curren $ y , and The O 'My 's . Cool Kids are also members of the hip @-@ hop collective All City Chess Club founded in 2010 .
= = History = =
Reed attended Walter Payton College Prep in Chicago , IL while Ingersoll had attended Notre Dame High School in Harper Woods , MI where he played football and basketball . Reed and Ingersoll first exchanged conversations in 2005 when Reed found a beat on MySpace that Ingersoll had produced . The two met to discuss terms of the beat 's sale , and eventually ended up recording for two hours . They were inspired by golden age hip hop and artists like LL Cool J and Eric B. & Rakim . Ingersoll began promoting the new duo 's material , and it was eventually booked by Josh Young of Flosstradamus for a DJ performance . At this performance ( in a venue called Town Hall Pub ) , the duo met the DJ Diplo who offered to release a mixtape of their unreleased tracks titled Totally Flossed Out on his label Mad Decent , though it was eventually released on C.A.K.E. Recordings . They also received an offer from the DJ A @-@ Trak to sign to his Fool 's Gold Records label , which they did , but only for one single . Of their time with Fool 's Gold Records , the Cool Kids felt they weren ’ t getting enough attention : “ When your boss is on tour with Kanye West , it ’ s easy to have timelines missed , ” said Chuck in an interview .
All of their material had been released solely on the band 's MySpace page — their recording contract came after performances at the CMJ Music Festival and Pitchfork Media Music Festival , on July 15 , 2007 . Eventually , The Cool Kids signed to Chocolate Industries , another independent label . The group has revealed on its MySpace page that The Cool Kids ' debut album , When Fish Ride Bicycles , will be released in 2008 , though it did not come out until 2011 . Ingersoll has been the producer for tracks released thus far , but both work in rapping and production . The duo uses music software program Reason from Propellerhead Software to produce their music .
They have been on tour , opening for M.I.A. and they also joined the bill of the 2008 Rock the Bells hip hop festival on select dates . The group toured across Australia in February 2008 and also appeared at the Laneway Festival . The group also appeared at SUNY Purchase 's Culture Shock event in April 2009 . One of the duo 's singles , " Black Mags " , was featured in a late 2007 Rhapsody TV commercial , along with Sara Bareilles . In the same year , the group collaborated with Lil Wayne and DJ Benzi through the Internet on a track entitled " Gettin ' It " , which will reportedly appear on the DJ 's future album Get Right .
The Cool Kids have been featured in the video games NBA Live 08 and MLB 2K8 with the song " 88 " , in Need for Speed Nitro , with The Bloody Beetroots in the song Awesome , and in the episode " The First Cut Is the Deepest " from HBO 's TV series Entourage with the song " Mikey Rocks " . They were listed in Rolling Stone 's Ten Artists to Watch in 2008 . According to Rolling Stone , " since " Black Mags " debuted , the Cool Kids have gone from an underground sensation in their native Chicago to the hottest ticket at New York 's CMJ festival . "
The duo has been endorsed by Mountain Dew for their single , " Delivery Man " , to which commercials and the music video have aired on MTV2 . The group 's song " Bassment Party " was featured in the September 21 , 2008 episode of the HBO hit comedy Entourage . They also recorded an original track , " 2K Pennies , " for the soundtrack of NBA 2K9 . The Cool Kids have said in an interview that their success has been gradual . They will also be headlining the " NBA 2K Bounce Tour " along with Q @-@ Tip . The Cool Kids also performed at the 2009 Voodoo Experience in New Orleans , Louisiana . Producer Don Cannon said in an interview with XXL , that he will be working with The Cool Kids for their new album . The group 's second official mixtape , Gone Fishing was released on May 5 , 2009 . Their debut album , When Fish Ride Bicycles , was released July 12 , 2011 .
Their song " A Little Bit Cooler " was used in a " Most Valuable Puppets " commercial from Nike with LeBron James and Kobe Bryant entitled " Mrs. Lewis " . A new mixtape called Tacklebox came out on May 31 , 2010 . Chuck Inglish worked with Chip tha Ripper and produced his debut album Gift Raps in its entirety . The group claims they haven 't put out an album because of having issues with their former label Chocolate Industries for the past three years , but according to the group these issues are now settled and they are working on putting out When Fish Ride Bicycles . In 2010 , Chuck Inglish and Mikey Rocks teamed up with Gary , Indiana 's Freddie Gibbs and Cleveland 's Chip tha Ripper to form the " super group " P.O.C. ( Pulled Over by the Cops ) . Sir Michael Rocks has released a solo project titled The Rocks Report . When Fish Ride Bicycles was released on July 12 , 2011 . Featuring production by The Neptunes and also featuring Bun B , Chip Tha Ripper , Ghostface Killah , among other artists . The group plans a follow up album titled " Shark Week " .
On October 23 , 2011 Mikey Rocks signed with Jet Life Recordings , a Warner Bros. imprint owned by fellow rap artist Curren $ y . Chuck Inglish produced the EP " Candy Jams " for 10ille in February 2012 and is also set to work on a mixtape with Curren $ y .
On April 25 , 2015 , member Mikey Rocks took to Twitter to address the consistent questions about a possible reunion , saying they were " never coming back . " However , fellow member Chuck Inglish announced the duo were getting back together on July 13 , 2016
= = Discography = =
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= Dogmeat =
Dogmeat is a recurring dog non @-@ player character ( NPC ) in the Fallout series of post @-@ apocalyptic themed role @-@ playing video games . Dogmeat was introduced as an optional companion to the player character in the original Fallout ( 1997 ) , and has made cameo appearances in the sequel Fallout 2 ( 1998 ) and in some other video games . Another , different Dogmeat is featured in the same role in Fallout 3 ( 2008 ) and Fallout 4 ( 2015 ) . In both incarnations of the character , Dogmeat was well received , becoming widely regarded as one of the best remembered features in the series , as well as one of the most popular sidekick type characters in video gaming overall .
= = Appearances = =
In the original Fallout by Black Isle Studios and Interplay Entertainment , the protagonist player character , the Vault Dweller , first encounters the feral Dogmeat in Junktown . Dogmeat 's former owner ( an unnamed man closely resembling Max Rockatansky ) died at the hands of thugs hired by a local gangster named Gizmo . If the player character feeds Dogmeat or is wearing a leather jacket , Dogmeat will follow them and fight in their defense . According to the series ' canon , Dogmeat was adopted by the Vault Dweller on 30 December 2161 , and killed by a force field barrier during the Vault Dweller 's assault on the Master 's Military Base on 20 April 2162 . Dogmeat was supposed to appear in the canceled film adaptation of the game as well .
In Fallout 2 , Dogmeat makes a non @-@ canonical appearance in an Easter egg type special encounter " Café of Broken Dreams " . During the encounter , Dogmeat can be picked up by the player character , the Chosen One , if the player approaches him wearing Vault 13 jumpsuit ( or the Bridgekeeper 's robes , due to a bug in the game ) . If the player chooses to kill Dogmeat , a man named Mel ( in a reference to Mel Gibson , the actor who played Mad Max in the film ) will appear and try to avenge him . Dogmeat has made uncredited cameo appearances outside of the Fallout universe in Troika Games ' 2001 Arcanum : Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura ( created by Fallout designer Tim Cain ) and in 2004 The Bard 's Tale by inXile Entertainment ( headed by Fallout producer Brian Fargo ) . However , there were no plans to bring back Dogmeat for the original third Fallout game project by Black Isle Studios , the canceled Van Buren .
An entirely different dog named Dogmeat appears in Fallout 3 by Bethesda Softworks , which begins in the year 2277 . His master , a scavenger , was killed by a band of raiders in the scrapyard where the dog is to be found . Dogmeat can be recruited by Fallout 3 's player character , the Lone Wanderer . The dog can find objects of value across the landscape and bring them to the player . Fallout 3 expansion set Broken Steel optionally ( enabled by choosing the ' perk ' bonus " Puppies ! " after reaching 22nd experience level ) allows a killed Dogmeat to be replaced by a new one ( with twice as many hit points , that is a starting value of 1 @,@ 000 instead of 500 ) whenever he dies during the game . A fanmade mod which provides an armor for Dogmeat was compared by Destructoid to the infamous horse armor paid DLC from Bethesda 's The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion , " except free and functional " . Another mod adds Dogmeat to Fallout : New Vegas .
A new version of Dogmeat appears in Fallout 4 . Fallout 4 ′ s Dogmeat is a German Shepherd , and cannot die .
= = Character design = =
Dogmeat was inspired by the unnamed dog of Max Rockatansky ( Mad Max ) from the 1981 post @-@ apocalyptic film Mad Max 2 . His initial name had been " Dogshit " and his ultimate name was derived from the opening scene of the 1975 post @-@ apocalyptic film A Boy and His Dog , in which the main character Vic calls his dog Blood " dog meat " . According to Fallout producer , lead programmer and designer Tim Cain , " Leonard Boyarsky , the [ game 's ] art director ... had that movie running continuously in his office , and I think he remarked on several occasions that having a dog in the game would be really cool . [ It 's ] why we wanted a dog in the first place . " Fallout programmer and designer Jesse Heinig was credited by Cain as probably " one person to thank for Dogmeat . " Heinig himself said : " My understanding is that [ Fallout designer ] Scott Bennie settled on the name ' Dogmeat ' for the character , and it 's likely that he did pick that from the story in question . "
In 2009 , Fallout designer Chris Taylor said they " never expected that Dogmeat would become such a popular character . " Taylor said : " I always intended that the various NPCs that joined up with the player would come to a violent end . I was shocked when I heard of all the work people went through to keep Dogmeat alive to the end – especially the hell that they went through with the force fields in the Military Base . " According to Fallout 2 and Fallout : New Vegas designer Chris Avellone , Dogmeat is " arguably the most successful NPC companion ever " for several reasons : " One , he doesn 't talk , so the players can project a personality on to him . Two , he 's effective in combat ... and three , he 's a dog that stays with you through thick @-@ and @-@ thin . I don 't think there 's a deeper ' awww ' sentiment than people have in their hearts for their pets . "
= = Reception = =
Kotaku 's Owen Good called Dogmeat " one of the franchise 's most iconic characters " as well as its " one of the most [ e ] motionally fulfilling features . " The book Level Up ! : The Guide to Great Video Game Design by Scott Rogers used him as an example while discussing how the " party members don 't need to be human " . In 2008 , UGO Team stated this " undisputed champion of Fallout characters " is not " only our favorite Fallout character , he 's also one of gaming 's greatest dogs . " That same year , Joe Martin of Bit @-@ tech ranked Dogmeat as the sixth top PC game NPC of all time , commenting : " There are a lot of computer game characters we like and a few we ’ d even go so far as to say we love . Dogmeat though , despite being a definite tabula rasa , sits in a different category altogether and is the only computer game character that we ’ d reload and repeat significant portions of a game for , just so he could stand a better chance of survival . " In 2009 , Michael Fiegel of The Escapist called Dogmeat possibly the most beloved character of the Fallout universe , writing that " in an uncaring wasteland ... Dogmeat is a moral compass : Though your needle might swing towards good or evil , his center always holds strong provided you protect him . " Steve and Larson of ScrewAttack ranked Dogmeat as the tenth best gaming pet in 2011 . Dogmeat was included in numerous lists of best video game dogs , including by Lisa Foiles of The Escapist in 2010 , Michael Perry of PlayStation Official Magazine in 2012 , Gergo Vas of Kotaku in 2013 , and Benjamin Abbott of Metro , Brian Taylor of Paste , and the staff of Bild in 2014 . Ryan McCaffrey of IGN chose Dogmeat as the top feature he wished to return in Fallout 4 .
Dogmeat was also acclaimed by numerous publications as one of the best sidekick type characters in video games . He was included on GameSpot 's list of the top ten video game sidekicks in 2000 , chosen for his loyalty to his master in spite of his " propensity to get himself into trouble , his inability to perform any tricks , and his refusal to listen to directions " in the original game . This " loyal companion " was also chosen by GameSpot to be one of the 64 characters to compete in the 2008 poll for the title of " All @-@ Time Greatest Game Sidekick " . In 2004 , Dogmeat placed as second on GameSpy 's Dave Kosak 's list of the best video game sidekicks , also because of his extreme faithfulness to the player 's character . In 2008 , The Telegraph featured him as one of top ten greatest sidekicks in gaming history . In 2011 , Maximum PC included Dogmeat among the 25 of gaming 's greatest sidekicks , commenting that " though his look , his breed , and his stats have varied [ through the series ] , Dogmeat has the loyalty and heart of a champion . "
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= Material properties of diamond =
Diamond is the allotrope of carbon in which the carbon atoms are arranged in the specific type of cubic lattice called diamond cubic . Diamond is an optically isotropic crystal that is transparent to opaque . Owing to its strong covalent bonding , diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known . Yet , due to important structural weaknesses , diamond 's toughness is only fair to good . The precise tensile strength of diamond is unknown , however strength up to 60 GPa has been observed , and it could be as high as 90 – 225 GPa depending on the crystal orientation . The anisotropy of diamond hardness is carefully considered during diamond cutting . Diamond has a high refractive index ( 2 @.@ 417 ) and moderate dispersion ( 0 @.@ 044 ) properties which give cut diamonds their brilliance . Scientists classify diamonds into four main types according to the nature of crystallographic defects present . Trace impurities substitutionally replacing carbon atoms in a diamond 's crystal lattice , and in some cases structural defects , are responsible for the wide range of colors seen in diamond . Most diamonds are electrical insulators but extremely efficient thermal conductors . Unlike many other minerals , the specific gravity of diamond crystals ( 3 @.@ 52 ) has rather small variation from diamond to diamond .
= = Hardness and crystal structure = =
Known to the ancient Greeks as ἀδάμας – adámas ( " proper " , " unalterable " , " unbreakable " ) and sometimes called adamant , diamond is the hardest known naturally occurring material , scoring 10 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness . Diamond is extremely strong owing to the structure of its carbon atoms , where each carbon atom has four neighbors joined to it with covalent bonds . The material boron nitride , when in a form structurally identical to diamond ( zincblende structure ) , is nearly as hard as diamond ; a currently hypothetical material , beta carbon nitride , may also be as hard or harder in one form . It has been shown that some diamond aggregates having nanometer grain size are harder and tougher than conventional large diamond crystals , thus they perform better as abrasive material . Owing to the use of those new ultra @-@ hard materials for diamond testing , more accurate values are now known for diamond hardness . A surface perpendicular to the [ 111 ] crystallographic direction ( that is the longest diagonal of a cube ) of a pure ( i.e. , type IIa ) diamond has a hardness value of 167 GPa when scratched with an nanodiamond tip , while the nanodiamond sample itself has a value of 310 GPa when tested with another nanodiamond tip . Because the test only works properly with a tip made of harder material than the sample being tested , the true value for nanodiamond is likely somewhat lower than 310 GPa .
The precise tensile strength of diamond is unknown , however strength up to 60 GPa has been observed , and it could be as high as 90 – 225 GPa depending on the perfection of diamond lattice and on its orientation : Tensile strength is the highest for the [ 100 ] crystal direction ( normal to the cubic face ) , smaller for the [ 110 ] and the smallest for the [ 111 ] axis ( along the longest cube diagonal ) . Diamond also has one of the smallest compressibilities of any material .
Cubic diamonds have a perfect and easy octahedral cleavage , which means that they only have four planes — weak directions following the faces of the octahedron where there are fewer bonds — along which diamond can easily split upon blunt impact to leave a smooth surface . Similarly , diamond 's hardness is markedly directional : the hardest direction is the diagonal on the cube face , 100 times harder than the softest direction , which is the dodecahedral plane . The octahedral plane is intermediate between the two extremes . The diamond cutting process relies heavily on this directional hardness , as without it a diamond would be nearly impossible to fashion . Cleavage also plays a helpful role , especially in large stones where the cutter wishes to remove flawed material or to produce more than one stone from the same piece of rough ( e.g. Cullinan Diamond ) .
Diamonds crystallize in the diamond cubic crystal system ( space group Fd3m ) and consist of tetrahedrally , covalently bonded carbon atoms . A second form called lonsdaleite , with hexagonal symmetry , has also been found , but it is extremely rare and forms only in meteorites or in laboratory synthesis . The local environment of each atom is identical in the two structures . From theoretical considerations , lonsdaleite is expected to be harder than diamond , but the size and quality of the available stones are insufficient to test this hypothesis . In terms of crystal habit , diamonds occur most often as euhedral ( well @-@ formed ) or rounded octahedra and twinned , flattened octahedra with a triangular outline . Other forms include dodecahedra and ( rarely ) cubes . There is evidence that nitrogen impurities play an important role in the formation of well @-@ shaped euhedral crystals . The largest diamonds found , such as the Cullinan Diamond , were shapeless . These diamonds are pure ( i.e. type II ) and therefore contain little if any nitrogen .
The faces of diamond octahedrons are highly lustrous owing to their hardness ; triangular shaped growth defects ( trigons ) or etch pits are often present on the faces . A diamond 's fracture may be step @-@ like , conchoidal ( shell @-@ like , similar to glass ) or irregular . Diamonds which are nearly round , due to the formation of multiple steps on octahedral faces , are commonly coated in a gum @-@ like skin ( nyf ) . The combination of stepped faces , growth defects , and nyf produces a " scaly " or corrugated appearance . Many diamonds are so distorted that few crystal faces are discernible . Some diamonds found in Brazil and the Democratic Republic of the Congo are polycrystalline and occur as opaque , darkly colored , spherical , radial masses of tiny crystals ; these are known as ballas and are important to industry as they lack the cleavage planes of single @-@ crystal diamond . Carbonado is a similar opaque microcrystalline form which occurs in shapeless masses . Like ballas diamond , carbonado lacks cleavage planes and its specific gravity varies widely from 2 @.@ 9 to 3 @.@ 5 . Bort diamonds , found in Brazil , Venezuela , and Guyana , are the most common type of industrial @-@ grade diamond . They are also polycrystalline and often poorly crystallized ; they are translucent and cleave easily .
Because of its great hardness and strong molecular bonding , a cut diamond 's facets and facet edges appear the flattest and sharpest . A curious side effect of diamond 's surface perfection is hydrophobia combined with lipophilia . The former property means a drop of water placed on a diamond will form a coherent droplet , whereas in most other minerals the water would spread out to cover the surface . Similarly , diamond is unusually lipophilic , meaning grease and oil readily collect on a diamond 's surface . Whereas on other minerals oil would form coherent drops , on a diamond the oil would spread . This property is exploited in the use of so @-@ called " grease pens , " which apply a line of grease to the surface of a suspect diamond simulant . Diamond surfaces are hydrophobic when the surface carbon atoms terminate with a hydrogen atom and hydrophilic when the surface atoms terminate with an oxygen atom or hydroxyl radical . Treatment with gases or plasmas containing the appropriate gas , at temperatures of 450 ° C or higher , can change the surface property completely . Naturally occurring diamonds have a surface with less than a half monolayer coverage of oxygen , the balance being hydrogen and the behavior is moderately hydrophobic . This allows for separation from other minerals at the mine using the so @-@ called " grease @-@ belt " .
= = Toughness = =
Unlike hardness , which denotes only resistance to scratching , diamond 's toughness or tenacity is only fair to good . Toughness relates to the ability to resist breakage from falls or impacts . Because of diamond 's perfect and easy cleavage , it is vulnerable to breakage . A diamond will shatter if hit with an ordinary hammer . The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 2 @.@ 0 MPa m1 / 2 , which is good compared to other gemstones , but poor compared to most engineering materials . As with any material , the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage . Diamond has a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others . Diamond cutters use this attribute to cleave some stones , prior to faceting .
Ballas and carbonado diamond are exceptional , as they are polycrystalline and therefore much tougher than single @-@ crystal diamond ; they are used for deep @-@ drilling bits and other demanding industrial applications . Particular faceting shapes of diamonds are more prone to breakage and thus may be uninsurable by reputable insurance companies . The brilliant cut of gemstones is designed specifically to reduce the likelihood of breakage or splintering .
Solid foreign crystals are commonly present in diamond . They are mostly minerals , such as olivine , garnets , ruby , and many others . These and other inclusions , such as internal fractures or " feathers " , can compromise the structural integrity of a diamond . Cut diamonds that have been enhanced to improve their clarity via glass infilling of fractures or cavities are especially fragile , as the glass will not stand up to ultrasonic cleaning or the rigors of the jeweler 's torch . Fracture @-@ filled diamonds may shatter if treated improperly .
= = = Pressure resistance = = =
Used in so @-@ called diamond anvil experiments to create high @-@ pressure environments , diamonds are able to withstand crushing pressures in excess of 600 gigapascals ( 6 million atmospheres ) .
= = Optical properties = =
= = = Color and its causes = = =
Diamonds occur in various colors : black , brown , yellow , gray , white , blue , orange , purple to pink and red . Colored diamonds contain crystallographic defects , including substitutional impurities and structural defects , that cause the coloration . Theoretically , pure diamonds would be transparent and colorless . Diamonds are scientifically classed into two main types and several subtypes , according to the nature of defects present and how they affect light absorption :
Type I diamond has nitrogen ( N ) atoms as the main impurity , at a concentration of up to 1 % . If the N atoms are in pairs or larger aggregates , they do not affect the diamond 's color ; these are Type Ia . About 98 % of gem diamonds are type Ia : these diamonds belong to the Cape series , named after the diamond @-@ rich region formerly known as Cape Province in South Africa , whose deposits are largely Type Ia . If the nitrogen atoms are dispersed throughout the crystal in isolated sites ( not paired or grouped ) , they give the stone an intense yellow or occasionally brown tint ( type Ib ) ; the rare canary diamonds belong to this type , which represents only ~ 0 @.@ 1 % of known natural diamonds . Synthetic diamond containing nitrogen is usually of type Ib . Type Ia and Ib diamonds absorb in both the infrared and ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum , from 320 nm . They also have a characteristic fluorescence and visible absorption spectrum ( see Optical properties ) .
Type II diamonds have very few if any nitrogen impurities . Pure ( type IIa ) diamond can be colored pink , red , or brown owing to structural anomalies arising through plastic deformation during crystal growth ; these diamonds are rare ( 1 @.@ 8 % of gem diamonds ) , but constitute a large percentage of Australian diamonds . Type IIb diamonds , which account for ~ 0 @.@ 1 % of gem diamonds , are usually a steely blue or gray due to boron atoms scattered within the crystal matrix . These diamonds are also semiconductors , unlike other diamond types ( see Electrical properties ) . Most blue @-@ gray diamonds coming from the Argyle mine of Australia are not of type IIb , but of Ia type . Those diamonds contain large concentrations of defects and impurities ( especially hydrogen and nitrogen ) and the origin of their color is yet uncertain . Type II diamonds weakly absorb in a different region of the infrared ( the absorption is due to the diamond lattice rather than impurities ) , and transmit in the ultraviolet below 225 nm , unlike type I diamonds . They also have differing fluorescence characteristics , but no discernible visible absorption spectrum .
Certain diamond enhancement techniques are commonly used to artificially produce an array of colors , including blue , green , yellow , red , and black . Color enhancement techniques usually involve irradiation , including proton bombardment via cyclotrons ; neutron bombardment in the piles of nuclear reactors ; and electron bombardment by Van de Graaff generators . These high @-@ energy particles physically alter the diamond 's crystal lattice , knocking carbon atoms out of place and producing color centers . The depth of color penetration depends on the technique and its duration , and in some cases the diamond may be left radioactive to some degree .
Some irradiated diamonds are completely natural ; one famous example is the Dresden Green Diamond . In these natural stones the color is imparted by " radiation burns " ( natural irradiation by alpha particles originating from uranium ore ) in the form of small patches , usually only micrometers deep . Additionally , Type IIa diamonds can have their structural deformations " repaired " via a high @-@ pressure high @-@ temperature ( HPHT ) process , removing much or all of the diamond 's color .
= = = Luster = = =
The luster of a diamond is described as ' adamantine ' , which simply means diamond @-@ like . Reflections on a properly cut diamond 's facets are undistorted , due to their flatness . The refractive index of diamond ( as measured via sodium light , 589 @.@ 3 nm ) is 2 @.@ 417 . Because it is cubic in structure , diamond is also isotropic . Its high dispersion of 0 @.@ 044 ( variation of refractive index across the visible spectrum ) manifests in the perceptible fire of cut diamonds . This fire — flashes of prismatic colors seen in transparent stones — is perhaps diamond 's most important optical property from a jewelry perspective . The prominence or amount of fire seen in a stone is heavily influenced by the choice of diamond cut and its associated proportions ( particularly crown height ) , although the body color of fancy ( i.e. , unusual ) diamonds may hide their fire to some degree .
More than 20 other minerals have higher dispersion ( that is difference in refractive index for blue and red light ) than diamond , such as titanite 0 @.@ 051 , andradite 0 @.@ 057 , cassiterite 0 @.@ 071 , strontium titanate 0 @.@ 109 , sphalerite 0 @.@ 156 , synthetic rutile 0 @.@ 330 , cinnabar 0 @.@ 4 , etc . ( see dispersion ) . However , the combination of dispersion with extreme hardness , wear and chemical resistivity , as well as clever marketing , determines the exceptional value of diamond as a gemstone .
= = = Fluorescence = = =
Diamonds exhibit fluorescence , that is , they emit light of various colors and intensities under long @-@ wave ultraviolet light ( 365 nm ) : Cape series stones ( type Ia ) usually fluoresce blue , and these stones may also phosphoresce yellow , a unique property among gemstones . Other possible long @-@ wave fluorescence colors are green ( usually in brown stones ) , yellow , mauve , or red ( in type IIb diamonds ) . In natural diamonds , there is typically little if any response to short @-@ wave ultraviolet , but the reverse is true of synthetic diamonds . Some natural type IIb diamonds phosphoresce blue after exposure to short @-@ wave ultraviolet . In natural diamonds , fluorescence under X @-@ rays is generally bluish @-@ white , yellowish or greenish . Some diamonds , particularly Canadian diamonds , show no fluorescence .
The origin of the luminescence colors is often unclear and not unique . Blue emission from type IIa and IIb diamonds is reliably identified with dislocations by directly correlating the emission with dislocations in an electron microscope . However , blue emission in type Ia diamond could be either due to dislocations or the N3 defects ( three nitrogen atoms bordering a vacancy ) . Green emission in natural diamond is usually due to the H3 center ( two substitutional nitrogen atoms separated by a vacancy ) , whereas in synthetic diamond it usually originates from nickel used as a catalyst ( see figure ) . Orange or red emission could be due to various reasons , one being the nitrogen @-@ vacancy center which is present in sufficient quantities in all types of diamond , even type IIb .
= = = Optical absorption = = =
Cape series ( Ia ) diamonds have a visible absorption spectrum ( as seen through a direct @-@ vision spectroscope ) consisting of a fine line in the violet at 415 @.@ 5 nm ; however , this line is often invisible until the diamond has been cooled to very low temperatures . Associated with this are weaker lines at 478 nm , 465 nm , 452 nm , 435 nm , and 423 nm . All those lines are labeled as N3 and N2 optical centers and associated with a defect consisting of three nitrogen atoms bordering a vacancy . Other stones show additional bands : brown , green , or yellow diamonds show a band in the green at 504 nm ( H3 center , see above ) , sometimes accompanied by two additional weak bands at 537 nm and 495 nm ( H4 center , a large complex presumably involving 4 substitutional nitrogen atoms and 2 lattice vacancies ) . Type IIb diamonds may absorb in the far red due to the substitutional boron , but otherwise show no observable visible absorption spectrum .
Gemological laboratories make use of spectrophotometer machines that can distinguish natural , artificial , and color @-@ enhanced diamonds . The spectrophotometers analyze the infrared , visible , and ultraviolet absorption and luminescence spectra of diamonds cooled with liquid nitrogen to detect tell @-@ tale absorption lines that are not normally discernible .
= = Electrical properties = =
Except for most natural blue diamonds , which are semiconductors due to substitutional boron impurities replacing carbon atoms , diamond is a good electrical insulator , having a resistivity of 100 GΩ · m to 1 EΩ · m ( 1011 to 1018 Ω · m ) . Natural blue or blue @-@ gray diamonds , common for the Argyle diamond mine in Australia , are rich in hydrogen ; these diamonds are not semiconductors and it is unclear whether hydrogen is actually responsible for their blue @-@ gray color . Natural blue diamonds containing boron and synthetic diamonds doped with boron are p @-@ type semiconductors . N @-@ type diamond films are reproducibly synthesized by phosphorus doping during chemical vapor deposition . Diode p @-@ n junctions and UV light emitting diodes ( LEDs , at 235 nm ) have been produced by sequential deposition of p @-@ type ( boron @-@ doped ) and n @-@ type ( phosphorus @-@ doped ) layers .
Diamond transistors have been produced ( for research purposes ) . FETs with SiN dielectric layers , and SC @-@ FETs have been made .
In April 2004 , the journal Nature reported that below the superconducting transition temperature 4 K , boron @-@ doped diamond synthesized at high temperature and high pressure is a bulk superconductor . Superconductivity was later observed in heavily boron @-@ doped films grown by various chemical vapor deposition techniques , and the highest reported transition temperature ( by 2009 ) is 11 @.@ 4 K. ( See also Covalent superconductor # Diamond )
Uncommon magnetic properties ( spin glass state ) were observed in diamond nanocrystals intercalated with potassium . Unlike paramagnetic host material , magnetic susceptibility measurements of intercalated nanodiamond revealed distinct ferromagnetic behavior at 5 K. This is essentially different from results of potassium intercalation in graphite or C60 fullerene , and shows that sp3 bonding promotes magnetic ordering in carbon . The measurements presented first experimental evidence of intercalation @-@ induced spin @-@ glass state in a nanocrystalline diamond system .
= = Thermal conductivity = =
Unlike most electrical insulators , diamond is a good conductor of heat because of the strong covalent bonding and low phonon scattering . Thermal conductivity of natural diamond was measured to be about 22 W / ( cm · K ) , which is five times more than copper . Monocrystalline synthetic diamond enriched in the isotope 12C ( 99 @.@ 9 % ) has the highest thermal conductivity of any known solid at room temperature : 33 @.@ 2 W / ( cm · K ) . Because diamond has such high thermal conductance it is already used in semiconductor manufacture to prevent silicon and other semiconducting materials from overheating . At lower temperatures conductivity becomes even better , and reaches 410 W / ( cm · K ) at 104 K ( 12C @-@ enriched diamond ) .
Diamond 's high thermal conductivity is used by jewelers and gemologists who may employ an electronic thermal probe to distinguish diamonds from their imitations . These probes consist of a pair of battery @-@ powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip . One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other measures the temperature of the copper tip : if the stone being tested is a diamond , it will conduct the tip 's thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop . This test takes about 2 – 3 seconds . However , older probes will be fooled by moissanite , a crystalline mineral form of silicon carbide introduced in 1998 as an alternative to diamonds , which has a similar thermal conductivity .
= = Thermal stability = =
Being a form of carbon , diamond oxidizes in air if heated over 700 ° C. In absence of oxygen , e.g. in a flow of high @-@ purity argon gas , diamond can be heated up to about 1700 ° C. Its surface blackens , but can be recovered by re @-@ polishing . At high pressure ( ~ 20 GPa ) diamond can be heated up to 2500 ° C , and a report published in 2009 suggests that diamond can withstand temperatures of 3000 ° C and above .
Diamonds are carbon crystals that form deep within the Earth under high temperatures and extreme pressures . At surface air pressure ( one atmosphere ) , diamonds are not as stable as graphite , and so the decay of diamond is thermodynamically favorable ( δH = − 2 kJ / mol ) . So , contrary to De Beers ' ad campaign extending from 1948 to at least 2013 under the slogan " A diamond is forever " , diamonds are definitely not forever . However , owing to a very large kinetic energy barrier , diamonds are metastable ; they will not decay into graphite under normal conditions .
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= The Brute Man =
The Brute Man is a 1946 American horror thriller film starring Rondo Hatton as the Creeper , a murderer seeking revenge against the people he holds responsible for the disfigurement of his face . Directed by Jean Yarbrough , the film features Tom Neal and Jan Wiley as a married pair of friends the Creeper blames for his deformities . Jane Adams also starred as a blind pianist for whom the Creeper tries to raise money for an operation to restore her vision .
The film was produced by Universal Pictures near the end of their horror film period . According to legend , as the result of its pending merger with International Pictures , Universal Pictures adopted a policy against releasing any more B movies , so sold The Brute Man for $ 125 @,@ 000 to poverty row 's Producers Releasing Corporation , which distributed the film without any mention of Universal 's involvement in publicity or credits . In fact , Universal released at least one B @-@ western following the merger , and still had numerous other titles in active circulation from the preceding few years , up to the month before the merger . Most experts tend to believe that Universal simply found the exploitation of the deceased Hatton and his deformity for the third time , in his last film ( in which evidence of his impending demise may be foreshadowed in his acting ) , and of a poorly @-@ developed story , to be detrimental to its corporate image but did not want to take a financial loss by simply shelving the film permanently .
Considered a lost film after its initial release , because it was neither reissued theatrically by Madison Pictures , inheritor of the PRC library of films , nor sent to television by Universal , it was eventually relocated for television by TNT and subsequently released to home video in 1982 . The Brute Man received generally negative reviews , drawing particular criticism for Hatton 's poor performance . The film was featured in a 1996 episode of the movie @-@ mocking comedy television series Mystery Science Theater 3000 .
= = Plot = =
The police investigate a string of murders committed by the Creeper ( Rondo Hatton ) , a mysterious killer with a hideously disfigured face . The Creeper attacks and murders Professor Cushman ( John Hamilton ) , a professor from the nearby Hampton University . Later that night , the killer approaches a woman named Joan Bemis ( Janelle Johnson ) in front of her home and identifies himself as Hal Moffet . Joan screams hysterically at the sight of him until he is driven to kill her . When police cars approach , the Creeper climbs the fire escape of a city tenement building to escape and enters the apartment of Helen Paige ( Jane Adams ) , a blind pianist . Unable to see the Creeper 's deformed face , Helen is not afraid of the intruder , even when he admits to fleeing . When police officers knock on her door , failing to identify themselves , Helen encourages him to hide in her bedroom , where he escapes through the window .
The next day , a general store delivery boy named Jimmy ( Jack Parker ) listens to a radio report about the Creeper 's murders . The cantankerous store owner Mr. Haskins ( Oscar O 'Shea ) arrives with a handwritten letter slipped under the door , requesting groceries be delivered to a nearby dock . Jimmy brings the groceries to the dock and leaves them at a door , where the Creeper takes them into his hideout . But , when Jimmy tries to spy on him through a window , the Creeper sneaks up on Jimmy and kills him . Meanwhile , at the police station , Captain M.J. Donelly ( Donald MacBride ) and Lieutenant Gates ( Peter Whitney ) receive complaints from the mayor 's office about their failure to arrest the Creeper , but they deflect the blame . The two officers then get a call about the missing delivery boy and head to the dock to investigate .
The Creeper sneaks out and escapes while Donelly and Gates infiltrate his hideout and discover Jimmy 's corpse . Donnelly also finds a newspaper clipping with a man named Hal Moffet and two of his friends , Clifford Scott ( Tom Neal ) and Virginia Rogers ( Jan Wiley ) , during their college days . The police visit Clifford and Virginia , who are now married and wealthy . Clifford tells the officers during college , Hal was a handsome college football star who competed with Clifford for Virginia 's affections . One day , while helping Hal prepare for a chemistry exam , a jealous Clifford deliberately gave him the wrong answers , resulting in Hal being asked by Professor Cushman to remain after class for extra work . While working on a chemistry experiment , Clifford walks by the window with Virginia to boast . Furious , Hal hurls a beaker to the ground , accidentally causing an explosion that disfigures his face . Donnelly speculates that Hal is the Creeper , and that he killed Professor Cushman and Joan because he holds them partially responsible for his accident .
Meanwhile , the Creeper goes to a pawn store to buy a brooch for Helen , and kills the pawnbroker ( Charles Wagenheim ) following a fight . He later brings the brooch to Helen , who he realizes for the first time is blind . Hal learns she needs $ 3 @,@ 000 for surgery that would restore her eyesight . When Helen tries to touch his face , Hal angrily storms out . He then goes to the Scott residence and demands money from Clifford and Virginia , whom he blames for his disfigurement . Clifford draws a gun and shoots Hal twice in the stomach , but the weakened Hal manages to strangle Clifford to death before escaping with Virginia 's jewels . He brings them to Helen , who is concerned about Hal 's injuries , but he flees before she can learn he is shot .
Helen brings the jewels to an appraiser , who recognizes them as having recently been reported stolen . Donelly and Gates bring Helen into the station , where they inform her Hal is the Creeper and accuse her of harboring a murderer . Reluctantly , she agrees to help them capture him . The next day , the newspapers run stories about Helen cooperating with police , which infuriates Hal . Feeling betrayed , he sneaks back into her apartment and finds her playing the piano . Sneaking up from behind , Hal is about to strangle her when the police seize and arrest him . The film ends with Donelly and Gates assuring Helen she will get the operation she needs .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The screenplay for The Brute Man was written by George Bricker and M. Coates Webster based on a story by Dwight V. Babcock . An author of pulp fiction stories and novels , Babock started writing for Universal Pictures in 1943 , where he worked primarily on horror films . The Brute Man marked the last of nine films Babcock wrote for Universal before he left for a job at Columbia Pictures . Bricker wrote several screenplays in a variety of genres , from horror films and mysteries to comedies , and worked primarily as a freelancer jumping from studio to studio . Babcock and Brister previously worked together on several low @-@ budget horror films , including The Devil Bat ( 1940 ) , House of Dracula ( 1945 ) , Pillow of Death ( 1945 ) , She @-@ Wolf of London ( 1946 ) and House of Horrors ( 1946 ) . Bricker and Webster both previously wrote the screenplays for Universal Pictures films featuring The Brute Man star Rondo Hatton : Bricker penned House of Horrors , and Webster wrote The Jungle Captive ( 1947 ) , the third in a series of films about an ape that transforms into a beautiful woman .
The Brute Man is a quasi @-@ prequel to House of Horrors , in which Hatton played a deformed madman named " The Creeper " who kills people by breaking their backs . In The Brute Man Hatton also plays " The Creeper " , while the story explains how he became deformed and why he has a murderous personality . Hatton also played a disfigured killer called the Creeper in The Pearl of Death , a 1944 Sherlock Holmes film , but neither House of Horrors nor The Brute Man have any connection to that film . In establishing a backstory explaining the Creeper 's motives , The Brute Man 's script seeks to humanize the character and elicit more sympathy for him than the Creeper 's other films , in which he is generally portrayed as a two @-@ dimensional murderer . The origin of the Creeper is based partially on autobiographical details from Hatton 's real life . Before becoming disfigured by an accident , the Creeper was a handsome young college football hero . Hatton himself was also a football player at the University of Florida before suffering from the effects of acromegaly , a syndrome that causes abnormal bone growth due to excess growth hormone from the pituitary gland . In the film , the character is disfigured by chemicals during a laboratory accident in school . While Hatton 's real @-@ life abnormalities stemmed from acromegaly , it was often incorrectly stated by Universal Pictures publicity materials that they were the result of exposure to mustard gas attacks during Hatton 's service in World War I.
The film 's setting , which appears to be a major city , is never identified in The Brute Man , but it has been suggested that it is Manhattan , since that is where House of Horrors took place . Commentators have noted similarities between The Brute Man and other films , including the Charlie Chaplin silent comedy City Lights ( 1931 ) , and the Universal Pictures horror film Bride of Frankenstein ( 1935 ) . City Lights , like The Brute Man , included a protagonist ( Chaplin 's Tramp character ) who falls in love with a blind girl and seeks money for an operation to restore her eyesight . Likewise , the scenes between the Creeper and Helen Paige share a similar premise and dialogue as the scenes between the Frankenstein 's monster and the blind hermit in Bride of Frankenstein . In both films , the protagonist is shunned by society based on their physical appearance , but find companionship in a blind loner who knows nothing about their deformities . In both instances , the protagonist is first drawn to their blind companions by music . The Creeper heard Helen playing the piano , while the Frankenstein 's monster heard the hermit playing the violin . Commentators have noted other similarities between the two films . For example , the Creeper smashes a mirror after looking at his misshapen face , much like the Monster lashes out at his reflection in a waterfall pool .
= = = Casting = = =
The Brute Man marked one of several films in which Universal Pictures cast Hatton as a murderer , taking advantage of his natural deformities for shock value . As a result of his acromegaly , Hatton had abnormally enlarged and shaped bones on his head and hands , and the Universal Pictures publicity department often promoted the fact that Hatton did not need make @-@ up for his roles . Tom Neal , who had recently appeared in the cult classic noir film Detour ( 1945 ) , was cast as Clifford Scott . Having appeared in dozens of low @-@ budget films throughout the early @-@ 1940s , Neal began to become known as the " King of the B Pictures " . In The Brute Man , Neal portrayed Scott both in his older years and in the flashback scenes , where the character appears as a college student . To differentiate between the two , Neal was fitted with make @-@ up and costumes to make him better resemble a middle @-@ aged man during his non @-@ flashback scenes . Jane Adams was cast as the blind pianist Helen Paige . Adams had appeared in several Universal Pictures films before , including the Lon Chaney , Jr. film House of Dracula ( 1945 ) .
Jan Wiley was cast as Scott 's wife , Virginia . Although Wiley had appeared in several movies throughout the 1930s and 1940s , The Brute Man marked one of her final film performances . It was also recalled as one of her most memorable film appearances along with another Universal Pictures B horror film , She @-@ Wolf of London . However , her performance in The Brute Man proved to be a less than memorable one for her , so much so that in an interview shortly before Wiley 's death in 1993 , she could barely remember even having appeared in the film . Donald MacBride and Peter Whitney portray the police officers Captain M.J. Donelly and Lieutenant Gates , respectively . Their roles serve as comic relief for the film . Their characters portray the incompetence of the police force in their inability to find and arrest the Creeper and their focus on passing blame for their failures rather than diverting resources toward his arrest .
= = = Filming = = =
The Brute Man was developed by Universal Pictures Company , Inc. in the later years of their successful production of horror films , including Dracula ( 1931 ) , Frankenstein ( 1931 ) and The Mummy ( 1932 ) . While those films were great critical and financial successes , The Brute Man was filmed during what was widely considered the low point of the studio 's horror film period . It was produced by Ben Pivar and directed by Jean Yarbrough , both of whom had worked on House of Horrors and many other horror films for Universal over the years . The Brute Man was filmed in 13 days , during November 1945 . The flashback scenes — which depict how Hal Moffet became disfigured and ultimately became the Creeper — were all shot on the final day of filming . Jane Adams said Hatton 's acromegaly was becoming progressively worse by the time The Brute Man was filmed , and it made acting difficult for him . Hatton had trouble remembering his lines , focusing on his performance , and responding to the other actors . Hatton occasionally appears confused even on screen , like during one scene where he says " yes " while shaking his head " no . " Adams called him a friendly and thoughtful man , but called him " so pathetic to work with [ and ] almost autistic " .
Maury Gertsman , who handled the cinematography for nearly all Universal Pictures films from the mid @-@ 1940s to mid @-@ 1950s , worked as director of photographer on The Brute Man . Since the film focused on a disfigured serial killer , Gertsman sought to give the movie a dark , diseased look appropriate for the film 's subject matter and urban setting . Although primarily a horror thriller film , Gertsman uses several film noir elements in his photography , including shadowed lighting , unbalanced compositions , and chiaroscuro contrasts between light and dark . As a result , The Brute Man features a bleak , at times dismal visual atmosphere . Hans J. Salter , who composed the scores for many of the Universal Pictures films of the 1940s and 1950s , worked as composer for The Brute Man as well . Salter 's score for the film strongly resembled the music he composed for the Universal horror films Black Friday ( 1940 ) and The Invisible Man 's Revenge ( 1944 ) . Philip Cahn edited The Brute Man . Raymond Kessler and Ralph Slosser worked a dialogue director and assistant director , respectively , while John B. Goodman and Abraham Grossman worked as art directors . Other crew included Russell A. Gausman and Edward G. Robinson as set decorators , Joe Lapis as sound technician , Jack Pierce as make @-@ up director , Carmen Dirigo as hair stylist , and Vera West as gowns supervisor .
= = Release = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Although produced by Universal Pictures , The Brute Man was distributed by Producers Releasing Corporation , one of the smaller film studios from Hollywood 's Poverty Row . In 1945 , Universal merged with the company International Pictures , and the new organization adopted a policy against developing any more B movies , including Westerns , horror films , serials and movies running 70 minutes or less . This resulted in the firing of numerous production personnel members and the sale of several already @-@ developed films , including The Brute Man . The sale was also perpetuated in part by the death of star Rondo Hatton . He died as a result of his acromegaly on February 2 , 1946 , about eight months before The Brute Man was first screened , making it his final film . Universal feared releasing the film so soon after his death would lead to accusations that the studio was exploiting the illness that ultimately killed Hatton . Now embarrassed by the film , the studio was anxious to sell it .
Universal sold the film to PRC for $ 125 @,@ 000 , which represented the negative cost plus interest . The transaction occurred around August 1946 , but was not made public until it was screened for the trade press on October 1 , marking its official release date . The sale occurred so quickly and hastily on the copyright files stores at the Library of Congress , the name Universal Pictures was crossed out and Pathe Industries , PRC 's corporate body , was written in its place in pencil . Some pressbook advertisements circulated for the film still included the Universal Pictures logo . PRC had previously produced a horror film about acomegaly called The Monster Maker ( 1944 ) , in which a mad scientist injects human subjects with the disease as part of his experiments .
= = = Reception = = =
The Brute Man received generally negative critical reviews following its release on October 1 , 1946 . A 1946 review in the Harrison 's Reports trade journal , found that the film had some suspenseful moments and could be enjoyed by fans of the genre , but that the overall effect was " artificial and stagy " . The review stated most audiences " will find it tiresome in plot and in treatment [ ... ] in fact , some of the action and dialogue may provoke laughs , instead of serious response . " New York Post critic Arthur Winsten criticized the story and the acting of Rondo Hatton , commenting that his facial disfigurements alone did not make up for his poor acting skills : " Just as clothes don 't make a gentleman , so a face doesn 't make both a villain and continuous thrills . All this picture has is a face , handicapped by encircling improbabilities . " In a review published in 1947 , Wanda Hale of the New York Daily News called it " a crude production [ ... ] compiled of bits from various B thrillers " . In contrast , Mandel Herbstman of The Motion Picture Herald , said although the film used standard thriller film devices , The Brute Man " stands favorably " in its genre and director Jean Yarbrough kept the film moving at a brisk pace .
Decades after the film 's release , contemporary reviews of The Brute Man were similarly negative , with many commentators criticizing the exploitation of Hatton 's real @-@ life acromegaly . Film reviewer Leonard Maltin gave the film one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars . John Stanley , host of the KTVU television show Creature Features , described it as a dull and " shoddy thriller " , criticizing both the performances and the mood from the direction and photography . The authors of Universal Horrors : The Studio 's Classic Films , 1931 @-@ 1946 were highly critical of the film 's dialogue , and claimed much of the script seemed to be " time @-@ killing stuff " to pad the film 's already @-@ short running time . They wrote that Hatton 's acting was so bad , it " wouldn 't be acceptable even at a pre @-@ production cast get @-@ together and table reading , much less in the movie itself " .
Donald C. Willis , a writer who wrote about horror and science fiction films , described the horror scenes as completely lacking suspense , and said the film was " so flimsy that its three co @-@ plots seem to be operating independently of one another " . Keith Brown of the University of Edinburgh , in his paper " Notes on the Terror Film " , argued that The Brute Man is an example of what he calls the " terror film " , a genre distinguishable from the horror film due to its emphasis on naturally occurring sources of fear , rather than fantastical or otherworldly horror elements . Brown wrote that the Creeper character " blurs the boundary between human and animal on account of his grotesque , deformed features , but is natural and thus a figure of terror " .
= = = Home video = = =
For decades after the film 's theatrical release , copies of The Brute Man were unavailable , and it became regarded as a lost film . However , the film was eventually discovered and mass @-@ produced by Admit One , a home video distribution company that focused specifically on lesser @-@ known B films . The Brute Man was first released on Betamax and VHS in 1982 by Admit One . It has been reissued on VHS several times since then , and was released on laserdisc format in 1990 . The Brute Man was most recently released on VHS by Image Entertainment in 1999 , a year which also marked the first DVD release of the film , also by Image Entertainment . In his 2004 DVD guide book , Douglas Pratt complimented both the picture and sound transfers of the 1999 DVD release : " The picture looks great . There are a couple shots where a few speckles pop up , but much of the time the image is clean , with deep blacks and sharp , finely graded contrasts . " An inexpensive DVD version was also released in 2006 by Cheezy Flicks Entertainment , Inc . , which primarily markets B films .
= = Cultural references = =
Rondo Hatton 's likeness from The Brute Man inspired the appearance of one of the villain characters in Dave Stevens ' Rocketeer comic book as well as the 1991 film adaptation , The Rocketeer . In the film , the seven @-@ foot @-@ tall Tiny Ron Taylor portrays Lothar , an ugly and murderous henchman for the story 's antagonist . Rick Baker , the special make @-@ up effects artist that worked on the film , designed the character 's facial make @-@ up to resemble Hatton 's Creeper character , and Lothar dresses in a dark coat and hat similar to his clothing from The Brute Man .
In 2002 , the founders of the website The Classic Horror Film Board created the Rondo Hatton Classic Horror Awards to honor horror works in film , television and publishing . The awards were named after the actor , and award recipients received statuettes with miniature busts of Hatton as he appeared portraying the Creeper in House of Horrors and The Brute Man . The statuettes were sculpted by illustrator Kerry Gammill and cast by modeler Tim M. Lindsey .
The Brute Man was featured in a seventh season episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000 , a comedy television series . In the show , the human character Mike Nelson and his two robots friends , Crow T. Robot and Tom Servo , are trapped in a satellite and forced by the mad scientist Dr. Forrester to watch bad films as part of an ongoing scientific experiment . In order to get through the experiment , Mike and the robots make jokes mocking the film as they watch . During the episode , their silhouetted images are superimposed over the film to give the impression that they are sitting in a movie theater as they make their jokes . The Brute Man was the second episode of the seventh season , which was broadcast on Comedy Central on February 10 , 1996 . The description for The Brute Man in The Mystery Science Theater 3000 Amazing Colossal Episode Guide , a book by the cast and writers of the series , reads : " A dark film about dark things . Rondo Hatton 's swan song ; he died just weeks after the film was completed . So murky and dark , it makes M look like Mrs. Doubtfire . "
Michael J. Nelson , the show 's head writer who also plays the character of the same name , said the staff initially felt strange making jokes at the expense of Rondo Hatton and his real @-@ life illness ; however , Nelson said , " Then you realize it 's the whole point of the movie : he 's a guy with a big ugly face ... And he is a terribly bad actor . " Paul Chaplin , another writer with the series , said of the actor 's acromegaly : " That fact opens up a large , irresolvable issue concerning the movie industry 's use of this poor afflicted fellow ; he was paid , after all , and movie work is nice work . Yet it can seem exploitative of misfortune . "
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= Apeomyoides =
Apeomyoides savagei is a fossil rodent from the Miocene of the United States , the only species in the genus Apeomyoides . It is known from fragmentary jaws and isolated teeth from a site in the early Barstovian , around 15 – 16 million years ago , of Nevada . Together with other species from scattered localities in the United States , Japan , and Europe , Apeomyoides is classified in the subfamily Apeomyinae of the extinct rodent family Eomyidae . Apeomyines are a rare but widespread group that may have been adapted to a relatively dry habitat .
As is characteristic of apeomyines , Apeomyoides was a large eomyid with high @-@ crowned cheekteeth and a large gap between the incisors and cheekteeth . Furthermore , the cheekteeth — premolars and molars — approach a bilophodont pattern , with two distinct lobes . Other features distinguish Apeomyoides from other apeomyines , including the rectangular shape of the cheekteeth . The fourth lower premolar ( p4 ) is larger than the molars behind it and has two roots , while the lower molars have three .
= = Taxonomy = =
Apeomyoides is a member of the Eomyidae , a diverse rodent family that is now extinct . Eomyids first appeared in the Middle Eocene ( ~ 47 million years ago , mya ) in North America , where they existed until the end of the Miocene ( ~ 5 mya ) . In Europe , they survived a little longer , until the end of the Pliocene ( ~ 2 – 3 mya ) . Apeomyoides is further part of a distinctive subgroup of eomyids known as the Apeomyinae . The first apeomyine to be discovered was Apeomys tuerkheimae , named in 1968 based on fossils from the Early Miocene of Germany , and later discoveries have expanded the range of Apeomys and similar taxa . In 1998 , Oldřich Fejfar and colleagues reviewed Apeomys and identified a second , related genus Megapeomys , from the Early Miocene of Germany , the Czech Republic , and Japan . These scientists also named a new eomyid subfamily , Apeomyinae , to house Apeomys and Megapeomys . The Japanese Megapeomys was named as a separate species , Megapeomys repenningi , in 2011 . Further apeomyines have been identified in North America : Megapeomys bobwilsoni from the Hemingfordian of Nevada , Apeomyoides savagei from the Barstovian of Nevada , Zophoapeomys indicum from the Late Oligocene of South Dakota , and a possible second species of Zophoapeomys from the Late Oligocene of Nebraska . Another North American eomyid , Arikareeomys skinneri , from the Arikareean of Nebraska , has also been reidentified as an apeomyine .
In general , apeomyines are a widespread but generally rare group of dentally distinctive eomyids with a tendency towards large size . Fejfar and colleagues suggested that apeomyines were ecologically distinct from other eomyids and probably preferred a drier habitat . Although other scientists recognized Apeomyinae as a subfamily , in a 2008 summary of North American eomyids , Lawrence Flynn placed the group as a tribe , Apeomyini , within the subfamily Eomyinae . Flynn described Apeomyoides as the most derived apeomyine .
Apeomyoides savagei was described as a new genus and species by Kent Smith , Richard Cifelli , and Nicholas Czaplewski in 2006 . The generic name , Apeomyoides , adds the Greek suffix -ides , indicating similarity , to the name of the related genus Apeomys , while the specific name , savagei , honors Donald E. Savage for his work on fossil mammals and for assistance to Smith . In the same paper , these scientists argued in favor of apeomyine affinities for Arikareeomys .
= = Description = =
Apeomyoides savagei is a large eomyid , though not as large as Megapeomys lindsayi and M. bobwilsoni . Megapeomys repenningi from Japan is similar in size , but its cheekteeth are not as high @-@ crowned . A. savagei shows a series of traits that are characteristic for the apeomyines : high @-@ crowned cheekteeth with thick enamel that are bilophodont ( divided into two lobes ) in form and a very long diastema ( gap ) between the lower incisor and cheekteeth . However , the cheekteeth are higher @-@ crowned than those of other apeomyines , including Apeomys , Megapeomys , and Arikareeomys , and they are rectangular in shape , while other apeomyines have barrel @-@ shaped teeth . Similarly , the oldest apeomyine , Zophoapeomys , is smaller and has lower @-@ crowned cheekteeth . The known material of Apeomyoides consists of a number of fragmentary mandibles ( lower jaws ) and isolated cheekteeth . The length of the first and second lower molars ( m1 and m2 ) ranges from 1 @.@ 74 to 2 @.@ 58 mm , the width from 2 @.@ 08 to 2 @.@ 33 mm .
The fourth upper premolar ( P4 ) has not been recorded , but there is a specimen of its deciduous precursor ( DP4 ) . This tooth is characterized by four major cusps ( protocone , paracone , hypocone , and metacone ) and lophs or crests ( protoloph , mesoloph , metaloph , and posteroloph ) , separated by synclines or valleys . The first and second upper molar ( M1 and M2 ) are almost square and similar in size and structure to the DP4 . An additional loph on M1 and M2 , the entoloph , is incomplete in Apeomyoides , but more prominent in both Megapeomys bobwilsoni and Arikareeomys .
The four lower cheekteeth — the fourth lower premolar ( p4 ) and first through third lower molars ( m1 – m3 ) — are high @-@ crowned teeth . Like the upper teeth , they bear four cusps ( metaconid , protoconid , entoconid , and hypoconid ) , four lophs ( metalophid , mesolophid , hypolophid , and posterolophid ) and three valleys . Each of the lower cheekteeth lacks an additional loph , the ectolophid , which is present in Arikareeomys . The p4 is larger than any of the molars and longer than it is wide . Among the molars , m1 and m2 do not differ appreciably from each other and are a little wider than they are long , while m3 is a little smaller and its back side is more rounded and narrower . Syncline IV , which is located at the back of the tooth , between the hypolophid and posterolophid , is closed at the margins ; this valley is open in Megapeomys bobwilsoni . Syncline IV also opens into the centrally located syncline III ; this opening is absent in Arikareeomys . There are two roots under p4 and three under each of the molars , fewer than in Megapeomys bobwilsoni , which shows three under p4 and four under the molars .
On the mandible , the diastema is very large and the incisor is procumbent ( projecting forward ) , which distinguishes Apeomyoides from most eomyids apart from Megapeomys . There is a masseteric scar ( associated with the jaw muscles ) from below the m1 forward to a point in front of p4 , below the mental foramen , an opening in the jawbone . In Apeomys and Megapeomys this scar only reaches to the level of the front root of p4 . The mental foramen is very small and opens in the diastema , near the ventral shelf of the scar ; in Apeomys and Megapeomys it is located near the dorsal shelf . Further foramina are present on the lingual ( inner ) surface of the bone , below the cheekteeth .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Apeomyoides savagei is from the Eastgate local fauna in the Monarch Mill Formation of Churchill County , Nevada . This fauna dates to the early Barstovian land mammal age , around 15 – 16 mya . This makes Apeomyoides the youngest known apeomyine , and its occurrence helps close a gap in the known geographic range of North American apeomyines between Megapeomys bobwilsoni elsewhere in Nevada and Arikareeomys in Nebraska . Other eomyids found at Eastgate include species of Leptodontomys and Pseudotheridomys .
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= Itchen Navigation =
The Itchen Navigation is a 10 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 16 @.@ 7 km ) disused canal system in Hampshire , England , that provided an important trading route from Winchester to the sea at Southampton for about 150 years . Improvements to the River Itchen were authorised by Act of Parliament in 1665 , but progress was slow , and the navigation was not declared complete until 1710 . It was known as a navigation because it was essentially an improved river , with the main river channel being used for some sections , and cuts with locks used to bypass the difficult sections . Its waters are fed from the River Itchen . It provided an important method of moving goods , particularly agricultural produce and coal , between the two cities and the intervening villages .
On its completion it was capable of taking shallow barges of around 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) in width and 70 feet ( 21 m ) in length , but traffic was fairly modest . 18 @,@ 310 tons of freight were carried in 1802 , one of the better years , and there were never more than six boats in use on the waterway . Following the opening of the London and Southampton Railway in 1840 , traffic declined sharply , and the navigation ceased to operate in 1869 . There were various attempts to revitalise it , but none were successful . There had also been several proposals to link it to the Basingstoke Canal to form an inland route from London to Southampton during its life , which likewise did not come to fruition .
The revival of interest in inland waterways following the end of the Second World War has resulted in the tow path alongside the canal becoming part of the Itchen Way long @-@ distance footpath , and is a popular route for walkers . The Itchen Navigation Preservation Society was formed in the 1970s , but progress was slow . A joint venture between the Environment Agency and the Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust in 2005 led to the formation of the Itchen Navigation Trust , and two years later , they obtained a grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund , funding the creation of the Itchen Navigation Heritage Trail Project , which has sought to conserve and interpret the remains . The route provides habitat for a diverse flora and fauna , which has resulted in it being designated as a European Special Area of Conservation and a Site of Special Scientific Interest .
= = History = =
The River Itchen had been commercially important since before Norman times , with a staithe for unloading boats recorded at Bishopstoke in 960 , and stone for Winchester Cathedral , built when Winchester was the capital city of England , was probably transported by water from the quarries of Caen in France . The first recorded improvements to the river were made by Godfrey de Lucy , who was Bishop of Winchester between 1189 and 1204 . He funded the works himself , and as a consequence , was granted the right to levy tolls on goods transported on the river by King John . There was considerable trade in wool and leather , but the centres for this moved to Calais and Melcombe Regis in 1353 , and as the trade declined , so did the navigable parts of the river . It was noted to be in poor condition in 1452 , and a report for the Commissioners of Sewers in 1617 suggested that much of it was obstructed by mills which had been built on the banks .
Construction of the canal was authorised by an Act of Parliament passed in 1665 . The Act allowed a number of rivers to be made navigable , and in each case , undertakers were appointed , to carry out the work , as were commissioners , chosen from the local justices , who were responsible for confirming the tolls . The undertakers made very slow progress , and it was not until 1710 that the work was completed . They had built locks and some artificial cuts to bypass difficult sections of the river , and created a towing path for horses . The route was 10 @.@ 4 miles ( 16 @.@ 7 km ) long , of which 2 @.@ 75 miles ( 4 @.@ 43 km ) were new cuts , and although some of the rest used the course of the river , much of it followed secondary streams . New undertakers were not appointed as old ones died , and by 1767 , the navigation was effectively owned by one man , a Mr Edward Pyott . Local people felt that he was exceeding his powers , and they obtained a second Act of Parliament in 1767 , which noted that Pyott had created a trading and carrying monopoly , as he would refuse to carry coal and other goods which interfered with his own activities . The preamble to the Act claimed that this was harming the poor and the inhabitants of Winchester .
The Act was unusual , as it was obtained without Pyott 's consent , and created a new group of commissioners from local justices and dignitaries . They were empowered to set the rates for tolls , and the owner was obliged to transport all goods at the established rates . If there were not sufficient boats and the owner did not provide more , they could license others to provide carriage services . They could also order that locks , wharves and warehouses should be erected . The size of boats was specified , and were to be capable of carrying between 20 and 30 tons of cargo . The tolls set were quite moderate , and a group of merchants appear to have leased the river from Pyott for a period after 1767 , but he eventually took control again .
Some additional locks were added , and by 1795 , there were fifteen , three made of masonry blocks , and twelve with turf sides . There were also two single gates or half locks . The lowest lock was at Woodmill , where the navigation joined the estuary of the River Itchen , on its way to Southampton Water . The main wharves at the Southampton end were at Northam , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) below the lock , and barges worked down to them on the tide or were punted if the tide was rising . As the river was tidal below Woodmill Lock , the structure was rebuilt in 1829 with a third set of gates facing downstream , to prevent high tides flooding the navigation .
The route map shows the navigation in deep blue , ( or green for the drained section ) , to distinguish it from the river , shown in light blue . Deep blue is normally used to represent navigable waterways , but is used here for clarity .
= = = Operation = = =
Following the death of Pyott , ownership of the navigation was bought by James D 'Arcy , by then married to the widow of one of Pyott 's sons . There were still mortgages of £ 4 @,@ 666 outstanding , all of them owned by members of Pyott 's family , on which interest had to be paid . He appears to have leased the tolls to the proprietors , according to a local newspaper report of the time , and then to Edward Knapp , before taking over again in 1794 . Around 1802 , the navigation was carrying 18 @,@ 310 long tons ( 18 @,@ 600 t ) of freight , of which 10 @,@ 300 long tons ( 10 @,@ 500 t ) were coal and culm , 350 long tons ( 360 t ) were salt , 1 @,@ 710 long tons ( 1 @,@ 740 t ) tons were chalk , and the remaining 5 @,@ 950 long tons ( 6 @,@ 050 t ) tons were made up of other goods . The average annual income was quoted as £ 3 @,@ 735 , but this probably included freight charges as well as tolls , since D 'Arcy managed both . He operated four barges .
With the prospects of a link between the navigation and the Basingstoke Canal being constructed , the undertaking was valued at £ 24 @,@ 000 , and D 'Arcy sold a half share in it to his agent , George Hollis . He then sold the other half to him , and moved to Ireland . Hollis became the sole proprietor from 1804 , having bought out his sleeping partner . Throughout its life , the navigation had almost been a monopoly , but Hollis planned to end this , and obtained an Act of Parliament in 1802 , to make it an open navigation , where anyone could use it on payment of the appropriate tolls . These were laid down in the Act , ending the setting of tolls by the Commissioners . The Act also specified that he had three years to put the river in order , which he appears to have achieved , since he then leased it to a group of merchants .
From 1808 , a number of detractors argued that the navigation was in a poor condition , hoping to force Hollis to concede water rights to mills , and traffic declined . Another Act of 1811 allowed Hollis to raise the tolls , and eight years later , he held a meeting at the Winchester Guildhall , explaining why he needed to raise the tolls further . The meeting asked him to postpone his next Bill for a year , in return for which they would give him £ 1 @,@ 200 for one year 's tolls , wharfage and rent , he would spend £ 600 on repairs , and the remaining £ 600 would amount to 5 per cent interest on the estimated value of the navigation , which was then £ 12 @,@ 000 . He obtained his Act of Parliament a year later , which raised the tolls , but the Commissioners reduced freight charges at the same time , resulting in the operation being more profitable for Hollis and less so for the barge owners .
= = = Decline = = =
Hollis raised mortgages to pay for improvements , but receipts were down to £ 1 @,@ 821 in 1839 , the last full year of operation before the London and Southampton Railway opened . The receipts were obtained from tolls , as all freight was moved by independent carriers . At this point , Hollis gave control of the navigation to members of his family . His son managed it until 1841 , when a banker called W. W. Bulpett , who was a mortgagee , took over . In 1847 he was given notice to quit by the Hollis family , despite having done a good job , but he refused . F. W. Hollis eventually obtained most of the shares from the other family members , and started legal action to remove Bulpett . Railway competition had caused a sharp drop in receipts , from £ 1 @,@ 012 in 1843 to £ 430 in 1861 , and payments to shareholders and mortgagees ceased in 1850 and 1857 . In 1863 , Bulpett was replaced by Mr Clarke , formerly the manager of the Andover Canal , but Bulpett returned when he won the action brought by Hollis .
However , his re @-@ instatement was short lived , as the navigation ceased to operate in January 1869 , the last month in which tolls were collected . Mortgages of £ 19 @,@ 708 were outstanding , of which £ 2 @,@ 607 dated from the original construction by Pyott . A plan to buy the waterway by J. R. Stebbings of Southampton in 1871 fell through . A further attempt to buy the navigation was made in 1909 by Patrick O 'Carroll , an estate agent from Southsea . He created a company called the Itchen Navigation Ltd , with a capital of £ 20 @,@ 000 , but they were unable to establish who owned it , and so the company never traded .
= = = Extensions = = =
During the life of the canal , there were several proposals to link the canal to the Basingstoke Canal , to provide an inland route between London and Southampton . The first was in 1788 , and was initiated by the Basingstoke Canal company , six months after they started work on their main line . A survey for a proposed route was made , but no further progress occurred .
The Basingstoke committee then investigated a link to the Andover Canal , but in December 1792 , interest switched back to a link with the Itchen . A meeting was held in Southampton , which was chaired by the mayor and included James D 'Arcy on the committee . It became part of a much grander scheme to link Bristol to Salisbury , and onwards to London , but although most of this soon died away , the Itchen to Basingstoke link was still being considered in 1796 , by which time it was called the London and Southampton Ports Junction Canal . Two routes were surveyed by different engineers , one costing £ 127 @,@ 000 and the other £ 157 @,@ 566 .
The main focus was on providing a safe route between London and Southampton , in view of the war with France at the time and the threat to shipping using a coastal route . However , prices were rising , and there were a number of other canal schemes in difficulty at the time , which resulted in it being put on hold until 1807 . Meanwhile , the Grand Surrey Canal was being proposed in 1800 , and Ralph Dodd the main promoter suggested that it could easily be extended to join the Itchen . The previous scheme received more attention in 1807 , by which time it had become the Portsmouth , Southampton and London Junction Canal . From Winchester it would pass through Alresford , Alton and Farnham , to join either the Basingstoke Canal at Aldershot or the Wey and Godalming Navigations at Godalming . To speed construction , it was suggested that the 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) summit tunnel could be replaced by a 7 @-@ mile ( 11 km ) railway , with the tunnel being built in due course .
Widely divergent costs for the project were discussed . The original estimate was £ 140 @,@ 000 if the railway was built , and £ 200 @,@ 000 if the tunnel was built . Opponents suggested the cost would be nearer £ 700 @,@ 000 , and John Rennie estimated the tunnel line would cost £ 440 @,@ 790 in 1809 . Opponents argued that the real intent was to improve the water supply for the Basingstoke Canal or to line the pockets of George Hollis , the owner of the Itchen Navigation . There was considerable interest in the scheme , as 1 @,@ 244 shares of £ 100 had been subscribed by early 1809 , but with opposition from land and mill owners , and Rennie 's report indicating much higher costs , the project was dropped .
One final proposal was made in 1902 . Experiments had been carried out on the Wey and Godalming using electric traction to pull the barges . The scheme was for a 64 @-@ mile ( 103 km ) canal from Ditton on the River Thames through Guildford , Godalming and Alton to join the Itchen at Winchester . 250 @-@ ton barges would be pulled along from the towpath by engines fed from overhead catenary wires . However , although such a system was operational in France , nothing came of the proposal .
= = = Closure = = =
Although the navigation ceased to operate from January 1869 , Woodmill Lock remained in use , to enable barges to reach Gaters Mill at West End , which was on the main river channel just above the start of the first cut . Most of the bridges over the navigation were owned by the navigation , and their condition deteriorated . The manager , Mr Bulpett , was notified that he had 21 days to repair Shawford Bridge in 1879 . He replied to the Winchester Highway Board that the navigation was insolvent , and he would help them to transfer responsibility for it to the county council . The Board carried out temporary repairs , when Bulpett agreed that the navigation would meet the full cost of repairing it properly if it ever reopened . The following year , Bulpett was threatened with legal action over the state of Bishopstoke Bridge , but at this point it was agreed that the navigation had no income , and could not be sold , and so the county would have to maintain the bridges .
In 1911 , a Mr Bowker from Shawford successfully applied for the towpath to be diverted , but this was overturned when Rev. J H Du Boulay appealed against the decision . The diversion was sanctioned in 1914 , although there have been doubts about the legality of the action , and subsequently two further diversions were made , at Chickenhall , near the southern end and at Hockley , near the northern end . No maintenance was carried out on the waterway until the formation of Catchment Boards . Thus responsibility for the waterway as a drainage channel passed to the Hampshire Catchment Board in 1942 , and some work was carried out to maintain the integrity of the waterway . These responsibilities later passed to the Southern Water Authority , and now reside with the Environment Agency .
In the 1960s , the value of the towpath as a leisure amenity began to be recognised . The Deputy County Clerk for Hampshire walked along the towpath from end to end in 1966 , together with members of the Ramblers Association . He decided that rather than challenge the legality of the towpath diversions , he would invite the local authorities through which the navigation ran to assume responsibility for maintaining the towpath . These organisations were Southampton County Borough Council , Eastleigh Borough Council , Winchester Rural District Council and Winchester City Council . The construction of weirs at most of the locks by the Southern Water Authority resulted in water levels being restored on significant parts of the navigation . The powers of the navigation were enshrined in Acts of Parliament obtained in 1665 , 1767 , 1795 , 1802 , 1811 and 1820 , none of which have been repealed .
= = = Restoration = = =
The newer technologies of road and rail led to the navigation falling into disuse . Some lengths of the system were drained or allowed to overgrow with vegetation . Increasingly the difference between the canal and the river became less obvious , although it is still possible to identify remains of the original locks . The threat to the remains which the construction of the M3 motorway posed spurred the Winchester Tenants and Residents Association and the local branch of the Inland Waterways Association into action in 1975 , with both suggesting that the waterway could be restored . The two groups later co @-@ operated , and the Itchen Navigation Preservation Society was formed .
Little progress was made , but in 2005 the Environment Agency and the Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust promoted the formation of the Itchen Navigation Trust . They were committed to conserving the remains , rather than a full restoration to navigable standards . A request was made to the Heritage Lottery Fund in the United Kingdom for funds to restore the watercourse . Known as The Itchen Navigation Heritage Trail Project , funding was granted and a five @-@ year restoration project began . Work has included widening the aperture at College Mead Lock and the construction of a bypass channel around Malm Lock to assist the movement of fish and other aquatic fauna . The navigation has been designated a European Special Area of Conservation as well as a Site of Special Scientific Interest , due to the rich diversity of wildlife found along the system , and its historical importance .
= = Route = =
The official head of the canal was at Blackbridge Wharf , Winchester , just to the south of Wharf Mill , a grade II listed water mill dating from 1885 , and College Walk , which spans the river at Blackbridge , an eighteenth @-@ century stone bridge which is also grade II listed . Below the bridge , the channel splits , with the river flowing to the west and the navigation to the east . Blackbridge Wharf was accessed by Wharf Bridge , the oldest surviving bridge over the navigation , dating from the 1760s . Close by , the manager 's house , a warehouse and some stables have also survived . The navigation flows past the grounds of Winchester College , which uses the waterway for rowing practice . The rowing eights use a winding basin just above the remains of St Catherine 's Hill Lock , which now contains a modern sluice mechanism , and was the location of a water @-@ powered sawmill , located to the west of the lock .
It passes St Catherine 's Hill , an Iron Age hill fort and some plague pits , which were common graves for victims of the 1666 plague . It then passes under the former Didcot , Newbury and Southampton Railway , whose line from Winchester to Shawford Junction was operational between 1891 and 1966 , before being diverted through a culvert under junction 11 of the M3 motorway . Originally this was the site of a bridge which carried the road from Winchester to Botley , but this was replaced by a full headroom concrete tunnel in the late 1930s , when the junction between that road and the new Winchester Bypass was built over the navigation . When the M3 motorway was constructed , following almost the same line as the bypass where it crossed the navigation , the tunnel was reduced to a culvert , although the original plans for the motorway would have destroyed most of the top pound . The building of the M3 across Twyford Down , a small area of ancient chalk downland , was controversial at the time , but the removal of the Winchester Bypass which ran to the west of St Catherine 's Hill close to the navigation and its conversion back to grassland has brought tranquility back to the valley . The canal is on the western edge of Twyford Down , and continues through Twyford Lane End Lock before it briefly rejoins the river . Some 220 yards ( 200 m ) south of the junction are Tumbling Bay Hatches , originally used to control levels in the water meadows to the east of the river . A modern sluice was installed just to the north of the 19th century hatches in 1971 , and controls flow to the Twyford Drain , the main channel to the east of the navigation , which follows the river channel almost to Shawford Bridge . Modern maps , however , label the drain as the River Itchen .
A leat from this stretch was created at around the time of the construction of the canal to provide water for the Twyford Mead water meadows . Farming of the water meadows continued until around 1930 , after the closure of the navigation itself . It was a labour @-@ intensive method of land management , but the controlled flooding of the meadows , with the deposition of silt from the water , enabled the land to produce two crops of hay per year , as well as grazing for sheep and cattle . Demonstrations of the techniques used to flood the meadows are still carried out occasionally .
= = = Below Twyford = = =
The next lock is Compton Lock , the only one built on a river section . It is also called Compton Place Lock or Twyford Lock , and the extra flow compared to other locks may explain the erosion that has taken place , resulting in a circular area of water between the upper and lower gates . Just above Shawford Bridge , the river and navigation diverged , with Shawford Mill just below the junction . The building still stands . The bridge is a modern construction , and is located at a point where the towpath crosses to the western bank . Just to the south is a weir at the site of Shawford Single Gates , which probably ensured the mill had an adequate head of water . The village of Twyford lies to the east , and the Twyford Drain splits , with the western channel rejoining the river below the mill , and the eastern channel continuing as a relief channel . There are two more locks on the navigation , called Malm Lock and College Mead Lock , before the navigation rejoins the river . By the junction is the intake for Otterbourne Water Treatment Works .
After some 450 yards ( 410 m ) , the river continues straight ahead , and another cut begins , turning sharply to the right . Soon the remains of Brambridge Lock are reached , which include an eel trap . The design of the gates , which included vents near the top of the structure , to allow surplus water to pass through , was clearly shown in a drawing dating from 1880 . Below it were Brambridge Single Gates , probably used to maintain water levels for a mill , of which some brickwork remains . There were hatches to allow water to return to the river channel either side of the gates , one of which is now a modern sluice . The navigation runs along an embankment for about 450 yards ( 410 m ) , which is 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) high , before it reaches Allbrook Lock . This was moved in 1838 , when the railway line was built , and was repaired in 1944 . It has a chamber built of bricks , whereas the other locks are turf @-@ sided . A bridge carries the B3335 over the tail of the lock , having been widened since it was first built . At the head of the lock is a gauging station , where the Environment Agency measure the flow and level of the water .
The navigation turns to the west , passing under the railway line , and then loops back to return to the eastern side of the railway . It runs along the northern edge of some railway sidings which form part of Eastleigh Works , to reach Withymead Lock . This was unusual , as it included a bypass channel to take excess water around the lock , whereas the other locks used vents in the gates . Just below the lock , the navigation rejoins the river channel . At Barton Bay , the Barton River leaves the navigation , following a course to the west of the channel . A horse bridge carried the towpath over the river , which used to supply water to Barton Peveril Mill . The next cut began a little further south , with Bishopstoke or Stoke Lock at the head of it . There are four bridges on Bishopstoke Road , as it crosses the Barton River , the navigation , the river channel and the tailrace of Shears Mill , Bishopstoke . The mill was a large four @-@ storey building , which was demolished in the 1920s . Four years before demolition , two water turbines of 20 @-@ inch ( 51 cm ) and 36 @-@ inch ( 91 cm ) diameter were installed , and were retained after the demise of the mill , in the hope that they could be used to generate DC power for the village . Several community groups are looking at the possibility of restoring the water turbines to generate electricity .
The next lock is Conegar Lock , which was also called Stoke Conegar or Coneygear Lock . Just above it are some hatches which supplied water to the adjacent water meadows . They were built of dressed stone , and are the best @-@ preserved of the original hatches . There is no modern sluice at Conegar Lock , and the change in level has resulted in fast @-@ flowing rapids which have cut back the channel above the lock . A little further south at Fish House Bay , the navigation crossed the Barton River diagonally , as the mill stream made its way back to the main river . A footbridge on the eastern bank carried the towpath over the Barton River , but the navigation below this point is dry , with its line occupied by a vegetable garden .
= = = Below Conegar = = =
The next section is the least preserved part of the navigation , which skirted to the east of Eastleigh Sewage Treatment Works , to a point where it was crossed by the railway from Eastleigh to Gosport . Two lengths have been filled in , and although there is a footpath , it follows the approximate route of the navigation , rather than the actual towpath . The railway bridge was built in 1841 and originally had two arches , one for the navigation , and another for the landowners . Replacement was necessary in 1979 , and the bridge was demolished . Part of it was replaced by an embankment , but a large @-@ diameter concrete tube was provided , or sufficient size to carry the navigation should it be reinstated . The next lock is Lock House Lock , which was also called Chickenhall Lock . The name reflects the fact that there was a lock @-@ keeper 's cottage by the structure , but this has long since disappeared .
The navigation then passes to the east of Southampton Airport , while further east is the river channel and the Itchen Valley Country Park . Between the two waterways is Decoy Covert , a small wood which contained a duck decoy . The lock nearby is called Decoy Pond Lock , below which is Sandy Lock . There is little water in this section , since its main supply has been cut off , and although there are springs along this section , the channel is periodically blocked where occupation bridges have been replaced by earth embankments . Sandy Lock has much barbed wire in it , possibly dumped when the wartime defences of the airport were dismantled . The final lock on this section is Mans Bridge Lock , shortly after the modern crossing by the M27 motorway . The cut then rejoins the main river , and passes under the A27 road . The current bridge was constructed in 1975 , and replaced a bailey bridge erected during the Second World War . Just below it is a single arched stone bridge dating from the early nineteenth century , which was the original course of the road . It has been restored and is used as a footbridge .
The final lock was the sea lock at Woodmill . There are no visible remains of it , although its location can still be seen . The mill was to the west , and now forms part of the Woodmill Outdoor Activities Centre , with the main building used as a canoe shop . The centre was set up in the late 1960s , and is a registered charity . The navigation officially continued downstream to a wharf at Northam , and although there was never a towpath on the tidal section , the Itchen Way long distance footpath follows the eastern bank of the river for most of the way . Nothing remains of Northam Quay , and the bridge has been rebuilt twice since the first construction of 1796 , the last time in 1954 . The river also passes under the A3035 Cobden Bridge , and a railway bridge built in 1866 , with two sets of round iron columns supporting the structure over the main channel , which retains most of its original appearance and now forms part of the West Coastway Line .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The Itchen Navigation supports a rich flora and fauna , and one benefit of the 5 @-@ year grant @-@ funded restoration project has been the regular monitoring and publishing of reports to document this . Annual reports on the populations of birds , bats , otters , water voles and butterflies , damselflies and dragonflies have been produced , with occasional reports on other aspects , while the Environment Agency has produces fisheries reports . As part of the project , a number of engineering works have been carried out to stabilise the banks , and trees have been cut back to reduce the amount of shade and encourage the growth of marginal vegetation . In the case of the water vole survey , this has been concentrated on the sections where work has been carried out , whereas the butterfly , damselfly and dragonfly survey has tended to cover the whole navigation . Vegetated berms containing marginal plants have been placed along the banks . The project has tried to avoid the installation of revetments , as the vertical faces prevent wildlife accessing the banks , but where a revetment is necessary to combat erosion , it has been built of oak and a berm placed in front of it to soften the edge .
In recognition of the fact that many people use the towpath to exercise their dogs , dog dips have been installed at Allbrook and Shawford . These provide easy access into the water for dogs , and owners are encouraged to only allow dogs to swim at these locations , to conserve the bank in other places . The water vole surveys have followed the best practice described in the Water Vole Conservation Handbook ( 2006 ) , and have also recorded evidence of otter , brown rat and American mink populations . While carrying out the work , the surveyors have also counted sightings of kingfisher , heron , moorhen and coot . The bat survey recorded common pipistrelle , soprano pipistrelle , Daubenton 's , noctule and serotine bats in 2011 . Bat boxes have been erected near Allbrook , and there was some evidence that they were being used . The 2009 fisheries survey recorded large numbers of young Atlantic salmon in the lower river , but although fish weirs have been provided , wild parr were not recorded near Winchester . Above there , a large population of brown trout thrives . Eels were monitored for the first time in 2009 , when their distribution was found to be variable .
= = Points of interest = =
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= Stephanie McMahon =
Stephanie Marie McMahon Levesque ( born Stephanie Marie McMahon ; September 24 , 1976 ) is an American businesswoman , professional wrestling valet , professional wrestler , minority owner , and the Chief Brand Officer ( CBO ) of WWE .
A fourth @-@ generation wrestling promoter as a member of the McMahon family , she has worked for WWE since she was a teenager ( modeling T @-@ shirts and other merchandise for various WWE catalogs ) working her way up to receptionist , then in various front office jobs up to and including her current CBO position . She is the great @-@ granddaughter of Roderick " Jess " McMahon , granddaughter of Vincent J. McMahon , daughter of WWE Chairman and CEO Vince McMahon and retired CEO / United States Senate candidate Linda McMahon , the younger sister of WWE part @-@ owner / wrestler Shane McMahon , and wife of WWE executive / wrestler Paul " Triple H " Levesque .
McMahon began appearing regularly on @-@ air for WWE ( then WWF as the World Wrestling Federation ) in 1999 as a part of a storyline with The Undertaker . After a brief on @-@ screen relationship with Test , she was engaged to Triple H — whom she married both on @-@ screen and later in real life — which resulted in The McMahon @-@ Helmsley Faction storyline . She has held the WWF Women 's Championship once . In 2001 , she was the on @-@ screen owner of Extreme Championship Wrestling during The Invasion . The following year , she was the SmackDown General Manager , but stopped appearing regularly on television after an " I Quit " match with her father Vince .
After only making sporadic appearances for several years , McMahon began appearing regularly on Raw in 2008 as the Raw brand general manager before disappearing once again . By mid @-@ 2013 , McMahon returned to regular on @-@ air appearances in the WWE , this time under the gimmick of an unctuous , judgmental , bullying owner along with on @-@ screen chief operating officer , her husband , Triple H. From 2013 to 2016 , they acted as a power couple known as " The Authority , " making what were often shady decrees while claiming only to be concerned for " what 's best for business , " all the while romanticizing each other in the process with public displays of affection . The Authority would later expand into a stable with its co @-@ leaders Triple H and herself . In April 2016 , The Authority quietly disbanded . She is currently the Commisioner of Raw .
= = Early life = =
Stephanie Marie McMahon was born on September 24 , 1976 in Williamstown , New Jersey to Linda and Vince McMahon . She has one brother , Shane McMahon . Soon after her birth , the family moved to Greenwich , Connecticut . There , she attended the selective Greenwich Country Day School , throughout her elementary school years . At the age of 13 , McMahon appeared in World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) merchandise catalogs , modeling T @-@ shirts and hats . After graduating from Greenwich High School , she attended Boston University and in 1998 earned a degree in Communications . After graduating in 1998 , she began working for the WWF full @-@ time .
= = Business career = =
McMahon entered WWF as a model , for WWF Sales and merchandise , but started her WWF career as an Account Executive for the WWF sales office in New York . In her early years with the company , she did reception work , creative design , television production , and acted as a ring performer . After spending time as the director of creative writing , a job she had by 2002 , she was promoted to Senior Vice President of Creative Writing in 2006 .
= = = Executive Vice President = = =
McMahon was promoted to executive vice president of Creative in 2007 . She was responsible for overseeing the creative process ( Storylines ) for all television and pay @-@ per @-@ view programming . She oversaw all aspects of talent management and branding as well as live event booking and marketing , as well as all social and digital media properties .
As Executive vice @-@ president , Creative she was able to spearhead the upbringing of the WWE app , which has been downloaded over 20 million times . She was also able to launch a huge partnership with the USO metropolitan Washington , the social media company Tout , and was able to partner with Yahoo to bring WWE content . Stephanie also lead WWE 's Creative coalition for their Anti Bullying Campaigns . In addition to her duties , she was responsible for the day @-@ to @-@ day operations for WWE.com.
= = = Chief Brand Officer = = =
On December 4 , 2013 WWE announced the promotion of Stephanie to chief brand officer , where she will now lead efforts to further enhance WWE 's brand reputation among key constituents including advertisers , media , business partners , and investors . McMahon will also serve as the lead ambassador of WWE and work with business units to support key growth initiatives . Stephanie will also lead WWE 's targeted youth and moms marketing programs .
McMahon 's new position enabled her to spearhead the continued partnership with General Mills ' Totino 's brand . On February 5 , 2014 , Stephanie McMahon along with CMO and CRO Michelle Wilson announced a partnership between WWE and KaBOOM ! to build a playground for WWE 's annual WrestleMania week in Louisiana . McMahon earned a combined salary of over $ 775 @,@ 000 between her corporate role and as an on @-@ screen talent in 2013 . She also owns over $ 77 million in WWE stock . On April 15 , 2014 during WWE 's annual Business Partners Summit , Stephanie confirmed a new WWE logo that would debut the night after WWE SummerSlam although it 's already showing up on WWE products like the WWE Network and NXT . On August , 5th at the Needham fireside conference , Stephanie alongside with her husband Triple H , and WWE Chief strategy and financial officer George Barrios , discussed the Creative side of WWE , the WWE Network , and the difference between WWE and UFC .
= = Job titles = =
Account executive and receptionist – 1998 – 2002
Director , Creative Television – 2002 – 2006
Responsible for the creative design , plans , and initiatives for WWE television .
Senior vice @-@ president , Creative Writing – 2006 – 2007
Responsible for overseeing the creative writing process , development , and management of WWE creative team .
Executive vice @-@ president , Creative Development and Operations – 2007 – 2013
Responsible for the creative development for all of WWE television including live and televised events and pay per views , as well as event bookings . Stephanie also served as a backstage producer / director .
Chief brand officer 2013 – present
Responsible for leading WWE 's effort 's and brand reputation among key constituencies including investors , media , business partners , and advertisers . As well as marketing mom and kids initiatives .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Relationship with Test ( 1999 ) = = = =
In early 1999 , at the suggestion of WWF writer Vince Russo McMahon debuted as the sweet daughter of Vince McMahon during an on @-@ screen storyline involving Vince and The Undertaker . The Undertaker stalked and abducted McMahon at the end of the April Backlash pay @-@ per @-@ view , which culminated in him almost marrying her in the middle of the ring the next night on Raw , before being rescued by Stone Cold Steve Austin .
McMahon then began an on @-@ screen relationship with wrestler Test , which led to a rivalry between him and her older brother Shane . After Test defeated Shane at SummerSlam in a " Love Her Or Leave Her Match " , McMahon and Test went on to team together in a match on September 20 , 1999 , with the couple defeating Jeff Jarrett and Debra . The couple were eventually engaged , but during the in @-@ ring ceremony , Triple H showed a video which revealed that he had drugged McMahon and taken her to Las Vegas , Nevada where they were married in a drive @-@ through ceremony . McMahon seemed to abhor Triple H at first , but at the inaugural Armageddon event , after Triple H defeated her father in a No Holds Barred Match , left with him after embracing . McMahon confronted Vince the next night on Raw and revealed the wedding was a planned event , which was a revenge plot against her father for the aforementioned kidnappings , thus turning her into a villain .
= = = = McMahon @-@ Helmsley era ( 2000 – 2001 ) = = = =
In late 1999 , with Vince McMahon absent as a result of injuries inflicted upon him by Triple H at the Armageddon Pay @-@ per @-@ view , Triple H and McMahon became the on @-@ screen owners of the WWF , a period known as the " McMahon @-@ Helmsley Era " ( slightly different from the modern era of " The Authority " ) and dominated by the McMahon @-@ Helmsley Faction . Triple H held the WWF Championship and McMahon held the WWF Women 's Championship after defeating champion Jacqueline with the help of Tori and D @-@ Generation X on the March 28 edition of SmackDown ! On the edition of June 6 of SmackDown , McMahon successfully defended her title against Lita and on the edition of June 16 of SmackDown . Stephanie reconciled with her father and brother at WrestleMania 2000 when they helped Triple H defend his title against The Rock , leaving Linda McMahon as the only fan @-@ favorite in the McMahon family .
In mid 2000 , a love triangle storyline began featuring McMahon , Triple H and Kurt Angle . The storyline continued at Unforgiven when Triple H defeated Angle with a Pedigree following a low blow from McMahon , proving her loyalty to him . McMahon later became Angle 's manager and was in his corner when he defeated The Rock for the WWF Championship at No Mercy . The alliance was short lived , however , as after The Rock performed his Rock Bottom maneuver on McMahon at No Mercy , Triple H attacked Angle , considering it his fault that McMahon was hurt due to her managing Angle at the time . On the August 21 , 2000 episode of Raw , McMahon lost the WWF 's Women 's Championship to Lita despite the interferences from Angle and Triple H after special referee , The Rock , performed a spinebuster on McMahon .
The internal disputes between the McMahons led to Linda McMahon being in a comatose and wheel @-@ chair bound state due to the stress of being asked for a divorce by Vince , who took the opportunity to have a public affair with Trish Stratus . McMahon briefly feuded with Stratus , defeating her at No Way Out . Over the next few weeks , Vince made it clear that he favored McMahon over Stratus , allowing McMahon to bully and verbally abuse Stratus . At WrestleMania X @-@ Seven , Shane McMahon defeated Vince in a street fight . During the match , Stratus slapped Vince and chased Stephanie from ringside , apparently upset with Vince 's constant misogynistic treatment of her .
= = = = The Invasion and divorce from triple H ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = = =
McMahon later revealed that she had purchased Extreme Championship Wrestling and intended to bankrupt the WWF ( in reality , the ownership of ECW assets at this time was highly disputed ) , along with her brother Shane , who had become the on @-@ screen owner of World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) , and the two rosters merged to form a " supergroup " known as The Alliance .
Her team " The Alliance " consisting of her brother Shane , former WCW Champion Booker T. , Rob Van Dam , Kurt Angle and Steve Austin were defeated by " Team WWF " consisting of The Undertaker , Kane , Big Show , Chris Jericho & The Rock at the Survivor Series in a five @-@ on @-@ five , Winner Takes All elimination match . The night after The Alliance was defeated , Shane and McMahon were banished from WWF television . McMahon returned in January 2002 when Triple H made a comeback as a fan @-@ favorite , but the good couple began having problems , as McMahon began acting like a nagging and clingy wife .
As part of the storyline , the couple " divorced " after McMahon claimed to be pregnant in order to trick Triple H into renewing their marital vows . Triple H later discovered that she was lying through and left her at the altar during the renewal ceremony . As a result , after Triple H won the Royal Rumble , McMahon appointed herself special guest referee in a match between Kurt Angle and Triple H at No Way Out with Triple H 's WrestleMania Undisputed WWF Championship shot on the line . Though Angle won thanks to McMahon 's biased officiating , Triple H defeated him the next night to regain his title shot . McMahon then aligned herself with former enemy , Chris Jericho . Despite interference by McMahon , Jericho lost to Triple H at WrestleMania X8 on March 17 . On the March 25 episode of Raw , Jericho and McMahon lost to Triple H in a Triple Threat match for the Undisputed Championship , with the stipulation that , if McMahon was pinned , she would be forced to leave the WWF ; In the match , Triple H pinned McMahon .
= = = = General manager of SmackDown ! ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = = =
On July 18 , 2002 , McMahon returned to the WWE ( formerly WWF until a lawsuit from the World Wildlife Fund ) as the general manager of SmackDown . In contrast to her McMahon @-@ Helmsley era villain character , Stephanie became a fan favorite , as she began to favor fan favorite wrestlers at that time . She feuded with Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff . On October 31 , 2002 at the Halloween party Stephanie McMahon and Eric Bischoff shared a kiss while McMahon was dressed as a witch and Bischoff was disguised as her father underneath a mask . McMahon was given credit for the return of the WWE United States Championship and for the creation of the WWE Tag Team Championship . She was also credited with signing Hulk Hogan back to SmackDown ! , which caused friction between herself and her father .
Meanwhile , Vince McMahon began to resent Stephanie 's attempts to stop him from pursuing an affair with Sable . The feud culminated in the controversial first ever " Father – Daughter ' I Quit ' match " at No Mercy . McMahon was accompanied by her mother , the CEO of WWE Linda McMahon , and Sable accompanied Vince McMahon in their match . McMahon lost when Linda , at ringside threw in a towel on her behalf because Vince would not release a choke he had on her with a lead pipe . As a result of losing the match , McMahon disappeared from WWE television for two years . The match was made to write Stephanie out of storylines as she was marrying Paul " Triple H " Levesque that week .
= = = = Sporadic appearances ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = = =
McMahon returned as a villain once again in October 2005 , she , along with her father and , in a surprise twist , her mother fired Raw announcer Jim Ross .
A visibly pregnant McMahon also returned on the March 6 , 2006 episode of Raw , approaching Shawn Michaels backstage and claiming to have abdominal pains . When Michaels left to get her some water , McMahon pulled out an unmarked substance out of her brassiere and poured it into his bottle of water . This substance caused him to become groggy during his match against Shane later in the night , which he lost as a result . McMahon also appeared at the WWE Hall of Fame induction ceremony on April 1 , 2006 and in a backstage vignette with her immediate family at WrestleMania 22 .
McMahon returned during a backstage segment in April 2007 at WrestleMania 23 , visiting her father before his " Battle of the Billionaires " match . After her father returned to Raw after faking his own death , McMahon publicly revealed that her father had an illegitimate child , who was among the WWE roster . On the taped edition of Raw that aired September 3 , 2007 , McMahon , along with her mother Linda and her brother Shane , made several appearances to confront Mr. McMahon about the child , who was later revealed to be Hornswoggle , turning into a fan favourite . On Raw 's 15 Year Anniversary episode , she appeared along with Shane in a segment — also involving her husband Triple H and Hornswoggle — which ended with her kissing her real life husband Triple H , to humiliate her father on Raw .
= = = = General manager of Raw ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = = =
After the severe injuries sustained by Vince on the June 23 , 3 @-@ hour edition of Raw , Shane appeared requesting for the Raw Superstars to stand together during what was a ' turbulent time ' . Shane 's plea was ignored , and subsequently , for the next two weeks , McMahon and Shane urged the superstars to show solidarity . The following week , Shane announced Mike Adamle as their choice to be the new Raw General Manager .
After Adamle stepped down as General Manager , Stephanie soon became in charge of the brand and ( reignited her feud ) and had altercations with Chris Jericho in the following weeks , which involved her firing him ( although he was later reinstated ) . After her father Vince returned , the family began a feud with Randy Orton , who began the storyline by punting Vince in the head . After a few weeks of feuding , Orton and his alliance , The Legacy , punted Shane in the head and performed an RKO on McMahon . Following the attack , he was chased out of the ring by Triple H , who is her real @-@ life husband . The rivalry between Orton , The Legacy and The Mcmahons heated up when Orton attacked and kissed Stephanie . Triple H and the Legacy rivalry continued at WrestleMania XXV , where Triple H defended the WWE Championship against Orton . The following month , Orton won the championship at Backlash . After Backlash McMahon left Raw and took a hiatus from WWE television .
= = = = Sporadic appearances ( 2010 – 2013 ) = = = =
McMahon appeared on the November 1 episode of Raw in a pre @-@ taped segment , where she dreams that Vince McMahon awoke from a coma after his doctor , played by actor and one @-@ time WWE employee Freddie Prinze Jr . , informed him that his wife Linda had invested millions in her campaign as she runs for senate . Vince 's heart rate elevated more and more as Prinze informed him on what was " wrong " with WWE since he went into a coma . After beginning to feel better , Vince realizes that he has a serious case of " the runs " , in which he gets out of bed and walks to the bathroom , in which he is covered in campaign signs , that block his backside . McMahon suddenly wakes up from her dream and asks her husband , Triple H ( off @-@ screen and voice work only ) , if Vince was still in a coma , in which Triple H replies " Yeah , he 's in a coma . I 'm pretty sure he 's brain dead . " ; McMahon responds by saying " thank God , " and then lays back down .
McMahon made an appearance as a guest speaker at the WrestleMania XXVII Press Conference . Several months later , she appeared in a backstage segment at SummerSlam to wish CM Punk luck in his match . Upon offering to shake his hand , Punk declined and insulted her : " I would , but ... I know where that hand 's been . " The following night on Raw , McMahon appeared backstage with CM Punk and threatened him : " ... in the end , people always get what they deserve . "
On July 23 , 2012 , McMahon made an appearance on the 1000th episode of Raw where she confronted and then slapped Paul Heyman to convince him to accept a match between Brock Lesnar and Triple H at SummerSlam . On April 6 , 2013 , McMahon inducted former on @-@ screen rival Trish Stratus into the WWE Hall of Fame .
On June 3 , 2013 , McMahon made an appearance to reveal her decision not to allow Triple H to compete that night . On the June 17 Raw , McMahon confronted new Divas Champion AJ Lee . On the July 8 Raw , McMahon fired Vickie Guerrero from the position of Raw Managing Supervisor when the WWE Universe voted " Failed " during Guerrero 's job evaluation .
= = = = The Authority ( 2013 – 2016 ) = = = =
On the August 19 episode of Raw , Stephanie turned heel when she interrupted Daniel Bryan and supported the actions of her husband at SummerSlam the previous night , telling Bryan that he wasn 't suitable to be the face of the company . Later in the night Stephanie stood beside Triple H and her father as they celebrated Randy Orton 's WWE Championship Coronation , during which Daniel Bryan was attacked by The Shield and subsequently by Orton . In November 2013 , McMahon signed a three @-@ year performers contract with the WWE , confirming her as a regular on its programming . She and Triple H continued to rule the company as a controlling " power couple " dubbed The Authority . Swearing that their actions were " best for business " , the pair would belittle and punish any talent that went against their ideology , and formed a particular vendetta against Daniel Bryan . McMahon was at ringside when Triple H lost to Bryan at WrestleMania XXX .
In June 2014 , as part of the ongoing storyline with Bryan , McMahon threatened to fire his wife Brie Bella if Bryan did not relinquish the WWE World Heavyweight Championship , which forced Brie to quit before slapping McMahon in the face . On the June 16 episode of Raw , Roman Reigns spiked the coffee Vickie Guerrero gave to McMahon , causing Stephanie to throw up on Vickie and leave with Triple H to the hospital . Vickie later gave Reigns a chance in the battle royal , which he would win . On the June 23 episode of Raw , Vickie lost in a pudding match against McMahon with her job on the line , after interference by Alicia Fox , Layla and Rosa Mendes . Vickie ultimately lost the match and was fired , however she got her retribution over McMahon by throwing her into the mud pool . After Brie quit , McMahon put Brie 's sister Nikki in several handicap matches as punishment . Brie returned to television on the July 21 episode of Raw , appearing in the crowd leading to confrontation between the two . McMahon got arrested with the assault of battery , because she slapped Brie , who was not a ( kayfabe ) WWE employee The following week , McMahon granted Brie her job back and a match at SummerSlam against her in order to get Brie to drop the lawsuit . On the August 4 episode of Raw , after their contract signing , Stephanie pedigreed both twins . At SummerSlam , Nikki turned on Brie , allowing Stephanie to hit a pedigree on Brie having Stephanie win her first pay per view match in over 10 years .
On the October 27 episode of Raw , after John Cena , the # 1 contender for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship , rejected an offer to join the Authority , Triple H announced a Traditional Survivor Series tag team elimination match , with a team representing the Authority facing a team captained by Cena . On the November 3 episode of Raw , Vince McMahon announced that if Team Authority loses at Survivor Series , the Authority will be ousted from power . During the match , Triple H tried to get the last member of Team Cena , Dolph Ziggler , eliminated by attacking two referees and placing Seth Rollins ( who was also the final member of Team Authority ) on top of Ziggler and calling crooked referee Scott Armstrong into the ring to make the count , however the debuting Sting came out and attacked Armstrong and Triple H , giving Team Cena the win and thus disbanding The Authority . Stephanie and Triple H appeared on the episode of Raw after Survivor Series stating that without them the company would be driven to the ground . They were then escorted out of the arena by the returning Daniel Bryan and only to be insulted by Mr.McMahon for letting him down and the McMahon family before exiting the arena . On the December 29 episode of Raw , The Authority was brought back in power by John Cena , and she and her husband entered and stepped on the entrance ramp celebrating their return with a glass of champagne and a kiss . Stephanie and Triple H then proceeded to fire Erick Rowan , Ryback and Dolph Ziggler .
On the July 13 episode of Raw , Stephanie interrupted Team Bella ( The Bella Twins and Alicia Fox ) to introduce Becky Lynch , Charlotte , and then @-@ NXT Women 's Champion Sasha Banks , calling for a " revolution " in the WWE Divas division . While Lynch and Charlotte allied with Paige , Banks would ally with Tamina and Naomi , leading to a brawl between the three teams .
= = = = Raw commissioner ( 2016 – present ) = = = =
On the July 11 episode of Raw , Mr. McMahon announced Stephanie as the commissioner of Raw , while Shane was named commissioner of SmackDown in order for them to compete against each other in the upcoming re @-@ established brand extension . The following week on Raw , Stephanie appointed Mick Foley as the Raw General Manager . The next week on Raw , Stephanie and Mick Foley announced the WWE Universal Championship would be the main championship on Raw .
= = Personal life = =
McMahon began dating Paul Levesque , better known as Triple H , in 2000 during their scripted romance . They were engaged on Valentine 's Day in 2003 and were married on October 25 , 2003 . In a radio interview with Opie and Anthony in 2004 , Levesque claimed he began dating McMahon after being apart from his previous girlfriend , Joanie " Chyna " Laurer , for some time , despite Laurer 's claims his relationship with McMahon began while they were still together . After their marriage , Stephanie took her husband 's surname and legally changed her middle name to ' McMahon ' .
She and Levesque have three daughters . On January 8 , 2006 , WWE announced McMahon and Levesque were expecting their first child , due on July 27 , 2006 . McMahon continued to work and travel with WWE throughout her pregnancy , giving birth to Aurora Rose Levesque on July 24 , 2006 . The couple had their second child , a daughter named Murphy Claire Levesque , on July 28 , 2008 , and their third daughter , Vaughn Evelyn Levesque , on August 24 , 2010 .
= = Other media = =
McMahon has appeared on The Howard Stern Show , Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , and Opie and Anthony . In May 2000 , Stephanie appeared at the WBCN River Rave on @-@ stage with friend , Cali , to introduce Godsmack and sign autographs in the festival area . In November 2001 , McMahon appeared on a special episode of NBC 's The Weakest Link where WWF personalities competed against each other for their respective charities . She made it to the final two but lost to Triple H. On August 14 , 2005 , McMahon along with Stacy Keibler , appeared on the season five finale of MTV 's Punk 'd , where she assisted with the prank played on Triple H.
On March 28 , 2009 , McMahon appeared alongside her mother on Business News Network 's The Market Morning Show . McMahon as well has made several appearances on various ESPN shows . On November 11 , 2009 , McMahon appeared on an episode of Food Network 's Dinner : Impossible alongside wrestler Big Show . In October 2013 , Stephanie became the honorary chairperson for the special Olympics of Connecticut .
Stephanie has also appeared in WWE video games WWF Wrestlemania 2000 , WWF SmackDown ! , WWF No Mercy , WWF SmackDown ! 2 : Know Your Role , WWF SmackDown ! Just Bring It , WWE RAW 2 , WWE Wrestlemania X8 , WWE SmackDown ! Shut Your Mouth , WWE Crush Hour , WWE Wrestlemania XIX , WWE SmackDown ! Here Comes The Pain , WWE ' 13 , WWE 2K14 , WWE 2K16 , and WWE 2K17. and was periodically featured during the first season of the E ! television series Total Divas . On December 2 , 2014 , WWE released the WWE Fit Series , starring McMahon as a trainer in a fitness video designed for women . Triple H starred in a similar video for men titled WWE Power Series .
McMahon , appeared in a voice over role as herself in the new direct @-@ to @-@ video animated film Scooby @-@ Doo ! and WWE : Curse of the Speed Demon .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Pedigree ( Double underhook facebuster ) – adopted from her husband
Signature moves
Clothesline
DDT
Hair @-@ pull snapmare
Lou Thesz press
Monkey flip
Neck snap
Powerbomb
Slap
Spear
Surfboard
Wrestlers managed
Triple H
Linda McMahon
Kurt Angle
Chris Jericho
Mr. America / Hulk Hogan / Hollywood Hulk Hogan
Zach Gowen
Ric Flair
Edge and Christian
Seth Rollins
Mr. McMahon
Shane McMahon
Nicknames
" The Billionaire Princess / Baroness "
" The Queen of Queens "
" The Billion Dollar Princess "
" Daddy 's Little Girl "
Entrance themes
" Break It Down " by The DX Band ( 2000 )
" My Time " by The DX Band ( 1999 – 2002 )
" Bodies " by Drowning Pool ( 2001 )
" No Chance in Hell " performed by Peter Bursuker and composed by Jim Johnston ( 1999 ; 2013 ; 2014 )
" The Game " by Motörhead ( January 8 , 2001 – 2013 )
" King of Kings " by Motörhead ( August 18 , 2013 – November 24 , 2014 ; December 29 , 2014 – May 2 , 2016 ; used while part of The Authority )
" All Grown Up " by Jacki @-@ O ( 2002 – 2013 )
" Welcome to the Queendom " by Jacki @-@ O ( 2013 – present )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Feud of the Year ( 2002 ) vs Eric Bischoff
Feud of the Year ( 2013 ) vs. Daniel Bryan As a member of The Authority
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year ( 2013 ) As a member of The Authority
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year ( 2014 ) With Triple H
Woman of the Year ( 2000 )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Worst Non @-@ Wrestling Personality ( 2001 – 2003 )
Worst on Interviews ( 2001 – 2003 )
WWE / World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment
WWF Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Slammy Awards ( 2 times )
Insult of the Year ( 2013 ) – for insulting Big Show
Rivalry of the Year ( 2014 ) – The Authority vs. Daniel Bryan
Vincent J. McMahon Legacy of Excellence Award ( 2016 )
= = = Other honors = = =
Four @-@ time Most Powerful Women in Cable honoree by Cable magazine – 2009 , 2011 , 2012 , and 2013
2010 : Fairfield County Business Journal 40 Under 40 Award
2013 : Multichannel News Woman to Watch
2013 : Honorary Chairperson of the Special Olympics of Connecticut .
2014 : Broadcasting and Cable and Multichannel News " Women in the Game "
2014 : Eisenhower USA fellow
2016 : Digital Entertainment Executives to watch
2016 : Multichannel News TV Wonder Woman
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= Taunton by @-@ election , 1887 =
The Taunton by @-@ election of 1887 was held on 23 April 1887 in Taunton , Somerset , following the succession of the incumbent , Samuel Charles Allsopp , to the peerage upon the death of his father , becoming 2nd Baron Hindlip . One of Lord Hindlip 's brothers , Alfred Percy Allsopp , stood for the Conservative Party , while James Harris Sanders was the candidate for the Liberal Party . Allsopp was elected , with a majority of 536 votes ( 23 @.@ 1 % ) .
Although they had considered not contesting the election because the area was a Conservative stronghold , the Liberals decided to do so in order to generate a discussion on the issue of Home Rule for Ireland . Allsopp was in agreement with the Conservative policy , which was to maintain full governmental control over Ireland , and pass further Coercion Acts to reduce lawlessness in that country . Sanders , who had lost two previous elections for the Liberal Party , was in favour of devolution of powers to Ireland .
= = Background = =
= = = Vacancy and nominations = = =
At the 1886 general election , Samuel Allsopp held his seat in parliament unopposed for the Conservative Party . In April 1887 , his father , Henry Allsopp , 1st Baron Hindlip , died . As a result of this , Samuel Allsopp succeeded , entering the House of Lords as a peer . This left the parliamentary consistency of Taunton vacant . The Conservative Party offered Samuel Allsopp 's brother , Alfred Percy Allsopp ( commonly known as Percy Allsopp ) the chance to contest the vacancy . Initially it was reported that the Liberal Party would not contest the seat if Percy Allsopp was the only Conservative candidate , but a meeting of the local executive could not reach a consensus : some believed that as the area was so strongly Conservative , a large loss would be damaging to the party , while others wanted to generate a debate on Home Rule . Despite the Taunton executive of the Conservative Party selecting Percy Allsopp as their preferred candidate , the town 's Mayor , Samuel Farrant , declared that he would also stand for the Conservatives , which led to concern within that party that a split of the votes could result in a Liberal candidate being elected . Farrant later withdrew his candidacy , leaving Allsopp as the Conservative 's sole representative . After their initial uncertainty , the Liberals opted to give the Taunton electorate the opportunity to show their views on Home Rule , and chose James Harris Sanders , of London , as their candidate .
= = = Candidates = = =
Alfred Percy Allsopp was the seventh , and youngest , son of Henry Allsopp , 1st Baron Hindlip , and at the time of the election , was resident in Lichfield , Staffordshire . He often accompanied his brother during his time in office in Taunton , and had occasionally represented him in the town . The Taunton Courier noted that at one dinner , he " made a great impression by the perspicacity of his utterances , by the breadth of view they indicated , and by his fluency of speech . " He was a partner in Samuel Allsopp & Sons , which along with Guinness and Bass was one of the largest brewers in the world .
James Harris Sanders , commonly Harris Sanders , was born in Tavistock , Devon , the second son of Richard Sanders . Sanders had previously stood in the 1886 general election in Harborough , South Leicestershire , and in the King 's Lynn by @-@ election in the same year , losing both . The Western Times described him as " an unexceptionable candidate " , while the Taunton Courier elaborated on his past election performances , and commented that he was " becoming accustomed to acting as a political ninepin " .
= = = Home Rule = = =
Home Rule was the key issue in British politics in the late 1880s . The debate revolved around granting Ireland more powers to govern themselves . William Ewart Gladstone , the Liberal Prime Minister , proposed the First Home Rule Bill in April 1886 , aiming to devolve power to Ireland . The Conservatives were opposed to the Bill , and were joined by a number of Liberal members in defeating the Bill . This caused a split in the Liberal party , the creation of the Liberal Unionist Party , and a fresh general election , just a year after the last . At the 1886 general election , the Conservatives entered government with Lord Salibsury as Prime Minister . They formed a majority with the Liberal Unionists .
= = Election campaign = =
At the Conservative Assembly meeting at which Allsopp was formally nominated as the party 's candidate , one of his nominators , Mr J. Standfast , decried the situation in Ireland . He called upon the people of Taunton to show that they " disapproved of the murders , and robberies , and outrages which were so common in Ireland , and were not prepared to hand over to the instigators of those crimes the government of that island . " Allsopp did not initially campaign heavily , while he grieved for his father , but he did leave an advert in the Taunton Courier stating his support for the Conservative government 's position on the administration of Ireland . He noted that his views mirrored those of his brother , the previous MP . During his campaigning , Allsopp drew parallels between the 1881 Coercion Bill , which Gladstone had introduced , with the proposed Crimes Bill , which Gladstone and Sanders both opposed . He accused them of hypocrisy , and claimed that those in support of Home Rule did not understand what it meant . He spoke of his hope for the Crimes Bill to be passed , and his belief that it would end the " misery and distress " in Ireland .
At Sanders ' nomination , the Liberal candidate spoke of his " entire concurrence " with Gladstone 's proposals . At a meeting shortly thereafter , Sanders seconded a resolution raised by a fellow Liberal member protesting " against the attempt to impose coercion upon Ireland for ever . " Sanders then highlighted the Corrupt Practices Act , and appealed to the party members to not only avoid engaging in any corruption , but to remain honourable at all times . He spoke at length about the virtues of Liberalism , and what he described as the sad history of Ireland under English rule . The following Monday , which was Easter Monday , Sanders travelled to London to take part in demonstrations against the Perpetual Crimes Bill . As the election drew close , Sanders issued a statement that he had deposited £ 1 @,@ 500 in a local bank , of which £ 500 would be split as rewards if people presented evidence of bribery and corruption in the election that led to a conviction . The other £ 1 @,@ 000 was set aside for a possible petition against the election result .
The two sides both adopted mottoes during the election : the Conservatives called for people to " Vote for Allsopp and liberty " , while the Liberals used " No Coercion , vote for Sanders . " Cartoons were distributed by the Liberals , illustrating the recent evictions in Ireland . In reaction , the Conservatives posted pictures of " brutal outrages " that had been recently committed in that country .
= = Result = =
The vote was held on Saturday 23 April 1887 , with the booths open for twelve hours from eight in the morning . There were seven polling stations across Taunton , which was busy as it was market day . The Taunton Courier reported that party colours of both sides were on display , but that there was more " Conservative blue " than the tri @-@ colour and Union Jack of the Liberals . Campaigning continued throughout the day , but was conducted in a civil manner . Two hours into the voting it was announced that a third of the constituency had voted , and the Conservatives declared that they were leading by a ratio of two to one . Bad weather in the middle of the day caused a lull in the voting , but the polls were very busy throughout the afternoon when the weather cleared , as most of the town only worked half of the day . Based upon their polling on the day , the Conservatives continued to claim victory during the afternoon . The votes were counted in the Municipal Office , and the results were announced at quarter @-@ past nine in the evening . Allsopp received 1 @,@ 426 votes to Sanders ' 890 , granting him a 536 majority . Both Allsopp and Sanders spoke briefly to praise the Returning Officer , and Allsopp was then called upon to give a speech . During that speech , Allsopp thanked the people of Taunton , and gently mocked Sanders for the money he had banked in case of corruption .
= = Aftermath = =
Despite initial suggestions that a petition would be lodged against the result by Sanders , including an strong assertion in the Pall Mall Gazette , such a petition was eventually abandoned . Allsopp entered parliament , becoming the 18th new Member of Parliament to be elected since the general election in 1886 . Allsopp served as the Member for Taunton until the 1895 general election .
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= Edward VIII =
Edward VIII ( Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David ; 23 June 1894 – 28 May 1972 ) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Empire , and Emperor of India , from 20 January 1936 until his abdication on 11 December the same year .
Edward was the eldest son of King George V and Queen Mary . He was created Prince of Wales on his sixteenth birthday , nine weeks after his father succeeded as king . As a young man , he served in the British Army during the First World War and undertook several overseas tours on behalf of his father .
Edward became king on his father 's death in early 1936 . He showed impatience with court protocol , and caused concern among politicians by his apparent disregard for established constitutional conventions . Only months into his reign , he caused a constitutional crisis by proposing marriage to Wallis Simpson , an American who had divorced her first husband and was seeking a divorce from her second . The prime ministers of the United Kingdom and the Dominions opposed the marriage , arguing that the people would never accept a divorced woman with two living ex @-@ husbands as queen consort . Additionally , such a marriage would have conflicted with Edward 's status as the titular head of the Church of England , which at the time opposed the remarriage of divorced people if their former spouses were still alive . Edward knew that the British government , led by Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin , would resign if the marriage went ahead , which could have forced a general election and would ruin his status as a politically neutral constitutional monarch . Choosing not to end the relationship , Edward abdicated . He was succeeded by his younger brother Albert , who chose George VI as his regnal name . With a reign of 326 days , Edward was one of the shortest @-@ reigning monarchs in British history .
After his abdication , he was created Duke of Windsor . He married Simpson in France on 3 June 1937 , after her second divorce became final . Later that year , the couple toured Germany . During the Second World War , he was at first stationed with the British Military Mission to France but , after private accusations that he held Nazi sympathies , he was appointed Governor of the Bahamas . After the war , Edward spent the rest of his life in retirement in France .
= = Early life = =
Edward was born on 23 June 1894 at White Lodge , Richmond Park , on the outskirts of London during the reign of his great @-@ grandmother Queen Victoria . He was the eldest son of the Duke and Duchess of York ( later King George V and Queen Mary ) . His father was the son of the Prince and Princess of Wales ( later King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra ) . His mother was the eldest daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck ( Francis and Mary Adelaide ) . At the time of his birth , he was third in the line of succession to the throne , behind his grandfather and father . As a great @-@ grandson of the monarch in the male line , Edward was styled His Highness Prince Edward of York at birth .
He was baptised Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David in the Green Drawing Room of White Lodge on 16 July 1894 by Edward White Benson , Archbishop of Canterbury . The names were chosen in honour of Edward 's late uncle , who was known to his family as " Eddy " or Edward , and his great @-@ grandfather King Christian IX of Denmark . The name Albert was included at the behest of Queen Victoria for her late husband Albert , Prince Consort , and the last four names – George , Andrew , Patrick and David – came from the Patron Saints of England , Scotland , Ireland and Wales . He was always known to his family and close friends by his last given name , David .
As was common practice with upper @-@ class children of the time , Edward and his younger siblings were brought up by nannies rather than directly by their parents . One of Edward 's early nannies often abused him by pinching him before he was due to be presented to his parents . His subsequent crying and wailing would lead the Duke and Duchess to send him and the nanny away . The nanny was discharged after her mistreatment of the children was discovered .
Edward 's father , though a harsh disciplinarian , was demonstrably affectionate , and his mother displayed a frolicsome side with her children that belied her austere public image . She was amused by the children making tadpoles on toast for their French master , and encouraged them to confide in her .
= = Education = =
Initially Edward was tutored at home by Helen Bricka . When his parents travelled the British Empire for almost nine months following the death of Queen Victoria in 1901 , young Edward and his siblings stayed in Britain with their grandparents , Queen Alexandra and King Edward VII , who showered their grandchildren with affection . Upon his parents ' return , Edward was placed under the care of two men , Frederick Finch and Henry Hansell , who virtually brought up Edward and his brothers and sister for their remaining nursery years .
Edward was kept under the strict tutorship of Hansell until nearly 13 . He was taught German and French by private tutors . Edward took the examination to enter Osborne Naval College , and began there in 1907 . Hansell had wanted Edward to enter school earlier , but his father disagreed . Following two years at Osborne College , which he did not enjoy , Edward moved on to the Royal Naval College at Dartmouth . A course of two years followed by entry into the Royal Navy was planned . When his father ascended the throne on 6 May 1910 , following the death of Edward VII , Edward automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay , and he was created Prince of Wales a month later on 23 June 1910 , his 16th birthday . Preparations began in earnest for his future duties as king . He was withdrawn from his naval course before his formal graduation , served as midshipman for three months aboard the battleship Hindustan , then immediately entered Magdalen College , Oxford , for which , in the opinion of his biographers , he was underprepared intellectually . A keen horseman , he learned how to play polo with the university club . He left Oxford after eight terms without any academic qualifications .
= = Prince of Wales = =
Edward was officially invested as Prince of Wales in a special ceremony at Caernarvon Castle on 13 July 1911 . The investiture took place in Wales , at the instigation of the Welsh politician David Lloyd George , Constable of the Castle and Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Liberal government . Lloyd George invented a rather fanciful ceremony in the style of a Welsh pageant , and coached Edward to speak a few words in Welsh .
When the First World War broke out in 1914 , Edward had reached the minimum age for active service and was keen to participate . He had joined the Grenadier Guards in June 1914 , and although Edward was willing to serve on the front lines , Secretary of State for War Lord Kitchener refused to allow it , citing the immense harm that would occur if the heir to the throne were captured by the enemy .
Despite this , Edward witnessed trench warfare first @-@ hand and attempted to visit the front line as often as he could , for which he was awarded the Military Cross in 1916 . His role in the war , although limited , made him popular among veterans of the conflict . Edward undertook his first military flight in 1918 , and later gained a pilot 's licence .
Throughout the 1920s , Edward , as Prince of Wales , represented his father , King George V , at home and abroad on many occasions . His rank , travels , good looks , and unmarried status gained him much public attention , and at the height of his popularity , he was the most photographed celebrity of his time . He took a particular interest in science and in 1926 was president of the British Association for the Advancement of Science when his alma mater , Oxford University , hosted the society 's annual general meeting .
He also visited the poverty @-@ stricken areas of the country , and undertook 16 tours to various parts of the Empire between 1919 and 1935 . On a tour of Canada in 1919 , he acquired the Bedingfield ranch , near Pekisko , Alberta , and in 1924 , he donated the Prince of Wales Trophy to the National Hockey League . From January to April 1931 , he and his brother , Prince George , travelled 18 @,@ 000 miles on a tour of South America , voyaging out on the ocean liner Oropesa , and returning via Paris and an Imperial Airways flight from Paris – Le Bourget Airport that landed specially in Windsor Great Park .
His attitudes towards many of the Empire 's subjects and various foreign peoples , both during his time as Prince of Wales and later as Duke of Windsor , were little commented upon at the time , but have soured his reputation subsequently . In 1920 , he wrote of Indigenous Australians " they are the most revolting form of living creatures I 've ever seen ! ! They are the lowest known form of human beings & are the nearest thing to monkeys . "
In 1919 the Prince agreed to be President of the organising committee for the proposed British Empire Exhibition at Wembley Park , north @-@ west London . The Prince wished the Exhibition to include " a great national sports ground " , and so played a part in the creation of Wembley Stadium .
= = Romances = =
In 1917 , during the First World War , Edward began a love affair with Parisian courtesan Marguerite Alibert , who kept a collection of his indiscreet letters after he broke off the affair in 1918 to begin one with an English married woman , Freda Dudley Ward , a textile heiress . In 1923 , Alibert was acquitted in a spectacular murder trial after she shot her husband in the London Savoy .
Edward 's womanising and reckless behaviour during the 1920s and 1930s worried Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin , King George V , and those close to the prince . Alan Lascelles , Edward 's private secretary for eight years during this period , believed that " for some hereditary or physiological reason his normal mental development stopped dead when he reached adolescence " . George V was disappointed by Edward 's failure to settle down in life , disgusted by his affairs with married women , and was reluctant to see him inherit the Crown . " After I am dead , " George said , " the boy will ruin himself in 12 months . "
In 1929 , Time magazine reported that Edward teased his sister @-@ in @-@ law , Elizabeth , the wife of his younger brother Albert , by calling her " Queen Elizabeth " . The magazine asked if " she did not sometimes wonder how much truth there is in the story that he once said he would renounce his rights upon the death of George V – which would make her nickname come true " . Edward 's brother and sister @-@ in @-@ law had two children , including Princess Elizabeth , the future Queen Elizabeth II . George V favoured his son Albert ( " Bertie " ) , and granddaughter Elizabeth ( " Lilibet " ) , and told a courtier , " I pray to God that my eldest son [ Edward ] will never marry and have children , and that nothing will come between Bertie and Lilibet and the throne . "
In 1930 , George V gave Edward the lease of Fort Belvedere , in Windsor Great Park . There , Edward continued his relationships with a series of married women , including Freda Dudley Ward and Lady Furness , the American wife of a British peer , who introduced the prince to her friend and fellow American Wallis Simpson . Simpson had divorced her first husband , U.S. naval officer Win Spencer , in 1927 . Her second husband , Ernest Simpson , was a British @-@ American businessman . Wallis Simpson and the Prince of Wales , it is generally accepted , became lovers while Lady Furness travelled abroad , though Edward adamantly insisted to his father that he was not intimate with her , and that it was not appropriate to describe her as his mistress . Edward 's relationship with Simpson , however , further weakened his poor relationship with his father . Although King George V and Queen Mary met Simpson at Buckingham Palace in 1935 , they later refused to receive her .
Edward 's affair with an American divorcee led to such grave concern that the couple were followed by members of the Metropolitan Police Special Branch , who examined in secret the nature of their relationship . An undated report detailed a visit by the couple to an antique shop , where the proprietor later noted " that the lady seemed to have POW [ Prince of Wales ] completely under her thumb . " The prospect of having an American divorcee with a questionable past having such sway over the heir apparent led to anxiety among government and establishment figures .
= = Reign = =
King George V died on 20 January 1936 , and Edward ascended the throne as King Edward VIII . The next day , he broke royal protocol by watching the proclamation of his own accession from a window of St James 's Palace in the company of the then still @-@ married Simpson . He became the first monarch of the British Empire to fly in an aircraft when he flew from Sandringham to London for his Accession Council .
Edward caused unease in government circles with actions that were interpreted as interference in political matters . His comment during a tour of depressed villages in South Wales that " something must be done " for the unemployed coal miners was seen as an attempt to guide government policy , though it has never been clear what sort of remedy he had in mind . Government ministers were reluctant to send confidential documents and state papers to Fort Belvedere , because it was clear that Edward was paying little attention to them , and it was feared that Simpson and other house guests might read them , improperly or inadvertently disclosing information that could be detrimental to the national interest .
Edward 's unorthodox approach to his role also extended to the currency which bore his image . He broke with the tradition that on coinage each successive monarch faced in the opposite direction to his or her predecessor . Edward insisted that he face left ( as his father had done ) , to show the parting in his hair . Only a handful of test coins were struck before the abdication , and when George VI succeeded to the throne he also faced left , to maintain the tradition by suggesting that , had any coins been minted featuring Edward 's portrait , they would have shown him facing right .
On 16 July 1936 , an Irish fraudster called Jerome Bannigan , alias George Andrew McMahon , produced a loaded revolver as Edward rode on horseback at Constitution Hill , near Buckingham Palace . Police spotted the gun and pounced on him ; he was quickly arrested . At Bannigan 's trial , he alleged that " a foreign power " had approached him to kill Edward , that he had informed MI5 of the plan , and that he was merely seeing the plan through to help MI5 catch the real culprits . The court rejected the claims and sent him to jail for a year for " intent to alarm " . It is now thought that Bannigan had indeed been in contact with MI5 , but the veracity of the remainder of his claims remains open .
In August and September , Edward and Simpson cruised the Eastern Mediterranean on the steam yacht Nahlin . By October it was becoming clear that the new king planned to marry Simpson , especially when divorce proceedings between the Simpsons were brought at Ipswich Assizes . Preparations for all contingencies were made , including the prospect of the coronation of King Edward and Queen Wallis . Because of the religious implications of any marriage , plans were made to hold a secular coronation ceremony , not in the traditional religious location of Westminster Abbey , but in the Banqueting House in Whitehall .
Although gossip about his affair was widespread in the United States , the British media kept voluntarily silent , and the public knew nothing until early December .
= = Abdication = =
On 16 November 1936 , Edward invited British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin to Buckingham Palace and expressed his desire to marry Wallis Simpson when she became free to remarry . Baldwin informed him that his subjects would deem the marriage morally unacceptable , largely because remarriage after divorce was opposed by the Church of England , and the people would not tolerate Simpson as queen . As king , Edward was the titular head of the Church of England , and the clergy expected him to support the Church 's teachings .
Edward proposed an alternative solution of a morganatic marriage , in which he would remain king but Simpson would not become queen . She would enjoy some lesser title instead , and any children they might have would not inherit the throne . This too was rejected by the British Cabinet as well as other Dominion governments , whose views were sought pursuant to the Statute of Westminster 1931 , which provided in part that " any alteration in the law touching the Succession to the Throne or the Royal Style and Titles shall hereafter require the assent as well of the Parliaments of all the Dominions as of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . " The Prime Ministers of Australia ( Joseph Lyons ) , Canada ( Mackenzie King ) and South Africa ( J. B. M. Hertzog ) made clear their opposition to the king marrying a divorcee ; their Irish counterpart ( Éamon de Valera ) expressed indifference and detachment , while the Prime Minister of New Zealand ( Michael Joseph Savage ) , having never heard of Simpson before , vacillated in disbelief . Faced with this opposition , Edward at first responded that there were " not many people in Australia " and their opinion did not matter .
Edward informed Baldwin that he would abdicate if he could not marry Simpson . Baldwin then presented Edward with three choices : give up the idea of marriage ; marry against his ministers ' wishes ; or abdicate . It was clear that Edward was not prepared to give up Simpson , and he knew that if he married against the advice of his ministers , he would cause the government to resign , prompting a constitutional crisis . He chose to abdicate .
Edward duly signed the instruments of abdication at Fort Belvedere on 10 December 1936 in the presence of his younger brothers : Prince Albert , Duke of York , next in line for the throne ; Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester ; and Prince George , Duke of Kent . The next day , the last act of his reign was the royal assent to His Majesty 's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 . As required by the Statute of Westminster , all the Dominions consented to the abdication .
On the night of 11 December 1936 , Edward , now reverted to the title and style of a prince , explained his decision to abdicate in a worldwide radio broadcast . He famously said , " I have found it impossible to carry the heavy burden of responsibility and to discharge my duties as king as I would wish to do without the help and support of the woman I love . " Edward departed Britain for Austria the following day ; he was unable to join Simpson until her divorce became absolute , several months later . His brother , Prince Albert , Duke of York , succeeded to the throne as George VI . George VI 's elder daughter , Princess Elizabeth , became first in the line of succession , as heiress presumptive .
= = Duke of Windsor = =
On 12 December 1936 , at the accession meeting of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom , George VI announced he was to make his brother " His Royal Highness The Duke of Windsor " . He wanted this to be the first act of his reign , although the formal documents were not signed until 8 March the following year . During the interim , Edward was universally known as the Duke of Windsor . George VI 's decision to create Edward a royal duke ensured that he could neither stand for election to the House of Commons nor speak on political subjects in the House of Lords .
Letters Patent dated 27 May 1937 re @-@ conferred the " title , style , or attribute of Royal Highness " upon the Duke of Windsor , but specifically stated that " his wife and descendants , if any , shall not hold said title or attribute " . Some British ministers advised that the reconfirmation was unnecessary since Edward had retained the style automatically , and further that Simpson would automatically obtain the rank of wife of a prince with the style Her Royal Highness ; others maintained that he had lost all royal rank and should no longer carry any royal title or style as an abdicated king , and be referred to simply as " Mr Edward Windsor " . On 14 April 1937 , Attorney General Sir Donald Somervell submitted to Home Secretary Sir John Simon a memorandum summarising the views of Lord Advocate T. M. Cooper , Parliamentary Counsel Sir Granville Ram , and himself :
We incline to the view that on his abdication the Duke of Windsor could not have claimed the right to be described as a Royal Highness . In other words , no reasonable objection could have been taken if the King had decided that his exclusion from the lineal succession excluded him from the right to this title as conferred by the existing Letters Patent .
The question however has to be considered on the basis of the fact that , for reasons which are readily understandable , he with the express approval of His Majesty enjoys this title and has been referred to as a Royal Highness on a formal occasion and in formal documents . In the light of precedent it seems clear that the wife of a Royal Highness enjoys the same title unless some appropriate express step can be and is taken to deprive her of it .
We came to the conclusion that the wife could not claim this right on any legal basis . The right to use this style or title , in our view , is within the prerogative of His Majesty and he has the power to regulate it by Letters Patent generally or in particular circumstances .
The Duke of Windsor married Simpson , who had changed her name by deed poll to Wallis Warfield , in a private ceremony on 3 June 1937 , at Château de Candé , near Tours , France . When the Church of England refused to sanction the union , a County Durham clergyman , the Reverend Robert Anderson Jardine ( Vicar of St Paul 's , Darlington ) , offered to perform the ceremony , and the Duke accepted . The new king , George VI , forbade members of the Royal Family to attend to the lasting resentment of the Duke and Duchess of Windsor . Edward had particularly wanted his brothers the Dukes of Gloucester and Kent and his second cousin Louis Mountbatten to attend the ceremony .
The denial of the style Her Royal Highness to the Duchess of Windsor caused further conflict , as did the financial settlement – the Government declined to include the Duke or Duchess on the Civil List , and the Duke 's allowance was paid personally by George VI . The Duke compromised his position with his brother by concealing the extent of his financial worth when they informally agreed on the amount of the allowance . Edward 's wealth had accumulated from the revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall paid to him as Prince of Wales and ordinarily at the disposal of an incoming king . George VI also paid Edward for Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle , which were Edward 's personal property , inherited from his father , George V , and thus did not automatically pass to George VI on his accession . Relations between the Duke of Windsor and the rest of the Royal Family were strained for decades . Edward became embittered against his mother , Queen Mary , writing to her in 1939 : " [ your last letter ] destroy [ ed ] the last vestige of feeling I had left for you ... [ and has ] made further normal correspondence between us impossible . " In the early days of George VI 's reign the Duke telephoned daily , importuning for money and urging that the Duchess be granted the style of Royal Highness , until the harassed king ordered that the calls not be put through .
The Duke had assumed that he would settle in Britain after a year or two of exile in France . King George VI ( with the support of Queen Mary and his wife Queen Elizabeth ) threatened to cut off Edward 's allowance if he returned to Britain without an invitation .
= = Second World War = =
In October 1937 , the Duke and Duchess visited Germany , against the advice of the British government , and met Adolf Hitler at his Obersalzberg retreat . The visit was much publicised by the German media . During the visit the Duke gave full Nazi salutes . The former Austrian ambassador , Count Albert von Mensdorff @-@ Pouilly @-@ Dietrichstein , who was also a second cousin once removed and friend of George V , believed that Edward favoured German fascism as a bulwark against communism , and even that he initially favoured an alliance with Germany . According to the Duke of Windsor himself , the experience of " the unending scenes of horror " during the First World War led him to support appeasement . Hitler considered Edward to be friendly towards Nazi Germany and thought that Anglo @-@ German relations could have been improved through Edward if it were not for the abdication . Albert Speer quoted Hitler directly : " I am certain through him permanent friendly relations could have been achieved . If he had stayed , everything would have been different . His abdication was a severe loss for us . "
The Duke and Duchess settled in France . In May 1939 , the Duke was commissioned by NBC to give a radio broadcast ( his first since abdicating ) during a visit to the battlefields of Verdun . In it he appealed for peace , saying " I am deeply conscious of the presence of the great company of the dead , and I am convinced that could they make their voices heard they would be with me in what I am about to say . I speak simply as a soldier of the Last War whose most earnest prayer it is that such cruel and destructive madness shall never again overtake mankind . There is no land whose people want war . " The broadcast was heard across the world and by millions in America . It was widely seen as supporting appeasement , and the BBC refused to broadcast it . It was broadcast outside the United States on shortwave radio and was reported in full by British broadsheet newspapers .
On the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 , they were brought back to Britain by Louis Mountbatten on board HMS Kelly , and the Duke , although an honorary field marshal , was made a major @-@ general attached to the British Military Mission in France . In February 1940 , the German ambassador in The Hague , Count Julius von Zech @-@ Burkersroda , claimed that the Duke had leaked the Allied war plans for the defence of Belgium , which the Duke later denied . When Germany invaded the north of France in May 1940 , the Windsors fled south , first to Biarritz , then in June to Spain . In July the pair moved to Lisbon , where they lived at first in the home of Ricardo de Espírito Santo , a Portuguese banker with both British and German contacts .
Under the code name Operation Willi , Nazi agents , principally Walter Schellenberg , plotted unsuccessfully to persuade the Duke to leave Portugal and return to Spain , kidnapping him if necessary . Lord Caldecote wrote a warning to Winston Churchill : " [ the Duke ] is well @-@ known to be pro @-@ Nazi and he may become a centre of intrigue . " Churchill threatened the Duke with a court @-@ martial if he did not return to British soil . In July 1940 , Edward was appointed Governor of the Bahamas and on 1 August the Duke and Duchess left Lisbon on the American Export Lines steamship Excalibur , which was specially diverted from its usual direct course to New York City so that they could be dropped off at Bermuda on the 9th . They left Bermuda for Nassau on the Canadian steamship Lady Somers on 15 August , arriving two days later .
The Duke did not enjoy being governor , and referred to the islands as " a third @-@ class British colony " . The British Foreign Office strenuously objected when the Duke and Duchess planned to cruise aboard a yacht belonging to a Swedish magnate , Axel Wenner @-@ Gren , whom American intelligence wrongly believed to be a close friend of Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring . The Duke was praised for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands , although he was as contemptuous of the Bahamians as he was of most non @-@ white peoples of the Empire . He said of Étienne Dupuch , the editor of the Nassau Daily Tribune : " It must be remembered that Dupuch is more than half Negro , and due to the peculiar mentality of this Race , they seem unable to rise to prominence without losing their equilibrium . " He was praised , even by Dupuch , for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in 1942 , even though he blamed the trouble on " mischief makers – communists " and " men of Central European Jewish descent , who had secured jobs as a pretext for obtaining a deferment of draft " . He resigned the post on 16 March 1945 .
Many historians have suggested that Hitler was prepared to reinstate Edward as king in the hope of establishing a fascist Britain . It is widely believed that the Duke and Duchess sympathised with fascism before and during the Second World War , and were moved to the Bahamas to minimise their opportunities to act on those feelings . In 1940 he said : " In the past 10 years Germany has totally reorganised the order of its society ... Countries which were unwilling to accept such a reorganisation of society and its concomitant sacrifices should direct their policies accordingly . " During the occupation of France , the Duke asked the German forces to place guards at his Paris and Riviera homes ; they did so . In December 1940 , the Duke gave Fulton Oursler of Liberty magazine an interview at Government House in Nassau . The interview was published on 22 March 1941 and in it the Duke was reported to have said that " Hitler was the right and logical leader of the German people " and that the time was coming for President Franklin D. Roosevelt to mediate a peace settlement . Oursler conveyed the content of the interview to the President in a private meeting at the White House on 23 December 1940 . The Duke protested that he had been misquoted and misinterpreted .
The Allies became sufficiently disturbed by German plots revolving around the Duke that President Roosevelt ordered covert surveillance of the Duke and Duchess when they visited Palm Beach , Florida , in April 1941 . Duke Carl Alexander of Württemberg ( then a monk in an American monastery ) had told the Federal Bureau of Investigation that the Duchess had slept with the German ambassador in London , Joachim von Ribbentrop , in 1936 , had remained in constant contact with him , and had continued to leak secrets .
Author Charles Higham claimed that Anthony Blunt , an MI5 agent , acting on orders from the British Royal Family , made a successful secret trip to Schloss Friedrichshof in Germany towards the end of the war to retrieve sensitive letters between the Duke of Windsor and Adolf Hitler and other leading Nazis . What is certain is that George VI sent the Royal Librarian , Owen Morshead , accompanied by Blunt , then working part @-@ time in the Royal Library as well as for British intelligence , to Friedrichshof in March 1945 to secure papers relating to the German Empress Victoria , the eldest child of Queen Victoria . Looters had stolen part of the castle 's archive , including surviving letters between daughter and mother , as well as other valuables , some of which were recovered in Chicago after the war . The papers rescued by Morshead and Blunt , and those returned by the American authorities from Chicago , were deposited in the Royal Archives .
After the war , the Duke admitted in his memoirs that he admired the Germans , but he denied being pro @-@ Nazi . Of Hitler he wrote : " [ the ] Führer struck me as a somewhat ridiculous figure , with his theatrical posturings and his bombastic pretensions . " In the 1950s , journalist Frank Giles heard the Duke blame British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden for helping to " precipitate the war through his treatment of Mussolini ... that 's what [ Eden ] did , he helped to bring on the war ... and of course Roosevelt and the Jews " .
= = Later life = =
At the end of the war , the couple returned to France and spent the remainder of their lives essentially in retirement as the Duke never occupied another official role after his wartime governorship of the Bahamas . The Duke 's allowance was supplemented by government favours and illegal currency trading . The City of Paris provided the Duke with a house at 4 Route du Champ d 'Entraînement , on the Neuilly @-@ sur @-@ Seine side of the Bois de Boulogne , for a nominal rent . The French government exempted him from paying income tax , and the couple were able to buy goods duty @-@ free through the British embassy and the military commissary . In 1951 , the Duke produced a ghost @-@ written memoir , A King 's Story , in which he expresses disagreement with liberal politics . The royalties from the book added to their income . Nine years later , he penned a relatively unknown book , A Family Album , chiefly about the fashion and habits of the Royal Family throughout his life , from the time of Queen Victoria to that of his grandfather and father , and his own tastes .
The Duke and Duchess effectively took on the role of celebrities and were regarded as part of café society in the 1950s and 1960s . They hosted parties and shuttled between Paris and New York ; Gore Vidal , who met the Windsors socially , reported on the vacuity of the Duke 's conversation . The couple doted on the pug dogs they kept .
In June 1953 , instead of attending the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in London , the Duke and Duchess watched the ceremony on television in Paris . The Duke said that it was contrary to precedent for a Sovereign or former Sovereign to attend any coronation of another . The Duke was paid to write articles on the ceremony for the Sunday Express and Woman 's Home Companion , as well as a short book , The Crown and the People , 1902 – 1953 .
In 1955 , they visited President Dwight D. Eisenhower at the White House . The couple appeared on Edward R. Murrow 's television interview show Person to Person in 1956 , and a 50 @-@ minute BBC television interview in 1970 . That year , they were invited as guests of honour to a dinner at the White House by President Richard Nixon .
The Royal Family never fully accepted the Duchess . Queen Mary refused to receive her formally . However , the Duke sometimes met his mother and brother George VI , and attended George 's 1952 funeral . Queen Mary remained angry with Edward and indignant over his marriage to Wallis : " To give up all this for that " , she said . In 1965 , the Duke and Duchess returned to London . They were visited by Elizabeth II , Princess Marina , Duchess of Kent , and Mary , Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood . A week later , the Princess Royal died , and they attended her memorial service . In 1967 , they joined the Royal Family for the centenary of Queen Mary 's birth . The last royal ceremony the Duke attended was the funeral of Princess Marina in 1968 . He declined an invitation from Elizabeth II to attend the investiture of the Prince of Wales in 1969 , replying that Prince Charles would not want his " aged great @-@ uncle " there .
In the 1960s , the Duke 's health deteriorated . In December 1964 , he was operated on by Michael E. DeBakey in Houston for an aneurysm of the abdominal aorta , and in February 1965 a detached retina in his left eye was treated by Sir Stewart Duke @-@ Elder . In late 1971 , the Duke , who was a smoker from an early age , was diagnosed with throat cancer and underwent cobalt therapy . Queen Elizabeth II visited the Windsors in 1972 while on a state visit to France ; however , only the Duchess appeared with the royal party for a photocall .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
On 28 May 1972 , the Duke died at his home in Paris , less than a month before his 78th birthday . His body was returned to Britain , lying in state at St George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle . The funeral service was held in the chapel on 5 June in the presence of the Queen , the Royal Family , and the Duchess of Windsor , who stayed at Buckingham Palace during her visit . He was buried in the Royal Burial Ground behind the Royal Mausoleum of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert at Frogmore . Until a 1965 agreement with Queen Elizabeth II , the Duke and Duchess had planned for a burial in a cemetery plot they had purchased at Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore , where the Duchess 's father was interred . Frail , and suffering increasingly from dementia , the Duchess died 14 years later , and was buried alongside her husband as " Wallis , Duchess of Windsor " .
In the view of historians such as Philip Williamson , the popular perception today that the abdication was driven by politics rather than religious morality is false , and arises because divorce has become much more common and socially acceptable . To modern sensibilities , the religious restrictions that prevented Edward from continuing as king while married to Simpson " seem , wrongly , to provide insufficient explanation " for his abdication .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
23 June 1894 – 28 May 1898 : His Highness Prince Edward of York
28 May 1898 – 22 January 1901 : His Royal Highness Prince Edward of York
22 January – 9 November 1901 : His Royal Highness Prince Edward of Cornwall and York
9 November 1901 – 6 May 1910 : His Royal Highness Prince Edward of Wales
6 May – 23 June 1910 : His Royal Highness The Duke of Cornwall
23 June 1910 – 20 January 1936 : His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales
in Scotland : His Royal Highness The Prince Edward , Duke of Rothesay
20 January – 11 December 1936 : His Majesty The King
occasionally , with regard to India : His Majesty The King @-@ Emperor
11 December 1936 – 8 March 1937 : His Royal Highness The Prince Edward
8 March 1937 – 28 May 1972 : His Royal Highness The Duke of Windsor
Edward began use of the title immediately upon abdication , in accordance with George VI 's declaration to his Accession Council , but several months passed before the title was formalised by Letters Patent .
His full style as king was " His Majesty , Edward the Eighth , by the Grace of God , of Great Britain , Ireland , and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas , King , Defender of the Faith , Emperor of India " .
= = = Honours = = =
British Commonwealth and Empire honours
KG : Knight of the Garter , 1910
ISO : Companion of the Imperial Service Order , 1910
MC : Military Cross , 1916
GCMG : Grand Master and Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George , 1917
GBE : Grand Master and Knight Grand Cross of the British Empire , 1917
KStJ : Knight of Justice of St John , 1917
GCVO : Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order , 1920
PC : Privy Counsellor , ( United Kingdom ) 1920
GCSI : Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India , 1921
GCIE : Knight Grand Commander of the Indian Empire , 1921
RVC : Royal Victorian Chain , 1921
KT : Knight of the Thistle , 1922
KP : Knight of St Patrick , 1927
PC : Privy Counsellor ( Canada ) , 1927
GCB : Knight Grand Cross of the Bath , 1936
FRS : Royal Fellow of the Royal Society
Upon his accession , Edward became sovereign of the various orders of the British Commonwealth and Empire , including those he had been appointed to prior to becoming king . After his abdication , the King , Edward 's brother , reinstated his pre @-@ accession honours .
Foreign honours
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour , 1912
Knight of the Golden Fleece , 1912
Knight of the Order of the Elephant , 1914
Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St Olav , 1914
Knight of the Order of the Most Holy Annunciation , 1915
Croix de Guerre , 1915
Order of St George , 1916
Order of Michael the Brave , 1918
War Merit Cross , 1919
Grand Cordon of Mohamed Ali , 1922
Knight of the Order of the Seraphim , 1923
Collar of the Order of Carol I , 1924
Order of Merit , First Class , 1925
Grand Cross of the Order of the Condor of the Andes , 1931
Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun , 1931
Grand Cross of the United Orders of Christ and Aviz , 1931
Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross , 1933
Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Agatha , 1935
= = = = Military = = = =
Mid . , 22 June 1911 : Midshipman , Royal Navy
Lt , 17 March 1913 : Lieutenant , Royal Navy
Lt , 18 November 1914 : Lieutenant , 1st Battalion , Grenadier Guards , British Army . ( First World War , Flanders and Italy )
Capt. , 10 March 1916 : Captain , British Army
Maj , 1918 : Temporary Major , British Army
Col. , 15 April 1919 : Colonel , British Army
Capt. , 8 July 1919 : Captain , Royal Navy
Gp Capt. , 5 December 1922 : Group Captain , Royal Air Force
Air Mshl , 1 September 1930 : Air Marshal , Royal Air Force
1 January 1935 : Admiral , Royal Navy ; General , British Army ; Air Chief Marshal , Royal Air Force
21 January 1936 : Admiral of the Fleet , Royal Navy ; Field Marshal , British Army ; Marshal of the Royal Air Force
Major @-@ Gen. , 3 September 1939 : Major @-@ General , British Army
= = = = Honorary degrees = = = =
Hon LLD : Edinburgh , Toronto , Alberta and Queen 's University Kingston ( Ontario ) 1919 , Melbourne 1920 , Cambridge and Calcutta 1921 , St Andrews and Hong Kong 1922 , Witwatersrand 1925
Hon DCL : Oxford 1921
DSc and Hon MCom : London 1921
DLitt : Benares 1921
= = = Arms = = =
As Prince of Wales , Edward 's arms were the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom , differenced with a label of three points argent , with an inescutcheon representing Wales surmounted by a coronet ( identical to those of Charles , the current Prince of Wales ) . As Sovereign , he bore the royal arms undifferenced . After his abdication , he used the arms again differenced by a label of three points argent , but this time with the centre point bearing an imperial crown .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Operation Mistral 2 =
Operation Mistral 2 , officially codenamed Operation Maestral 2 , was a Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) and Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) offensive in western Bosnia and Herzegovina on 8 – 15 September 1995 as part of the Bosnian War . Its objective was to create a security buffer between Croatia and positions held by the Bosnian Serb Army of Republika Srpska ( Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS ) and to put the largest Bosnian Serb @-@ held city , Banja Luka , in jeopardy by capturing the towns of Jajce , Šipovo and Drvar . The combined HV and HVO forces were under the overall command of HV Major General Ante Gotovina .
The operation commenced during a North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ( NATO ) air campaign against the VRS codenamed Operation Deliberate Force , targeting VRS air defences , artillery positions and storage facilities largely in the area of Sarajevo , but also elsewhere in the country . Days after commencement of the offensive , the VRS positions to the right and to the left of the HV and the HVO advance were also attacked by the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Armija Republike Bosne i Hercegovine – ARBiH ) in Operation Sana . The offensive achieved its objectives and set the stage for further advances of the HV , HVO and ARBiH towards Banja Luka , contributing to the resolution of the war .
The offensive , together with Operation Sana , caused controversy among military analysts regarding the issue of whether NATO airstrikes or the two ground offensives contributed more towards the resolution of the Bosnian War , and to what extent ARBiH , HVO and HV advances were helped by , or conversely the VRS hampered by , NATO bombing . In 2011 , five former Croatian military personnel were convicted of war crimes for the summary execution of five Bosnian Serb soldiers and an unknown civilian during the offensive .
= = Background = =
As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA ) withdrew from Croatia following the acceptance and start of implementation of the Vance plan , its 55 @,@ 000 officers and soldiers born in Bosnia and Herzegovina were transferred to a new Bosnian Serb army , which was later renamed the Army of Republika Srpska ( Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS ) . This re @-@ organisation followed the declaration of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992 , ahead of the referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina that took place between 29 February and 1 March 1992 . This declaration would later be cited by the Bosnian Serbs as a pretext for the Bosnian War . Bosnian Serbs began fortifying the capital , Sarajevo , and other areas on 1 March 1992 . On the following day , the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj . In the final days of March , Bosnian Serb forces bombarded Bosanski Brod with artillery , resulting in a cross @-@ border operation by the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) 108th Brigade . On 4 April 1992 , JNA artillery began shelling Sarajevo . There were other examples of the JNA directly supported the VRS , such as during the capture of Zvornik in early April 1992 , when the JNA provided artillery support from Serbia , firing across the Drina River . At the same time , the JNA attempted to defuse the situation and arrange negotiations elsewhere in the country .
The JNA and the VRS in Bosnia and Herzegovina faced the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Armija Republike Bosne i Hercegovine – ARBiH ) and the Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) , reporting to the Bosniak @-@ dominated central government and the Bosnian Croat leadership respectively , as well as the HV , which occasionally supported HVO operations . In late April 1992 , the VRS was able to deploy 200 @,@ 000 troops , hundreds of tanks , armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) and artillery pieces . The HVO and the Croatian Defence Forces ( Hrvatske obrambene snage – HOS ) could field approximately 25 @,@ 000 soldiers and a handful of heavy weapons , while the ARBiH was largely unprepared with nearly 100 @,@ 000 troops , small arms for less than a half of their number and virtually no heavy weapons . Arming of the various forces was hampered by a United Nations ( UN ) arms embargo that had been introduced in September 1991 . By mid @-@ May 1992 , when those JNA units which had not been transferred to the VRS withdrew from Bosnia and Herzegovina to the newly declared Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , the VRS controlled approximately 60 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina . The extent of VRS control was extended to about 70 percent of the country by the end of 1992 .
= = Prelude = =
By 1995 , the ARBiH and the HVO had developed into better @-@ organised forces employing comparably large numbers of artillery pieces and good defensive fortifications . The VRS was not capable of penetrating their defences even where its forces employed sound military tactics , for instance in the Battle of Orašje in May and June 1995 . After recapture of the bulk of the Republic of Serb Krajina ( the Croatian Serb @-@ controlled areas of Croatia ) in Operation Storm in August 1995 , the HV shifted its focus to western Bosnia and Herzegovina . The shift was motivated by a desire to create a security zone along the Croatian border , establish Croatia as a regional power and gain favours with the West by forcing an end to the Bosnian War . The government of Bosnia and Herzegovina welcomed the move as it contributed to their goal of gaining control over western Bosnia and the city of Banja Luka — the largest city in the Bosnian Serb @-@ held territory .
In the final days of August 1995 , NATO launched Operation Deliberate Force — an air campaign targeting the VRS . This campaign was launched in response to the second Markale massacre of 28 August , which came on the heels of the Srebrenica massacre . Airstrikes began on 30 August , initially targeting VRS air defences , and striking targets near Sarajevo . The campaign was briefly suspended on 1 September and its scope was expanded to target artillery and storage facilities around the city . The bombing resumed on 5 September , and its scope extended to VRS air defences near Banja Luka by 9 September as NATO had nearly exhausted its list of targets near Sarajevo . On 13 September , the Bosnian Serbs accepted NATO 's demand for the establishment of an exclusion zone around Sarajevo and the campaign ceased .
= = Order of battle = =
As the NATO bombing generally targeted VRS around Sarajevo , western Bosnia remained relatively calm following Operation Storm , except for probing attacks launched by the VRS , HVO or ARBiH near Bihać , Drvar and Glamoč . At the time the HV , HVO and ARBiH were planning a joint offensive in the region . The main portion of the offensive was codenamed Operation Maestral ( Croatian name for maestro wind ) , or more accurately Operation Maestral 2 . Within a month , the HV and HVO had planned an operation to capture the towns of Jajce , Šipovo and Drvar , and position their forces to threaten Banja Luka . Major General Ante Gotovina was placed in command of the combined HV and HVO forces earmarked for the offensive .
The forces were deployed in three groups . Operational Group ( OG ) North , tasked with capturing Šipovo and Jajce , consisted of 11 @,@ 000 troops and included the best units available to Gotovina — the 4th Guards and the 7th Guards Brigades , the 1st Croatian Guards Brigade ( 1 @.@ hrvatski gardijski zdrug – 1st HGZ ) of the HV and three HVO guards brigades . The rest of the force was organised into OG West and OG South , and consisted of five HV Home Guard regiments and three reserve infantry brigades . These two groups were to pin down the troops of the VRS 2nd Krajina Corps in the vicinity of Drvar , and attempt to advance on the town . Once OG North had completed its tasks , it was to turn back and capture Drvar . Gotovina 's forces were deployed between the ARBiH 5th Corps on their left , and the 7th Corps on their right . The ARBiH forces were to advance on the flanks of the HV and the HVO , in a separate but coordinated offensive codenamed Operation Sana .
In the area of the combined HV and HVO offensive , the VRS had its 2nd Krajina Corps , commanded by Major General Radivoje Tomanić , and the 30th Infantry Division of the 1st Krajina Corps , commanded by Major General Momir Zec . Tomanić , who set up his headquarters in Drvar , was in overall command in western Bosnia . Tomanić and Zec commanded a combined force of approximately 22 @,@ 000 troops . They considered the ARBiH to be a greater threat in the area and only deployed between 5 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 troops directly against the HV , consisting of one motorised and six infantry or light infantry brigades fielded along the frontline and one brigade in reserve .
= = Timeline = =
= = = First stage : 8 – 11 September = = =
The first stage of the offensive was planned to overcome VRS defences extending across mountains north of Glamoč , guarding southern approaches to Šipovo and Jajce . The attack was launched in the morning of 8 September . The 7th and the 4th Guards Brigades spearheaded the attack , striking towards the Mlinište Pass and Jastrebnjak Hill respectively . The first line of VRS defences was breached by 10 : 00 , which allowed the 1st HGZ to push through the 4th Guards Brigade and outflank Mount Vitorog and the particularly strong VRS defences there . The 1st HGZ was quickly reinforced by the 60th Guards Battalion and the special police in attacks against the VRS positions on Vitorog . The farthest advance achieved on the initial day of the offensive was achieved by the 4th Guards Brigade , which advanced 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 miles ) . The 7th Guards Brigade and the 1st HGZ advanced considerably less distance , while the supporting efforts of OG South and OG West launched that day against Drvar made little progress .
On 9 September , the HV and HVO defeated the bulk of the main VRS defences of the 3rd Serbian and 7th Motorised Brigades , achieving a key breakthrough . The 1st HGZ pushed back the VRS from Vitorog , and the 7th Guards Brigade advanced 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 miles ) , capturing the Mlinište Pass , while the 4th Guards Brigade secured Jastrebnjak Hill . The next day , the HV and the HVO were only able to advance 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 miles ) , as the VRS deployed a battalion of M @-@ 84 tanks detached from the 1st Armoured Brigade . At this point , the HV and the HVO had achieved the objectives of the first stage of the offensive . That day , the 7th Corps of the ARBiH launched its attack on the right flank of the HV and the HVO assault . It engaged VRS elements tenaciously defending Donji Vakuf .
On 11 September , OG North paused offensive operations while the 4th and 7th Guards Brigades moved into reserve . They were replaced with the 1st and the 2nd Guards Brigades of the HVO , which became the spearhead of OG North . A probing attack by the 2nd Guards Brigade achieved some gains towards Jajce along the rim of the Kupres Plateau . OGs South and West made another effort to capture Drvar , but were beaten back by VRS infantry supported by artillery and M @-@ 87 Orkan rockets .
= = = Second stage : 12 – 13 September = = =
The second stage of the offensive commenced on 12 September . Its objective was the capture of Šipovo and Jajce by OG North after it successfully breached the VRS defences north of Glamoč . As the 7th Motorised Brigade of the VRS was forced to withdrawn from positions near Vitorog in order to defend Šipovo , the rapid advance of the HV and the HVO meant the VRS could not consolidate a defensive line . On the same day , the HV deployed three Mil Mi @-@ 24 helicopter gunship sorties against VRS armour and artillery , and the HVO 1st Guards Brigade was able to reach Šipovo and capture the town . Its advance was also supported by the 1st HGZ , which advanced to outflank the VRS near Šipovo . The assault was also supported by the 60th Guards Battalion , the General Staff Reconnaissance Sabotage Company , heavy artillery and multiple rocket launchers . As the VRS positions around Šipovo began to give way , the 2nd Guards Brigade advanced against Jajce , reaching a point within 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 miles ) south of the town by the end of the day . Its advance was supported by the 22nd Sabotage Detachment and the special police .
On 13 September , as the 2nd Guards Brigade was approaching Jajce , the VRS withdrew from Donji Vakuf to avoid being surrounded , and the ARBiH captured the town . The 5th Corps of the ARBiH , on the left flank of the HV and HVO offensive , began its assault against the VRS 2nd Krajina Corps , moving south from Bihać towards Bosanski Petrovac . The HV 81st Guards Battalion was inserted into the operation to support the HVO exploitation forces , and when it approached Mrkonjić Grad it clashed with the VRS 7th Motorised Brigade defending the town . By the end of the day the 2nd Guards Brigade had reached Jajce . The civilian population of Jajce was evacuated when its capture appeared imminent . The 2nd Guards Brigade entered the deserted town , recapturing the townwhich had been lost to the VRS in Operation Vrbas ' 92 , nearly three years before . Its capture prevented the 7th Corps of the ARBiH from advancing any further as its frontline facing the VRS all but disappeared . The 7th Corps then detached a substantial part of its force and sent them as reinforcements to the 5th Corps .
= = = Third stage : 14 – 15 September = = =
The third stage of the operation centred on the capture of Drvar , the secondary objective of the overall offensive . VRS defences around the town held until 14 September , when Gotovina detached a reinforced battalion from the 7th Guards Brigade held in the reserve of OG North and deployed it against Drvar . A renewed push by OGs West and South , combined with a rapid advance by the ARBiH 5th Corps against Bosanski Petrovac threatened to isolate Drvar , and the VRS withdrew from the town .
The ARBiH 5th Corps captured Kulen Vakuf on 14 September , and Bosanski Petrovac the next day . It linked up with HV forces at the Oštrelj Pass , 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 miles ) southeast of the town on the road to Drvar . The link @-@ up was not smooth , as a friendly fire incident occurred , resulting in casualties .
= = Aftermath = =
The combined HV and HVO force penetrated VRS defences by up to 30 kilometres ( 19 miles ) capturing 2 @,@ 500 square kilometres ( 970 square miles ) , and demonstrating the improved skill of HV planners . More significantly , Operation Mistral 2 , as well as Operation Sana , as the first in a string of offensives launched shortly before the end of the Bosnian War , were crucial in applying pressure on the Bosnian Serbs . They also set the stage for further HV and HVO advances in Operation Southern Move .
The Central Intelligence Agency analysed the effects of Operation Deliberate Force and Operations Maestral 2 and Sana , and noted that the NATO air campaign did not degrade VRS combat capability as much as was expected , because the airstrikes were never primarily directed at field @-@ deployed units but at command and control infrastructure . This analysis noted that , while the NATO air campaign did degrade VRS capabilities , the final offensives by the HV , HVO and the ARBiH did the most damage . The analysis further concluded that the ground offensives , rather than the NATO bombardment , were responsible for bringing the Bosnian Serbs to the negotiation table and the war to its end . However , author Robert C. Owen argues that the HV would not have advanced as rapidly as it did had NATO not intervened and hampered the VRS defence by denying it long @-@ range communications .
Operation Mistral 2 , along with the near @-@ concurrent Operation Sana , created a large number of refugees from the areas previously controlled by the VRS . Their number was variously reported and the estimates range from 655 killed civilians and 125 @,@ 000 refugees , reported by Radio @-@ Television Republika Srpska in 2010 , to approximately 40 @,@ 000 refugees reported in 1995 — both by Bosnian Serb sources . The latter figure was reported to encompass the entire contemporary populations of the towns of Jajce , Šipovo , Mrkonjić Grad and Donji Vakuf fleeing or being evacuated . At the time , the UN spokesman in Sarajevo estimated the number of refugees at 20 @,@ 000 . The refugees fled to VRS @-@ controlled areas around Brčko and Banja Luka , adding to the 50 @,@ 000 refugees who had been sheltering in Banja Luka since Operation Storm .
During the Trial of Gotovina et al before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia , Reynaud Theunens compared Operations Mistral 2 and Storm in his capacity as an expert witness for the prosecution . Theunens pointed out that civilian property and infrastructure at less risk in the aftermath of Operation Mistral 2 , as Gotovina had issued much more strict orders in that respect , establishing companies specifically tasked with security and imposing a curfew in Jajce . The HV and the HVO sustained losses of 74 killed and 226 wounded in the operation .
In 2007 , Croatian authorities received information that the commanding officer of the 7th Guards Brigade , Brigadier Ivan Korade , had ordered the killing of VRS prisoners of war during the offensive . Charges of war crimes were brought against seven soldiers of the brigade , specifying that they executed Korade 's orders to kill one VRS prisoner and one unknown man in the village of Halapić near Glamoč , and four VRS prisoners in the village of Mlinište . Five defendants were convicted and the remaining two acquitted in October 2011 . Two of them were sentenced to six years in prison , one of them to five years and the remaining two to two years ' imprisonment . Korade was never tried , as he committed suicide following a standoff with police officers who sought to apprehend him in relation to a quadruple murder committed in late March 2008 .
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= Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event =
The Cretaceous – Paleogene ( K – Pg ) extinction event , also known as the Cretaceous – Tertiary ( K – T ) extinction , was a mass extinction of some three @-@ quarters of the plant and animal species on Earth — including all non @-@ avian dinosaurs — that occurred over a geologically short period of time approximately 66 million years ago . With the exception of some ectothermic species in aquatic ecosystems like the leatherback sea turtle and crocodiles , no tetrapods weighing more than 55 pounds ( 25 kilos ) survived . It marked the end of the Cretaceous period and with it , the entire Mesozoic Era , opening the Cenozoic Era that continues today .
In the geologic record , the K – Pg event is marked by a thin layer of sediment called the K – Pg boundary , which can be found throughout the world in marine and terrestrial rocks . The boundary clay shows high levels of the metal iridium , which is rare in the Earth 's crust but abundant in asteroids .
As originally proposed in 1980 by a team of scientists led by Luis Alvarez , it is now generally thought that the K – Pg extinction was triggered by a massive comet or asteroid impact 66 million years ago and its catastrophic effects on the global environment , including a lingering impact winter that made it impossible for plants and plankton to carry out photosynthesis . The impact hypothesis , also known as the Alvarez hypothesis , was bolstered by the discovery of the 180 @-@ kilometre @-@ wide ( 112 mi ) Chicxulub crater in the Gulf of Mexico in the early 1990s , which provided conclusive evidence that the K – Pg boundary clay represented debris from an asteroid impact . The fact that the extinctions occurred at the same time as the impact provides strong situational evidence that the K – Pg extinction was caused by the asteroid . It was possibly accelerated by the creation of the Deccan Traps . However , some scientists maintain the extinction was caused or exacerbated by other factors , such as volcanic eruptions , climate change , or sea level change , separately or together .
A wide range of species perished in the K – Pg extinction . The most well @-@ known victims are the non @-@ avian dinosaurs . However , the extinction also destroyed a plethora of other terrestrial organisms , including certain mammals , pterosaurs , birds , lizards , insects , and plants . In the oceans , the K – Pg extinction killed off plesiosaurs and the giant marine lizards ( Mosasauridae ) and devastated fish , sharks , mollusks ( especially ammonites , which became extinct ) and many species of plankton . It is estimated that 75 % or more of all species on Earth vanished . Yet the devastation caused by the extinction also provided evolutionary opportunities . In the wake of the extinction , many groups underwent remarkable adaptive radiations — a sudden and prolific divergence into new forms and species within the disrupted and emptied ecological niches resulting from the event . Mammals in particular diversified in the Paleogene , producing new forms such as horses , whales , bats , and primates . Birds , fish and perhaps lizards also radiated .
= = Microbiota = =
The K – Pg boundary represents one of the most dramatic turnovers in the fossil record for various calcareous nanoplankton that formed the calcium deposits that gave the Cretaceous its name . The turnover in this group is clearly marked at the species level . Statistical analysis of marine losses at this time suggests that the decrease in diversity was caused more by a sharp increase in extinctions than by a decrease in speciation . The K – Pg boundary record of dinoflagellates is not as well @-@ understood , mainly because only microbial cysts provide a fossil record , and not all dinoflagellate species have cyst @-@ forming stages , thereby likely causing diversity to be underestimated . Recent studies indicate that there were no major shifts in dinoflagellates through the boundary layer .
= = Extinction patterns = =
The K – Pg extinction event was severe , global , rapid , and selective . In terms of severity , the event eliminated a vast number of species . Based on marine fossils , it is estimated that 75 % or more of all species were made extinct by the K – Pg extinction event .
The event appears to have affected all continents at the same time . Non @-@ avian dinosaurs , for example , are known from the Maastrichtian of North America , Europe , Asia , Africa , South America and Antarctica , but are unknown from the Cenozoic anywhere in the world . Similarly , fossil pollen shows devastation of the plant communities in areas as far apart as New Mexico , Alaska , China , and New Zealand .
Even though the boundary event was severe , there was significant variability in the rate of extinction between and within different clades . Species that depended on photosynthesis declined or became extinct as atmospheric particles blocked sunlight and reduced the solar energy reaching the Earth 's surface . This plant extinction caused a major reshuffling of the dominant plant groups . Omnivores , insectivores and carrion @-@ eaters survived the extinction event , perhaps because of the increased availability of their food sources . No purely herbivorous or carnivorous mammals seem to have survived . Rather , the surviving mammals and birds fed on insects , worms , and snails , which in turn fed on dead plant and animal matter . Scientists hypothesize that these organisms survived the collapse of plant @-@ based food chains because they fed on detritus ( non @-@ living organic material ) .
In stream communities , few animal groups became extinct because such communities rely less directly on food from living plants and more on detritus that washes in from the land , buffering them from extinction . Similar , but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans . Extinction was more severe among animals living in the water column than among animals living on or in the sea floor . Animals in the water column are almost entirely dependent on primary production from living phytoplankton , while animals living on or in the ocean floor feed on detritus or can switch to detritus feeding . Coccolithophorids and mollusks ( including ammonites , rudists , freshwater snails and mussels ) , and those organisms whose food chain included these shell builders , became extinct or suffered heavy losses . For example , it is thought that ammonites were the principal food of mosasaurs , a group of giant marine reptiles that became extinct at the boundary . The largest air @-@ breathing survivors of the event , crocodyliforms and champsosaurs , were semi @-@ aquatic and had access to detritus . Modern crocodilians can live as scavengers and can survive for months without food , and their young are small , grow slowly , and feed largely on invertebrates and dead organisms or fragments of organisms for their first few years . These characteristics have been linked to crocodilian survival at the end of the Cretaceous .
After the K – Pg extinction event , biodiversity required substantial time to recover , despite the existence of abundant vacant ecological niches .
Radiolaria have left a geological record since at least the Ordovician times , and their mineral fossil skeletons can be tracked across the K – Pg boundary . There is no evidence of mass extinction of these organisms , and there is support for high productivity of these species in southern high latitudes as a result of cooling temperatures in the early Paleocene . Approximately 46 % of diatom species survived the transition from the Cretaceous to the Upper Paleocene . This suggests a significant turnover in species , but not a catastrophic extinction of diatoms , across the K – Pg boundary .
The occurrence of planktonic foraminifera across the K – Pg boundary has been studied since the 1930s . Research spurred by the possibility of an impact event at the K – Pg boundary resulted in numerous publications detailing planktonic foraminiferal extinction at the boundary . However , there is debate ongoing between groups that think the evidence indicates substantial extinction of these species at the K – Pg boundary , and those who think the evidence supports multiple extinctions and expansions through the boundary .
Numerous species of benthic foraminifera became extinct during the K – Pg extinction event , presumably because they depend on organic debris for nutrients , since the biomass in the ocean is thought to have decreased . However , as the marine microbiota recovered , it is thought that increased speciation of benthic foraminifera resulted from the increase in food sources . Phytoplankton recovery in the early Paleocene provided the food source to support large benthic foraminiferal assemblages , which are mainly detritus @-@ feeding . Ultimate recovery of the benthic populations occurred over several stages lasting several hundred thousand years into the early Paleocene .
= = = Marine invertebrates = = =
There is variability in the fossil record as to the extinction rate of marine invertebrates across the K – Pg boundary . The apparent rate is influenced by the lack of fossil records rather than actual extinction .
Ostracods , a class of small crustaceans that were prevalent in the upper Maastrichtian , left fossil deposits in a variety of locations . A review of these fossils shows that ostracod diversity was lower in the Paleocene than any other time in the Cenozoic . However , current research cannot ascertain whether the extinctions occurred prior to or during the boundary interval itself .
Approximately 60 % of late @-@ Cretaceous Scleractinia coral genera failed to cross the K – Pg boundary into the Paleocene . Further analysis of the coral extinctions shows that approximately 98 % of colonial species , ones that inhabit warm , shallow tropical waters , became extinct . The solitary corals , which generally do not form reefs and inhabit colder and deeper ( below the photic zone ) areas of the ocean were less impacted by the K – Pg boundary . Colonial coral species rely upon symbiosis with photosynthetic algae , which collapsed due to the events surrounding the K – Pg boundary . However , the use of data from coral fossils to support K – Pg extinction and subsequent Paleocene recovery must be weighed against the changes that occurred in coral ecosystems through the K – Pg boundary .
The numbers of cephalopod , echinoderm , and bivalve genera exhibited significant diminution after the K – Pg boundary . Most species of brachiopods , a small phylum of marine invertebrates , survived the K – Pg extinction event and diversified during the early Paleocene .
Except for nautiloids ( represented by the modern order Nautilida ) and coleoids ( which had already diverged into modern octopodes , squids , and cuttlefish ) all other species of the molluscan class Cephalopoda became extinct at the K – Pg boundary . These included the ecologically significant belemnoids , as well as the ammonoids , a group of highly diverse , numerous , and widely distributed shelled cephalopods . Researchers have pointed out that the reproductive strategy of the surviving nautiloids , which rely upon few and larger eggs , played a role in outsurviving their ammonoid counterparts through the extinction event . The ammonoids utilized a planktonic strategy of reproduction ( numerous eggs and planktonic larvae ) , which would have been devastated by the K – Pg extinction event . Additional research has shown that subsequent to this elimination of ammonoids from the global biota , nautiloids began an evolutionary radiation into shell shapes and complexities theretofore known only from ammonoids .
Approximately 35 % of echinoderm genera became extinct at the K – Pg boundary , although taxa that thrived in low @-@ latitude , shallow @-@ water environments during the late Cretaceous had the highest extinction rate . Mid @-@ latitude , deep @-@ water echinoderms were much less affected at the K – Pg boundary . The pattern of extinction points to habitat loss , specifically the drowning of carbonate platforms , the shallow @-@ water reefs in existence at that time , by the extinction event .
Other invertebrate groups , including rudists ( reef @-@ building clams ) and inoceramids ( giant relatives of modern scallops ) , also became extinct at the K – Pg boundary .
= = = Fish = = =
There are substantial fossil records of jawed fishes across the K – Pg boundary , which provides good evidence of extinction patterns of these classes of marine vertebrates . Within cartilaginous fish , approximately 7 out of the 41 families of Neoselachian , modern sharks , suffered during this event and Batoids , skates and rays , lost nearly all the identifiable species , while more than 90 % of teleost fish ( bony fish ) families survived .
While the deep sea realm was able to remain seemingly unaffected , there was an equal loss between the open marine apex predators and the durophagous demersal feeders on the continental shelf . The loss and origination of sharks and batoids at family level are more pronounced . Sharks and Batoids first appeared in the Danian Age 66 to 61 @.@ 6 million years ago , starting with two shark families ( Carcharhinidae , Isuridae ) and a single batoid family ( Torpedinidae ) , resulting in a total origination percentage of only 8 % of marine animals . Only 25 shark families and nine batoid families survived the K @-@ T boundary event . In the late cretaceous period , the Maastrichtian age , 28 shark families and 13 batoid families thrived , before the event occurred . Forty @-@ seven of all marine genera cross the K / T boundary , 85 % being sharks . Batoids display with 15 % a comparably low survival rate .
There is evidence of a mass kill of bony fishes at a fossil site immediately above the K – Pg boundary layer on Seymour Island near Antarctica , apparently precipitated by the K – Pg extinction event . However , the marine and freshwater environments of fishes mitigated environmental effects of the extinction event .
= = = Terrestrial invertebrates = = =
Insect damage to the fossilized leaves of flowering plants from fourteen sites in North America were used as a proxy for insect diversity across the K – Pg boundary and analyzed to determine the rate of extinction . Researchers found that Cretaceous sites , prior to the extinction event , had rich plant and insect @-@ feeding diversity . However , during the early Paleocene , flora were relatively diverse with little predation from insects , even 1 @.@ 7 million years after the extinction event .
= = = Terrestrial plants = = =
There is overwhelming evidence of global disruption of plant communities at the K – Pg boundary . Extinctions are seen both in studies of fossil pollen , and fossil leaves . In North America , the data suggests massive devastation and mass extinction of plants at the K – Pg boundary sections , although there were substantial megafloral changes before the boundary . In North America , approximately 57 % of plant species became extinct . In high southern hemisphere latitudes , such as New Zealand and Antarctica , the mass die @-@ off of flora caused no significant turnover in species , but dramatic and short @-@ term changes in the relative abundance of plant groups . In some regions , the Paleocene recovery of plants began with recolonizations by fern species , represented as a fern spike in the geologic record ; this same pattern of fern recolonization was observed after the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption .
Due to the wholesale destruction of plants at the K – Pg boundary , there was a proliferation of saprotrophic organisms , such as fungi , that do not require photosynthesis and use nutrients from decaying vegetation . The dominance of fungal species lasted only a few years while the atmosphere cleared and there was plenty of organic matter to feed on . Once the atmosphere cleared , photosynthetic organisms , like ferns and other plants , returned . Polyploidy appears to have enhanced the ability of flowering plants to survive the extinction , probably because the additional copies of the genome such plants possessed allowed them to more readily adapt to the rapidly changing environmental conditions that followed the impact .
= = = Amphibians = = =
There is limited evidence for extinction of amphibians at the K – Pg boundary . A study of fossil vertebrates across the K – Pg boundary in Montana concluded that no species of amphibian became extinct . Yet there are several species of Maastrichtian amphibian , not included as part of this study , which are unknown from the Paleocene . These include the frog Theatonius lancensis and the albanerpetontid Albanerpeton galaktion ; therefore some amphibians do seem to have become extinct at the boundary . The relatively low levels of extinction seen among amphibians probably reflect the low extinction rates seen in freshwater animals .
= = = Non @-@ archosaur reptiles = = =
The two living non @-@ archosaurian reptile taxa , testudines ( turtles ) and lepidosaurians ( lizards and tuataras ) , along with choristoderes ( semi @-@ aquatic archosauromorphs that would die out in the early Miocene ) , survived across the K – Pg boundary . Over 80 % of Cretaceous turtle species passed through the K – Pg boundary . Additionally , all six turtle families in existence at the end of the Cretaceous survived into the Paleogene and are represented by living species . Living lepidosaurs include the tuataras ( the only living rhynchocephalians ) and the squamates . The rhynchocephalians were a widespread and relatively successful group of lepidosaurians during the early Mesozoic , but began to decline by the mid @-@ Cretaceous , though they were very successful in the Late Cretaceous of South America . They are represented today by a single genus located exclusively in New Zealand .
The order Squamata , which is represented today by lizards , including snakes and amphisbaenians ( worm lizards ) , radiated into various ecological niches during the Jurassic and was successful throughout the Cretaceous . They survived through the K – Pg boundary and are currently the most successful and diverse group of living reptiles with more than 6 @,@ 000 extant species . Many families of terrestrial squamates became extinct at the boundary , such as monstersaurians and polyglyphanodonts , and fossil evidence indicates they suffered very heavy losses in the KT event , only recovering 10 million years after it . Giant non @-@ archosaurian aquatic reptiles such as mosasaurs and plesiosaurs , which were the top marine predators of their time , became extinct by the end of the Cretaceous . The ichthyosaurs had already disappeared before the mass extinction occurred .
= = = Archosaurs = = =
The archosaur clade includes two surviving groups , crocodilians and birds , along with the various extinct groups of non @-@ avian dinosaurs and pterosaurs .
= = = = Crocodyliforms = = = =
Ten families of crocodilians or their close relatives are represented in the Maastrichtian fossil records , of which five died out prior to the K – Pg boundary . Five families have both Maastrichtian and Paleocene fossil representatives . All of the surviving families of crocodyliforms inhabited freshwater and terrestrial environments — except for the Dyrosauridae , which lived in freshwater and marine locations . Approximately 50 % of crocodyliform representatives survived across the K – Pg boundary , the only apparent trend being that no large crocodiles survived . Crocodyliform survivability across the boundary may have resulted from their aquatic niche and ability to burrow , which reduced susceptibility to negative environmental effects at the boundary . Jouve and colleagues suggested in 2008 that juvenile marine crocodyliforms lived in freshwater environments like modern marine crocodile juveniles , which would have helped them survive where other marine reptiles became extinct ; freshwater environments were not as strongly affected by the K – Pg extinction event as marine environments .
The Choristodera , a generally crocodile @-@ like group of uncertain phylogeny ( possibly archosaurian ) also survived the event , only to become extinct in the Miocene .
= = = = Pterosaurs = = = =
One family of pterosaurs , Azhdarchidae , was definitely present in the Maastrichtian , and it likely became extinct at the K – Pg boundary . These large pterosaurs were the last representatives of a declining group that contained 10 families during the mid @-@ Cretaceous . Several other pterosaur lineages may have been present during the Maastrichtian , such as the ornithocheirids , pteranodontids and / or nyctosaurids , as well as a possible tapejarid , though they are represented by fragmentary remains that are difficult to assign to any given group . While this was occurring , modern birds were undergoing diversification ; traditionally it was thought that they replaced archaic birds and pterosaur groups , possibly due to direct competition , or they simply filled empty niches , but there is no correlation between pterosaur and avian diversities that are conclusive to a competition hypothesis , and small pterosaurs were present in the Late Cretaceous .
= = = = Birds = = = =
Most paleontologists regard birds as the only surviving dinosaurs ( see Origin of birds ) . It is thought that all non @-@ avian theropods became extinct , including then @-@ flourishing groups like enantiornithines and hesperornithiforms . Several analyses of bird fossils show divergence of species prior to the K – Pg boundary , and that duck , chicken and ratite bird relatives coexisted with non @-@ avian dinosaurs . Large collections of bird fossils representing a range of different species provides definitive evidence for the persistence of archaic birds to within 300 @,@ 000 years of the K – Pg boundary . The absence of these birds in the Paleogene is evidence that a mass extinction of archaic birds took place there . A small fraction of the Cretaceous bird species survived the impact , giving rise to today 's birds . The only bird group known for certain to have survived the K – Pg boundary is the Aves . Avians may have been able to survive the extinction as a result of their abilities to dive , swim , or seek shelter in water and marshlands . Many species of avians can build burrows , or nest in tree holes or termite nests , all of which provided shelter from the environmental effects at the K – Pg boundary . Long @-@ term survival past the boundary was assured as a result of filling ecological niches left empty by extinction of non @-@ avian dinosaurs .
= = = = Non @-@ avian dinosaurs = = = =
Excluding a few controversial claims , scientists agree that all non @-@ avian dinosaurs became extinct at the K – Pg boundary . The dinosaur fossil record has been interpreted to show both a decline in diversity and no decline in diversity during the last few million years of the Cretaceous , and it may be that the quality of the dinosaur fossil record is simply not good enough to permit researchers to distinguish between the options . Since there is no evidence that late Maastrichtian non @-@ avian dinosaurs could burrow , swim or dive , they were unable to shelter themselves from the worst parts of any environmental stress that occurred at the K – Pg boundary . It is possible that small dinosaurs ( other than birds ) did survive , but they would have been deprived of food , as herbivorous dinosaurs would have found plant material scarce and carnivores would have quickly found prey in short supply .
The growing consensus about the endothermy of dinosaurs ( see dinosaur physiology ) helps to understand their full extinction in contrast with their close relatives , the crocodilians . Ectothermic ( " cold @-@ blooded " ) crocodiles have very limited needs for food ( they can survive several months without eating ) while endothermic ( " warm @-@ blooded " ) animals of similar size need much more food to sustain their faster metabolism . Thus , under the circumstances of food chain disruption previously mentioned , non @-@ avian dinosaurs died , while some crocodiles survived . In this context , the survival of other endothermic animals , such as some birds and mammals , could be due , among other reasons , to their smaller needs for food , related to their small size at the extinction epoch .
Whether the extinction occurred gradually or suddenly has been debated , as both views have support from the fossil record . A study of 29 fossil sites in Catalan Pyrenees of Europe in 2010 supports the view that dinosaurs there had great diversity until the asteroid impact , with over 100 living species . However , more recent research indicates that this figure is obscured by taphonomical biases and the sparsity of the continental fossil record . The results of this study , which were based on estimated real global biodiversity , showed that between 628 and 1078 non @-@ avian dinosaur species were alive at the end of the Cretaceous and underwent sudden extinction after the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event . Alternatively , interpretation based on the fossil @-@ bearing rocks along the Red Deer River in Alberta supports the gradual extinction of non @-@ avian dinosaurs ; during the last 10 million years of the Cretaceous layers there , the number of dinosaur species seems to have decreased from about 45 to about 12 . Other scientists have pointed out the same .
Several researchers support the existence of Paleocene dinosaurs . Evidence of this existence is based on the discovery of dinosaur remains in the Hell Creek Formation up to 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) above and 40 thousand years later than the K – Pg boundary . Pollen samples recovered near a fossilized hadrosaur femur recovered in the Ojo Alamo Sandstone at the San Juan River indicate that the animal lived during the Cenozoic , approximately 64 @.@ 5 Ma ( about 1 million years after the K – Pg extinction event ) . If their existence past the K – Pg boundary can be confirmed , these hadrosaurids would be considered a dead clade walking . Scientific consensus is that these fossils were eroded from their original locations and then re @-@ buried in much later sediments ( also known as reworked fossils ) .
= = = Mammals = = =
All major Cretaceous mammalian lineages , including monotremes ( egg @-@ laying mammals ) , multituberculates , marsupials and placentals , dryolestoideans , and gondwanatheres survived the K – Pg extinction event , although they suffered losses . In particular , marsupials largely disappeared from North America , and the Asian deltatheroidans , primitive relatives of extant marsupials , became extinct . In the Hell Creek beds of North America , at least half of the ten known multituberculate species and all eleven marsupial species are not found above the boundary . Multituberculates in Europe and North America survived relatively unscathed and quickly bounced back in the Palaeocene , but Asian forms were decimated , never again to represent a significant component on mammalian faunas .
Mammalian species began diversifying approximately 30 million years prior to the K – Pg boundary . Diversification of mammals stalled across the boundary . Current research indicates that mammals did not explosively diversify across the K – Pg boundary , despite the environment niches made available by the extinction of dinosaurs . Several mammalian orders have been interpreted as diversifying immediately after the K – Pg boundary , including Chiroptera ( bats ) and Cetartiodactyla ( a diverse group that today includes whales and dolphins and even @-@ toed ungulates ) , although recent research concludes that only marsupial orders diversified after the K – Pg boundary .
K – Pg boundary mammalian species were generally small , comparable in size to rats ; this small size would have helped them find shelter in protected environments . In addition , it is postulated that some early monotremes , marsupials , and placentals were semiaquatic or burrowing , as there are multiple mammalian lineages with such habits today . Any burrowing or semiaquatic mammal would have had additional protection from K – Pg boundary environmental stresses .
= = Evidence = =
= = = North American fossils = = =
In North American terrestrial sequences , the extinction event is best represented by the marked discrepancy between the rich and relatively abundant late @-@ Maastrichtian palynomorph record and the post @-@ boundary fern spike .
At present the most informative sequence of dinosaur @-@ bearing rocks in the world from the K – Pg boundary is found in western North America , particularly the late Maastrichtian @-@ age Hell Creek Formation of Montana . This formation , when compared with the older ( approximately 75 Ma ) Judith River / Dinosaur Park Formations ( from Montana and Alberta respectively ) provides information on the changes in dinosaur populations over the last 10 million years of the Cretaceous . These fossil beds are geographically limited , covering only part of one continent .
The middle – late Campanian formations show a greater diversity of dinosaurs than any other single group of rocks . The late Maastrichtian rocks contain the largest members of several major clades : Tyrannosaurus , Ankylosaurus , Pachycephalosaurus , Triceratops and Torosaurus , which suggests food was plentiful immediately prior to the extinction .
In addition to rich dinosaur fossils , there are also plant fossils that illustrate the reduction in plant species across the K – Pg boundary . In the sediments below the K – Pg boundary the dominant plant remains are angiosperm pollen grains , but the actual boundary layer contains little pollen and is dominated by fern spores . More usual pollen levels gradually resume above the boundary layer . This is reminiscent of areas blighted by modern volcanic eruptions , where the recovery is led by ferns , which are later replaced by larger angiosperm plants .
= = = Marine fossils = = =
The mass extinction of marine plankton appears to have been abrupt and right at the K – Pg boundary . Ammonite genera became extinct at or near the K – Pg boundary ; however , there was a smaller and slower extinction of ammonite genera prior to the boundary that was associated with a late Cretaceous marine regression . The gradual extinction of most inoceramid bivalves began well before the K – Pg boundary , and a small , gradual reduction in ammonite diversity occurred throughout the very late Cretaceous . Further analysis shows that several processes were in progress in the late Cretaceous seas and partially overlapped in time , then ended with the abrupt mass extinction . The diversity of marine life decreased when the climate near the K @-@ T boundary increased in temperature . The temperature increased about three to four degrees very rapidly between 65 @.@ 4 and 65 @.@ 2 million years ago , which is around the time of the extinction event . Not only did the climate temperature increase , but the water temperate decreased causing a drastic decrease in marine diversity .
= = = Megatsunamis = = =
The scientific consensus is that the asteroid impact at the K – Pg boundary left tsunami deposits and sediments around the area of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico . These deposits have been identified in the La Popa basin in northeastern Mexico , platform carbonates in northeastern Brazil , and Atlantic deep @-@ sea sediments .
= = Duration = =
The length of time taken for the extinction to occur is a controversial issue , because some theories about the extinction 's causes require a rapid extinction over a relatively short period ( from a few years to a few thousand years ) while others require longer periods . The issue is difficult to resolve because of the Signor – Lipps effect ; that is , the fossil record is so incomplete that most extinct species probably died out long after the most recent fossil that has been found . Scientists have also found very few continuous beds of fossil @-@ bearing rock which cover a time range from several million years before the K – Pg extinction to a few million years after it . The sedimentation rate and thickness of K @-@ Pg clay from three sites suggest short duration of event , perhaps less than ten thousand years .
= = Chicxulub asteroid impact = =
= = = Evidence for impact = = =
In 1980 , a team of researchers consisting of Nobel prize @-@ winning physicist Luis Alvarez , his son geologist Walter Alvarez , and chemists Frank Asaro and Helen Michel discovered that sedimentary layers found all over the world at the Cretaceous – Paleogene boundary contain a concentration of iridium many times greater than normal ( 30 , 160 and 20 times in three sections originally studied ) . Iridium is extremely rare in Earth 's crust because it is a siderophile element , and therefore most of it traveled with the iron as it sank into Earth 's core during planetary differentiation . As iridium remains abundant in most asteroids and comets , the Alvarez team suggested that an asteroid struck the Earth at the time of the K – Pg boundary . There were earlier speculations on the possibility of an impact event , but this was the first hard evidence of an impact .
This hypothesis was viewed as radical when first proposed , but additional evidence soon emerged . The boundary clay was found to be full of minute spherules of rock , crystallized from droplets of molten rock formed by the impact . Shocked quartz and other minerals were also identified in the K – Pg boundary . Shocked minerals have their internal structure deformed , and are created by intense pressures such as those associated with nuclear blasts or meteorite impacts . The identification of giant tsunami beds along the Gulf Coast and the Caribbean also provided evidence for impact , and suggested that the impact may have occurred nearby — as did the discovery that the K – Pg boundary became thicker in the southern United States , with meter @-@ thick beds of debris occurring in northern New Mexico .
Further research identified the giant Chicxulub crater , buried under Chicxulub on the coast of Yucatán , as the source of the K – Pg boundary clay . Identified in 1990 based on work by geophysicist Glen Penfield in 1978 , the crater is oval , with an average diameter of roughly 180 kilometres ( 110 mi ) , about the size calculated by the Alvarez team . The discovery of the crater — a necessary prediction of the impact hypothesis — provided conclusive evidence for a K – Pg impact , and strengthened the hypothesis that the extinction was caused by an impact .
In 2007 , a hypothesis was put forth that argued the impactor that killed the dinosaurs belonged to the Baptistina family of asteroids . Concerns have been raised regarding the reputed link , in part because very few solid observational constraints exist of the asteroid or family . Indeed , it was recently discovered that 298 Baptistina does not share the same chemical signature as the source of the K – Pg impact . Although this finding may make the link between the Baptistina family and K – Pg impactor more difficult to substantiate , it does not preclude the possibility . A 2011 WISE study of reflected light from the asteroids of the family estimated the break @-@ up at 80 Ma , giving it insufficient time to shift orbits and impact the Earth by 66 Ma .
In a 2013 paper , Paul Renne of the Berkeley Geochronology Center reported that the date of the asteroid event is 66 @.@ 043 ± 0 @.@ 011 million years ago , based on argon – argon dating . He further posits that the mass extinction occurred within 32 @,@ 000 years of this date .
= = = Effects of impact = = =
In March 2010 , an international panel of scientists endorsed the asteroid hypothesis , specifically the Chicxulub impact , as being the cause of the extinction . A team of 41 scientists reviewed 20 years of scientific literature and in so doing also ruled out other theories such as massive volcanism . They had determined that a 10 @-@ to @-@ 15 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @.@ 2 to 9 @.@ 3 mi ) space rock hurtled into Earth at Chicxulub on Mexico 's Yucatán Peninsula . The collision would have released the same energy as 100 teratonnes of TNT ( 420 ZJ ) , over a billion times the energy of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki .
The consequences of the Chicxulub impact were of global extent . Some of these phenomena were brief occurrences that immediately followed the impact , but there were also long @-@ term geochemical and climatic disruptions that were catastrophic to the ecology .
The reentry of ejecta into Earth 's atmosphere would include a brief ( hours long ) but intense pulse of infrared radiation , killing exposed organisms . Global firestorms likely resulted from the heat pulse . Recent research indicates that the global debris layer deposited by the impact contained enough soot to suggest that the entire terrestrial biosphere had burned .
The impact would have inhibited photosynthesis by creating a dust cloud that blocked sunlight for up to a year . Further , the asteroid struck a region of sulfur @-@ rich carbonate rock , much of which was vaporized , thereby injecting sulfuric acid aerosols into the stratosphere , which might have reduced sunlight reaching the Earth 's surface by more than 50 % , and would have caused rain and ocean water to become acidic . The acidification of the oceans would kill many organisms that build shells from calcium carbonate . At Brazos section , the paleo @-@ sea surface temperature dropped as much as 7 ℃ for decades after the impact . It would take at least ten years for such aerosols to dissipate , and would account for the extinction of plants and phytoplankton , and of organisms dependent on them ( including predatory animals as well as herbivores ) . Some creatures whose food chains were based on detritus would have a reasonable chance of survival .
If widespread fires occurred , they would have increased the CO
2 content of the atmosphere and caused a temporary greenhouse effect once the dust clouds and aerosol settled , and this would have exterminated the most vulnerable organisms that survived the period immediately after the impact .
Most paleontologists now agree that an asteroid did hit the Earth at approximately the end of the Cretaceous , but there is an ongoing dispute whether the impact was the sole cause of the extinctions .
= = Alternative hypotheses = =
The fact that the extinctions occur at the same time as the Chicxulub asteroid impact strongly supports the impact hypothesis of extinction . However , some scientists continue to dispute the role of the Chicxulub impact in driving the extinction , and to suggest that other events may have contributed to the end @-@ Cretaceous mass extinction . In particular , volcanic eruptions , climate change , sea level change , and other impact events have been suggested to play a role in driving the K – Pg extinction .
= = = Deccan Traps = = =
Before 2000 , arguments that the Deccan Traps flood basalts caused the extinction were usually linked to the view that the extinction was gradual , as the flood basalt events were thought to have started around 68 Mya and lasted more than 2 million years . The most recent evidence shows that the traps erupted over a period of 800 @,@ 000 years spanning the K – Pg boundary , and therefore may be responsible for the extinction and the delayed biotic recovery thereafter .
The Deccan Traps could have caused extinction through several mechanisms , including the release of dust and sulfuric aerosols into the air , which might have blocked sunlight and thereby reduced photosynthesis in plants . In addition , Deccan Trap volcanism might have resulted in carbon dioxide emissions that increased the greenhouse effect when the dust and aerosols cleared from the atmosphere .
In the years when the Deccan Traps hypothesis was linked to a slower extinction , Luis Alvarez ( who died in 1988 ) replied that paleontologists were being misled by sparse data . While his assertion was not initially well @-@ received , later intensive field studies of fossil beds lent weight to his claim . Eventually , most paleontologists began to accept the idea that the mass extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous were largely or at least partly due to a massive Earth impact . However , even Walter Alvarez has acknowledged that there were other major changes on Earth even before the impact , such as a drop in sea level and massive volcanic eruptions that produced the Indian Deccan Traps , and these may have contributed to the extinctions . The duration of event was less than 10 ky , and the time span is too short to be explained by Deccan volcanism . Geophysical models and high @-@ precision radiometric dating suggest that the Chicxulub impact could have triggered some of the largest Deccan eruptions , and potentially could have triggered eruptions at active volcanoes anywhere on Earth .
= = = Multiple impact event = = =
One other crater also appears to have been formed at about the time of the K – Pg boundary . Other crater @-@ like topographic features have also been proposed as impact craters formed in connection with Creaceous @-@ Paleogene extinction . This suggests to some the possibility of near @-@ simultaneous multiple impacts , perhaps from a fragmented asteroidal object , similar to the Shoemaker – Levy 9 impact with Jupiter . In addition to the 180 km ( 110 mi ) Chicxulub Crater , there is the 24 km ( 15 mi ) Boltysh crater in Ukraine ( 65 @.@ 17 ± 0 @.@ 64 Ma ) , the 20 km ( 12 mi ) Silverpit crater in the North Sea ( 59 @.@ 5 ± 14 @.@ 5 Ma ) possibly formed by bolide impact , and the controversial and much larger 600 km ( 370 mi ) Shiva crater . Any other craters that might have formed in the Tethys Ocean would have been obscured by tectonic events like the northward drift of Africa and India .
= = = Maastrichtian sea @-@ level regression = = =
There is clear evidence that sea levels fell in the final stage of the Cretaceous by more than at any other time in the Mesozoic era . In some Maastrichtian stage rock layers from various parts of the world , the later layers are terrestrial ; earlier layers represent shorelines and the earliest layers represent seabeds . These layers do not show the tilting and distortion associated with mountain building , therefore , the likeliest explanation is a " regression " , that is , a drop in sea level . There is no direct evidence for the cause of the regression , but the explanation currently accepted as most likely is that the mid @-@ ocean ridges became less active and therefore sank under their own weight .
A severe regression would have greatly reduced the continental shelf area , which is the most species @-@ rich part of the sea , and therefore could have been enough to cause a marine mass extinction . However research concludes that this change would have been insufficient to cause the observed level of ammonite extinction . The regression would also have caused climate changes , partly by disrupting winds and ocean currents and partly by reducing the Earth 's albedo and therefore increasing global temperatures .
Marine regression also resulted in the loss of epeiric seas , such as the Western Interior Seaway of North America . The loss of these seas greatly altered habitats , removing coastal plains that ten million years before had been host to diverse communities such as are found in rocks of the Dinosaur Park Formation . Another consequence was an expansion of freshwater environments , since continental runoff now had longer distances to travel before reaching oceans . While this change was favorable to freshwater vertebrates , those that prefer marine environments , such as sharks , suffered .
= = = Multiple causes = = =
In a review article , J. David Archibald and David E. Fastovsky discussed a scenario combining three major postulated causes : volcanism , marine regression , and extraterrestrial impact . In this scenario , terrestrial and marine communities were stressed by the changes in and loss of habitats . Dinosaurs , as the largest vertebrates , were the first affected by environmental changes , and their diversity declined . At the same time , particulate materials from volcanism cooled and dried areas of the globe . Then , an impact event occurred , causing collapses in photosynthesis @-@ based food chains , both in the already @-@ stressed terrestrial food chains and in the marine food chains . The major difference between this hypothesis and the single @-@ cause hypotheses is that its proponents view the suggested single causes as either not sufficient in strength to cause the extinctions or not likely to produce the taxonomic pattern of the extinction .
= = Recovery and radiation = =
The K – Pg extinction had a profound effect on the evolution of life on Earth . The elimination of dominant Cretaceous groups allowed other organisms to take their place , spurring a remarkable series of adaptive radiations in the Paleogene . The most striking example is the replacement of dinosaurs by mammals . After the K – Pg extinction , mammals evolved rapidly to fill the niches left vacant by the dinosaurs . Within mammalian genera , new species were approximately 9 @.@ 1 % larger after the K – Pg boundary .
Other groups also underwent major radiations . Based on molecular sequencing and fossil dating , Neoaves appeared to radiate after the K – Pg boundary . They even produced giant , flightless forms , such as the herbivorous Gastornis and Dromornithidae , and the predatory Phorusrhacidae . The extinction of Cretaceous lizards and snakes may have led to the radiation of modern groups such as iguanas , monitor lizards , and boas . On land , giant boid and enormous madtsoiid snakes appeared , and in the seas , giant sea snakes radiated . Teleost fish diversified explosively , filling the niches left vacant by the extinction . Groups appearing in the Paleocene and Eocene include billfish , tunas , eels , and flatfish . Major changes are also seen in Paleogene insect communities . Many groups of ants were present in the Cretaceous , but in the Eocene ants became dominant and diverse , with larger colonies . Butterflies diversified as well , perhaps to take the place of leaf @-@ eating insects wiped out by the extinction . The advanced mound @-@ building termites , Termitidae , also appear to have risen in importance .
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= Nala ( The Lion King ) =
Nala is a fictional lioness , a character who appears in the Disney Lion King franchise . Introduced in the animated film The Lion King in 1994 , Nala subsequently appears as a less prominent character in the film 's sequels The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride ( 1998 ) and The Lion King 1 ½ ( 2004 ) . In the original film , the adult Nala was voiced by American actress Moira Kelly . Young Nala 's speaking voice is provided by actress Niketa Calame , while singers Laura Williams and Sally Dworsky provide the singing voices of young and adult Nala respectively .
Nala is introduced as the childhood best friend of Simba , and ultimately becomes his wife by the end of The Lion King . Several years after Simba 's uncle Scar has killed Simba 's father Mufasa and usurped the throne , Nala desperately ventures into the jungle to find help . Upon unexpectedly reuniting with a grown Simba , who she had long been tricked by Scar into presuming dead , Nala encourages him to return to Pride Rock , overthrow his uncle and ultimately become king . As Simba 's queen , Nala has a daughter , Kiara , whose story is explored in The Lion King : Simba 's Pride .
Nala is the most significant female character in The Lion King . As the film was inspired by William Shakespeare 's tragedy Hamlet , Nala is considered to be The Lion King 's equivalent of Hamlet 's love interest Ophelia , although differences remain between the two characters . Many early concepts first developed for Nala were eventually abandoned , including a brother and father for the character , as well as her being romantically pursued by Scar . While critical reception towards Nala has been generally mixed – both film and feminist critics complained about the character 's lack of involvement in the story and supposedly submissive demeanor during the song " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " – Kelly 's vocal performance has been praised .
Nala appears in the Broadway musical adaptation of the film , first played by singer Heather Headley . The character also appears in the television series The Lion Guard , with Gabrielle Union replacing Kelly as the voice of Nala .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
Film critic James Berardinelli identified Nala as The Lion King 's " sole significant female character . " Screenwriter Linda Woolverton conceived Nala " as part of a gradual progression ... which have driven recent public conversation about what young girls should be able to expect from their cinematic role models . " In early versions of the screenplay , Nala has a younger brother named Mheetu , who enjoys accompanying his sister and her best friend Simba on their adventures . Pronounced " me too " , the character 's name alludes to this personality trait . At one point , Simba was supposed to save the cub from a wildebeest stampede , and Nala would eventually become responsible for protecting Mheetu from Simba 's tyrannical uncle Scar . Nala also had a fox friend named Bhati . According to Woolverton , Mheetu and Bhati were eventually written out of the film because their stories were beginning to distract from Simba 's , in addition to the Mheetu @-@ Scar subplot making the film too dark when combined with the death of Simba 's father Mufasa . At one point , Nala also had a father ; the character was similarly abandoned .
Because The Lion King was originally conceived as a much more mature and adult @-@ oriented film , Nala was supposed to have been banished from the Pride Lands as punishment for rejecting Scar 's romantic advances . This idea was to have been further explored in Scar 's song " Be Prepared ( Reprise ) " , during which Scar demands that Nala become his queen , but the musical number was ultimately cut from the final film because the scene was considered too " creepy . " Matthew Roulette of TheFW believes that the scene was abandoned because of the characters ' significant age difference .
Nala means " gift " in Swahili . The character has a mother , whose name is never mentioned in the film ; however , she is credited as Sarafina during the film 's end credits . Candice Russel of the Sun @-@ Sentinel believes that Nala contributes to the film 's love story – " an indispensable factor in Disney cartoon features " – in addition to convincing Simba to return to Pride Rock . It has been observed that , unlike Disney 's three previous animated efforts ( The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) , Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) and Aladdin ( 1992 ) , the romantic relationship between Nala and Simba is not main plot of the film . Ella Ceron of Thought Catalog observed that " At [ Simba 's ] return , she 's not exactly the friendliest little kitten , either ... but is willing to overlook her own hurt ego in the spirit of their friendship . She believes in Simba , and doesn ’ t understand why he wouldn ’ t want to fight for his right to rule . "
= = = Voice and music = = =
The speaking voice of adult Nala is provided by American actress Moira Kelly . Kelly was first informed that Disney was scheduling auditions for the role of Nala by her agent . Despite not having been the directors ' first choice for the role initially , Kelly was allowed to audition nonetheless because the filmmakers had been longing to hear different voices . Kelly believes that the directors were searching for a specific " quality of voice ... a sort of authoritative voice but with a lot of warmth " to compliment Nala 's sensible yet nurturing personality . After a series of callbacks , during which Kelly returned to Disney several times to read the character 's lines , the final decision eventually came down to be between Kelly and one other actress . It was not until several months after her audition that Kelly would finally be contacted and offered the part ; Disney 's initial first choice for the role remains undisclosed . Actor Matthew Broderick , voice of Simba , had already begun recording alongside another actress who had been cast as Nala before that actress was eventually replaced with Kelly . Broderick was not informed about his original co @-@ star being recast , and only learned that Nala was actually voiced by Kelly at the film 's premiere .
The film 's entire recording process took approximately three years to complete , during which Kelly 's sessions were held in both the United States and Canada , while her co @-@ stars Broderick and Jeremy Irons , voice of Scar , were recording in the United States and England , respectively . Each main cast member recorded their dialogue separately , which took Kelly some time to get used to because she had grown accustomed to working with several other actors at a time on the sets of live @-@ action films . For The Lion King , a director would often take the place of another actor for Kelly to act opposite of . Vocally , Kelly decided to approach the role as though she were reading to a child , explaining , " it 's kind of fun to play with different voices and try to color the lines for the child so they can imagine it more fully " , which she admitted is different than how the actress would approach a live @-@ action role . Because Nala is a " very straight character " , determining what kind of voice she would use for her was not a particularly challenging task . Additionally , the filmmakers would also film Kelly 's performances in order to incorporate her own facial expressions into her character 's design , the process of which impressed the actress . In her film debut , actress Niketa Calame voices young Nala . According to Calame 's official website , Nala remains the actress ' " biggest role to date " . A classically trained pianist and chorister , Laura Williams provides the singing voice of young Nala , which can be heard in the song " I Just Can 't Wait to Be King " ; the singer was 15 years old at the time . Meanwhile , singer @-@ songwriter Sally Dworsky provides the singing voice of adult Nala , which is heard during the song " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " . The film 's love theme , " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " ' s lyrics were re @-@ written approximately 15 times , according to lyricist Tim Rice , who wrote the song alongside composer Elton John . At one point , the producers wanted the song to be a comical duet performed by supporting characters Timon and Pumbaa , despite the fact that John had originally composed the song with Nala and Simba in mind . However , John lobbied in favor of " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " being a love song performed as a duet by Nala and Simba , with which the filmmakers ultimately agreed .
It is rare for the cast of a film to reprise their respective roles in its sequel , but The Lion King 's sequels hold the distinction of having the majority of its original cast return , including Kelly . When asked by Disney if she was interested in reprising her role as Nala in The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride , Kelly immediately accepted , joking , " Sure , you wanna do a third , fourth , fifth ? I 'm right there " . In the case of The Lion King 1 ½ , it took the actress only a few days to record her character 's dialogue due to Nala 's comparatively smaller role in the film ; much of Nala 's footage from the first film was simply reused accordingly . Elton John 's official website cites Kelly among the film 's cast of actors who " would grace any red carpet . " Kelly 's performance as Nala is responsible for introducing the actress to a younger audience . Previously , she had been better known for appearing in more adult @-@ oriented live @-@ action films at that time . In 2011 , Kelly revealed that fans of the film rarely recognize her speaking voice as the voice of Nala , although Robert DeSalvo of NextMovie.com claims that the actress " has a ... distinctive voice that The Lion King fans will instantly recognize as the voice of adult Nala . "
= = Characterization and themes = =
A straight woman character , Kelly described Nala as a sensible and nurturing yet authoritative character , while Amber Leab of Bitch Flicks described her as strong , independent and intelligent . According to Oh My Disney , Nala serves as " the proverbial glue that keeps The Lion King together " , from whose perspective the audience watches the film because she " says EXACTLY what we ’ re thinking " . Occupying the role of the film 's female lead , Nala is The Lion King 's most important female character , who contributes to the film 's " small romance element " . Often identified as the film 's deuteragonist , Taylor Orci of The Atlantic felt that " Nala is really the agent of change in The Lion King " , dismissing Simba as a " rich , lazy boyfriend . " Leab observed that The Lion King 's male characters tend to " take the center stage " while " female characters take a backseat to the action . " Lenka Křivánková of Masaryk University wrote in her thesis " 1990s Hollywood Break @-@ Away Hits : A Feminist Perspective " that she was not particularly surprised by the film 's lack of strong roles for women because of its Shakespearean source material , dubbing the film " an old traditional fairy tale with all its traditional features " , including patriarchy and monarchism . Writing for the University of Waterloo 's Kinema , Vicky Wong believes that Nala reinforces the film 's " take your place " motif , reminding main character Simba of his responsibilities . In his book Retelling Stories , Framing Culture : Traditional Story and Metanarratives in Children 's Literature , author John Stephens credits Nala with teaching Simba about responsibility – " the lesson the hero must learn before he can become an adult " .
Including Nala , The Lion King has only three major female characters in comparison to the film 's total of nine male ones . Shepherd University 's Emmylou Allen observed that Nala is introduced " as a dominating young girl " who ultimately matures into " a strong woman " by the film 's conclusion . Mouse Morality : The Rhetoric of Disney Animated Film author Annalee R. Ward wrote that Nala 's role in The Lion King reflected " a 1990s feminist reversal " . In her book Biblical Allusions , author Lindsay Bacher acknowledged that Nala is often depicted as a stronger and more responsible character than Simba , despite observations that The Lion King 's female characters lack agency . Leab identified Nala as Simba 's " equal " who is " a more naturally sound leader throughout the film , while Simba tends to be comparatively a bit more immature and in need of multiple characters propelling him into responsible / rightful action . " Physically , Nala is also a stronger and more skilled fighter than Simba , proven by the character 's ability to overwhelm him in battle , which is reminiscent " of the physical power of lionesses in the real nature . " However , as strong as she is , Nala has little impact elsewhere ; author Brian K. Pennington wrote in his book Teaching Religion and Violence that " Nala 's assertions of gender equality are clearly groundless , since only a male lion can stop Scar . " New York 's David Denbey dismissed Nala 's athleticism as nothing more than Disney 's attempt to " disguise [ the film 's ] essential boss @-@ daddy ethos . " Bacher believes that had The Lion King featured Nala as the Pride Lands ' hero as opposed to Simba , the film could have avoided having a " patriarchal structure . " Leab concluded that " the main and most problematic aspects of the film " remain that The Lion King " boils down to the fact that an entire group of strong female characters are unable to confront a single male oppressor ; to do so , they need to be led by a dominant male . " Leab continued , " It almost sucks more that Nala is such a strong ... female character and still ends up constrained by this plot device " , accusing the film of depicting women as weak .
Alongside Faline from Bambi ( 1942 ) and Maid Marian from Robin Hood ( 1973 ) added , Nala belongs to a trio of Disney heroines who , after having been separated from their love interests for several years , eventually reunite with them . Stephens believes that Nala and Simba 's separation allows the characters to fall in love " properly " upon reuniting as young adults . Because The Lion King is loosely based on William Shakespeare 's tragedy Hamlet , Nala is considered to be the film 's " representative " of the Hamlet character Ophelia , Hamlet 's love interest . Both characters ' relationships with and opinions of their love interests are similar , however , there are several differences between the two women . While identifying Nala as " the closest character in The Lion King to Ophelia , " Shepherd University 's Emmylou Allen acknowledged in her article " Shakespeare in the Pride Lands " that " their similarities are not as great as their contrasts . " Unlike Ophelia , Nala does not succumb to insanity , nor does she eventually die . Instead , Nala establishes herself as " a physically powerful ally " by encouraging Simba to return to Pride Rock , and helping the character overthrow Scar . Additionally , Nala is a more stubborn character than Ophelia , the latter of whom is quite passive and obedient . While Ophelia is raised by a single father , Nala is raised solely by her mother , which inspired Allen to believe that Nala is a manifestation of how Ophelia would have turned out had she been raised by a woman instead of a man , concluding , " Nala is able to show the potential that Ophelia could have had . " .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Film and television = = =
A young Nala debuted in The Lion King ( 1994 ) as the best friend of Simba , who she often accompanies on his adventures throughout the Pride Lands . Simba invites Nala to visit the forbidden Elephant Graveyard with him , despite his father Mufasa 's orders . The cubs are soon ambushed by Shenzi , Banzai and Ed , a trio of hyenas chosen by Simba 's treacherous uncle Scar to kill Simba in order to improve his own chances of becoming king , but are ultimately rescued by Mufasa . The following day , however , Nala is devastated to learn from Scar that both Simba and Mufasa have perished during a wildebeest stampede . With both Simba and Mufasa dead , Scar usurps the throne and becomes king . Several years into Scar 's tyrannical rule , which has left the kingdom barren and starving , a desperate Nala ventures into the jungle in search of help , where she attempts to eat a warthog named Pumbaa ; little does she know that the warthog is actually a friend of Simba 's , who is in fact alive and well . While defending Pumbaa from Nala , Simba recognizes Nala , and the two finally reunite only to argue over why Simba is refusing to face his responsibilities and return to Pride Rock . Upon learning that Simba has eventually decided to return to Pride Rock and face Scar , Nala travels back to the Pride Lands to assist him . Surprised to find Simba alive , Scar forces his guilt @-@ ridden nephew to " admit " to the pride that he is responsible for Mufasa 's death , which was in fact caused by Scar himself by throwing Mufasa off a cliff into the stampede . Upon learning the truth , Simba forces his uncle to admit his crime to the pride , and a battle ensues between the pride and Scar 's army of hyenas . Simba eventually defeats Scar and becomes king , with Nala ultimately becoming his queen .
In the film 's first direct @-@ to @-@ video sequel The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride ( 1998 ) , Nala appears in a less prominent role as Queen of the Pride Lands and mother of Kiara , the spirited daughter of her and Simba . Nala observes that Kiara , of whom Simba is very protective , has inherited her father 's rebellious personality and love of adventure . When Kiara befriends Zira 's son Kovu , a young lion from an exiled pride of Scar 's followers known as the Outsiders , Nala is much more tolerant of their relationship than Simba , and convinces him to offer Kovu a chance to prove himself trustworthy . In The Lion King 1 ½ ( 2004 ) , which focuses instead on Timon and Pumbaa 's friendship , Nala 's role is virtually identical to that of her appearance in The Lion King because filmmakers simply reused most of the character 's footage from the first film .
Voiced by actress Gabrielle Union , Nala reprises her role as Queen of the Pride Lands in the television series The Lion Guard , the 2016 premiere of which was preceded by the made @-@ for @-@ television film The Lion Guard : Return of the Roar ( 2015 ) . Set within the same time frame as The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride , the show revolves around Nala and Simba 's son Kion who , being their second @-@ born cub after Kiara , has been appointed The Lion Guard responsible for protecting the Pride Lands . Although a fan of the Lion King franchise , Union avoided watching previous Lion King films in preparation for the role because she wanted to " put [ her ] own stamp " on the character .
= = = Musical = = =
In the Broadway musical adaptation of The Lion King , the role of Nala was originated by Trinidadian @-@ American singer Heather Headley . Her Broadway debut , at first auditioning for the role proved a challenge for the singer due to her Ragtime contract , which her agent was eventually successful in getting her released from . Director Julie Taymor felt that Nala 's journey in the film was underdeveloped and among the story 's weaker elements , and thus decided to " strengthen " the character 's narrative for Broadway .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception towards Nala has been generally mixed ; both film and feminist critics have accused the film of lacking empowering roles for female characters , including Nala . James Berardinelli of ReelViews appreciated the fact that " after three animated motion pictures centered upon the love of two people from different worlds " , the love story between Nala and Simba has been relegated to that of " a subplot . " Desson Howe of The Washington Post advised parents to remind their daughters that despite the fact that Nala " pads in the supportive shadows , awaiting her inevitable marriage to Simba , it doesn 't mean human girls can 't grow up to be monarchs too . "
Nala 's role and demeanor during the film 's romantic " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " sequence has drawn criticism in regards to her " submissive behaviour " . The New York Times ' Janet Maslin cited the film 's lack of a strong heroine among its weaknesses , dismissing Nala and Simba 's interaction throughout " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " as " obligatory " and " gratuitous " . Joel W. Martin wrote in the Journal of Religion and Film , " One song later , [ Nala and Simba ] have fallen in love . Playing one day , they literally tumble down a hillside in the jungle , and he ends up on top of her . This time , she does not bear her teeth , but instead , shows ' bedroom eyes ' " . Martin ultimately accused the scene 's " reversal of positions " of " establish [ ing ] male dominance . " Criticizing the film for " being merely distracting when it could have been both meaningful and instructive " , Robert Humanick of Slant Magazine wrote , " Small potatoes , then , when Simba 's former childhood friend and betrothed queen Nala ... unexpectedly reappears in his duty @-@ free , protein @-@ rich life , demanding he return to his kingly responsibilities and coaxing the lion to sleep tonight with arguably the most blatant ' fuck me now ' face to ever appear in a PG @-@ rated film . "
However , the character has garnered positive reviews as well . Sara Franks @-@ Allen of ScreenCrush wrote that " If being a Disney princess is about being a good role model for little girls , then Nala has a lot in her favor " , elaborating , " She 's strong enough to take down Simba , ventures out on her own to find help for her pride and calls Simba out for ignoring his responsibilities . " Meanwhile , Ella Ceron of Thought Catalog ranked Nala 14th on her list of " The 16 Most Awesome Female Characters From Disney Movies " . Responsible for introducing the seasoned actress to a younger audience , Kelly 's vocal performance as Nala has garnered critical acclaim . Writing for The Washington Post , Desson Howe hailed Kelly 's voice acting as " terrific . " Jeremy Gerard of Variety commended Kelly for voicing the character " beautifully " . PopSugar ranked Kelly among the website 's " Favorite Animated Voices " , writing , " there are a lot of great voices in Disney 's The Lion King ... but Moira Kelly has a unique quality to her voice , and I remember reveling in it as a youngster anytime the adult Nala was on the screen . " Official Disney Blogs published an article entitled " We All Thought it … But Nala Actually Said It " , which cites the character 's most revered quotes . The blog also ranked Nala eighth on the website 's " Definitive Ranking of Disney Cats " list . In a 2014 interview , actor Eddie Redmayne admitted that Nala was his first " celebrity crush " , having been specifically attracted to the character 's " sweet " face and singing voice , referring to the experience as his " sexual awakening " .
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= Born This Way : The Remix =
Born This Way : The Remix is the second remix album by American recording artist Lady Gaga , released on November 18 , 2011 by Interscope . This album contains remixes of multiple songs off of Gaga 's second studio album , Born This Way . It was also released as part of the Born This Way : The Collection , a special edition release including the 17 @-@ track version of Gaga 's second studio album and a DVD release of the HBO concert special Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden . Most of the remixes had been available in the remix EPs released alongside each single from Born This Way . Musically , the album is an electronic and dance record ; there are also influences of Europop , techno and dubstep within the composition .
Critics gave mixed reviews for the album , with their general complaint being that the release was unnecessary . Most of them , however , complimented The Weeknd , Twin Shadow and Guéna LG 's remixes . It earned an overall score of 57 out of 100 , on review aggregator site Metacritic . Commercially , Born This Way : The Remix achieved minor success , entering the charts in ten countries . Its highest position was attained in Japan , where it reached top @-@ twenty , while in the United States , it failed to reach the top @-@ 100 of the Billboard 200 albums chart .
= = Background = =
In October 2011 , Lady Gaga announced plans to release a remix album titled Born This Way : The Remix . The album contains fourteen remixes of tracks from her second studio album , Born This Way , only seven of which are unreleased . Born This Way : The Remix was also released as part of Born This Way : The Collection , a special edition release including the 17 @-@ track version of Gaga 's second studio album and a DVD release of the HBO concert special Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden . The remixers featured for the songs on the album include mainly techno musicians like Sultan & Ned Shepard , electropop producers like Goldfrapp and Metronomy , indie rock upstarts like Twin Shadow and Two Door Cinema Club , and remixer The Weeknd .
Most of the remixes had been available in the remix EPs released alongside each single from Born This Way . The first remix commissioned was the Twin Shadow remix of " Born This Way " , released in March 2011 . This was followed by the Goldfrapp remix of " Judas " in May 2011 , which was released to Gaga 's YouTube channel . The Wild Beasts remix of " You and I " was released in August 2011 , and the proceeds from the sales helped to raise awareness to the ways people can support independent labels that lost stock in the PIAS Recordings UK warehouse fire .
Regarding the inspiration behind the remix , Hayden Thorpe from Wild Beasts group told The Guardian : " The unlikeness of this match was perhaps what compelled us to take it on . Gaga in many ways is the epitome of what we are not . She is the butcher to our butter knife . The essential thrill is always to keep eluding what is expected of us and what we expect of ourselves . " The last of the remix to be released was The Weeknd 's take on " Marry the Night " which featured Illangelo , thus earning him a co @-@ producer credit on it .
= = Composition = =
The album opens with the Zedd remix of " Born This Way " which begins with some minimalist beat followed by loud synths , and consists of a techno breakdown . The Goldfrapp remix of " Judas " follows as the second track ; the remix consists of industrial music and Gaga 's vocals are converted to a slow , low @-@ key moan making it almost like a man 's voice . Foster the People remixed " The Edge of Glory " and introduced a new break down from the 3 : 20 time sequence . Producers The Weeknd and Illangelo kept the overall feel of " Marry the Night " intact , but introduced vocals by Abel Tesfaye of The Weeknd and a steely looping drum machine . Jason Lipshultz from Billboard described the addition as " directly conflict [ ing ] with Gaga 's M.O. But like so many of these remixes , the Weeknd marries his vision of the song to Gaga 's gorgeous voice without losing the original 's integrity . " Tesfaye 's voice can be heard in spots on the song , adding an occasional " Ooh yeah " and a moan ; ultimately at the 2 : 20 mark , the song collapses on itself and ditches the percussion for infrequent piano notes . The remix of " Black Jesus + Amen Fashion " retains the most of the composition of its original counterpart , although it introduces a new synth by Michael Woods , thus turning it into a rave @-@ trance track . The Horrors remix of Born This Way album track " Bloody Mary " consisted of Gaga 's vocals fading in and out of sequence . " Scheiße " featured influences from The Knife song " Heartbeats " ( 2003 ) as well as Vengaboys ' " We Like to Party " ( 1999 ) . " Electric Chapel " ' s composition is completely changed by Two Door Cinema , altering the dark mood of the song to a fun and engaging one . The Metronomy remix of " You and I " varies little from its original equivalent , while dubstep is introduced in the Hurts remix of " Judas " , with a different conclusion . Sultan & Ned Shepard 's remix of " The Edge of Glory " , the last track on the album , features pumping drums and slinking synths .
= = Critical reception = =
After its release , Born This Way : The Remix received mixed reviews from critics . It earned an overall score of 57 out of 100 , on review aggregator site Metacritic . Jason Lipshultz from Billboard commented that the album did not re @-@ invent anything new in terms of remix composition , but instead " gives less recognizable artists a platform to tinker with these complex pop schemes . " He added that the album is not essential listening for non @-@ Gaga diehards , " but electronica fans who have yet to drink the Mother Monster kool @-@ aid will find plenty of pristinely produced club tracks to groove to . The album is a great avenue for fans to digest new versions of their favorite songs of the year , as well as discover artists that are trying to command audiences the way Gaga so masterfully does . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave the album three out of five stars , commenting that " some remixes take considerable liberty , ditching verses or hooks , whatever catches their fancy . So , it ’ s a remix album not for fairweather travelers but rather the hardcore Little Monsters , the kind who love every gesture grand or small from Gaga , but it also displays enough imagination to appeal to those listeners who fall into neither camp and are only looking for some darkly elastic dance . " Harley Brown of Consequence of Sound website was impressed with the diversity of remixes on the album , prompting him to comment that " just in time for the holiday season , there ’ s something for everyone on Born This Way : The Remix . And , unlike many remix albums featuring one song reworked again and again , this Remix comprises a diverse tracklist to match the diverse list of remixers . "
Jody Rosen from Rolling Stone gave a mixed review of the album , wondering why the remix album was necessary to be released in the first place . She nevertheless added that " [ t ] he album has some diverting moments . Goldfrapp 's down @-@ tempo ' Judas ' is less a remix than a smart cover , and the Weeknd and Illangelo re @-@ imagine ' Marry the Night ' as a strobe @-@ y , atmospheric R & B epic . But there are two or three duds for each winner — like the bludgeoning ' Scheiße ' , a gratuitous exercise that strives to make a dance @-@ floor thumper out of a song that was born that way . " Rosen 's view was shared by Paul Rice from Slant Magazine , who gave the album a rating of two out of five stars . Rice 's main complaint was that " [ c ] ertain artists cry out for the remix treatment more than others , usually those whose vocal talents are relatively straightforward and could benefit from the extra fuss . " He added that Gaga was not such an artist and that the original Born This Way album " in particular , is too big and untamed , full of too many of its own references and styles , from Springsteen to Madonna . As such , it 's best enjoyed on its own flawed , bombastic terms . " Nick Levine , reviewing the album for BBC Music felt that most of the tracks are already available as digital downloads and CD singles , " so it 's easy to dismiss Born This Way : The Remix as inessential and , yes , a cash @-@ in . But taken as a whole , this release offers enough revelations to suggest the original album is worth revisiting . That additional purpose , whether intentional or not , feels at least partly fulfilled . " Levine complimented The Weeknd and Twin Shadow 's remixes , while criticizing Foster the People and Sultan & Ned Shepard for their predictable remixes .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United Kingdom , Born This Way : The Remix entered the UK Albums Chart at number 77 , for the issue dated December 12 , 2011 . In Japan , the album sold 12 @,@ 120 copies in its first week , and debuted at number 14 on the Japanese Albums Chart . In its second week , the album fell down to number 19 while selling 6 @,@ 650 copies . It has been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies . In the United States , the album debuted outside the top 100 of the Billboard 200 albums chart , at number 105 , while debuting at number three on the Dance / Electronic Albums chart . As of April 2016 , Born This Way : The Remix has sold 62 @,@ 000 copies in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan . Other nations where the album attained top @-@ 100 positions included Italy , France and Spain .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted as per Born This Way : The Remix liner notes and as per Allmusic .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Franz Burgmeier =
Franz Burgmeier ( born 7 April 1982 ) is a Liechtenstein footballer , who plays as a midfielder for Vaduz in the Swiss Super League . Born in Triesen , Burgmeier was a burgeoning footballer and keen skier , until he gave up the latter sport at 16 following a serious injury . Having been a youth player for Triesen , he started his professional career with Vaduz . Burgmeier won several Liechtensteiner Cups with Vaduz , who were promoted to the Swiss Challenge League in 2001 , and played in the UEFA Cup . After two unsuccessful attempts to win promotion to the Swiss Super League , Burgmeier left for Aarau in 2005 . He spent only one season with Aarau before a move to the previous season 's runners @-@ up Basel in 2006 . His two seasons with Basel were broken up by a loan spell with Thun , before he moved to England with Darlington in August 2008 , where he played for one year .
Burgmeier has won 99 caps and scored nine goals for his country . He is a right @-@ footed player who is either a left midfielder or left back , with the ability to deliver a good cross . He made his international debut in 2001 against Spain and three years later scored one of the goals that helped secure his country 's first point in World Cup qualification matches .
= = Personal life = =
Burgmeier was born in Triesen , Liechtenstein , a small town with a population of 4 @,@ 500 , close to the border with Switzerland . He is the younger son of Heinz and Elsbeth , following Patrick Burgmeier , who played football for Vaduz and USV Eschen / Mauren . From a young age , Franz played both football and skied . He played for the Liechtenstein youth team in Swiss competitions from ages 11 to 16 , winning the championship when he was 13 . However , at 16 , a knee injury , which he suffered while skiing , nearly ended his football career and prompted him to stop the former sport .
Burgmeier has a girlfriend , Monica , who lives in Switzerland . She also plays football , as a full back , in National League B.
= = Club career = =
= = = Vaduz = = =
Burgmeier started out as a youth at Triesen before moving to Vaduz in 2000 . Although based in his home country , like all Liechtenstein clubs Vaduz played league football in Switzerland — at the time in the third tier — but also competed in the Liechtenstein Football Cup . In Burgmeier 's first season the team won promotion to the Challenge League and won the Liechtenstein Cup with a 9 – 0 defeat against Ruggell in the final . He scored his first goal at the higher level on 31 July 2001 , in a postponed game from the first round of the season , which finished in a 4 – 1 victory against Thun . However , Vaduz finished in 11th place in the Fall Season , before results improved and they finished in second place in the Final Table , avoiding being relegated . The team also successfully defended their Liechtenstein Cup defeating USV Eschen / Mauren 6 – 1 in the final .
Vaduz 's success in their nation 's cup ensured they gained access to the UEFA Cup , and in August 2002 , Burgmeier scored his first European goal during a 1 – 1 with Livingston , the Scottish side 's first game in Europe . In the second leg , Vaduz had a late goal disallowed during a 0 – 0 , and so they went out in the qualifying round for the third successive year , losing on the away goals rule . Vaduz topped the Fall Season table that season , but failed to win promotion to the Swiss Super League after finishing fourth in the Final League . Their failure was offset with another victory in the Liechtenstein Cup , this time defeating Balzers in the final .
In June 2003 , he was set to join St. Gallen ; however , the deal never went through because the Swiss side could not afford the transfer fee . Instead he started with Vaduz , who came closer to gaining promotion but were again unsuccessful , after they lost in the promotion – relegation play @-@ off match . Burgmeier scored one of the goals in the second leg against Neuchâtel Xamax , but Mobulu M 'Futi scored to ensure Neuchâtel won over the two legs , and Vaduz stayed in the Challenge League . Despite his side defending their Liechtenstein Cup , Burgmeier missed the final .
However , their cup success helped Vaduz to another UEFA Cup , which resulted in their first win in the competition with a 4 – 2 aggregate victory against FAI Cup @-@ holders Longford Town in July 2004 . Burgmeier netted his second European goal during the ties , during the 3 – 2 second @-@ leg victory , before they were defeated in the second qualifying round to Belgian @-@ side Beveren , during which Burgmeier was injured forcing him to undergo a knee operation and miss the first month of the league season . Vaduz repeated their efforts domestically , defeating USV Eschen / Mauren in the cup and reaching the promotion play @-@ off game . However , they were defeated by Schaffhausen and were left with only ten players on secure contracts for the following season . Burgmeier himself left Vaduz after five years with the club , during which he played 115 league games and scored 27 goals .
= = = Aarau = = =
Burgmeier , instead , moved to Aarau in Switzerland . His debut came in a 2 – 0 league defeat to Thun , before he was substituted near the end of the second half . Aarau were in the Super League , and finished seventh in Burgmeier 's only season with the club , in which he played 35 league games . His only league goal came in the second round of matches against St. Gallen , but he also scored in both the first two rounds of the Swiss Cup — his first games in the cup since Vaduz were not eligible for the competition — before they were eliminated in the quarter @-@ finals on penalties . His form with Aarau won Burgmeier the Liechtensteiner Footballer of the Year award , one point ahead of fellow international Mario Frick , and also earned him a move to Basel , for whom he signed a three @-@ year contract .
= = = Basel = = =
Burgmeier 's first role with Basel was to play in the Uhrencup as they defeated German @-@ side FC Köln 2 – 1 , to share the trophy with Zürich . Basel had finished the previous season as runners @-@ up in the league to Zürich on goal difference and so qualified for the following season 's UEFA Cup . Burgmeier made his Basel debut in the competition as they defeated Kazakhstan 's Tobol 3 – 1 on 13 July , before he was replaced by Scott Chipperfield . The second leg ended in a draw , sending Basel through . The second qualifying round draw gave Burgmeier a chance to return to Vaduz . He was a substitute in both games as his new team won on away goals . They went on to qualify for the group stages , in which they finished bottom of their division , with two points from four games . Burgmeier scored his first goal for his new club in a 4 – 2 away defeat against Sion , but again the side only ranked in the Championship behind Zürich , this time by one point . Their disappointment was offset by an extra time victory over Luzern in the final of the Swiss Cup .
Burgmeier injured his ankle at the start of the 2007 – 08 season , and after playing only four league games , Thun signed him on a six @-@ month loan deal in January 2008 . He played 17 times for Thun , who finished bottom of the Super League . Thun were also knocked out of the Swiss Cup by Burgmeier 's main employers in the semi @-@ finals . On 13 July 2008 , his contract with Basel was terminated early to allow him to find himself a new club after just 23 league appearances because he was seen as surplus to requirements by manager Christian Gross .
= = = Darlington = = =
While playing for Liechtenstein against England in a 2004 European Championships qualifying match at Old Trafford in 2003 , Burgmeier was spotted by Max Houghton . Although Liechtenstein lost 2 – 0 , Houghton was impressed by Burgmeier 's stamina and effort . When Burgmeier was released by Basel in 2008 , Houghton , then 12 years old , suggested to his grandfather , George Houghton , who was chairman of English side Darlington that he should be given a trial . Following a successful trial , Burgmeier , who was keen to move abroad , was signed by the League Two @-@ side on a one @-@ year contract at the end of August 2008 to become the first Liechtensteiner to play in England .
Burgmeier made his debut on 23 August , in a 2 – 1 defeat to Gillingham at The Darlington Arena . He scored his first goal for Darlington in a 2 – 1 win against Port Vale on 13 September . Manager Dave Penney praised Burgmeier for the start he made to the club , both as a goal scorer and creator , which also helped him to play his way into the affections of the club 's supporters . When Burgmeier won his 49th cap for Liechtenstein against Wales , it was his fourth in the two months since he joined Darlington . It took him past the club record three caps of Canadian Jason de Vos and New Zealander Adrian Webster , with a coach @-@ load of Darlington fans there to see him play at the Millennium Stadium . His next cap clashed with Darlington 's FA Cup first round replay with Conference North @-@ side Droylsden , in which they were defeated .
Darlington 's promotion campaign was dealt a blow in February 2009 , when club chairman George Houghton placed the club in administration . As a result , the club were deducted 10 points , a penalty from which they could not recover finally finishing 12th . Burgmeier finished with two goals during the season having played 35 games , but like the rest of the playing squad , was told he could find a new club by Darlington 's administrators .
= = = Return to Vaduz = = =
Following Darlington 's financial problems , Burgmeier returned home to Liechtenstein and signed with his former club Vaduz on a one @-@ year contract after the end of the 2008 – 09 season .
= = International career = =
Burgmeier is a Liechtenstein international who made his debut in a 2002 World Cup qualifier against Spain on 5 September 2001 . It was the penultimate game of the side 's qualifying campaign , in which they lost all eight games without scoring a goal . Despite starting the qualifying round for 2004 European Championships with a 1 – 1 draw with Macedonia , Liechtenstein lost their remaining games to finish bottom of their group . Burgmeier featured in seven of the qualification matches .
Burgmeier scored his first international goal in April 2003 in a friendly against Saudi Arabia to give Liechtenstein a 1 – 0 victory . On 10 October 2004 , he scored his first competitive international goal as he helped Liechtenstein to record their first point in World Cup qualification matches . He and Thomas Beck scored Liechtenstein 's goals in a 2 – 2 with Portugal at the Rheinpark Stadion . Burgmeier describes the draw as the " biggest moment of my career " . Three days later , Burgmeier scored two more goals as Liechtenstein earned their first World Cup win with a 4 – 0 victory against Luxembourg . They followed it up with a 0 – 0 draw against Slovakia and another victory over Luxembourg , to finish the qualifying campaign with eight points from their 12 matches . Burgmeier played in nine games .
Liechtenstein won another two games in their following qualifying campaign — for the 2008 European Championships . They had started with four defeats , in the last of which Burgmeier scored a consolation goal in a 4 – 1 win for Northern Ireland . A 1 – 0 victory against Latvia and a draw with Iceland followed , but Liechtenstein picked up only seven points to finish bottom of their group , with Burgmeier playing in all but one game .
Having earned eight points during the 2006 World Cup qualification games , Burgmeier said the target in the 2010 campaign was to pick up " as many points as possible " , adding , " For us , the target is not to qualify but to just take each game as it comes , enjoy the matches , and try and do as well as possible . " He won his 50th cap in a 4 – 0 friendly defeat to Slovakia on 19 November 2008 . Burgmeier has scored seven goals and picked up a number of opposition shirts which he plans to put in a hall of fame .
On 15 November 2014 , he scored his second Euro qualifier and winning goal over Moldova .
= = = International goals = = =
Scores and results list Liechtenstein 's goal tally first .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 28 September 2015 .
= = = International = = =
As of 28 September 2015 .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Vaduz
Swiss Challenge League ( 1 ) : 2013 – 14
Liechtensteiner Cup ( 11 ) : 2000 – 01 , 2001 – 02 , 2002 – 03 , 2003 – 04 , 2004 – 05 , 2009 – 10 , 2010 – 11 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14 , 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
Basel
Uhrencup ( 1 ) : 2005 – 06 ( shared )
Swiss Cup ( 1 ) : 2006 – 07
= = = Individual = = =
Liechtensteiner Footballer of the Year ( 1 ) : 2005 – 06
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= S Club 7 =
S Club 7 are an English pop group created by former Spice Girls manager Simon Fuller consisting of members Tina Barrett , Paul Cattermole , Rachel Stevens , Jo O 'Meara , Hannah Spearritt , Bradley McIntosh , and Jon Lee . The group was formed in 1998 and quickly rose to fame by starring in their own BBC television series , Miami 7 . In their five years together , S Club 7 had four UK number @-@ one singles , one UK number @-@ one album , and a string of hits throughout Europe , including a top @-@ ten single in the United States , Asia , Latin America and Africa . They recorded four studio albums , released 11 singles and went on to sell over 10 million albums worldwide . Their first album , S Club ( 1999 ) , had a strong 1990s pop sound , similar to many artists of their time . However , through the course of their career , their musical approach changed to a more dance and R & B sound which is heard mostly in their final album , Seeing Double ( 2002 ) .
The concept and brand of the group was created by Simon Fuller , also their manager through 19 Entertainment ; they were signed to Polydor Records . Their show lasted four series and saw the group travel across the United States , eventually ending up in Barcelona . It became popular in 100 different countries where the show was watched by over 90 million viewers . The show , which was a children 's sitcom , often mirrored real @-@ life events which had occurred in S Club , including the relationship of Spearritt and Cattermole , as well as Cattermole 's eventual departure from the group . As well as the popularity of their television series , S Club 7 won two BRIT Awards — in 2000 for British breakthrough act and in 2002 , for best British single . In 2001 , the group earned the Record of the Year award . Their song " Reach " was used in the arcade dance game EZ2Dancer in " EZ 2 Dancer UK Move " . Cattermole departed the group in 2002 , citing " creative differences " , and the group changed their name from S Club 7 to simply S Club . Their penultimate single reached number five in the UK charts , and their final album failed to make the top ten . Following Cattermole 's departure , the group fought many rumours presuming that they were about to split . However , on 21 April 2003 , during a live onstage performance , S Club announced that they were to disband .
After a five @-@ year split , it was announced in October 2008 that O 'Meara , Cattermole , and McIntosh were to perform a mini @-@ reunion tour . The tour consisted of a series of university and nightclub gigs , where they performed a set list consisting of a selection of songs from their greatest hits album . After O 'Meara , Cattermole and McIntosh reunited , rumours persisted that all the original members would reunite . In October 2014 , it was confirmed that the original lineup would reunite for the first time in over a decade for BBC Children in Need , later announcing a UK reunion tour for 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = 1997 – 98 : Formation = = =
Simon Fuller has commented that he came upon the concept of S Club 7 the day after he was fired by the Spice Girls in 1997 . He selected the members for the group after auditioning from over 10 @,@ 000 hopefuls ; Stevens was the only member of the group who did not audition to gain admittance into the group . Instead , two producers from 19 Management approached her and asked her to go into the studio to record a demo tape for Fuller . Both O 'Meara and Cattermole were spotted by producers from 19 and asked to audition . After the auditions had been advertised in The Stage , Lee , Spearritt , Barrett and McIntosh auditioned . After some final adjustments , including the removal of three original members , S Club 7 was formed .
Once the final line @-@ up was decided , they flew to Italy to become acquainted with each other . Speaking about this first meeting , Stevens remarked that the group " felt comfortable with each other from the beginning " . Several members of the group have since stated that the ' S ' in S Club 7 stands for Simon , after the group 's creator , although the official line has always been ambiguous . The group 's entry on the Popjustice website states that at one point they were nearly called " Sugar Club " instead of the name that stuck . Another theory is that the group is so @-@ named because " S " is the first letter of the word " seven " . McIntosh , in a December 2012 interview , said a lot of Simon Fuller 's success has been based on the number 19 ( owning 19 Entertainment ) ; therefore , as " S " is the 19th letter of the alphabet , the " S " was put into S Club 7 .
= = = 1999 – 2000 : S Club television series = = =
S Club 7 first came to public attention in 1999 , when they starred in their own television series , Miami 7 . The show first aired on CBBC on BBC One and was a children 's sitcom based on the lives of the group who had moved to Miami , Florida in search of fame in America . The show was also launched in the United States , airing on Fox Family , and later on ABC Family ; it was retitled S Club 7 in Miami for American audiences . The show eventually celebrated worldwide success and was watched by 90 million viewers in over 100 different countries . The group also filmed two specials between the first two series of their show . The first , Back to the ' 50s — which aired on CITV , instead of CBBC — told the story of how the group found themselves back in 1959 . In the second TV special , Boyfriends & Birthdays , Stevens ' boyfriend gave her an ultimatum of staying with him or remaining with S Club .
Within the television series , and the parallel branding , each member of S Club 7 had their own character , which contained exaggerated forms of their real life counterparts as well as their own identifiable " S Club colour " . Hannah Spearritt , for example , had an " S Club colour " of yellow which , as Spearritt describes , mirrors her own personality : " bright and happy " . US media characterized S Club 7 as " The Monkees for the next generation " . However , Joel Andryc — the vice president of the Fox Family Channel — stated that Miami 7 is " far more relationship driven " than The Monkees , and that " kids today are more sophisticated " .
Following on from Miami 7 , S Club 7 released the theme music to the show as their debut single on 9 June 1999 . The up @-@ tempo " Bring It All Back " reached number @-@ one in the United Kingdom singles charts , and after selling more than 600 @,@ 000 copies , was made BPI certified Platinum . Commenting on the chart position of " Bring It All Back " , the group felt " nervous and on @-@ edge " before they discovered they had reached number one . Once they had received the phone call from the record company , the group celebrated the news with " cheers , shouting and crying " . The group 's success escalated and much like Fuller 's marketing campaign for the Spice Girls , they were set to become a " marketable commodity " . As evidence for this , global toy manufacturer Hasbro agreed upon an exclusive licensing agreement with 19 Management which included worldwide rights in the fashion doll category ; singing S Club 7 dolls were later released onto the market . An official magazine , fan club , and accompanying Miami 7 scrapbook were also launched furthering 19 Management 's corporate aim .
Over the course of the year , the group enjoyed more success in the charts after their second single , " S Club Party " , entered the UK charts at number @-@ two and went straight to number @-@ one in New Zealand . Their third single was a double A @-@ side and featured the ballad , co @-@ written by Cathy Dennis , " Two in a Million " and retro @-@ styled , up @-@ tempo " You 're My Number One " . The former was the first single where O 'Meara took leads vocals , setting the standard for future S Club 7 releases ; the single also reached number @-@ two in the UK charts . Following the success of their television show and released singles , the group released their debut album S Club in October 1999 . The album quickly rose to number @-@ two in the UK charts , and then became certified Double Platinum . The album consisted of a variety of styles including motown and salsa tracks .
Due to the increasing demand for the group with gruelling schedules including spending over thirteen weeks in America filming the first series of their show and their subsequent television specials , the members often felt that the travelling back and forth from the UK and the US was " perhaps more tiring than what we were actually going out to America to do " . Paul Cattermole once commented that the speed of the schedule sometimes caused a " kind of dreamscape in your head " , as the group often felt " jetlagged and tired " . On top of the filming schedules , the group often performed at high profile pop music festivals such as Party in the Park where they performed for 100 @,@ 000 fans . The intensity of the schedule would be a constant battle for the group and was going to continue to take its toll for all the years S Club 7 were together . In spite of this , the group always remained in solidarity that they were all good friends , " cared for each other a lot " and supported each other through difficult times in the group .
= = = 2000 – 01 : 7 = = =
In February 2000 , the group won the ' British Breakthrough Act ' award at the 2000 BRIT Awards . In April 2000 , S Club 's second TV series , L.A. 7 ( renamed S Club 7 in L.A. in the US ) , was released . The series saw the group depart from Miami and move to Los Angeles to seek a record deal . It introduced the song " Reach " , another retro @-@ styled uptempo track , which was co @-@ written by Cathy Dennis and aired as the main theme tune to the second series . " Reach " was released as a single in May 2000 and reached number @-@ two in the UK charts . It arguably became one of the group 's most successful singles , paving the way for the group 's second album , 7 which was released on 12 June 2000 . This album was a departure from the overtly pop stylings of S Club , with tracks styled more towards R & B than the traditional nineties pop sound of their debut album . It reached number @-@ one in the UK charts becoming certified Triple Platinum , and a certified Gold record in the US . The second single from the album , " Natural " , featured Stevens as lead vocalist . It reached number three in September 2000 .
S Club 7 took an active part in promoting several charities during their time as a band . As well as performing for Children in Need , the band launched , on 25 September 2000 , a new television series called S Club 7 Go Wild ! , which saw each band member support an endangered species . Teaming up with the World Wildlife Fund , each member travelled to different destinations worldwide with a hope to raise awareness about the seven endangered creatures , including the Siberian tiger and the hyacinth macaw . In October 2000 , they launched the annual Poppy Appeal Campaign with Dame Thora Hird and supported Woolworth 's Kids First Campaign throughout 1999 and 2000 . The group also recorded vocals for " It 's Only Rock ' N ' Roll " , which raised money for Children 's Promise , an alliance of seven children 's charities : Barnardo 's , Children in Need , ChildLine , The Children 's Society , Comic Relief , NCH and the NSPCC . A cover of The Rolling Stones song , the group contributed to the vocals alongside many popular artists , including Mary J. Blige , Natalie Imbruglia and the Spice Girls ; it entered the UK charts at number @-@ nineteen . Also , during that time they filmed two speciales : " Artistic Differences " and their " Christmas Special " .
In November 2000 , S Club 7 were invited to provide the official song for the UK 's BBC Children in Need Campaign 2000 , so a new song , the ballad " Never Had a Dream Come True " , was recorded . The song became popular in the US market eventually taking the group to appear on MTV 's TRL to perform the song and chosen to appear at the " Now That 's What I Call Music " US Edition . After topping the UK charts in December 2000 , the song was added to a re @-@ release of the 7 album , along with another new track , a cover of Stevie Wonder 's " Lately " .
= = = 2001 – 02 : Sunshine and Cattermole 's departure = = =
" Never Had a Dream Come True " had marked a more mature direction for the group whilst still retaining their pop sensibilities , a direction which continued into their third studio album , Sunshine . The album contained what was to become one of S Club 's most popular tracks , " Don 't Stop Movin ' " . The song was released in April 2001 , marked a high point for the group as the single went straight to number @-@ one , went Platinum and became the seventh best selling single of 2001 . McIntosh , who takes lead vocals with O 'Meara in the track , said he was " nervous " about taking lead vocals and was worried how people would react . However , after the song went in at number @-@ one , he felt as though he was " supported by the fans " and his fears were alleviated . McIntosh also remarked that the single had broken new ground for the group , and Cattermole thought it to be their " best song by miles " . The group won the Record of the Year award for the song , and in February 2002 , the single won the group their second BRIT Award for best British single . The song has since been covered by The Beautiful South for their 2004 album Golddiggas , Headnodders and Pholk Songs , as well as by Starsailor who recorded it for BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge .
By spring 2001 , the group were " desperate " to start touring ; it was something which they had always wanted to do , but couldn 't because things were " always so hectic " . After spending most of early 2001 rehearsing , the S Club Party 2001 tour began on 19 May 2001 . Describing the tour , Stevens remarked that seeing a crowd of over 13 @,@ 000 fans each night coming to see them was " such an unbelievable feeling " , and the other members of the group shared an " adrenaline rush " as well as a wave of emotion before going on stage . Once the tour was over , the group had to fly back to the United States in order to film the third series of their television show , Hollywood 7 . This third series , which was still set in Los Angeles , was the group 's favourite to film because they had more acting experience and could " drop their shoulders " and start to enjoy themselves . The group , however , had to continuously cope with intense schedules and early starts whilst recording for the programme , something which , although the group felt " laid back " about it at the time , was to eventually take its toll and lead to the demise of the band . Hollywood 7 began airing in September 2001 and dealt with the issue of an on @-@ screen kiss between Spearritt and Cattermole , who had begun dating in real life . Their relationship , which was kept secret for six months , was well received by the band who claimed it had made them all closer as friends . Hollywood 7 aired alongside a new CBBC reality show , S Club Search , which invited children to extend the S Club brand and audition to form a younger version of the band . The new group were to be chosen to sing with S Club 7 on Children in Need 2001 and go on tour with them on their future S Club 7 Carnival 2002 tour . The eight children who went on to form the band named themselves S Club Juniors and had six top ten UK hits .
The effects of the group 's charity single , " Never Had a Dream Come True " , were felt when the group handed over £ 200 @,@ 000 to Children in Need , from the sales of the CD after the release of " Don 't Stop Movin ' " in April 2001 . As a result , S Club 7 were invited back and asked to record a second consecutive Children in Need single , in November 2001 . It was decided that " Have You Ever " , a song co @-@ written by Chris Braide and Cathy Dennis , was to be released for the charity campaign . After the success of the previous year 's single , the performance on the night featured many primary school children who had pre @-@ recorded their own versions of the chorus , including the S Club Juniors who they made their first television appearance . The band felt " overjoyed " that they could , once again , contribute to the Children in Need campaign , feeling that it meant a lot to them to be involved and feeling privileged to be able to help ; they also commented that it was nice for British school children to be involved in raising money for charity . The single was another success for the group and became their fourth number @-@ one , as well as the 21st biggest selling single of 2001 .
In January 2002 , S Club 7 embarked upon their second arena tour , S Club 7 Carnival 2002 , which aimed to please fans by stylising their songs to fit with a carnival @-@ like theme with music styles from different countries of the world . Speaking about the tour , McIntosh described it as " older show " , a change from S Club Party 2001 , which was " more like bubblegum " , with Paul Cattermole comparing 2001 's " theatrical " tour with the Carnival tour as a more " glitzy , concert stage " . The tour was generally well received by the children 's media , describing the show as " diverse " and " dazzling " , whereas the group was criticised by the broadsheets as being " like a compilation of toddler @-@ friendly Eurovision entries " although conceding that it was a " slick , decent @-@ value show " . Cattermole was also criticised when he was dubbed overweight and a " heavy @-@ footed dancer " . After the success of their last three singles , all of which had made it to number @-@ one , S Club 7 failed to top the charts when they released their ninth single , " You " ; it reached number @-@ two in the UK . The single , which was described as a " candyfloss @-@ bright , tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek 50s pastiche " , was to be Paul Cattermole 's last single with the band and led the way for a series of events that was to unravel S Club 7 's time at the top of the charts , which would ultimately cause the band to split .
In March 2002 , Paul Cattermole told The Sun newspaper that it was time for him to " move on " from the group and he wanted to go back to his " rock roots " , which heralded back to the time he was part of a nu metal band formed at school in 1992 . Talking about his former musical venture three months before he left S Club 7 , Cattermole described the band — called Skua — as having a " Limp Bizkit vibe " as well as comparing their style to Rage Against the Machine . Cattermole 's resignation came as Skua had decided to reform , and he found it a perfect time to make the transition back from pop to rock as S Club 7 's record contracts were up for renewal . Skua released their first album in October 2014 titled Kneel Cattermole stayed with the band until June 2002 , featuring in four out of thirteen episodes of the group 's final television series , Viva S Club , and performing his final concert with the group for Party at the Palace , which was part of Queen Elizabeth II 's Golden Jubilee celebrations .
= = = 2002 – 03 : Seeing Double , Greatest Hits and break @-@ up = = =
After Cattermole 's departure , vowing to not disband , the remaining six members stayed together under the name S Club . Despite losing a member of the group , the future remained positive as , although they were very sad to see Cattermole leave the group , they were " delighted " to have extended their contracts meaning they could look forward to new material , a new series of their television show as well as their first feature film . However , media reports of the time weren 't so optimistic stating that , as neither the Spice Girls nor Take That had survived once they lost a member of their group , it would be difficult for S Club to remain together in an industry which has a " horrible habit of leaving bands in tatters once the first member has left " . After only peaking at number @-@ five in the UK charts with Alive , their first single as a six , was S Club 's positivism diminished . Although their progressive musical style was once again furthered with the release of their fourth studio album , Seeing Double , it failed to make an impact on the UK charts , stalling at number @-@ seventeen . S Club 's time at the top of the charts was slowly coming to an end , and when O 'Meara announced that she had an immobilising back condition which could have left her in a wheelchair , and she was unable to take part in television performances , the group was left devastated .
In April 2003 , S Club released their first feature film , Seeing Double , directed by music @-@ video director Nigel Dick , which was to be the last time the group would be seen on @-@ screen together . Unlike its television predecessors , the film moved into the realm of children 's fantasy , and saw the group fighting evil scientist Victor Gaghan in his quest to clone the world 's pop stars . The film 's release was marked by many rumours that the group were about to split , which were quickly denied by the six . However , ten days after the release of their movie , the rumours were confirmed when it was announced live on stage — during their S Club United tour on 21 April 2003 – that , after a final single and greatest hits album , S Club would part ways . The band cited a mutual split , expressing it was simply a time " to move on and face new challenges " . Many fans felt " betrayed " and " disappointed " by the breakup , as well as " angry " due to the group denying rumours only two weeks before at the Seeing Double premiere . Many compared the demise of the group to that of fellow pop band Steps , as they too had denied their intentions until the moment before their split , after which they were accused of acting out of " greed and cynicism " . Since the split , the members of S Club have commented on how exhausting being in the band was , due to hectic schedules and long filming days .
In 2003 S Club confirming the split " wasn 't a final straw " , Spearritt has remarked that the group had felt it appropriate wanting to do their own thing ; she had constantly felt " drained " whilst with S Club . The final single was a double A @-@ side , coupling " Love Ain 't Gonna Wait for You " , from their fourth album Seeing Double , with a new ballad , " Say Goodbye " . Returning to the style of their first single , " Say Goodbye " saw vocals shared around the group . The single reached number @-@ two in the UK , beaten to the top spot by R. Kelly 's " Ignition ( Remix ) " , and was included on S Club 's greatest hits album , Best : The Greatest Hits of S Club 7 , released in June 2003 . This compilation brought together the group 's releases with a previously unreleased track , " Everybody Get Pumped " and 7 track " Bring the House Down " . The album reached number @-@ two in the United Kingdom . S Club eventually disbanded after the release of " Say Goodbye " on 26 May 2003 .
On 27 April 2003 , it was reported that Spearritt 's parents had hired lawyers to chase payments owed to them by Simon Fuller and his management company . They claimed that out of the € 75 million fortune the band made for Fuller , they only received € 150 @,@ 000 a year of it . There was also controversy when the band had to travel economy class to America and when Fuller did not turn up for the premiere of Seeing Double . The criticism put to Fuller was similar of that in 1997 when the Spice Girls fired him for being too controlling . After the group split up , the S Club Juniors rebranded to " S Club 8 " , and went on to film CBBC show I Dream , releasing their third studio album under the same name . The group disbanded in 2005 .
= = = 2008 – 14 : S Club 3 , S Club 4 and S Club Party = = =
From October 2008 , O 'Meara , McIntosh , and Cattermole reunited and started performing in pubs and clubs across Britain . This was shortly after O 'Meara 's son Lenny was born . On 12 November 2008 , a bottle was thrown at O 'Meara during an S Club 3 performance in Bradford ; it left her with a severe cut to the head , requiring treatment at a nearby Hospital . A 20 @-@ year @-@ old man was arrested , and the attack was thought to have something to do with her performance on Celebrity Big Brother , where nearly 50 @,@ 000 complaints were received about her and two other female contestants ' apparent racist bullying toward Bollywood actress Shilpa Shetty . In late 2008 , some sources stated that Barrett and Lee were to start touring with the group sometime in the following year . It was also stated that a new greatest hits album , Ain 't No Party : The Ultimate Collection of S Club 7 was set for release later the following year . Both of these rumours turned out to be false . Lee was pursuing his acting career along with Spearritt , Barrett was on hiatus , and Stevens was starring in Strictly Come Dancing . Cattermole was absent from a gig at the Plug Club in Sheffield in February 2009 . On 12 November , S Club 3 turned on the Mansfield Christmas Lights . In early 2010 , the group decided to take their gigs further . They booked some venues in Egypt for April . On 19 April 2010 , S Club 3 were the headlining act at the Tottenham Carnival . The group made an appearance at Gay Prides in Doncaster and Yorkshire on 21 August .
In January 2011 , O 'Meara and McIntosh made several performances in Dublin without Cattermole . On 2 February 2011 , O 'Meara , McIntosh and Cattermole played at Keele University , followed by a guest appearance at Aberystwyth University on 20 February 2011 . On 18 March 2011 they played to a sellout crowd at the University of Hull , a move which saw local media refer to the show as " the comeback of the century " . The group subsequently performed at Butlin 's in Bognor Regis and various university Freshers ' Week events , with a scheduled tour of Australia in May 2012 . In March 2011 , O 'Meara stated on Facebook that all seven members would be reunited for the first time since 2002 . On 29 March 2011 , the group all went to see Lee perform as Frankie Valli in Jersey Boys on stage . They posed for photos afterwards . On 29 November 2011 it was revealed by several publications , that S Club had hopes to reunite in 2012 for a possible tour , following on the success from Steps . However , Barrett confirmed through her Twitter page that the rumours of a reunion were completely fabricated . However , on 12 December 2011 , she announced on Twitter in response to a fan : " right now i 'll just say anythings possible so we 'll see ! ! x " In an interview on ITV 's This Morning Spearritt stated that her and her former bandmates are just " too busy " for a reunion .
In March 2012 , it was speculated that all seven members would reform for seven one @-@ off gigs and appearances , with possibility of a two @-@ album record deal . On 30 April , Barrett spoke out about the speculations on Radio 5 . She revealed that the group had been " talking about it " and stated that a reunion is likely to happen if they come up with a " good plan " . She was also pursuing her solo career at that time , she was the only group member who didn 't during the break @-@ up . In spring 2012 the group , now renamed ' S Club Party ' set out on a tour of Australia with other noughties ' hit group , Big Brovaz . On 30 May 2012 , S Club featured on Australia 's Channel 7 The Morning Show , announcing they are in the country for a national tour from 23 May to 2 June 2012 . Subsequent to this appearance , a video of the performance was uploaded to YouTube , where the reaction was largely negative with many viewers expressing the opinion that the performance was uncomfortable to watch , with the absence of the four other members of the original band causing some disillusionment among childhood fans of the group .
On 12 June 2012 , Spearritt denied the reunion plans and stated that she will not return to S Club or continue her music career and will keep on pursuing her acting career . She stated " It 's cool that bands like Steps are getting back together , because it 's worked out for lots of people . But I don 't see it in my plans at all . In the future , I hope I 'll still be working and being able to do what I love . I feel very lucky at the minute , and doing theatre has really opened more doors for me . So as long as I can keep doing what I love , I 'm very lucky . " On 24 March 2013 , Stevens said to the Daily Mirror that a reunion could still happen : " We met up not long ago and we talked about it and we still are talking about it . We are all in the same head space , talking about how special it was and we do all want to celebrate what we had . So it 's definitely a possibility . "
In 2014 , Cattermole later re @-@ ignited reunion rumours following a tweet to his former group mates . Barrett performed with O 'Meara , McIntosh and Cattermole at Birmingham Pride 2014 and other gigs after that ; meaning that the group was known as ' S Club 4 ' . After this , Jo , Bradley and Tina have performed at a number of events as ' S Club Party ' .
= = = 2014 – present : Original line @-@ up reunion and Bring It All Back 2015 = = =
In August 2014 , it was reported that the band would be reforming under the backing of Simon Fuller . Cattermole denied these reports the next day , but said a reunion was " God damn close to happening " . On 22 October , it was confirmed that all seven members of S Club 7 would reunite for the BBC Children in Need telethon ; the reunion aired on 14 November 2014 , with S Club 7 performing a medley of four of their greatest hits : " S Club Party " , " Reach " , " Bring It All Back " and " Don 't Stop Movin ' " . Popjustice announced that the band plan on having a press conference on Monday , 17 November 2014 , where they are to unveil their " huge plans " for 2015 . On 17 November 2014 , S Club 7 announced their plans for an arena reunion tour , promptly titled Bring It All Back 2015 , which toured the UK in May 2015 .
In March 2015 , during an interview with Graham Norton on BBC Radio 2 , the group confirmed plans to re @-@ release their 2003 greatest hits , Best : The Greatest Hits of S Club 7 that forthcoming May , and that it may contain the previously unreleased track " Rain " . On 28 April 2015 , it was confirmed that the re @-@ issue of the Best album would release on 4 May , and would include " Rain " , as well as " Friday Night " from the S Club album .
= = Controversy = =
On 20 March 2001 , Cattermole , Lee and McIntosh were caught with cannabis in London 's Covent Garden ; they were cautioned by police at Charing Cross Police Station and released without charge . After the event , their publicity firm Henry 's House released a public apology stating they were " very stupid " and " very sorry " , admitting to having made a " stupid mistake " . At the time , BT and Cadbury , who had sponsorship deals with S Club 7 , said they were " very disappointed " to learn of the caution but said they would keep their contracts with the band . However , cereal firm Quaker Oats ended talks with 19 Entertainment after learning of the police caution . It was rumoured that merchandising company PMS International were to take out an £ 800 @,@ 000 lawsuit against the band for declining sales as a direct result of the drugs scandal . However , this came to nothing and any doubts over the future of sponsorship ended when Pepsi signed the band up less than a month after the drugs caution .
= = Musical style = =
The style of music S Club 7 normally falls under is pop , or more specifically bubblegum pop , as well as manufactured pop . This is certainly the case for their first album , S Club where simple lyrics , three @-@ chord structures and danceable beats define it so . Their first two singles saw vocals shared equally amongst the seven members of the group , and it was not until their third single , " Two in a Million " that O 'Meara became known as their lead vocalist . Although the band were to progressively change their style over the four years they were together , even their first album had many tracks atypical of the pop genre : " You 're My Number One " , " Love Train " and " Everybody Wants Ya " were motown driven whereas " Viva La Fiesta " and " It 's A Feel Good Thing " , were both " bouncy , salsa @-@ driven Latino songs " .
Over the years , their style and direction changed progressively with each new album . Their second album 7 , had songs which had styles far removed from the traditional pop songs rival pop bands of the nineties were releasing . With the release of " Natural " in 2000 , S Club 7 showcased a new , R & B @-@ lite sound . The release of their third album , Sunshine , gave audiences their biggest change : the album contained tracks such as the disco @-@ influenced , " Don 't Stop Movin ' " and the R & B ballad , " Show Me Your Colours " . The album marked a more mature approach for the band .
With the departure of Cattermole , S Club released their fourth and final album , Seeing Double which contained many songs with styles not yet explored by the group . The group released " Alive " which was a " power @-@ packed dance floor filler " , a style which matched that of their final single " Love Ain 't Gonna Wait for You " . The album also contained many other dance tracks and songs far removed from their original bubblegum pop stylings , such as the " sex for the CBBC generation " in " Hey Kitty Kitty " . Although , in one review , referring to " Gangsta Love " , " S Club 's spiritual home is the suburban disco , not urban underground clubs , and their attempt to go garage on " Gangsta Love " ends up amusing rather than authentic " . Throughout their releases , S Club 7 always kept their original pop roots , with songs such as " Reach " , " You " and " Say Goodbye "
= = Members = =
= = Discography = =
S Club ( 1999 )
7 ( 2000 )
Sunshine ( 2001 )
Seeing Double ( 2002 )
= = Filmography = =
= = Tours = =
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= 1989 FA Charity Shield =
The 1989 FA Charity Shield ( also known as the Tennent 's Charity Shield for sponsorship reasons ) was the 67th Charity Shield , an annual English football match played between the winners of the previous season 's Football League and FA Cup . It was held at Wembley Stadium on 12 August 1989 . The match was contested by Arsenal , champions of the 1988 – 89 Football League and Liverpool , who beat Everton in the final of the 1988 – 89 FA Cup . Watched by a crowd of 63 @,@ 149 , Liverpool won the match 1 – 0 .
This was Arsenal 's 10th Shield appearance and Liverpool 's 14th . The two clubs had met in the last game of the previous season , in a title decider at Anfield which Arsenal won 2 – 0 with a late goal from Michael Thomas . Both clubs also faced each other in the Makita International Tournament at Wembley the previous month ; Arsenal won the match 1 – 0 . Journalists previewing the game argued this year 's Shield had lost its spectacle given Liverpool 's recent successes in the event as well as the prospect of Arsenal beating Liverpool for a third time .
New signing Glenn Hysén made his competitive debut for Liverpool and Ian Rush started ahead of fellow striker John Aldridge . For Arsenal , Gus Caesar replaced Steve Bould in the starting team . The only goal of the match came in the first half – a long ball from Barry Venison floated around the Arsenal defence and found Peter Beardsley in the penalty area to score . Afterwards Liverpool manager Kenny Dalglish spoke of his delight at his team 's performance and the Arsenal manager George Graham was complimentary of his opponents .
= = Background = =
The FA Charity Shield was founded in 1908 as a successor to the Sheriff of London Charity Shield . It was a contest between the respective champions of the Football League and Southern League , which then became an event for select teams of amateur and professional players by 1913 . In 1921 , it was played between the Football League champions and FA Cup winners for the first time ; this became standard practise from 1930 . Wembley Stadium acted as the host of the Shield from 1974 .
Arsenal qualified for the 1989 FA Charity Shield as winners of the 1988 – 89 Football League First Division . The team played Liverpool at Anfield in the final game of the season and needed to win by two clear goals to be crowned champions . Alan Smith scored for Arsenal early in the second half to make it 1 – 0 , and Michael Thomas 's goal with seconds left of the match ensured the team won the league title . Liverpool , days before the league encounter with Arsenal , defeated Everton to win the 1989 FA Cup Final which meant they obtained the other Charity Shield place .
This was Arsenal 's first appearance in the Charity Shield in 10 years ; prior to the game they had won seven Shields ( 1930 , 1931 , 1933 , 1934 , 1938 , 1948 and 1953 ) , and lost three ( 1935 , 1936 and 1979 ) . By contrast , Liverpool had won seven previous Shields outright ( 1966 , 1974 , 1976 , 1979 , 1980 , 1982 and 1988 ) , shared two with Manchester United ( 1965 and 1977 ) and one apiece with Everton ( 1986 ) and West Ham United ( 1984 ) . The club was runners @-@ up in three Shields ( 1971 , 1983 and 1984 ) .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
This was the second time in a fortnight that Arsenal and Liverpool had played each other ; at the end of July , the two teams competed in the Makita International Tournament at Wembley . Arsenal won the game by a single goal to win the tournament and then on their pre @-@ season travels beat Argentinian champions Independiente . The spectacle of the Charity Shield was lost on certain football journalists previewing the match , because of Liverpool 's recent successes in the Shield as well as the prospect of Arsenal beating Liverpool for a third time in succession . David Lacey wrote in The Guardian of 12 August 1989 : " The FA Charity Shield is now more of a pre @-@ season finale than a pipe opener for the main event , " and Stuart Jones of The Times went further in his assessment of its decline :
Whereas it was once an eagerly @-@ awaited showpiece , it resembles in the modern age little more than another public training exercise for sides who are increasingly being invited to practise for the season in more lucrative and prestigious events on foreign fields .
Liverpool striker Ian Rush , who in the previous season sustained a knee injury and was treated for shingles and hepatitis , said before the match : " I 'm in great shape . Fitter than I have been since I came back from Italy . "
= = Match = =
= = = Team selection = = =
Arsenal was without injured defender Steve Bould , but Nigel Winterburn returned to full action , as did Brian Marwood – he recovered from a successful Achilles tendon operation . Manager George Graham deployed a 5 – 3 – 2 formation ; Gus Caesar was brought into the defence to replace Bould .
Liverpool had no injury concerns for the game other than long @-@ term absentee Gary Gillespie ; New signing Glenn Hysén made his competitive debut for the club and striker John Aldridge was named on the substitutes bench ; manager Kenny Dalglish lined the team up in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation . Alan Hansen , who had missed Liverpool 's final nine matches of the previous season , was restored as captain .
= = = Summary = = =
Liverpool created the first chance of the game in the 20th minute . A pass from John Barnes sent Steve Nicol clear to shoot , but his effort saw the ball roll wide of the far post . Liverpool created a further opportunity six minutes after – from a free @-@ kick delivered by Barnes on the left , Rush managed to outjump his marker and head the ball in the direction of the Arsenal goal . It however hit the near post and rebounded in the direction of Arsenal goalkeeper John Lukic . Minutes after the half @-@ hour mark , Liverpool scored the opening goal – a long ball from Barry Venison went behind the Arsenal defence and reached Peter Beardsley . Unimpeded , he controlled the ball and shot it with his right foot to score . Arsenal 's Kevin Richardson missed a chance to level the scoreline after good play by Lee Dixon ; from outside the penalty box he scuffed his shot and the ball went over the crossbar .
Liverpool continued to dominate proceedings in the second half ; The Observer football correspondent Frank McGhee noted Arsenal 's " obvious need for a more adventurous approach . " The club 's fans demanded Marwood 's introduction to the match , and in the 58th minute the player came on for Caesar . This meant Arsenal 's formation was tweaked to 4 – 4 – 2 , with a flat back four defence . Arsenal found it hard to contain the Liverpool attack ; Lukic saved an effort from Beardsley one @-@ handed , but only could turn the ball out for a corner . A pass by Ronnie Whelan managed to split the Arsenal defence and find Nicol ; Winterburn however put an end to the move with a tackle . David Burrows 's attempt on goal was blocked by O 'Leary later on and Lukic did enough to save Rush 's shot with his legs .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Dalglish was pleased with Liverpool 's game and told the press : " The most important thing is that we got our own standard of football right . We were the better team in all departments and we know that if we get it right then we will be there or thereabouts . " Hysén , the man of the match , said of his centre @-@ back partner Hansen : " It is so easy playing alongside Alan . He tells you where to go and what position to take up . " He saw similarities with Liverpool and playing for a national team : " The standards are so amazingly high . I just want to win things with them . "
Graham praised his opponents – " There is no need to take anything away from Liverpool because they were terrific , " and felt his team could have been more clinical . He described Arsenal 's performance as " below par " and was upbeat about the season ahead : " This might have done us the world of good . We will be all right by next week – don 't worry about that . "
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= Port of Rijeka =
The Port of Rijeka ( Croatian : Luka Rijeka ) is a seaport in Rijeka , Croatia , located on the shore of the Kvarner Gulf in the Adriatic Sea . The first records of the port date to 1281 . It was the main port of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century , of Yugoslavia between World War II and 1991 , and of Croatia after its independence . Today , it is the largest port in Croatia with a cargo throughput of 10 @.@ 9 million tonnes ( 2015 ) , mostly oil , general cargo and bulk cargo , and 161 @,@ 883 Twenty @-@ foot equivalent units ( TEUs ) . In 2008 , the Port of Rijeka recorded 4 @,@ 376 ship arrivals . It is managed by the Port of Rijeka Authority .
In 2011 , Luka Rijeka d.d. , a concessionaire of the Port of Rijeka signed a contract of strategic partnership with International Container Terminal Services Inc . ( ICTSI ) and Jadranska vrata d.d. , the second concessionaire of the Port of Rijeka , to operate the container terminal . The partnership aims to expand the terminal 's capacity to 600 @,@ 000 TEUs . The development master plan , devised by Rotterdam Maritime Group , calls for further expansion of the port facilities by 2030 , including construction of a large container terminal in Omišalj on Krk Island . The third concessionaire is Jadranski naftovod ( JANAF ) , which operates an oil terminal in Omišalj .
= = History = =
The first record of a port in Rijeka dates back to 1281 , when the Great Council of the Republic of Venice reported a conflict of Venetian merchants and ship owners from Zadar and Rab . In 1719 , the Port of Rijeka was granted a charter as a free port by Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI , and the first road connecting the port to the hinterland , the Caroline road , was completed in 1728 . The inland connections were gradually improved by the construction of the Josephina and Louisiana roads in 1779 and 1810 respectively .
In 1776 , Rijeka became a corpus separatum within the Habsburg Monarchy , known under its Hungarian / Italian name of Fiume , and was transferred to the Kingdom of Hungary in order to foster trade . Following the Austro @-@ Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , Rijeka gained greater importance as the sole Hungarian seaport , and in the second half of the 19th century a new artificial harbor was completed , as well as railway lines to Budapest via Zagreb and to Pivka in present @-@ day Slovenia , where the railway joined the Austrian Southern Railway connecting Vienna and Trieste . The development in this period boosted the Port of Rijeka to rank tenth in transport volume among European ports as it reached a peak in 1913 . In the second half of the 19th century , a large breakwater was built along with wharfs in the city of Rijeka itself , moving the shoreline between 100 metres ( 330 feet ) and 200 metres ( 660 feet ) . In the period , railway infrastructure was also built to the north of the port , along with storage facilities , administrative buildings and other necessary structures . The railway facilities were designed by Jozsef Bainville , while the port itself was designed by Hilarion Pascal , who had previously designed the Port of Marseille , and Antal Hajnal . The design was presented as a model port at the Weltausstellung in Vienna in 1873 and at the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1878 .
After the defeat of Austria @-@ Hungary in World War I and the Treaty of Rapallo of 1920 , Rijeka became an independent city @-@ state known as the Free State of Fiume . That marked the beginning of the port 's decline , as it lost a large portion of its major market , Hungary . Italy annexed Rijeka in 1924 by the Treaty of Rome , and the port became peripherally located , with no modern railway or road links to the rest of the country , further adding to the already obvious economic decline .
During World War II , Rijeka was targeted by around 30 Allied bombing raids , and in 1945 the retreating Germans damaged approximately 90 % of the port facilities . Among the ships sunk in the port was the German auxiliary cruiser Kiebitz , which would later be raised and repaired to become the Yugoslav Navy Yacht Galeb . The city of Rijeka purchased the ship , which was subsequently moored in the port and eventually opened as a museum in 2011 .
Following World War II and the Paris Peace Treaties , Rijeka became a part of Croatia and Yugoslavia . This provided the Port of Rijeka with a new market and sparked further development . A bulk cargo terminal was completed in 1967 , followed by warehouses in Škrljevo in 1978 . In 1979 , a container terminal in Sušak , a phosphate terminal in Rijeka and a timber terminal in Bršica were added . Joining them were a livestock terminal in Bršica and a general cargo terminal with a roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off ramp in the Bakar area in 1982 and 1983 respectively . The greatest volume of cargo was recorded in 1980 , when 20 @.@ 2 million tonnes , including 13 @.@ 1 million tonnes of liquid cargo , were transported . The port suffered another period of stagnation in the 1990s due to the Croatian War of Independence , when a portion of the port 's shipping switched to Trieste and Koper . Since 1996 , the volume of operations of the Port of Rijeka has again been gradually growing .
= = Port of Rijeka Authority = =
The Port of Rijeka Authority was founded in 1996 by the Republic of Croatia as the first port authority in the country . It is tasked with planning and strategic development , including the issuing of concessions and permits , supervision , safety of navigation in the port area , security and fire protection , as well as waste management . Business operations are managed by the port concessionaires : Luka Rijeka d.d. , Jadranski naftovod ( JANAF ) and Jadranska vrata d.d. and their subcontractors .
In March 2010 , the port authorities of Trieste , Ravenna , Venice and Koper established the North Adriatic Ports Association ( NAPA ) in Trieste with the aim of enhancing the position of the ports in the European Union and its transport patterns . The Port of Rijeka joined the NAPA in November 2010 . The NAPA aims to harmonize information systems and organizational setup of the member ports in order to attract shipping . The project is scheduled to be completed by 2013 . Besides the NAPA , the Port of Rijeka is also a member of the EcoPorts network of the European Sea Ports Organisation , the International Harbour Masters ' Association , Association Internationale Villes et Ports , the Croatian Association of Port Authorities and the International Association of Ports and Harbors .
The Port of Rijeka Authority operates a traffic control centre , located in the new passenger terminal . The traffic control system comprises an Electronic Chart Display and Information System using radar sensors and an Automatic Identification System , as well as additional systems such as a VHF system , hydrometeorological data , Closed @-@ circuit television monitoring of the port and data processing systems . In 2011 , the port authority was commended as one of top four port authorities of the year globally .
= = Transport facilities = =
The Port of Rijeka is located on the Kvarner Gulf in the northern Adriatic Sea , centered on the city of Rijeka . The facilities include terminals and other structures in the city and in the area reaching from the Bay of Bakar , where the bulk cargo terminal is located , approximately 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 miles ) east of Rijeka , to Bršica to the west of Rijeka , where there is a multi @-@ purpose terminal . The Port of Rijeka is at the southern terminus of the Pan @-@ European transport network Corridor Vb , representing a maritime extension of the rail and road routes leading to and from Rijeka . They include modern roads such as the A6 motorway , forming a part of the European route E65 and connecting Zagreb , Budapest and Vienna , and the A7 motorway , a part of the European route E61 and the E65 . Rail links comprise single @-@ track railway lines to Zagreb and to Pivka , Slovenia . There are plans to upgrade to a high @-@ performance , double @-@ track railway .
The port comprises several terminals :
Bulk Cargo Terminal – handles coal , iron ore and bulk cargo ; 4 million tonnes annual capacity ; accommodates Capesize ships ; located in the Bay of Bakar , 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 miles ) east of Rijeka
Cereal Terminal – handles and storage of cereals and oilseeds ; 1 million tonnes annual capacity ; western part of the Port of Rijeka
Container and Ro @-@ Ro Terminal – handles intermodal containers ; contains a roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off ramp ; accommodates Panamax ships , located in the eastern part of the port ; operated by Jadranska vrata d.d.
General Cargo Terminal – handles general cargo , salt and cement ; 2 million tonnes annual capacity ; western part of the port
Timber Terminal – handles , stores and processes timber ; 500 @,@ 000 tonnes annual capacity ; eastern part of the port
Škrljevo Terminal – cargo storage , processing and packaging facilities ; occupies 41 @.@ 7 hectares ( 103 acres ) 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 miles ) from Rijeka , providing motorway and rail access
Frigo Terminal – handles and stores refrigerated and frozen food ; 100 @,@ 000 tonnes annual capacity ; western part of the port
Bršica Terminal – handles livestock , timber and general cargo ; 60 @,@ 000 tonnes of annual capacity ; located 60 kilometres ( 37 miles ) to the west from Rijeka
Passenger Terminal – 11 piers ; serving 200 @,@ 000 passengers per year , largely traveling by lines serving nearby islands and other ports along the Adriatic coast .
Liquid Cargo Terminal – two Capesize berths ( 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) draft ) ; located in Omišalj Bay ( operated by JANAF ) and Sepen Bay ( operated by DIOKI d.d. ) , both on Krk Island ; annual capacity of 24 million tonnes of oil ; 130 @,@ 000 tonnes storage capacity ; the terminal is linked to a pipeline operated by JANAF and the DINA petrochemical plant in Omišalj
The port has 58 berths and two additional berths in the Liquid Cargo Terminal , 150 @-@ hectare ( 370 @-@ acre ) total port area , and 335 @,@ 000 square metres ( 3 @,@ 610 @,@ 000 square feet ) of enclosed warehouses .
= = Business operations = =
The port of Rijeka is the largest port in Croatia , handling the largest portion of the country 's imports and exports . In 2008 , 2418 ships docked at Rijeka itself , 872 at Bršica , 818 at Bakar , and 268 at Omišalj — a total of 4376 . In 2010 , the Port of Rijeka transported 10 @.@ 2 million tonnes of cargo , a 9 % drop from 2009 . However the figure represents a 69 % increase of dry cargo transport volume compared to 2002 . The 2010 figure includes 5 @.@ 6 million tonnes of liquid cargo , 2 @.@ 3 million tonnes of general cargo , 2 @.@ 0 million tonnes of bulk cargo and 254 @,@ 000 tonnes of timber . The container terminal recorded a substantial growth of business in past years . 137 @,@ 048 TEUs were transported through the port in 2010 , marking a 5 % rise in turnover compared to 2009 and a ninefold increase over 2002 . The Port of Rijeka also serves passenger and ferry lines operated by Jadrolinija to the nearby islands of Cres , Mali Lošinj , Susak , Ilovik , Unije , Rab and Pag , as well as to Adriatic ports further south , such as Split and Dubrovnik . The line to Split and Dubrovnik also serves the islands of Hvar , Korčula and Mljet . The passenger terminal serves approximately 200 @,@ 000 passengers each year . As of August 2011 , there are three concessionaires operating in the Port of Rijeka : Luka Rijeka d.d. , Jadranska vrata d.d. and JANAF .
= = = Luka Rijeka = = =
In 2010 , Luka Rijeka d.d. reported a net profit of 32 @,@ 000 kuna ( 4 @,@ 300 euro ) , a sharp decline from 3 @.@ 5 million kuna ( 0 @.@ 47 million euro ) the previous year . Total income in 2010 reached 210 @.@ 4 million kuna ( 28 @.@ 4 million euro ) , down from 228 @.@ 9 million kuna ( 30 @.@ 9 million euro ) in 2009 . In 2010 , the company had 935 employees . It is listed at the Zagreb Stock Exchange , with a share capital of 598 million kuna ( 80 @.@ 8 million euro ) . Luka Rijeka d.d. is owned by the state ( 72 @.@ 7 % ) , Croatian Healthcare Fund ( 8 @.@ 1 % ) and other stockholders , none of which owns more than 5 % of the stock .
Denis Vukorepa has been the chairman of the board of the company since 2002 . The appointment is limited to a five @-@ year term , but in May 2011 , Vukorepa 's term was extended for the second time .
Luka Rijeka 's concession in the Port of Rijeka is valid until 2012 , and a request to renew the concession for another 30 years has been filed . Luka Rijeka uses 117 hectares ( 290 acres ) of land operated by the Port of Rijeka Authority .
= = = Jadranska vrata = = =
The Jadranska vrata d.d. company was founded as a Luka Rijeka d.d. subsidiary , and was tasked with operating the container cargo terminal located in the Brajdica district of Rijeka . As of August 2011 , International Container Terminal Services Inc . ( ICTSI ) acquired a 51 % share in the company , becoming a strategic partner . The company has also become prominent under its English name — Adriatic Gate Container Terminal . Jadranska vrata d.d. has acquired a separate concession to operate the container terminal in the Port of Rijeka until 2041 . Antonio P. Passaro was appointed as chief executive officer of Jadranska vrata d.d. by ICTSI in 2011 .
= = = Jadranski naftovod = = =
Jadranski naftovod ( JANAF ) operates an oil terminal at Omišalj , Krk Island . In 2010 , the JANAF transported 6 @.@ 4 million tonnes of oil , a 7 % drop from 6 @.@ 9 million tonnes in 2009 . In 2010 , JANAF recorded annual revenue of 464 @.@ 9 million kuna ( 62 @.@ 8 million euro ) , down less than 1 % from 2009 , and annual net profit of 118 @.@ 5 million kuna ( 16 million euro ) , up 11 % from the previous year . However , JANAF operations include other facilities and services besides the oil terminal concession in the Port of Rijeka . JANAF is a joint stock company owned by the Croatian Pension Insurance Institute ( 50 @.@ 5 % ) , INA ( 16 % ) , the Republic of Croatia ( 14 @.@ 5 % ) and other shareholders owning less than 10 % of stock each . JANAF 's chairman of the board is Ante Markov . As of March 31 , 2011 , JANAF had 383 employees working in the Omišalj terminal and other JANAF facilities in Croatia .
= = Future expansion = =
In 2011 , Luka Rijeka d.d. , operator of the Port of Rijeka , signed a contract of strategic partnership with the ICTSI and Jadranska vrata d.d .. The partnership aims to expand the capacity of the container terminal to 600 @,@ 000 TEUs . The contract also stipulates that the concession regarding operation of the terminal is to last for 30 years with an investment of 54 million euro . It is estimated that ICTSI and Luka Rijeka d.d. will invest up to one billion kuna ( 135 million euro ) in the Port of Rijeka . Upgrades of other port terminals are also planned , with investments through the World Bank and through build @-@ operate @-@ transfer and public – private partnership schemes . They include cargo terminals in the city of Rijeka and the new passenger terminal opened in October 2009 .
The Port of Rijeka development master plan , devised by Rotterdam Maritime Group , specifies further expansion of port facilities by 2030 , including the construction of a large container terminal in Omišalj on Krk Island , near the JANAF Omišalj oil terminal . The container terminal would increase the annual capacity of the port by 2 @.@ 5 million TEUs . The plan requires construction of a high performance railway to Zagreb and a rail link planned by Croatian Railways to the proposed island terminal . The new line entails building a new bridge to Krk Island in addition to the existing Krk Bridge . The plan also includes expansion of the existing terminals , and is estimated to require an additional US $ 150 million . Likewise , an expansion of the Liquid Cargo Terminal is planned , as well as an expansion of the Bakar Bay facility , where a car terminal is planned . The expansion of the port , improvement of transportation links and the strategic partnership are aimed at establishing Rijeka as the largest container port on the Adriatic Sea .
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= Populous : The Beginning =
Populous : The Beginning is a strategy and god @-@ style video game . It is the third entry in the Populous video game series , developed by Bullfrog Productions in 1998 . The PC version of the game was released November 30 , 1998 and a PlayStation version was later developed and released on April 2 , 1999 .
Unlike earlier games in the series , which cast the player in the role of a god influencing loyal followers , The Beginning took a radical departure and placed the player in the role of a shaman , who directly leads her tribe against opponents . Throughout the twenty @-@ five missions of the campaign , the player leads their tribe across a solar system , dominating enemy tribes and tapping new sources of magic , with the ultimate goal of the shaman attaining godhood herself .
Populous : The Beginning was the first entry in the series to use true 3D computer graphics ; Bullfrog waited four years after Populous II : Trials of the Olympian Gods so that the graphics technology could catch up to their vision for a new and different game in the series . The developers considered the addition of terrain deformation and manipulation , combined with " smart " villagers who automatically attended to tasks , to add an entirely new dimension to the series . The game 's original title was Populous : The Third Coming before being changed prior to the beta release .
Populous : The Beginning plays very differently from earlier titles and received mixed reviews . Reviewers noted the excellent graphics , while complaints were directed at the artificial intelligence and the indecision in game design between being a real time strategy title and a god game . GamePro 's Peter Olafson wrote that Populous : The Beginning was a good game but was " without a quintessential quality that defined Populous . "
= = Gameplay = =
Populous : The Beginning places the player in control of a female shaman and the tribe which follows her . Unlike the previous games in the series , The Beginning allows the player to directly control the action of followers , by ordering them to build structures or attack enemies . In the campaign , the player must fight the opposing Dakini ( red ) , Chumara ( yellow ) and Matak ( green ) tribes for dominion over the solar system . Enemy tribes also have shamans , and on later levels all inhabit the same world . While the objective is almost always to eliminate all of the members of the other tribes , there are often specific ways this can be achieved . Sometimes the player must use magic spells gained from worship at special monuments such as stone heads or " Vaults of Knowledge " ; in other cases , the player only needs to overwhelm the enemies with superior numbers . The game has no formal resource management ; new units are created automatically at houses , and training new troops costs nothing except mana . Only wood from trees is required to build new structures .
The game is played from a 3D third person perspective with the camera at a variable height and capable of rotating 360 ° , enabling the player to quickly move across the planet 's terrain . While the terrain 's topology is a torus , the map is locally projected onto a sphere to give the illusion of a planet . On maps where there is no fog of war , players can see what opponents are doing at any time . Extensive support for 3D acceleration enables the player to view the game in 16 @-@ bit or 32 @-@ bit colour . The landscape and real @-@ time structure building and follower movement are also shown .
The player commands different types of followers , each of which has advantages and disadvantages in combat . The most basic unit is the Brave , which builds huts , towers , and military buildings . Braves are trained to become other units : tough melee Warriors ; weak , long @-@ range , Firewarriors ; Preachers , who convert enemy units and prevent enemy preachers from converting friendly troops ; and Spies , who perform espionage functions . Shamans are physically weaker than warriors , but can cast powerful spells and can be reincarnated if killed . Some spells will disappear after use . Other spells can slowly be replenished for continued use ; the rate of spell regeneration depends upon the player 's number of followers . Examples of spells include " Landbridge " , which raises the sea floor to create bridges across the sea ; " Swarm " , which sends a horde of insects to sow confusion in enemy ranks ; and " Tornado " , which creates a cyclone to destroy buildings . There are twenty @-@ six spells in total , which are slowly learned throughout the campaign .
Populous : The Beginning supports multiplayer , either by modem connection ( limited to two players ) , IPX , or over the Internet through an external matchmaking service . The game 's official web site provided a lobby service until January 8 , 2004 . Populous : The Beginning allows for a maximum game size of four players playing against each other .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Populous : The Beginning does not take place on Earth . Rather , the game takes place in a planetary system of twenty @-@ five unnamed planets . There is no indication as to whether the game takes place in the future or past , as the universe within the game is seemingly unconnected with reality . While many of the planets are predominantly grasslands dotted with trees , other worlds feature wildly different terrains , such as a volcanic world and a planet almost entirely covered by water . These worlds are inhabited by four human tribes , represented by their color : the green " Matak " , the yellow " Chumara " , and the red " Dakini " . The fourth blue tribe , controlled by the player , is never officially mentioned by name . Each of the tribes is generally hostile to one another , though alliances exist on some worlds . The reasoning for the hostilities is never explained other than the starting cutscene stating that the other ( non @-@ player ) tribes " would destroy us " . While all the tribes are ruled by a single female shaman , no other females are seen in the game , except in cutscenes ; all the followers recruited in the game are male . In addition to the organized tribes are ' wildmen ' , neutral characters who cluster in groups around trees and water . Though they cannot attack or be attacked , players can use the Shaman 's Convert spell to bring wildmen under her tribe 's control .
= = = Story = = =
Populous : The Beginning takes place before the first two games in the series . The player controls the Blue tribe , pitted against the three enemy tribes which control most of the solar system . The player 's destiny as Shaman is to become a deity ; only by defeating all the enemies in the system can the player 's shaman become omnipotent . The player begins on the planet furthest from the sun , and attacks each planet in sequence . Along the way , the Shaman can learn new skills and magic to defeat her ( usually ) much more powerful enemies . Victory requires the player to either destroy the opposition , or on occasion perform special actions . The player loses if his or her Shaman is killed and there are no remaining followers , if the Shaman is killed and there is no circle of reincarnation , or the player runs out of time on timed levels . Upon beating back the other tribes , the Shaman ascends to godhood , and further helps her people conquer the Matak , Chumara and Dakini in one final conflict .
= = Development = =
Populous : The Beginning was the first in the series developed with entirely 3D graphics . The game was published more than four years after Populous II : Trials of the Olympian Gods with developers stating the delay was due to waiting for the hardware specifications to come along enough that they would allow them to do something very different and new . Producer Stuart Whyte said of the work , " We 're really proud of what we 've done in software because it does look really nice . "
The Populous series inspired the term " god game " , with players assuming the role of an omniscient being who lead his people to new territories or into battle . Alan Wright , the game 's project leader , stressed both the departure Populous : The Beginning took from previous titles in the series , as well as distinguishing itself from similar games like Command & Conquer . The elements of smart villagers and terrain @-@ reforming , he said , " adds a whole level of gameplay not found in those titles . " Bullfrog representative Brian Allen asserted that these departures distinguished Populous : The Beginning from other real @-@ time strategy games on the market at the time . In some aspects , the developers were forced to remove features due to technical constraints ; for example , the " Plague " spell from previous Populous titles was dropped because in practice the spell was too frustrating .
Originally , the game was known as Populous : The Third Coming , but the name was changed by the time the game was shown in a fully playable beta form in late 1998 . The game was the first in the series to be made without Populous creator Peter Molyneux , who had left Bullfrog to create Lionhead Studios . The music was composed by Mark Knight , who had joined Bullfrog 's team in 1997 .
Bullfrog released the Populous : The Beginning — Undiscovered Worlds in 1999 . The expansion was only made available in the UK and US . The add @-@ on offered twelve new single @-@ player and twelve multiplayer levels , with a continuation of the storyline begun in the previous game , where the player takes on the role of a new shaman who must restore peace to the solar system .
= = Reception = =
Populous : The Beginning received generally favorable reviews on release with some strong criticisms to follow . IGN 's Ward Trent was especially smitten with the immersive 3D graphics . Edge stated , " previous Bullfrog games have always placed gameplay above graphical finesse , but that 's no longer the case . " GameSpot 's reviewer Ron Dulin appreciated how The Beginning was a daring revamp of the series , instead of a safe , slightly modified sequel ( like the earlier Populous II : Trials of the Olympian Gods ) . Computer and Video Games rated The Beginning as a " better play " than the original .
Complaints about the game centered on the difficulty of controlling followers , the simplicity of gameplay , and the tension between game styles . The game 's AI allowed followers to automatically construct buildings , but this led to problems directing them in the midst of a hectic battle . IGN noted that with the player 's followers automatically going about daily life , the replay value was lowered even with the multiplayer options . Others agreed that the automation rendered gameplay too simple , with no upgrades or serious resource management , a sentiment PC Gamer expressed when they wrote that the missions " become mind @-@ numbingly repetitive " .
Populous : The Beginning played very differently from earlier titles . Edge concluded that while the more rigid play format of The Beginning was new to the series , it had the effect of making the end result " less show @-@ stopping " ; Edge believed that the game was caught between the god game and RTS genres , and did not excel at either . PCGamer subsequently decided the game failed to live up to the previous games in the series . More charitably , GamePro 's Peter Olafson wrote : " Populous : The Beginning is not a bad game , in fact a good one ; but it 's a different game — one without a quintessential quality that defined Populous . "
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= New Jersey Route 413 =
Route 413 is a 0 @.@ 76 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 22 km ) long state highway in New Jersey , United States . It is an eastward extension into New Jersey of the longer Pennsylvania Route 413 . The western terminus is in Burlington in the middle of the Burlington – Bristol Bridge crossing of the Delaware River at the New Jersey – Pennsylvania state border ; the eastern terminus is at an intersection with U.S. Route 130 . Despite the east – west orientation , Route 413 runs north – south , but PA Route 413 is signed north – south . Prior to the 1953 renumbering , Route 413 was Route S25 , a prefixed spur of Route 25 .
= = Route description = =
New Jersey Route 413 begins at the state line , midway along the Burlington – Bristol Bridge , as a continuation of Pennsylvania State Route 413 . The highway heads northward , heading along Reed Street , and there is an intersection with Delaware Avenue West , and soon after , intersections with West Pearl Street , and a local highway . Passing a few residences , Route 413 intersects with West Pearl Street , and enters a more commercial type of region . The next intersection with Brown Street is jammed with houses , and nearby is a large parking lot .
At the intersection with Veterans Drive and Conover Street , Route 413 splits into a divided highway , and the highway intersects with West Broad Street . After West Broad Street , Route 413 merges back in , passing several more commercial buildings and heading into John Fitzgerald Kennedy Park . The route parallels to the east of Washington Street , where it heads into a roundabout and terminates at an intersection with U.S. Route 130 ( Camden Avenue ) in Burlington .
= = History = =
In the 1927 renumbering of highways in New Jersey , U.S. Route 130 was assigned as a part of New Jersey State Highway Route 25 , which made up U.S. Route 1 and U.S. Route 9 as well . During that renumbering in 1927 , Route 413 was originally New Jersey State Highway Route S @-@ 25 , a prefixed spur of State Highway Route 25 . The highway remained intact along its alignment in Keim Road to the Burlington – Bristol Bridge until January 1 , 1953 .
On January 1 , 1953 , the New Jersey State Highway Department performed a second renumbering of state highways . State Highway Route 25 , which had run at the southern terminus with Route 130 , was decommissioned for the sole designation . Since State Highway Route 25 was decommissioned , State Highway Route S @-@ 25 would be orphaned and was decommissioned that day . The Highway Department renumbered S @-@ 25 's alignment to NJ 413 , which continued as Pennsylvania Route 413 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= HMS Algerine ( J213 ) =
HMS Algerine was the lead ship of her namesake class of minesweepers built for the Royal Navy during World War II , the Algerine @-@ class minesweepers . Initially assigned to the North Sea , she was transferred to lead the 12th Minesweeping Flotilla . The Flotilla were posted to the Mediterranean to assist with Operation Torch . In 1942 , after a successful mine clearing operation off Bougie , she was torpedoed by the Italian submarine Ascianghi , causing Algerine to sink , leaving only eight survivors .
= = Description = =
Algerine displaced 850 long tons ( 860 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 125 long tons ( 1 @,@ 143 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 225 feet ( 68 @.@ 6 m ) , a beam of 35 feet 6 inches ( 10 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which gave a maximum speed of 16 @.@ 5 knots ( 30 @.@ 6 km / h ; 19 @.@ 0 mph ) .
The ship mounted one single 4 @-@ inch Mk XIX gun . Algerine had four single mounts for 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon 20 mm autocannon , and she was fitted with two depth charge rails , and four depth charge throwers .
= = Career = =
Algerine was laid down on 15 March 1941 , by Harland & Wolff , Belfast , and launched on 22 December 1941 . She was the eighth ship of the Royal Navy to be named Algerine . After being completed , the ship was commissioned on 24 March 1942 , and adopted by Sittingbourne due to a Warship Week campaign .
= = = 1942 = = =
Algerine joined the 9th Minesweeping Flotilla in May 1942 and began action in minesweeping , escorting , and patrolling duties on the east side of England . She was proposed as leader for the 12th Minesweeping Flotilla , which would participate in action abroad . Her sister ships from the 9th Flotilla , Alarm and Albacore , joined her , as did Acute , and Cadmus . In October , she was put forward to go to the Mediterranean to assist Operation Torch , but her departure was delayed due to repair work . The other four ships in her flotilla left for Gibraltar as escorts to a convoy . Four days after the other ships left , Algerine escorted convoy KMF1 to Oran .
In early November , she helped recover the escort destroyer Cowdray off Algiers after Cowdray was damaged by an aerial attack . On 15 November , Algerine and Alarm were positioned off Bougie , clearing mines . The mission had been successful , with 46 mines cleared ; but , Algerine was torpedoed by the Italian Adua @-@ class submarine Ascianghi , commanded by Lieutenant commander Rino Erler . The submarine had first fired two torpedoes at the middle ship in the trio , then fired another two torpedoes at the final ship , Algerine : Algerine suffered heavy casualties and sank . The converted merchant vessel Pozarica rescued 32 men , of whom only 8 survived , internal wounds killing 24 . The survivors had been on a Carley raft .
Algerine 's wreck lies at 1 @,@ 100 ft ( 340 m ) on the northern coast of Algeria .
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= Daniel S. Schanck Observatory =
The Daniel S. Schanck Observatory is a former astronomical observatory on the Queens Campus of Rutgers University in New Brunswick , New Jersey , United States . It is located along George Street near the corner with Hamilton Street at the side of the car park to Kirkpatrick Chapel , to the northwest of Old Queens and Geology Hall .
The two @-@ story Greek Revival building of the observatory was designed by architect Willard Smith after the Tower of the Winds in Athens and was built in 1865 . It was named after New York City businessman Daniel S. Schanck , who donated a large portion of the funds to construct and equip the observatory . Outfitted with telescopes , clocks , and other scientific equipment donated to Rutgers , the Schanck Observatory served as the university 's first astronomical observatory and was used to provide instruction to its students through the nineteenth and early twentieth century .
The observatory has not been in use since the 1960s . As part of the Queens Campus , the Schanck Observatory was included on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places and the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 . The building was renovated in 2012 .
= = History , architecture , and use = =
In 1864 , Rutgers College was named New Jersey 's sole land grant college which provided federal funding under the Morrill Act of 1862 for the development of engineering , scientific , agricultural , and military education . Previously , the college 's curriculum focused on the classics and liberal arts . David Murray ( 1830 – 1905 ) , professor of mathematics , natural philosophy and astronomy , proposed building the school 's first astronomical observatory to the college 's president , William Henry Campbell ( 1808 – 1890 ) , and its board of trustees . It would be the college 's fourth building .
The cost of construction and equipment amounted to US $ 6 @,@ 166 ( 2013 : US $ 86 @,@ 845 @.@ 07 ) , of which US $ 2 @,@ 400 ( 2013 : US $ 33 @,@ 802 @.@ 82 ) was donated by Daniel S. Schanck ( 1812 – 1872 ) . Schanck , a New York City businessman with roots in Monmouth County , New Jersey , was not an alumnus of the college , but was convinced to donate after being approached by friends of the college . Several years later , his son , Daniel S. Schanck ( 1853 – 1901 ) , would enroll in the college 's scientific course , and earn a bachelor 's degree ( Sc.B ) in 1875 .
In 1865 , the trustees hired architect Willard Smith who provided a plan for a small two @-@ story octagonal Greek Revival building designed after the Tower of the Winds , a first @-@ century BC structure located in the agora of Athens , Greece that housed an ancient water clock and sundial . The observatory was constructed from " painted brick , with wood cornices and entrance porch , brownstone floor and steps " and featured a " small gable roofed Corinthian entrance porch with columns at the front corners , flat pilasters against the wall , entablature , and pediment . " Rutgers equipped the observatory with " a 6 @.@ 5 @-@ inch equatorial refracting telescope , a meridian circle with four @-@ inch object glass for transit observations , a sidereal clock , a mean solar clock ... chronograph , repeating circle , and other instruments . " Some of the equipment was donated by private individuals and by the college 's two literary societies , the Peithessophian and Philoclean Societies .
The Schanck Observatory was dedicated on June 18 , 1866 with an address given by Joseph P. Bradley ( 1813 – 1892 ) , a Rutgers College alumnus ( A.B. 1836 ) and prominent attorney who four years later was installed as an Associate Justice on the Supreme Court of the United States . The observatory would be used for the instruction of students into the early twentieth century . However , it fell out of use before 1960 . Physics and Astronomy professor Paul L. Leath indicated that the observatory very accurately measured time through precise measurements of the transit of the sun . However , in later years , as trees grew around the building , and as the light pollution was introduced from street lights and a neighboring parking deck , the building could no longer be used for observation . The university 's astronomy department operates a modern observatory — the Robert A. Schommer Astronomical Observatory — that is located on the roof of the Serin Physics Laboratory ( built 1963 ) on the Busch Campus . The Schommer Observatory houses a 0 @.@ 5 meter telescope that was installed in 1996 .
As one of the six extant buildings on the university 's Queens Campus , the oldest buildings at Rutgers , the Schanck Observatory was included on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places and the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 .
The building fell into disrepair , and its equipment was damaged after several acts of vandalism in which unknown persons illegally entered the building and stole key components of the telescope . A restoration of the observatory building by Wu & Associates of Cherry Hill , New Jersey , was completed in 2012 .
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= The Almost Nearly Perfect People =
The Almost Nearly Perfect People : The Truth About the Nordic Miracle is a 2014 nonfiction book by British journalist Michael Booth . In the book , Booth focuses on the five Nordic countries — Denmark , Iceland , Norway , Finland and Sweden — dedicating a section of the book to each one . He began writing the book after migrating from England to Denmark , based on his perceptions of the Nordic region before and after moving . He wanted to present an alternative perspective to the extremely positive depiction of the region in British media . The book received mixed reviews : some critics found it to be overly critical with poor humour , others praised its tone and informativeness .
= = Background and release = =
Michael Booth began writing The Almost Nearly Perfect People when he moved from England to Denmark about 15 years before its publication in 2014 . Before moving , he had perceived Scandinavians to be a " bearded , woolly jumper @-@ wearing , recycling bunch of people " , but afterwards was surprised by how different each of the Nordic countries seemed to be . He wanted to write a book to explore these differences and to explain what he saw as a " fascinating dysfunctional family dynamic " between the five Nordic neighbors . He was further inspired by the " Nordic wave " phenomenon that gained popularity in the 2000s and 2010s when the western world became fascinated with the Nordic countries and their ways of life . In particular , he wanted to investigate Denmark 's consistently high scores on various happiness indexes , since these figures conflicted with his own observations that " they didn 't seem that happy " , and also challenge the perception that the Nordic nations as a group are " little jolly green countries in the north " .
Booth undertook four years of research while writing the book , including travelling to each of the countries and interviewing prominent political and cultural figures of each nationality . In writing about each country , he tried to examine both their successes and their weaknesses to " rebalance the utopian view " of Scandinavia held by many British people and to present a different perspective of the region than the extremely positive depiction in a lot of British media . The tone of the book was inspired by Simon Winder 's Germania , which combines humour with an historical and travel @-@ based narrative .
The book was published in English on 14 February 2014 by Jonathan Cape . Its first publication , however , was in September 2013 as a Danish translation . Although the manuscript was in English , it was translated and published first in Denmark . On 23 October 2014 , the book was translated into Finnish . The Polish translation came on 7 October 2015 . In addition , a Norwegian translation of the book is planned .
= = Content = =
The Almost Nearly Perfect People is divided into five sections for Denmark , Iceland , Norway , Finland and Sweden . Beginning with Denmark , Booth explains the Danish concept of hygge ( " cosy times " ) , which he sees as conformism . He criticises the Danish population 's environmental footprint and notes that their taxation rate and levels of personal debt are among the highest in the world . Moving to Iceland , Booth details the banking practices that led to the collapse of the country 's largest banks in the 2008 financial crisis , as well as the popular belief among Icelanders in the existence of Huldufólk ( elves ) .
In Norway , he highlights the rise of far @-@ right politics , the widespread opposition to immigration , and the multiple high @-@ profile Norwegian neo @-@ Nazis . He notes that despite having a " nature @-@ loving " reputation , Norway has a large ecological footprint , and that the sale of fossil fuels accounts for much of the country 's wealth . He recounts Finland 's history of heavy alcohol consumption and its high rates of murder , suicide , and antipsychotic drug use . He explains the Finnish concept of sisu and what he sees as the resulting obsession with machismo .
Sweden receives Booth 's strongest criticism , where consumerist influences are blamed for the apparent downfall of the Nordic model of social democracy and recurrent failures of the Swedish justice system . He argues that Sweden , with its strict rules of social etiquette , has a strong culture of conformity .
Denmark
Chapter 1 - Happiness
Chapter 2 - Bacon
Chapter 3 - Gini
Chapter 4 - Boffers
Chapter 5 - Chicken
Chapter 6 - Vikings
Chapter 7 - 72 per cent
Chapter 8 - Hot @-@ tub sanwiches
Chapter 9 - The bumblebee
Chapter 10 - Denim dungarees
Chapter 11 - The Law of Jante
Chapter 12 - Hygge
Chapter 13 - Legoland and Other Spiritual Sites
Chapter 14 - The happiness delusion
Iceland
Chapter 1 - Hakarl
Chapter 2 - Bankers
Chapter 3 - Denmark
Chapter 4 - Elves
Chapter 5 - Steam
Norway
Chapter 1 - Dirndls
Chapter 2 - Egoiste
Chapter 3 - The new Quislings
Chapter 4 - Friluftsliv
Chapter 5 - Bananas
Chapter 6 - Dutch disease
Chapter 7 - Butter
Finland
Chapter 1 - Santa
Chapter 2 - Silence
Chapter 3 - Alcohol
Chapter 4 - Sweden
Chapter 5 - Russia
Chapter 6 - School
Chapter 7 - Wives
Sweden
Chapter 1 - Crayfish
Chapter 2 - Donald Duck
Chapter 3 - Stockholm syndrome
Chapter 4 - Integration
Chapter 5 - Catalonians
Chapter 6 - Somali pizza
Chapter 7 - The party
Chapter 8 - Guilt
Chapter 9 - Hairnets
Chapter 10 - Class
Chapter 11 - Ball bearings
= = Reception = =
The Almost Nearly Perfect People received mixed reviews from critics :
Mariella Frostrup described the book for The Guardian as a " comprehensive and occasionally downright hilarious explanation of the Nordic miracle " and praised its " companionable , lightly mocking tone " .
Alwyn Turner gave the book 4 ( out of 5 ) stars in a review for The Daily Telegraph , writing that " if [ Booth 's ] tone is sometimes a little too jokey , his enthusiasm is contagious " and that " the real joy of the book " lay in the collection of interesting trivia .
The Literary Review 's Bernard Porter found the book to be " a thoroughly entertaining read , written brilliantly " , but criticised its largely impressionistic nature and the lack of sources and references .
Ian Thomson of The Guardian described the book as " informative , if strenuously humorous " , but felt that Booth 's " schoolboy humour " was at times " pretty embarrassing " .
Anna Vesterinen , writing for the Rationalist Association , felt that Booth relied too much on quoted studies and surveys and ought to have included more interviews with " ordinary locals " .
The Financial Times ' Richard Milne wrote that , despite Booth 's tendency to reinforce some stereotypes , " Behind the jokey tone is a lot of good material " , and described the book as " a welcome rejoinder to those who cling to the idea of the Nordic region as a promised land " .
Sara Steensig opined in the GB Times that the book 's section on Iceland was somewhat superficial and that Booth 's analysis of Sweden was too critical , but nevertheless , " while he does make a lot of fun of the Nordic countries , I think you can feel his affection for the inhabitants too . "
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= Port Chicago disaster =
The Port Chicago disaster was a deadly munitions explosion that occurred on July 17 , 1944 , at the Port Chicago Naval Magazine in Port Chicago , California , United States . Munitions detonated while being loaded onto a cargo vessel bound for the Pacific Theater of Operations , killing 320 sailors and civilians and injuring 390 others . Most of the dead and injured were enlisted African @-@ American sailors .
A month later , unsafe conditions inspired hundreds of servicemen to refuse to load munitions , an act known as the Port Chicago Mutiny . Fifty men — called the " Port Chicago 50 " — were convicted of mutiny and sentenced to long prison terms . Forty @-@ seven of the 50 were released in January 1946 ; the remaining three served additional months in prison .
During and after the trial , questions were raised about the fairness and legality of the court @-@ martial proceedings . Due to public pressure , the United States Navy reconvened the courts @-@ martial board in 1945 ; the court affirmed the guilt of the convicted men . Widespread publicity surrounding the case turned it into a cause célèbre among certain Americans ; it and other race @-@ related Navy protests of 1944 – 45 led the Navy to change its practices and initiate the desegregation of its forces beginning in February 1946 . In 1994 , the Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial was dedicated to the lives lost in the disaster .
= = Background = =
The town of Port Chicago was located on Suisun Bay in the estuary of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers . Suisun Bay is connected to the Pacific Ocean by San Francisco Bay . In 1944 , the town was a little more than a mile from a U.S. Navy munitions depot , the Port Chicago Naval Magazine , which was later expanded and renamed the Concord Naval Weapons Station but is now called the Military Ocean Terminal Concord . The original magazine was planned in 1941 with construction beginning shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor . The first ship to dock at Port Chicago was loaded on December 8 , 1942 .
Munitions transported through the magazine included bombs , shells , naval mines , torpedoes and small arms ammunition . The munitions , destined for the Pacific Theater of Operations , were delivered to the Port Chicago facility by rail then individually loaded by hand , crane and winch onto cargo ships for transport to the war zones . From the beginning , all the enlisted men employed as loaders at Port Chicago were African American ; all their commanding officers were White . Each of the enlisted men had been specifically trained for one of the naval ratings during his stay at Naval Station Great Lakes ( NSGL ) but the men were instead put to work as stevedores . None of the new recruits had been instructed in ammunition loading .
= = = Quality of men = = =
At NSGL , the enlisted African Americans who tested in the top 25 to 40 percent were selected for non @-@ labor battalion assignments . Port Chicago was manned by workers drawn from those remaining . The Navy determined that the quality of African @-@ American petty officers at Port Chicago suffered because of the absence of high @-@ scoring black men , and that overall levels of competence were further reduced by the occasional requirement for Port Chicago to supply drafts of men with clear records for transfer to other stations . The Navy 's General Classification Test ( GCT ) results for the enlisted men at Port Chicago averaged 31 , putting them in the lowest twelfth of the Navy . Officers at Port Chicago considered the enlisted men unreliable , emotional and lacking the capacity to understand or remember orders or instructions .
Black laborers at Port Chicago were led by black petty officers who were regarded by some workers as incompetent and ineffective in voicing their men 's concerns to higher authority . Petty officers were seen as having aims fundamentally different from those of their men — they were described later as " slave drivers " and " Uncle Toms " . They and their men sometimes struck an antagonistic relationship .
Captain Merrill T. Kinne — commander of the Port Chicago facility at the time of the explosion — had served in the Navy from 1915 to 1922 and had returned to the Navy from civilian life in 1941 to be posted aboard a general cargo ship . Prior to his being sent to command Port Chicago , Kinne had no training in the loading of munitions and very little experience in handling them . White loading officers serving underneath Kinne had not been trained in supervising enlisted personnel or in handling munitions until they had been posted to Mare Island Navy Yard , after which they were considered adequate to the task by the Navy .
= = = Speed contests and safety training = = =
Since April 1944 when Captain Kinne assumed command of Port Chicago , the loading officers had been pushing the enlisted men to load the explosive cargoes very quickly ; 10 short tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) per hatch per hour had been set as the desired level by Captain Nelson Goss , Commander Mare Island Navy Yard , whose jurisdiction included Port Chicago Naval Magazine . Most loading officers considered this goal too high . On a prominent chalkboard , Kinne tallied each crew 's average tonnage per hour . The junior officers placed bets with each other in support of their own 100 @-@ man crews — called " divisions " at Port Chicago — and coaxed their crews to load more than the others . The enlisted men were aware of the unsanctioned nature of the bets and knew to slow down to a more reasonable pace whenever a senior officer appeared . The average rate achieved at Port Chicago in the months leading up to July 1944 was 8 @.@ 2 short tons ( 7 @.@ 4 t ) per hatch per hour ; commercial stevedores at Mare Island performed only slightly better at 8 @.@ 7 short tons ( 7 @.@ 9 t ) per hatch per hour .
There was no system at Port Chicago for making sure officers and men were familiar with safety regulations . Two formal lectures and several informal lectures were given to the enlisted men by commanding officers , but follow @-@ up confirmation of retained knowledge did not take place . Safety regulations were posted at a single location at the pier but not within each of the barracks — Kinne did not think the enlisted men would be able to comprehend such a list . The International Longshore and Warehouse Union ( ILWU ) responded to word of unsafe practices by offering to bring in experienced men to train the battalion but Navy leadership declined the offer , fearing higher costs , slower pace , and possible sabotage from civilian longshoremen . No enlisted man stationed at Port Chicago had ever received formal training in the handling and loading of explosives into ships . Even the officers did not receive training : Lieutenant Commander Alexander Holman , loading officer at Port Chicago whose duties included officer training , had initiated a search for training materials and samples but failed to organize a training class before disaster struck .
= = = Winch maintenance = = =
Powered winches were used on cargo ships to speed the handling of heavy loads . One winch was operated at each of the ship 's five cargo holds . During loading operations , the winches were worked hard , requiring steady maintenance to remain operable . Winch brakes — a safety feature provided for stopping the load from falling if the winch 's main power was lost — were not often used by a skilled winch operator , as the load could be more quickly maneuvered using various power settings than by application of the brakes . Disused brakes sometimes seized up and stopped working . The winches on the SS E. A. Bryan were steam @-@ powered and showed signs of wear , even though the ship was only five months old .
On July 13 , 1944 , the day that the E. A. Bryan docked at Port Chicago , the ship 's No. 1 winch brakes were found stuck in the " off " position , meaning that the winch could be operated freely , but lacked the critical stopping capability if steam pressure was interrupted . The ship 's chief mate and chief engineer were called to examine the winch but it was never determined whether the brake was made operational . During loading operations on July 15 the winch at No. 2 hold began making a hammering noise . A steady application of grease quietened it through the night until its main bearing could be replaced the next morning on July 16 . On the afternoon of July 17 , a bleeder valve on winch No. 4 required immediate repair . Albert Carr , a civil service plumber from Pittsburg , California , was called to replace it ; it was his first day at Port Chicago . Carr pulled a broken nipple out of the bleeder valve and replaced both the nipple and the valve from new stock taken from Port Chicago 's shop . While at work he witnessed a man accidentally drop a naval artillery shell two feet onto the wooden pier but there was no detonation . Carr waited until the African @-@ American winch operator tested the newly repaired winch then hurriedly left the pier , thinking that the whole operation appeared unsafe .
= = = Munitions handling = = =
The enlisted men were leery of working with deadly explosives but were told by officers that the larger munitions were not active and could not explode — that they would be armed with their fuzes upon arrival at the combat theater . Handling of larger munitions , such as bombs and shells , involved using levers and crowbars from boxcars , in which they were packed tightly with dunnage — lifting the heavy , grease @-@ coated cylinders , rolling them along the wooden pier , packing them into nets , lifting them by winch and boom , lowering the bundle into the hold , then dropping individual munitions by hand a short distance into place . This series of actions was rough enough that damaged naval shells sometimes leaked identification dye from their ballistic caps .
Commander Paul B. Cronk , head of a Coast Guard explosives @-@ loading detail tasked with supervision of the working dock , warned the Navy that conditions were unsafe and ripe for disaster . The Navy refused to change its procedures and Cronk withdrew the detail .
= = Explosion = =
The Liberty ship SS E. A. Bryan docked at the inboard , landward side of Port Chicago 's single 1 @,@ 500 ft ( 460 m ) pier at 8 : 15 a.m. on July 13 , 1944 . The ship arrived at the dock with empty cargo holds but was carrying a full load of 5 @,@ 292 barrels ( 841 @,@ 360 liters ) of bunker C heavy fuel oil for its intended trip across the Pacific Ocean . At 10 a.m. that same day , seamen from the ordnance battalion began loading the ship with munitions . After four days of around @-@ the @-@ clock loading , about 4 @,@ 600 tons ( 4 @,@ 173 metric tons ) of explosives had been stored in its holds . The ship was about 40 % full by the evening of July 17 .
At 10 p.m. on July 17 , Division Three 's 98 men were loading E. A. Bryan with 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 450 kg ) bombs into No. 3 hold , 40 mm shells into No. 5 hold and fragmentation cluster bombs into No. 4 hold . Incendiary bombs were being loaded as well ; these bombs weighed 650 lb ( 290 kg ) each and were " live " — they had their fuzes installed . The incendiary bombs were being loaded carefully one at a time into No. 1 hold — the hold with a winch brake that might still have been inoperative .
A boxcar delivery containing a new airborne anti @-@ submarine depth charge design , the Mark 47 armed with 252 lb ( 114 kg ) of torpex , was being loaded into No. 2 hold . The torpex charges were more sensitive than TNT to external shock and container dents . On the pier , resting on three parallel rail spurs , were sixteen rail cars holding about 430 short tons ( 390 t ) of explosives . In all , the munitions on the pier and in the ship contained the equivalent of approximately 2 @,@ 000 short tons ( 1 @,@ 800 t ) of TNT .
One hundred and two men of the Sixth Division , many fresh from training at NSGL , were busy rigging the newly built Victory ship SS Quinault Victory ( also spelled Quinalt ) in preparation for loading it with explosives , a task that was to begin at midnight . The Quinault contained a partial load of fuel oil , some of which was of a type that released flammable fumes as it sat , or upon agitation . The fuel , taken aboard at Shell Oil Company 's Martinez refinery mid @-@ day on July 17 , would normally be sluiced to other fuel tanks in the following 24 hours .
Sixty @-@ seven officers and crew of the two ships were at their stations , and various support personnel were present such as the three @-@ man civilian train crew and a Marine sentry . Nine Navy officers and 29 armed guards watched over the procedure . A Coast Guard fire barge with a crew of five was docked at the pier . An officer who left the docks shortly after 10 p.m. noticed that the Quinault ′ s propeller was slowly turning over and that the men of Division Three were having trouble pulling munitions from the rail cars because they had been packed so tightly .
At 10 : 18 p.m. , witnesses reported hearing a noise described as " a metallic sound and rending timbers , such as made by a falling boom . " Immediately afterward , an explosion occurred on the pier and a fire started . Five to seven seconds later a more powerful explosion took place as the majority of the ordnance within and near the SS E. A. Bryan detonated in a fireball seen for miles . An Army Air Forces pilot flying in the area reported that the fireball was 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) in diameter . Chunks of glowing hot metal and burning ordnance were flung over 12 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) into the air . The E. A. Bryan was completely destroyed and the Quinault was blown out of the water , torn into sections and thrown in several directions ; the stern landed upside down in the water 500 ft ( 150 m ) away . The Coast Guard fire boat CG @-@ 60014 @-@ F was thrown 600 ft ( 180 m ) upriver , where it sank . The pier , along with its boxcars , locomotive , rails , cargo , and men , was blasted into pieces . Nearby boxcars — waiting within their revetments to be unloaded at midnight — were bent inward and crumpled by the force of the shock . The port 's barracks and other buildings and much of the surrounding town were severely damaged . Shattering glass and a rain of jagged metal and undetonated munitions caused many more injuries among military personnel and civilians , although no one outside the immediate pier area was killed . Nearly $ 9 @.@ 9 million worth of damage ( $ 133 million in current value ) was caused to U.S. Government property . Seismographs at the University of California , Berkeley sensed the two shock waves traveling through the ground , determining the second , larger event to be equivalent to an earthquake measuring 3 @.@ 4 on the Richter magnitude scale .
All 320 of the men on duty at the pier died instantly , and 390 civilians and military personnel were injured , many seriously . Among the dead were all five Coast Guard personnel posted aboard the fire barge . African Americans hurt and killed totaled 202 dead and 233 injured , which accounted for 15 % of all African @-@ American naval casualties during World War II . Naval personnel worked quickly to contain the fires and to prevent other explosions . Injuries were treated , those seriously injured were hospitalized , and uninjured servicemen were evacuated to nearby stations .
= = Aftermath = =
After the fires had been contained there remained the gruesome task of cleaning up — body parts and corpses littered the bay and port . Of the 320 dead , only 51 could be identified . Most of the uninjured sailors volunteered to help clean up and rebuild the base ; Division Two was separated into a group that would stay and clean up and a group that would be moved out . This section of Division Two and all of Divisions Four and Eight were transferred to Camp Shoemaker , about 30 mi ( 48 km ) south , where they were assigned barracks duty until July 31 , 1944 . The men of Divisions One , Five and Seven were reassigned other duty in distant locations and shipped out . The cleanup detail from Division Two dug into the wreckage of the pier and began tearing out the damaged portions . Beginning in August , Divisions Four and Eight and both sections of Division Two moved to the Ryder Street Naval Barracks in Vallejo , California , across a short channel from Mare Island , where they were assigned barracks duties with no ship @-@ loading . The men were in a state of shock ; all were nervous . Many of them inquired about obtaining a 30 @-@ day " survivor 's leave " sometimes given by the Navy to sailors who had survived a serious incident where their friends or shipmates had died , but no 30 @-@ day leaves were granted , not even to those who had been hospitalized with injuries . White officers , however , received the leave , causing a major grievance among the enlisted men .
A Naval Board of Inquiry was convened on July 21 , 1944 , to find out what had happened . The official proceeding lasted for 39 days and included interviews with witnesses who were officers , civilians and enlisted men . Ordnance experts were questioned as well as inspectors who had overseen previous loading procedures . Five African Americans were questioned , none of whom were later to refuse to load ammunition . Captain Kinne 's posted division tonnage results came to light in the inquiry but Kinne stated that the competition to load the most tonnage did not make for unsafe conditions ; he implied that any junior officers who said so did not know what they were talking about .
The inquiry covered possible explosion scenarios involving sabotage , faulty fueling procedures , failure of the moorings of the Quinault Victory , defects in munitions , the presence of a super sensitive element in the ordnance , problems with steam winches and rigging , rough handling by loaders and organizational problems within the base . The Navy determined that the tonnage contest between divisions was not at fault , although the Judge Advocate warned that " the loading of explosives should never be a matter of competition . " The officers in charge were cleared of guilt . The report stated that the cause of the explosion could not be determined , but implied that a mistake made by the enlisted men in the handling of the ordnance was most likely at root . No mention was made of the men 's lack of training in the handling of explosives .
The Navy asked Congress to give each victim 's family $ 5 @,@ 000 . Representative John E. Rankin ( D @-@ Mississippi ) insisted the amount be reduced to $ 2 @,@ 000 when he learned most of the dead were black men . Congress settled on $ 3 @,@ 000 in compensation . Years later , on March 4 , 1949 , the heirs of eighteen merchant seamen killed in the explosion were granted a total of $ 390 @,@ 000 after gaining approval of their consent decrees in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California .
A memorial ceremony was held for the victims on July 31 , 1944 , at Port Chicago . Admiral Carleton H. Wright , Commander , 12th Naval District , spoke of the unfortunate deaths and the need to keep the base operating during a time of war . He gave Navy and Marine Corps Medals for bravery to four officers and men who had successfully fought a fire in a rail car parked within a revetment near the pier . The remains of 44 of the victims were interred at Golden Gate National Cemetery , Sections L and H , with 17 men identified by name and the rest provided with headstones reading " Unknown U.S. Sailor . "
Wright soon began implementing a plan to have two groups of white sailors load ammunition in rotation with black sailors : one division of 100 men at Mare Island and another at Port Chicago . No plan was forwarded to use black officers to command the black sailors , and no plan included any form of desegregation . Wright sent a report of the incident to Washington , DC , telling his superior officers that the men 's " refusal to perform the required work arises from a mass fear arising out of the Port Chicago explosion . " Wright 's report was passed to President Franklin D. Roosevelt by Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal who added his opinion that it was " mass fear " motivating the work stoppage . Forrestal told Roosevelt that white units of munitions loaders were to be added to the rotation " ... to avoid any semblance of discrimination against negroes [ sic ] . " Roosevelt forwarded a copy to his wife Eleanor , knowing of her ongoing advocacy of civil rights for African Americans .
= = Port Chicago mutiny = =
= = = Initial actions = = =
Divisions Two , Four and Eight — reinforced with replacement sailors fresh from training at NSGL — were taken to Mare Island Navy Yard where there was an ammunition depot and loading piers . On August 8 , 1944 , the USS Sangay docked to be loaded with naval mines and other munitions . 328 men were asked , not ordered , to resume the dangerous task of ammunition loading ; all said they were afraid and that they would not load munitions under the same officers and conditions as before . It was a mass work stoppage , which would have been called a strike if the workers had been civilians .
The Navy would not countenance such conduct , especially in time of war . Seventy of the men changed their minds after their superior officers made it clear that loading ammunition was their duty . On August 9 , 258 African @-@ American sailors in the ordnance battalion continued to refuse to load ammunition . These men were taken under guard to a barge that was used as a temporary military prison or " brig , " despite having been built to accommodate only 75 men . Most of the men in the brig had not been given a direct order — they had simply been asked if they were going to load ships or not , and to step to one side if not . All said they were afraid of another explosion . Civilian stevedore contractors were called to replace the imprisoned men in loading the Sangay .
Among the prisoners , Seaman First Class Joseph Randolph " Joe " Small , a winch operator in Division Four and a natural leader who called cadence when his division marched , was asked by officers to assemble a handful of reliable men as a team of acting petty officers and to keep the other prisoners on good behavior . On August 10 , there had been conflicts between the prisoners and their guards as the prisoners were marched to the mess hall for meals . There was also a brief fight in the mess hall , and some prisoners were seen sharpening spoons into makeshift knives . Small sensed a general air of rebelliousness among the prisoners . To counteract the rising tension and offset the disaster he saw coming , Small convened a short meeting that evening aboard the crowded barge and told the prisoners to " knock off the horseplay " , stay out of trouble and obey the shore patrol guards ( who were black ) and the officers , because the alternative ( white Marines as guards ) would be worse . He said to the men , " We 've got the officers by the balls — they can do nothing to us if we don 't do anything to them . If we stick together , they can 't do anything to us . "
On August 11 , 1944 , the 258 men from the prison barge were marched to a nearby sports field and lectured by Admiral Wright who told them that troops fighting on Saipan desperately needed the ammunition they were supposed to be loading and that continued refusal to work would be treated as mutinous conduct , which carried the death penalty in times of war . Wright , who had seen nearly 400 of his men killed in 1942 in the Battle of Tassafaronga , said that although loading ammunition was risky , death by firing squad was the greater hazard .
After the admiral departed , the men were ordered to separate themselves into two groups , one for those willing to obey all orders and one for those not willing . To a man , Division Eight chose to obey all orders . Divisions Two and Four were split by the decisions of their men : Small and 43 others chose to form a group unwilling to obey every order . These 44 were taken back to the brig and the remaining 214 were sent to barracks . On the morning of August 12 , six men from Divisions Two and Four who had put themselves in the obey @-@ all @-@ orders group failed to show up for work call ; these six were confined to the brig , making 50 prisoners in all . These 50 were identified by the Navy as mutineers .
Throughout August , all 258 sailors were taken to Camp Shoemaker and questioned . Forty @-@ nine of the 50 " mutineers " were imprisoned in the camp 's brig . Joe Small was placed in solitary confinement . Each of the men was interviewed by officers , sometimes in the presence of an armed guard . Questions focused on identifying " ringleaders " of the work @-@ stoppage and on what was said by whom at the meeting on the prison barge . The men were asked to sign statements summarizing the interrogation , but the officer 's version rarely matched the enlisted man 's recollection of the interview . Some men , upon seeing that the written statements did not reflect what they had said , refused to sign . Others felt they had no choice but to sign — they were being ordered to do so by an officer . Several men refused to give any statement at all . Others spoke freely , thinking that the officer was there as defense counsel .
After all the interviews concluded , the group of 208 men were convicted in summary courts @-@ martial of disobeying orders , Article 4 of the Articles for the Government of the United States Navy ( Rocks and Shoals ) . Each man was subject to forfeiture of three months ' pay . A few of them were held as witnesses in the upcoming mutiny trial . The rest were split into smaller groups and shipped out to various places in the Pacific Theater . Carl Tuggle , one of the 208 , said in 1998 that a group of prisoners including himself were assigned menial tasks such as cleaning latrines and picking up cigarette butts at a series of Pacific islands . After returning from active duty they each received bad conduct discharges , which meant the loss of virtually all veterans ' benefits .
= = = Port Chicago 50 = = =
The 50 remaining men — soon to be known as the " Port Chicago 50 " — were formally charged in early September 1944 with disobeying orders and making a mutiny " with a deliberate purpose and intent to override superior military authority " . This was a crime punishable by death since the United States was at war . Even if the men were not given death sentences , they could get prison terms of 15 years .
The Navy set up the court @-@ martial in a disused Marine barracks building at Treasure Island , halfway between Oakland and San Francisco . Reporters from the major and local newspapers were invited to watch the proceedings ; Navy public relations officers gave reporters copies of photographs and press statements describing the trial as the first mutiny trial in World War II and the largest mass trial the Navy had ever convened . Chosen to head the seven @-@ man court was Rear Admiral Hugo Wilson Osterhaus , United States Naval Academy , class of 1900 . The prosecution team was led by Lieutenant Commander James F. Coakley who had recently served as deputy chief prosecutor in Alameda County under district attorney Earl Warren . Defending the accused men were six Navy lawyers , one as leader of the team and one attorney for every 10 men . Lieutenant Gerald E. Veltmann headed the defense .
Veltmann and his team talked to the accused men prior to the trial to prepare their defense . They discovered that not all of the 50 were experienced ship loaders . Two of the men taken to the brig had never before loaded ammunition — they were permanently assigned as cooks because of physical conditions making them unsuited to loading . The two cooks had responded " no " when asked if they would load munitions . Another of the 50 , who had a broken wrist in a sling was also asked if he would load ammunition , to which he replied that he would not . More importantly , Veltmann sensed that the men had not conspired to seize command from their superior officers . In a pre @-@ trial brief , Veltmann cited the definition of mutiny from Winthrop 's Military Law and Precedents and asked that the mutiny charges be dismissed as the formal charges against the 50 men failed to allege that they conspired together deliberately to " usurp , subvert or override superior military authority " . Coakley opposed with a brief stating that , under military law , a persistent refusal to work by two or more men — something that might be called a " strike " among civilians — was sufficient proof of a conspiracy to override superior military authority and was equivalent to mutiny . Osterhaus agreed with Coakley and refused Veltmann 's motion ; the trial would proceed as planned .
= = = Prosecution = = =
The trial started on September 14 with each of the 50 men pleading " not guilty " . Coakley began his prosecution by calling officers from Port Chicago and Mare Island as witnesses . Commander Joseph R. Tobin of Ryder Street Naval Barracks said that he personally ordered six or seven of the men to load munitions on August 9 but was unable to verify if any others were so ordered . He said that the men he had spoken with were willing to follow any order except to load munitions ; that each man expressed fear of another explosion . Tobin verified that the men were not aggressive or disrespectful . Lieutenant Ernest Delucchi , Commander of Division Four at Port Chicago , testified that he personally ordered only four of the 50 defendants to load munitions . Delucchi described overhearing men of Division Eight say to his men , " Don 't go to work for the white motherfuckers " but , under cross @-@ examination , was unable to identify who said it . Veltmann objected to this hearsay but was overruled after Coakley explained it was evidence toward conspiracy .
On September 15 , Delucchi continued his testimony , saying that some of his men told him they would obey all orders and perform all work except loading ammunition because they were afraid of it . Delucchi confirmed that a cook and a man with a broken wrist were among the 25 men in his division that now sat among the 50 accused . Delucchi added that the cook and a second man were sailors he did not consider " up to par " ; the cook in particular was prone to nervous attacks and was seen as a liability at the pier .
Later in the trial , Lieutenant Carleton Morehouse — Commander of Division Eight at Port Chicago — took the stand to say that at the first sign of problems on August 9 , he assembled his men and read their names off alphabetically , ordering each man to work . Ninety @-@ six of 104 refused and were sent to the prison barge , but all of these men agreed to work after hearing Admiral Wright 's speech on August 11 ; none of Morehouse 's men were on trial for mutiny . Morehouse confirmed to Veltmann that some of his men had said they were afraid to handle ammunition . Following Morehouse , Lieutenant James E. Tobin , Commander of Division Two , took the stand . Lieutenant Tobin ( no relation to Commander Joseph R. Tobin ) related that 87 of his men initially refused to work but that number was reduced to 22 after Admiral Wright talked about the firing squad . Tobin said he put three additional men in the brig the next morning when they , too , refused to work , saying they were afraid . Tobin affirmed that one of the accused men from Division Two was permanently assigned the job of cook because he weighed 104 lb ( 47 kg ) and was considered too small to safely load ammo .
The next few days of testimony were filled with accounts from African @-@ American enlisted men from Divisions Two , Four and Eight , who were not standing accused of mutiny . Some of these men had already been convicted of disobeying orders in summary courts @-@ martial . The testimony of the men agreed on several points : that there had been talk among them of a mass work @-@ stoppage leading up to August 9 , that some men ( none of the accused 50 ) had passed around and signed a petition to avoid loading ammunition , and that Joe Small had spoken at the meeting on the prison barge and had urged the men to obey their officers and to conduct themselves in an orderly fashion . Some men said Small 's speech included words to the effect of having the officers " by the tail " or " by the ass " . Coakley was challenged by Veltmann when he attempted to bring the men 's signed statements in as evidence but the court allowed the statements to be used to refresh the men 's memories of their answers to interrogation .
Coakley summed up his prosecution case on September 22 . His aim was to show the court that a conspiracy had taken place — the mass of accounts from officers and men appeared to support the conclusion that ringleaders and agitators had forced a rebellion against authority . Veltmann pointed out that few of the accused had been ordered to load ammunition , meaning that they could not all be guilty of the charge of disobeying orders . Veltmann stressed that much of the testimony was hearsay and failed to establish a conspiracy or a mutiny . The court , however , seemed to side with Coakley on all points , settling each objection in favor of the prosecution .
= = = Defense = = =
Veltmann scored a victory at the beginning of his defense : he moved and was granted that each officer 's testimony could only be applied to the men they had specifically named as having been given the order to work . In principle , this ruling was favorable , but in practice it would only benefit the men if the court had been attentively keeping notes for each accused man . Instead , the court was observed by reporters to be drowsy at times , with one particular judge regularly nodding off .
Starting on September 23 and continuing for over three weeks , each of the accused men was brought to the witness stand to testify in his defense . The general trend of the men 's responses was that all of them were willing to obey any order except to load ammunition , all were afraid of another explosion , and none had been approached by " ringleaders " persuading them not to work — each had made his own decision . Each man said that he himself had not coerced others to refuse to work . Some of the men related how , following the official interrogation at Camp Shoemaker , they had been under great pressure to sign statements containing things they had not said . Some men said that , at the meeting on the barge , Joe Small had not urged a mutiny and had not uttered any phrase to the effect of having the officers " by the balls " . On the witness stand , Small himself denied saying any such thing , though he would admit to it decades later in interviews .
Coakley 's cross @-@ examinations began with an attempt to have the signed statements admitted as evidence . Veltmann objected that each statement was obtained under duress and was not voluntary . Coakley characterized the statements as not being confessions requiring voluntary conditions but merely " admissions " that had no such requirement . Osterhaus ruled that Coakley could not introduce the statements as evidence but that he could ask the defendants questions based on what each man 's signed statement contained .
Some of the men who had been named as having been given direct orders to work testified that they had not been given any such order . Seaman Ollie E. Green — who had accidentally broken his wrist one day prior to the first work @-@ stoppage on August 9 — said that though he had heard an officer in prior testimony name him as one who had been given a direct order , the officer had only asked him how his wrist was doing , to which he responded " not so good . "
At the end of his testimony , Green told the court that he was afraid to load ammunition because of " them officers racing each division to see who put on the most tonnage , and I knowed the way they was handling ammunition it was liable to go off again . If we didn 't want to work fast at that time , they wanted to put us in the brig , and when the exec came down on the docks , they wanted us to slow up . " This was the first that the newspaper reporters had heard of speed and tonnage competition between divisions at Port Chicago , and each reporter filed a story featuring this revelation to be published the next day . Naval authorities quickly issued a statement denying Green 's allegation .
Another one of the men gave the surprising testimony that Lieutenant Commander Coakley had threatened to have him shot after he refused to answer some questions during interrogation at Camp Shoemaker . Seaman Alphonso McPherson held fast to his testimony even when faced by Coakley in cross @-@ examination . Coakley denied threatening anyone , exclaiming that such an idea was a personal affront . Veltmann responded that this line of evidence was news to him , too . The next day , Coakley gave the press a statement accusing Veltmann of coaching McPherson .
October 9 , 1944 , was another in a string of days consisting of accused men testifying on the witness stand . This day , however , Thurgood Marshall , chief counsel for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) , sat in on the proceedings . Marshall had flown to the Bay Area on a special wartime travel priority arranged by Navy Secretary Forrestal . The NAACP had given the mutiny trial top importance due to the U.S. Navy 's policy of putting Negroes into dirty and dangerous jobs with no hope of advancement . Although Marshall was allowed to observe the trial , as a civilian he was ineligible to take an official role in the men 's defense . After hearing five of the men defend themselves , Marshall spoke to the 50 men and then conferred with Veltmann 's defense team . The next day , Marshall held a press conference , charging that Judge Advocate Coakley was handling the case in a prejudicial manner . Marshall said that , from a review of the proceedings and his conversations with the accused , he could only see these men being tried for lesser charges of individual insubordination , not mass mutiny .
The defense continued a few more days with testimony from a Navy psychiatrist who verified that the immense explosion would generate fear in each man . A black petty officer under Delucchi testified that he had heard no derogatory remarks or conspiratorial comments and that it had been a surprise to everybody when all of the men suddenly refused to march toward the docks on August 9 .
Marshall held another press conference on October 17 to announce that the NAACP was requesting a formal government investigation into the working conditions that had led the men to strike . He called attention to three aspects : the Navy policy that put the great majority of African Americans into segregated shore duty , the unsafe munitions handling practices and lack of training that had led to the catastrophic detonation — and the unfair manner in which 50 of 258 men had been singled out as mutineers. when their actions concerning loading ammunition after the explosion were not significantly different from the other 208 men . Marshall pointed to the men of Division One who had refused to load ammunition prior to August 9 , but had been shipped out and given other duty , not arrested and court @-@ martialled .
Coakley 's rebuttal witnesses consisted of officers who had interrogated the prisoners at Camp Shoemaker . The rebuttal fared poorly , as Veltmann was able to elicit from them that some of the accused men had not been informed they could refuse to make a statement , that some of the interrogations had taken place with an armed sentry standing guard , that very few of the prisoners ' explanations that they had been afraid of another explosion had been laid down in the statements , and that the officers had emphasized portions of the interrogations that would satisfy Coakley 's requirement for evidence of conspiracy . Coakley 's last rebuttal witness testified on October 19 , and the whole court took October 20 off to allow both sides to prepare closing arguments .
= = = Closing arguments = = =
In his closing argument , Coakley described a chronological sequence of mutinous occurrences , beginning at Camp Shoemaker shortly after the explosion when two and a half companies were mixed together for two weeks . Coakley stated that conspiratorial talk among the men about refusing to work and trying to get out of loading ammunition was the root of their August 9 mass refusal . Coakley described how the mutiny continued in the barge when Joe Small spoke to the men and asked them to stick together . Coakley entered into the record his definition of mutiny : " Collective insubordination , collective disobedience of lawful orders of a superior officer , is mutiny . " He gave his opinion that men who admitted in time of war that they were afraid to load ammunition were of a low moral character and were likely to give false testimony .
Veltmann denied that there was a mutinous conspiracy , saying the men were in a state of shock stemming from the horrific explosion and the subsequent cleanup of human body parts belonging to their former battalion mates . He said the conversations at Camp Shoemaker were simply those of men who were trying to understand what had happened , and that these discussions were not mutinous nor could they provide the groundwork for conspiracy . Veltmann argued that Small 's brief four- or five @-@ minute speech to the men on the barge was given in the performance of his duty to maintain order , a duty placed upon him by his superiors . Veltmann restated that the established legal definition of mutiny was a concerted effort to usurp , subvert or override military authority , and that there had been no such action or intent . Refusal to obey an order was not mutiny .
= = = Verdict = = =
On October 24 , 1944 , Admiral Osterhaus and the other six members of the court deliberated for 80 minutes and found all 50 defendants guilty of mutiny . Each man was reduced in rank to Seaman Apprentice and sentenced to 15 years of hard labor to be followed by dishonorable discharge . The men were held under guard while their sentences were passed to Admiral Wright for review . On November 15 , Wright reduced the sentences for 40 of the men : 24 were given 12 years , 11 were given 10 years and the five youngest sailors were given eight @-@ year sentences . The full 15 @-@ year sentences remained in place for ten of the men including Joe Small and Ollie Green . In late November , the 50 men were transferred to the Federal Correctional Institution , Terminal Island in San Pedro Bay near the Port of Los Angeles and the Port of Long Beach .
= = = Appeal and release = = =
During the 12 days that he watched the court @-@ martial proceedings , Thurgood Marshall began to formulate an appeal campaign . Marshall had noticed that none of the men 's grievances had been aired in court . Directly after the court closed the case , Marshall sent a letter to Secretary Forrestal asking why only blacks were assigned the task of loading munitions ; why had they not been trained for that task ; why were they forced to compete for speed ; why were they not given survivor 's leaves ; and why had they not been allowed to rise in rank . Forrestal replied weakly , saying that a predominance of black men were stationed at Port Chicago so of course they would be working there to load munitions . Forrestal pointed out that there was no discrimination because other naval weapons stations were manned by white crews loading munitions . The Navy Secretary said that the men had not been promoted because their time at Port Chicago had been a " trial period " , and that they were not given 30 @-@ day leaves because he thought it best for men to get quickly back to duty to prevent them from building up mental and emotional barriers .
Marshall — working as special counsel for the NAACP Legal Defense Fund — determined that the first course of action should be a publicity campaign mounted with the aim of gathering public support for the release of the men . In November 1944 , Marshall wrote an incendiary piece for The Crisis magazine , published by the NAACP . Pamphlets were printed and distributed , and editorials denouncing the trial appeared from African @-@ American publishers in January 1945 . Petitions began to circulate , collecting thousands of names of citizens who demanded a reversal of the mutiny verdict . Protest meetings were held and powerful people in sympathy to the cause were asked to bring pressure to bear . Eleanor Roosevelt sent Secretary Forrestal a copy of NAACP 's " Mutiny " pamphlet in April 1945 , asking him to take special care in this case .
Marshall obtained written permission from each of the 50 convicted men for him to appeal their case when it came up for review in Washington , DC in front of the Judge Advocate General of the Navy . On April 3 , 1945 , he appeared to present his arguments . Marshall 's appeal made the case that no direct order was given to all 50 of the defendants to load munitions and that even if orders had been given to certain individuals , disobeying the orders could not constitute mutiny . He said that Coakley deliberately misled the court on the definition of " mutiny " and that the mass of evidence he introduced was hearsay , thus inadmissible . Marshall wrote that " [ t ] he accused were made scapegoats in a situation brought about by a combination of circumstances . [ … ] Justice can only be done in this case by a complete reversal of the findings . " Marshall said " I can 't understand why whenever more than one Negro disobeys an order it is mutiny . "
The office of the Secretary of the Navy ordered Admiral Wright to reconvene the courts @-@ martial , this time with instructions to disregard the hearsay testimony . Admiral Osterhaus once again called the court to session for deliberation and on June 12 , 1945 , the court reaffirmed each of the mutiny convictions and sentences . Admiral Wright stuck by his reduced sentences .
After the surrender of Japan and the cessation of hostilities , the Navy was no longer able to justify such severe sentences as a warning to other potentially dissident servicemen and labor battalions . In September 1945 , the Navy shortened each of the 50 mutiny sentences by one year . Captain Harold Stassen recommended in October that the Navy reduce the sentences to just two years for men with good conduct records and three years for the rest , with credit for time served . Finally , on January 6 , 1946 , the Navy announced that 47 of the 50 men were being released . These 47 were paroled to active duty aboard Navy vessels in the Pacific Theater , where the men were assigned menial duties associated with post @-@ war base detail . Two of the 50 prisoners remained in the prison 's hospital for additional months recuperating from injuries , and one was not released because of a bad conduct record . Those of the 50 who had not committed later offenses were given a general discharge from the Navy " under honorable conditions " . In all , the Navy granted clemency to about 1 @,@ 700 imprisoned men at this time .
= = Political and social effect = =
The Port Chicago disaster highlighted systemic racial inequality in the Navy . A year before the disaster , in mid @-@ 1943 , the U.S. Navy had over 100 @,@ 000 African Americans in service but not one black officer . In the months following the disaster , the Pittsburgh Courier , a newspaper with a large nationwide subscription primarily of African Americans , related the incident and the subsequent mutiny trial in their Double V campaign , a push for victory over not just the Axis powers but also over racial inequality at home . The mutiny trial was seen as underscoring the tense race relations in the armed forces at the time .
Late in 1944 , under conditions of severe racism , a race riot broke out in Guam at a naval base . In March 1945 a Seabee battalion of 1 @,@ 000 African @-@ American men staged a hunger strike at their base , Naval Base Ventura County in Port Hueneme , California , in protest of discriminatory conditions . In the weeks following the latter incident , Fleet Admiral Ernest King and Secretary Forrestal worked with civilian expert Lester Granger on a plan for total integration of the races within the Navy . The Port Chicago disaster had helped catalyze the drive to implement new standards .
Beginning in 1990 , a campaign led by 25 U.S. Congressmen was unsuccessful in having the convicts exonerated . Gordon Koller , Chief Petty Officer at the time of the explosion , was interviewed in 1990 . Koller stated that the hundreds of men like him who continued to load ammunition in the face of danger were " the ones who should be recognized " . In 1994 , the Navy rejected a request by four California lawmakers to overturn the courts @-@ martial decisions . The Navy found that racial inequities were responsible for the sailors ' ammunition @-@ loading assignments but that no prejudice occurred at the courts @-@ martial .
In the 1990s , Freddie Meeks , one of the few still alive among the group of 50 , was urged to petition the President for a pardon . Others of the Port Chicago 50 had refused to ask for a pardon , reasoning that a pardon is for guilty people receiving forgiveness ; they continued to hold the position that they were not guilty of mutiny . Meeks pushed for a pardon as a way to get the story out , saying " I hope that all of America knows about it ... it 's something that 's been in the closet for so long . " In September 1999 , the petition by Meeks was bolstered by 37 members of Congress including George Miller , the U.S. representative for the district containing the disaster site . The 37 Congressmen sent a letter to President Bill Clinton and in December 1999 , Clinton pardoned Meeks , who died in June 2003 . Efforts to posthumously exonerate all 50 sailors have continued . In 2004 , author Robert L. Allen was reported as saying " ... even for today it 's important to have these convictions set aside . "
= = Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial = =
The Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial was dedicated in 1994 to the lives lost in the explosion . The National Park Service ( NPS ) was directed to design and maintain the memorial . Congressman George Miller pushed for the memorial to be upgraded to national park status in 2002 , in the knowledge that such status would help the site " become more competitive for federal funds to upgrade and enhance facilities and education materials " . This effort did not result in a change of status . In 2006 , a local newspaper article highlighted the precarious position of the disused chapel within the grounds of the Concord Naval Weapons Station , a chapel that had been previously dedicated to the memory of those fallen in the explosion . The 1980 chapel was said by local historian John Keibel to be unsalvageable due to lead paint and its dilapidated condition . Keibel called attention to the stained glass windows , which were crafted in 1991 as a tribute to the disaster , noting that they could be dismantled and remounted at the memorial site . In March 2008 , NPS was directed by Congress to manage the memorial , after passage of a bill introduced in 2007 by Miller . On July 10 , 2008 , Senator Barbara Boxer introduced legislation that would expand the memorial site by five acres ( two hectares ) , if the land was judged safe for human health and was excess to the Navy 's needs . The Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial Enhancement Act of 2008 was not put to a vote . On February 12 , 2009 , Miller introduced a similar bill , the Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial Enhancement Act of 2009 ( H.R. 1044 ) , which , in addition to calling for another five acres , allowed for the City of Concord and the East Bay Regional Park District " ... to establish and operate a facility for visitor orientation and parking , administrative offices , and curatorial storage for the Memorial . " President Barack Obama approved and signed the bill in December 2009 .
The site is contained within an active military base and requires prior reservation to visit . Visitors are asked to allow 90 minutes per visit and are shuttled to the site in NPS vehicles from the Concord Naval Weapons Station Identification Office .
= = Debunked nuclear bomb theory = =
The Port Chicago explosion was studied by the Los Alamos National Laboratory team working on the Manhattan project . The resulting damage was seen as being similar to the effects of a relatively small nuclear explosion with destructive power equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 tons of TNT . Paul Masters — a photo technician at Los Alamos — made copies of some of the study documents and stored them at his home . In 1980 , Peter Vogel discovered one of Masters ' documents in a rummage sale and noticed that one section of text read " Ball of fire mushroom out at 18 @,@ 000 ft in typical Port Chicago fashion " . Vogel — a New Mexican information officer @-@ turned @-@ journalist — began to research the possibility that the Port Chicago explosion was caused by a nuclear bomb . Beginning in 1982 , Vogel publicly voiced his theory , raising a storm of controversy in the Bay Area press .
Vogel continued to hunt for clues for the next 20 years , eventually writing a book and , in 2002 , establishing a website delineating various circumstantial reasons why the Port Chicago explosion could have been nuclear . After failing to find hard evidence to support his theory , Vogel abandoned it in 2005 . Vogel 's website was remounted in 2009 under a different URL .
Vogel 's theory has not had any traction among mainstream historians . Nuclear historians Lawrence Badash and Richard G. Hewlett , in an article from 1993 , took issue both with Vogel 's alleged evidence of weapons effects residues as well as Vogel 's proposed timetable for the production of the bomb itself . " It is impossible that there would have been no noticeable effects that later would have been identifiable as nuclear , " they wrote , " Yet rescue and investigating personnel combed the area immediately after the blast , and the ammunition depot , which was quickly rebuilt , is in use today . These activities , without any reported injuries resulting from residual radioactivity , clearly indicate that only conventional explosives were detonated . " They criticized Vogel for being " silent " about all of the evidence against his theory , and found the persistence in the propagation of the Vogel theory in the media " even in the face of evidence to the contrary " as exemplifying " ... the process by which conspiracy theories and other astounding knowledge claims gain popular attention . "
= = Media representations = =
In 1990 , Will Robinson and Ken Swartz produced the documentary Port Chicago Mutiny — A National Tragedy , about the explosion and trial . They interviewed mutiny convict Joe Small , his defense lawyer Gerald Veltmann , as well as Percy Robinson , a seaman who returned to loading ammunition after the first work @-@ stoppage , and Robert Routh , Jr . , a seaman who was blinded in the blast . Danny Glover provided narration for the story , which included dramatized scenes depicting events as they might have occurred in 1944 . The documentary was nominated for the Peabody Awards and won an Emmy .
In 1996 , Dan Collison interviewed Port Chicago sailors for WBEZ radio 's PRI @-@ distributed program , This American Life . The men described how they were initially trained for action on ships and were disappointed when they were not assigned to ocean @-@ going ships . Collison interspersed interviews with contemporary news reports about the explosion .
The story of the Port Chicago 50 was the basis of Mutiny , a made @-@ for @-@ television movie written by James S. " Jim " Henerson and directed by Kevin Hooks , which included Morgan Freeman as one of three executive producers . Starring Michael Jai White , Duane Martin and David Ramsey as three fictional Navy seamen , the film aired on NBC on March 28 , 1999 .
The disaster was featured in " Port Chicago " , a 2002 episode of the NBC / CBS drama television series JAG .
The disaster featured prominently in the 2011 novel " Blue Skies Tomorrow " by Sarah Sundin ( the third book in her ' Wings of Glory ' trilogy ) . One of the lead characters , Helen Carlisle , works in the arsenal and assists the wife of an imprisoned ' mutineer ' in her fight for justice . The novel is set in the neighbouring town of Antioch. https : / / www.amazon.co.uk / Blue @-@ Skies @-@ Tomorrow @-@ Wings @-@ Glory @-@ ebook / dp / B0055PLW2K / ref = sr _ 1 _ 7 ? s = books & ie = UTF8 & qid = 1469215743 & sr = 1 @-@ 7 & keywords = sarah + sundin
In 2015 , award @-@ winning writer Steve Sheinkin ’ s The Port Chicago 50 : Disaster , Mutiny , and the Fight for Civil Rights was a Finalist for the 2014 National Book Award in Young People ’ s Literature . The New York Times called it " just as suitable for adults " and noted that the " seriousness and breadth of Sheinkin ’ s research can be seen in his footnotes and lists of sources , which include oral histories , documentaries and Navy documents . "
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= 1943 Surprise Hurricane =
The 1943 Surprise hurricane was the first hurricane to be entered by a reconnaissance aircraft . The first tracked tropical cyclone of the 1943 Atlantic hurricane season , this system developed as a tropical storm while situated over the northeastern Gulf of Mexico on July 25 . The storm gradually strengthened while tracking westward and reached hurricane status late on July 26 . Thereafter , the hurricane curved slightly west @-@ northwestward and continued intensifying . Early on July 27 , it became a Category 2 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale and peaked with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . The system maintained this intensity until landfall on the Bolivar Peninsula in Texas late on July 27 . After moving inland , the storm initially weakened rapidly , but remained a tropical cyclone until dissipating over north @-@ central Texas on July 29 .
Because the storm occurred during World War II , information and reports were censored by the Government of the United States and news media . Advisories also had to be cleared through the Weather Bureau office in New Orleans , resulting in late releases . This in turn delayed preparations ahead of the storm . In Louisiana , the storm produced gusty winds and heavy rains , though no damage occurred . The storm was considered the worst in Texas since the 1915 Galveston hurricane . Wind gusts up to 132 mph ( 212 km / h ) were reported in the Galveston @-@ Houston area . Numerous buildings and houses were damaged or destroyed . The storm caused 19 fatalities , 14 of which occurred after two separate ships sunk . Overall , damage reached approximately $ 17 million ( 1943 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A partial atmospheric circulation was observed over the extreme Southeastern United States and the eastern Gulf of Mexico as early as July 23 . However , an area of disturbed weather went unnoticed until July 25 , when wind shifts from southeast to northeast were observed in Burrwood and New Orleans in Louisiana , as well as Biloxi , Mississippi . Around 1800 UTC , a tropical storm developed approximately 110 miles ( 180 km ) southeast of the Mississippi River Delta . Moving westward at about 7 mph ( 11 km / h ) , the storm strengthened and became a hurricane late on July 26 . Early on the following day , the storm strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Around that time , the storm also attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) .
Later on July 27 , the first ever reconnaissance aircraft flight into a hurricane occurred . An eye feature with a width of 9 – 10 miles ( 14 – 16 km ) was observed during the flight . Around 1800 UTC on July 27 , the storm made landfall on the Bolivar Peninsula in Texas with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . The system was described by the Weather Bureau as , " a small intense storm accompanied by full hurricane winds " . Around the time of landfall , a barometric pressure of 967 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) was observed . Early on July 28 , the system weakened to a Category 1 hurricane , then a tropical storm about six hours later . Later that day , the storm began curving northwestward over east @-@ central Texas . Early on July 29 , it weakened further to a tropical depression . Around 0000 UTC on the following day , the storm dissipated near Whitt , Texas .
= = Hurricane hunting = =
This was the first hurricane to be intentionally flown into by a reconnaissance aircraft . During the morning hours of July 27 , British pilots were training at Bryan Field in Bryan , Texas and were alerted about a hurricane approaching the Galveston area . Upon becoming informed that the planes would need to be flown away from the storm , they criticized this policy . Instead , Colonel Joe Duckworth made a bet with the British pilots that he could fly his AT @-@ 6 Texan trainer directly into the storm . Duckworth requested that Lt. Colonel Ralph O 'Hair , the only navigator at the field , fly into the hurricane with him . Because neither Duckworth nor O 'Hair believed that the headquarters would approve the flight , they decided to proceed without permission . Thus , Duckworth and O 'Hair became the first hurricane hunters . O 'Hair later compared the weather encountered during the flight to " being tossed about like a stick in a dog 's mouth " . After returning to Bryan Field , Lt. William Jones @-@ Burdick requested to fly into the hurricane with Duckworth , while O 'Hair decided to exit the aircraft .
= = Censorship = =
The hurricane occurred during World War II , with activity from a German U @-@ boat expected in the Gulf of Mexico . As a result , ship reports were silenced . At the time , the Weather Bureau relied primarily on ship and land weather station observations for issue storm warnings . Additionally , advisories had to be cleared through the Weather Bureau office in New Orleans , Louisiana , causing them to be released hours late ; moreover the advisories contained no forecast information , which would have allowed for preparation before the storm struck . The news media after the hurricane was heavily censored by the government due to national security , as information could not be leaked to the Axis powers about the loss of production of war materials . Reportedly , the Federal Bureau of Investigation shut down a telegraph office in La Porte after a telegram was sent containing information about damage from the hurricane . The only news of this storm was published in Texas and Louisiana . After the loss of life in this storm , the Government of the United States has never censored hurricane advisories again .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
In Louisiana , light winds were observed , with gusts of 36 mph ( 58 km / h ) at both Burrwood and Lake Charles . Locally heavy rains were reported in some areas , with a 24 @-@ hour precipitation total of 7 @.@ 65 inches ( 194 mm ) in DeQuincy on July 28 .
The storm brought strong winds to Texas , with gusts up to 132 mph ( 212 km / h ) reported at the cooling towers at the Shell Oil Refinery in Deer Park and the Humble Oil Refinery in Baytown . Four towers were destroyed at the latter , while other damage there reduced production of toluene , which is an ingredient of TNT . Some towers were also toppled at the Shell Oil Refinery in Deer Park . As these were the primary refineries producing aviation fuel for World War II , it was decided that news about this loss of production should be censored . A number of other oil derricks were destroyed throughout Chambers and Jefferson counties . At Ellington Field Joint Reserve Base near Houston , strong winds blew off the top of a hangar , destroyed five planes , and injured at least 22 cadets . Thousands in the Houston were left without telephone and electrical service , which caused all three radio stations in the area to go off air . The nearby Houston Yacht Club also suffered heavy damage . At Point Bolivar , located on the Bolivar Peninsula , nearly all homes were destroyed by the high winds . The high school 's physical education building in La Porte , which was originally a three story building , was reduced to only one floor after windows shattered and the support beams toppled , causing the roof to collapse . At nearby Morgan 's Point , a water tower was knocked over . On Galveston Island , a number of brick businesses , buildings , and churches collapsed .
Heavy rainfall was observed in some areas of eastern Texas , with up to 19 inches ( 480 mm ) in Port Arthur . There , numerous homes were flooded with 6 to 24 inches ( 150 to 610 mm ) of water , which included damage to furnishings , electric motors and automobiles . In downtown Galveston , a number of streets were inundated with rainwater , though flooding damage was relatively minor . Two children 's polio hospitals suffered leaking roofs and water damage , forcing patients to be evacuated by staff and University of Texas Medical Branch students . About 90 percent of all house and buildings in Texas City suffered either water damage or complete destruction , including plant sites producing war materials . However , they were discouraged from going to shelters due to a polio epidemic there . In Galveston Bay , wind @-@ driven waves flooded the western and southern shores . However , northerly winds across the bay resulted in tides being extremely low . On Galveston Island , a storm surge of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) was observed . Offshore , the United States Army Corps of Engineers ’ s hopper dredge , Galveston , broke up after being smashed against the north jetty , causing 11 fatalities . The tug Titan began sinking offshore Port Arthur . Three members of the crew drowned after attempting to board a rubber raft , while another person died before the remainder of the crew reached the shore . Overall , the storm killed 19 people and caused $ 17 million ( 1943 USD ) in damage to the Houston area .
Following the storm , residents were warned to boil their water and be cautious of potential food contamination due to electrical outages . The War Production Board regional office in Dallas offered relief to the victims of the storm . In La Porte , a makeshift hospital was set up in city hall . At Point Bolivar , where nearly all houses were destroyed , the now @-@ destitute residents were transported by the Galveston chapter of the American Red Cross to Galveston for housing .
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= Simon Favre =
Simon Favre ( May 31 , 1760 – July 3 , 1813 ) was an interpreter of the Muskogean languages , particularly Choctaw and Chickasaw , for the French , British , Spanish and Americans in the part of West Florida that became part of the states of Mississippi and Alabama . The son of another prominent interpreter , Favre spent the late 18th century in the vicinity of Mobile and the Tombigbee River , which changed hands from French to British , and then Spanish control . He became well versed in the language and culture of the Choctaws , and was involved with several treaties between the Europeans and natives . As a young man he had a Chocktaw mistress with whom he had six known children , then at the age of 41 he was legally married in Mobile to a woman of European descent . Within a few years of his marriage , he moved with his new family from the Tombigbee area to a plantation on the Pearl River .
As the power of the Choctaws diminished , Favre became less important as an interpreter , and more important as a facilitator of the political changes occurring along the Gulf Coast . Once the Louisiana Purchase was concluded between France and the United States , American settlers from both inside and outside Spanish West Florida increased pressure on Spain for American control of the territory . While the transfer did not officially take place until 1821 , the Spanish essentially put Florida under the trust of the United States in 1810 , and Favre played a major role in facilitating the transfer , and keeping the Indians informed of the events . Favre was considered the top interpreter in the region by men of prominence , including Governor William C. C. Claiborne of Louisiana who made Favre a justice of the peace , and recommended him for the position of United States agent to the Choctaws . A " talk " that Favre gave to the Choctaws on the eve of the War of 1812 was touted by historian Russell Guerin as a masterpiece of diplomacy , and displayed Favre 's deep understanding of the native language and culture .
Favre died in 1813 , leaving many minor children and a substantial estate of more than 5000 acres of land and 57 slaves . He had 13 known children with three different women , and leaves numerous descendants . A well @-@ known descendant is former National Football League quarterback Brett Favre . Simon Favre 's associations with property owners and prominent officials demonstrate that he was a person of very high social standing .
= = Life = =
= = = Ancestry = = =
Born near Mobile , then a part of French Louisiana , on May 31 , 1760 , Simon Favre was the son of Jean Claude Favre ( 1721 – 1782 ) and Marguerite Wiltz ( 1740 – 1805 ) . His grandfather , Jean Baptiste Favre , came from Royan , France , and by tradition was a cabin boy when Pierre D 'Iberville placed him on shore near Biloxi to make contact with the natives . His father was a government interpreter who was commissioned to explain the terms of the Treaty of Paris ( 1763 ) to the natives upon the conclusion of the French and Indian War . Favre 's mother was the daughter of a Swiss soldier .
= = = Early life = = =
Learning from his father , Favre became fluent in the languages of French , English , Spanish , and the Muskogean languages including Choctaw and Chickasaw . The lands along the Gulf coast were held by the British for nearly two decades following the 1763 Treaty of Paris , but their ability to maintain control diminished during that time . On September 3 , 1783 the British ceded their lands in both East and West Florida to Spain under the Treaty of Versailles . Favre 's father had just died the year before this treaty , and Simon Favre followed his father 's career , also inheriting his father 's plantation on the Pearl River , though continuing to reside in Mobile near his mother .
Favre spent his early adult years among the natives along the Tombigbee River , being initially employed by the French as an interpreter of the Choctaw language , but soon coming into the employ of the British and later the Spanish . Favre also understood the Chickasaw language , but at one point his translation was challenged by James Colbert ( grandfather of Holmes Colbert ) , who had married into the Chickasaw tribe , and was asked by the tribe to replace Favre as interpreter . Favre was said to be a confidante and personal friend of the celebrated Choctaw Indian chief Pushmataha . Genealogist Heitzmann relates that at one point Favre acted as the interpreter between Pushmataha and the military commanders Andrew Jackson and General Thomas Hinds .
In 1792 Juan De la Villebeuvre , who worked among the Indians on behalf of the Spanish government , was named a special commissioner to the Choctaws and Chickasaws . Favre 's reputation as a competent and valuable interpreter grew quickly , and in an undated letter to Governor Francisco Carondelet , De la Villebeuvre wrote , " ... I am going to reside with Favre , who is employed by the king [ of Spain ] and who will serve me as interpreter . He is the best one of the province , with a great influence over the minds of the Indians , and he knows how to lead them firmly whenever necessary . " Favre built a house for De la Villebeuvre about 12 miles from the village of the Choctaw chief Franchimastabee with whom Favre had become friendly .
Favre was present at Fort Nogales , located in Choctaw territory near the mouth of the Yazoo River , when the Treaty of Nogales was signed on October 28 , 1793 . The treaty was between Spain ( and signed by the king ) and the Alibamon , Cherokee , Chickasaw , Choctaw , Creek and Tallapoosa nations . Representing the Choctaws were chiefs Franchimastabee and Pushmataha , while Favre signed as a witness . In January 1794 Favre wrote a letter to Don Manuel Lanzos , Spanish commander at Natchez , warning of a great rumor among the Choctaws that the Americans were coming to destroy them . The Choctaws were in difficult straits at the time , from both the consumption of alcohol and from a corn crop failure brought on by an earlier drought . They were stealing horses from other tribes as well as from the Europeans , and Favre himself had three horses stolen while staying near the Tombigbee . De la Villebeuvre felt that these actions were being instigated by the Americans , and Favre was sent to the Choctaw villages to assess the feelings of the natives .
Following the Treaty of Boukfouka on May 10 , 1793 , the Spaniards built a fort on the location where the French had earlier built Fort Tombecbe , and named it Confederacion in honor of the alliance between the Spanish and Indians . In the late 1700s Favre was living near Fort Confederation , but sometime after 1797 moved to St. Stephens . He moved into a house across the road from Augustin Rochon , his future father @-@ in @-@ law . After spending time there and at various other locations along the Tombigbee , Favre returned to Mobile before 1800 where he occupied a house on Loyal Street . While there , he associated with other interpreters including J. B. Roussere and Simon Andry . Favre also maintained very close ties with New Orleans , and he called himself of that city in the 1800 baptismal record for his son Simon .
= = = Pearl River = = =
After having seven children with two other women , Favre was legally married in Mobile in 1801 to Celeste Rochon . Sometime between 1804 and 1806 , following the birth of two children in Mobile , he moved with his new family to one of his plantations on the Pearl River , near what became Pearlington , Mississippi . This was shortly following the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 , when the Americans were showing a great interest in West Florida , still governed by Spain . Favre then became an important interpreter in the service of the Americans , as well as continuing to work for the Spanish who were eventually compelled to give up control of their Florida lands .
While Favre 's importance had initially sprung from his influence with the native tribes , particularly the Choctaws , as the power of these people declined he became much more important as an intermediary during the turbulent times of transition from Spanish to American rule in West Florida . During this period early in the 19th century , the Spanish authorities were losing their hold on West Florida for a variety of reasons . One such reason was piracy , while another was American encroachment following the Louisiana Purchase . Many Americans felt that West Florida should have been included in the purchase . One means used by Spain to attempt to hold on to this region was to commission several important settlers to work for their government . In this regard , Favre was assigned to confirm land deeds that the Spanish were doling out at an accelerated rate , to attempt to stem the tide of American encroachment . Favre also provided intelligence and military maps to the Spanish concerning the activities of not only the Americans , who were applying pressure from outside the jurisdiction , but also rebels along the Pearl River and nearby coast . The rebels , led by Reuben Kemper and his brothers , were causing difficulties from within , and had been attempting to pull West Florida from Spanish control for several years . Under the Spanish , Favre became known as the commander of the District of Bay St. Louis . Many of the land titles that were awarded by Favre were later reviewed by the United States government and appear in the collection of American state papers .
With Americans in control of New Orleans , mail from Fort Stoddard , near Mobile , had to pass through Spanish territory to get there . In 1808 the United States Postmaster wrote to the Secretary of the Treasury that Favre , who was still a Spanish subject , served as an agent for the post office , forwarding the mail passing through Spanish lands .
Though West Florida was not officially ceded to the United States until 1819 under the provisions of the Adams @-@ Onis Treaty , in November 1810 Spanish governor Folach , demanding secrecy , essentially delivered both East and West Florida to the United States in trust . This was done in hopes that the " robberies and depredations " upon the citizens would cease , and under the realization that the transfer was inevitable . Soon thereafter American officials began managing the Florida lands , setting up administrative regions within them , and the western part of West Florida ( the part in present @-@ day Louisiana ) was absorbed into the United States under the proclamation of President James Madison . When Louisiana became a state in 1812 , the remainder of West Florida ( the panhandles of Mississippi and Alabama ) was absorbed by the United States . The western part of this newly annexed Mobile District was organized into Hancock and Harrison Counties ( soon a part of the Mississippi Territory ) , and in 1813 American federal troops were stationed there to formalize the transition .
= = = Late career and death = = =
Just as his father had made the transition from French to British rule , Favre likewise had little difficulty changing his allegiance from the Spanish to the Americans , and he continued to hold a prominent position in the region . In January 1811 Favre was chosen by the Orleans territorial governor William C. C. Claiborne as a magistrate of the " Parish of Biloxi " which was within the territory . When Claiborne became the Louisiana governor following statehood in 1812 , he commissioned Favre as a justice of the peace , and clearly admired him , calling him in a letter an educated and very agreeable man who would make an energetic officer .
At the outset of the War of 1812 , the Americans were interested in assessing the alignment of the native tribes in regards to their loyalty to Britain . In August 1812 Claiborne sent Favre to present a talk to the native tribes of West Florida . Favre 's carefully crafted words , presented under Claiborne 's name , provide an example of the diplomatic skill with which Favre was able to address the language and culture of the Muskogean tribes . While the goal of Favre and the governor was to keep the Choctaws and other tribes out of the " white man 's war " , ultimately the Creeks aligned themselves with the British , and the Americans requested assistance from the Choctaws . In a letter to Secretary of War John Armstrong , Claiborne recommended that " Colonel Simon Favre " become a United States agent for the Choctaws . Favre held the rank of Lieutenant Colonel in the Hancock County militia , and early in the War of 1812 he was able to negotiate with the Choctaws to provide assistance against Britain 's Creek allies .
Favre died in the summer of 1813 , and though he was living along the Pearl River , court testimony by Peter Moran in 1845 stated that he died in Mobile , and had not been there long before his death . A letter by Mississippi governor David Holmes , dated August 1 , 1813 , mentions the " absence of Colonel Favre at Mobile " and " his subsequent death " . Favre 's daughter Mary stated that he died on July 21 , but an obituary that appeared in a New Orleans newspaper on July 20 gives his death date as July 3 . Several years after his death , in 1817 or 1818 , his widow married Isaac Graves , with whom she had one additional child , and they lived in Pearlington , Mississippi . Graves had been the operator of Favre 's schooner , Pearl , and had very little estate , but following his marriage to Favre 's widow , he utilized Favre 's estate as his own , much to the disadvantage of Favre 's heirs .
= = Favre 's " wives " = =
While a young man , conducting his business among the Choctaws , Favre consummated a relationship with a native woman named Pistikiokonay , who may have been a daughter of the Choctaw Chief Pushmataha , since there was a documented relationship between Favre and this chief . Over a period of about 15 years Favre sired at least six chldren with this woman , the first of whom was born in about 1784 . Shortly before 1800 he then had a relationship with a woman whose first name has been given as Rebecca or Rosella , and whose last name has been written as Austin or Ostein , with other spelling variations . In 1800 he had an illegitimate son born of this union , and this son , Simon , Jr . , was later named prominently in his will . In 1801 a number of slave exchanges took place between Favre and Austin , as he prepared to marry another woman . On March 25 , 1801 he was legally married to Celeste Rochon , a daughter of Augustine Rochon and Luisa Fievre of Mobile , with whom he had six more children .
= = Land holdings and slaves = =
In 1806 Favre began cultivation of land on the Pearl River in what became Hancock County , Mississippi . Favre 's land holdings were extensive , and his will mentions eight different plantations totalling over 5000 acres in area . He also acquired 57 slaves shortly before his death , as they were not mentioned in his will , but later became prominently mentioned during the settlement of his estate . The October 1814 inventory of his personal property includes a list of the 57 slaves , giving the name , age , and value of each . The oldest was 80 and valued at $ 5 @.@ 00 , while the most valuable was a 30 @-@ year @-@ old " cow hunter " valued at $ 900 . Collectively , the slaves were valued at just under $ 15 @,@ 000 . The inventory also mentioned 6200 arpents ( 5247 acres ) of land valued at $ 2410 , a schooner named Pearl , and 450 head of cattle .
One of Favre 's properties on the Pearl River was originally settled by his father in 1767 , and was inherited by Favre upon his father 's death in 1782 . This plantation later became known as the town of Napoleon , and Favre kept a store there that later became a part of the community 's church . In 1961 all the residents of the town were moved when the property was declared within the buffer zone of the John C. Stennis Space Center . Another one of his Pearl River properties became the town of Pearlington , Mississippi , where many of his children , including those of his Choctaw mistress , lived .
Though Favre lived in Hancock County in West Florida , and died in Mobile , Mississippi Territory , documents concerning his estate were also filed in New Orleans , Louisiana , probably by his Hancock County attorney , Rutillius Pray of Pearlington . By 1826 the estate had been partially settled , and during the October court term Pray submitted a final settlement showing total sales from the estate of just under $ 27 @,@ 000 ( including nearly $ 22 @,@ 000 for slaves ) , while total debts amounted to nearly $ 33 @,@ 000 . However , taking into account unsold assets , the estate appears to have been solvent .
= = Family = =
Favre 's earliest known children were with his Choctaw mistress named Pistikiokonay . This woman lived in what later became Lauderdale County , Mississippi , though most of her children moved to Hancock County where Favre had two large plantations along the Pearl River . Favre had six known or suspected children with her , the earliest born about 1784 , and the last possibly born about 1805 , though without birth records there is uncertainty among most of the birth years . The oldest child was likely Alexis ( male ) , born about 1784 ( based on a deposition he made in 1844 , calling himself aged 60 ) ; he married a Choctaw named Cuna and had several children . A second child , Katherine , died after 1830 without issue . Louis , possibly the third child , had a wife named " Milisew " and four children ; he died between 1830 and 1835 . Charles , born about 1798 ( deposed in 1856 that he was 58 years old ) , married Carmelite LaFontaine , had several children , and died by 1868 . Mary , born about 1800 ( aged 70 in the 1870 census ) , never married , but was highly respected in the family and became the administratrix of her father 's estate . Favre 's youngest child with his Choctaw mistress appears to be Jean Baptiste , usually just called Baptiste , who was born about 1805 ( aged about 40 in 1845 ) , married a woman named Toshowahoke , and had two children .
In 1800 Favre had an illegitimate son with Rebecca Austin ( also called Rosella Ostein ) , a native of Tombigbee in the District of Mobile . The child , named Simon , was born February 5 , 1800 . Favre left a bequest to the child in 1812 so that he could " be taught to read and write and to learn a trade or profession . "
Favre had six children with his legal wife , Celeste Rochon , the oldest of whom was Jean ( John ) , born August 2 , 1802 , died January 7 , 1888 , and married Dianna Edwards . Augustine ( Gus ) was born July 17 , 1804 and had two wives , Eleanor and Mary Jane , whose maiden names are uncertain . The third child of this marriage , Onezan ( Nezan ) , was born December 23 , 1806 , died May 10 , 1875 , and married Mary Moody . Next was Louisa Eucharist , born May 15 , 1809 , who married first James Conerly , and then John L. Armstrong . The fifth child was Marguerite , born January 17 , 1812 , died February 6 , 1908 , and married James Murphy . The last child of this marriage was Carlota , who was confirmed in New Orleans in February 1813 , and thus does not appear in her father 's 1812 will . She is not mentioned as an heir of Simon , so may have died young .
Probably the best known of Favre 's descendants is former National Football League quarterback Brett Favre , who descends from Simon 's Choctaw mistress , through their son Louis .
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= The Good @-@ Morrow =
" The Good @-@ Morrow " is a poem by John Donne , published in his 1633 collection Songs and Sonnets . Written while Donne was a student at Lincoln 's Inn , the poem is one of his earliest works and is thematically considered to be the " first " work in Songs and Sonnets . Although referred to as a sonnet , the work does not follow the most common rhyming scheme of such works — a 14 @-@ line poem , consisting of an eight @-@ line stanza followed by a six @-@ line conclusion — but is instead 21 lines long , divided into three stanzas . " The Good @-@ Morrow " is written from the point of view of an awaking lover and describes the lover 's thoughts as he wakes next to his partner . The lover 's musings move from discussing sensual love to spiritual love as he realises that , with spiritual love , the couple are liberated from fear and the need to seek adventure . The poem makes use of biblical and Catholic writings , indirectly referencing the legend of the Seven Sleepers and Paul the Apostle 's description of divine , agapic love – two concepts with which , as a practising Catholic , Donne would have been familiar .
Donne 's cartographic references in the third stanza have been the subject of much analysis , although academics have differed in their interpretation of their meaning and what the lines reference . Robert L. Sharp argues that these references can be logically interpreted as yet another reference to love ; the maps Donne with which would have been familiar were not the Mercator @-@ style maps that are common in the modern era , but instead cordiform maps , which appear in the shape of a heart and allow for the display of multiple worlds , which Donne alludes to in lines 11 to 18 . Julia M. Walker , while noting that Sharp 's work is " essential to an intelligent discussion of this extended image " , disagrees with his conclusions and argues that Donne is actually referring to a map showing one world .
= = Background and structure = =
Poet John Donne was born on 21 January 1572 to John Donne , a wealthy ironmonger and one of the wardens of the Worshipful Company of Ironmongers , and his wife Elizabeth . After his father 's death when he was four , Donne was , instead of being prepared to enter a trade , trained as a gentleman scholar ; his family used the money his father had made from ironmongering to hire private tutors who trained him in grammar , rhetoric , mathematics , history and foreign languages . Elizabeth was soon remarried to a wealthy doctor , ensuring that the family remained comfortable ; as a result , despite being the son of an ironmonger and portraying himself in his early poetry as an outsider , Donne refused to accept that he was anything other than a gentleman . After study at Hart Hall , Oxford , Donne 's private education eventually saw him study at Lincoln 's Inn , one of the Inns of Court , where he occupied his time with history , poetry , theology and " Humane learning and languages " . It was at Lincoln 's Inn that Donne first began writing poetry , looking upon it as " a life @-@ sign or minor irritation " rather than something which defined him . This early poetry included " The Good @-@ Morrow " as well as many other works which later went on to comprise his collection Songs and Sonnets , published in 1633 , two years after his death ; " The Good @-@ Morrow " is considered , in terms of its theme and maturity , to be the first of this collection 's poems .
Sonnets are , canonically , poems of 14 lines with assorted rhyming schemes . Originating in the 14th century works of Petrarch , the most common form of the sonnet is known as the Italian Sonnet : a stanza of eight lines in which the writer lays out a complex thought , followed by a pause and a six @-@ line conclusion " which is characteristically both unpredictable and intense " . This was interlinked with the idea of courtly love , in which the goal of a romance is not simply passion , but a more significant moral perfection . " The Good @-@ Morrow " , although identified by Donne as a sonnet , does not follow this structural layout , although it does follow the thematic one ; Donne used " sonnet " simply to refer to any piece of love poetry , ignoring the fact that " The Good @-@ Morrow " was a 21 @-@ line work divided into three stanzas .
= = Poem = =
The poem opens with a reference to a Catholic legend as Donne says :
I wonder by my troth , what thou and I
Did , till we loved ? were we not wean 'd till then ?
But suck 'd on country pleasures , childishly ?
Or snorted we in the Seven Sleepers ' den ? ( lines 1 – 4 )
This refers to the Seven Sleepers , the Catholic legend of seven Christian children , persecuted for their faith during the reign of the Roman emperor Decius , who fled to the shelter of a cave where they slept for more than 200 years . Donne , one of six or seven children and a baptised Catholic during a time of strong anti @-@ Catholic sentiment from both the populace and the government , would certainly have been familiar with the story .
And now good @-@ morrow to our waking souls ,
Which watch not one another out of fear ;
For love all love of other sights controls ,
And makes one little room an everywhere .
Let sea @-@ discoverers to new worlds have gone ;
Let maps to other , worlds on worlds have shown ;
Let us possess one world ; each hath one , and is one . ( lines 8 – 14 )
In this passage , the speaker experiences a sense of wonder , having awoken in bed with his lover ; he makes the discovery that their love makes finding " new worlds " pale in importance . " [ S ] ouls " also awake , not just bodies , " as if called by love from the sleep of ordinary life and mere lust " .
My face in thine eye , thine in mine appears ,
And true plain hearts do in the faces rest ;
Where can we find two better hemispheres
Without sharp north , without declining west ?
Whatever dies , was not mix 'd equally ; ( lines 15 – 19 )
This passage shows the speaker communicating to his lover that they have proceeded from their former " childish " pleasures to this moment , where their souls have finally awakened ; something " miraculous " has happened , because the speaker feels the sort of love that Paul the Apostle claimed would only be encountered in heaven .
If our two loves be one , or thou and I
Love so alike that none can slacken , none can die . ( lines 20 – 21 )
While the version found in Songs and Sonnets includes this passage as the last two lines , other manuscripts and a later volume of poetry give the last lines as , " If our two loves be one , both thou and I / Love just alike in all , none of these loves can die " .
= = Themes = =
A love poem , " The Good @-@ Morrow " is thematically centred on several concepts . The poem is primarily to do with evolving love ; the movement from pure lust , in the first stanza , to a nascent and evolving spirituality which liberates the lovers because they no longer " watch each other out of fear " but can instead see clearly . The lovers ' faith in each other allows them to be brave , unlike the Seven Sleepers , who were forced out of fear to hide their beliefs ; with love , the lovers can allow others to pursue their own dreams , accepting that " Let us possess one world ; each hath one , and is one " – with each other , there is no need to search further for adventure . Harold Bloom notes the intertwining of both sensual and spiritual love , arguing that Donne is suggesting that it is impossible for those buried in sensual love , " busying themselves in mundane matters " , to experience true love . Donne 's emphasis on the importance of spiritual love can be seen from the biblical allusions ; Achsah Guibbory states that the tone and wording of the poem is an intentional reference to Paul the Apostle 's description of divine , agapic love ; " At moments like these ... eros merges with agape . Walls collapse , the veil parts , we know as we are known ; our deepest , truest selves exposed " . Alfred W. Satterthwaite , writing in The Explicator , argues that the story of the Seven Sleepers itself contains this theme ; in the story , the Sleepers awoke to find themselves " thunderstruck " in their new environment , something analogous to " the radiant revelation love grants to the lovers in the poem " .
Some scholars , such as William Empson , maintain that the poem also indicates that Donne seriously believed in separate planets and planes , and also the existence of more than one Christ – a belief that Donne later abandoned . Academics also see the poem as a more general allegory of the evolution of minds from childishness , as typified by the first stanza where the lovers " suck 'd on country pleasures , childishly " , towards a more mature form of love . Much has also been made of Donne 's references to compasses and maps in the third stanza . Robert L. Sharp , writing in Modern Language Notes , argues that these references can be logically interpreted as yet another reference to love . The maps Donne would have been familiar with are not the Mercator @-@ style maps , but instead cordiform maps , which appear in the shape of a heart . More than simply heart @-@ shaped , cordiform maps also allow the display of multiple worlds , with opposing hemispheres – and Sharp argues that Donne 's work references such a multiple world map in lines 11 to 18 .
Julia M. Walker , writing in The Review of English Studies , notes that Sharp 's work is " essential to an intelligent discussion of this extended image " , but disagrees with his conclusions . In particular , she argues that Sharp 's conclusions are incorrect , and that the actual words of the poem refer to a cordiform map showing a single world rather than one showing two worlds ; " my face on thine eye " , for example , not " eyes " . Instead , Walker suggests that Donne was basing his work on William Cunningham 's Cosmographical Glasse , a 1559 book which showed a single @-@ leafed cordiform map . More importantly , it gave a way to draw a two @-@ leafed , heart @-@ shaped map that displayed only a single world ; this interpretation would " reconcile and unify " the problems with interpreting " The Good @-@ Morrow " . The essential distinction is thus that , while both interpret Donne 's work as referencing cordiform maps , Sharp sees it as referencing a map showing two worlds , while Walker maintains that the reference is to a map showing only one .
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= Hot Potato ( video game ) =
Hot Potato ! is an action puzzle video game developed by Pukka Games and published by BAM ! Entertainment for the Game Boy Advance . It was released in Europe on June 29 , 2001 , and in North America on July 1 , 2001 .
In the game the player must simultaneously drive a bus and clear roads of alien potato beings . The beings are scattered across the street , and by shooting out rows of alien potatoes , they can be cleared from the player 's path . The player must clear a set number of aliens to proceed in the game . Hot Potato received mostly above average reviews from critics ; it received 66 @.@ 42 % and 74 % ratings on review aggregate websites GameRankings and Metacritic respectively .
= = Gameplay = =
The game tasks the player with navigating a bus through roads filled with alien potato beings . The player 's bus holds female members of the alien race , and the player can shoot the females from the front of the bus in order to clear the alien potatoes . The aliens come in two colors : red and blue . Aliens are cleared from the road when two like @-@ colored potatoes touch each other , but aliens begin to pile up in the road if two aliens hit each other that are not of the same color . The road is continuously scrolling downwards , forcing the player to make holes in the road wide enough to fit the bus through . The game can end prematurely if the player runs into too many aliens and loses all their lives .
Hot Potato features seven missions and seven score challenges . Mission mode requires the player to clear out a set number of an alien species . There are multiple alien species in the mode and the mission does not finish until the player gets rid of enough of a certain species chosen by the game from the road . Score challenge mode tasks the player with clearing away a certain number of aliens in order to reach a pre @-@ determined score . The game contains bonus levels which are longer than normal levels if the player is able to complete missions under a certain time period .
= = Development = =
Hot Potato was developed for over four years by game designer Dima Pavlovsky before development was picked up by Pukka Games . The game was designed to emulate the success of Tetris with an addictive and original puzzle design . Pukka included the humorous storyline about potato alien beings in the game mostly for laughs and to give the game " charm " . The game was first displayed at the 2001 E3 .
The game 's release at a $ 39 @.@ 99 price in the United States was seen by some reviewers as being too expensive .
= = Reception = =
Hot Potato garnered above mostly positive reception from critics ; it received 66 @.@ 42 % and 74 % ratings on review aggregate websites GameRankings and Metacritic respectively . Eurogamer 's John Bye called the game " curiously amusing " and felt that kids would enjoy the game . IGN 's Craig Harris noted that the game was surprisingly fun to play , and that the game would appeal to a unique niche in the video game market . He criticized it for failing to introduce the player to the point of the game , forcing the player to figure out how to play on their own . Allgame 's Jay Semerad commented that the game provided a surprising amount of challenge , which increased the game 's replayability . GameSpot 's Frank Provo praised the game 's visuals and sound effects , noting that they added to the experience of the game . He felt that the game was not as addictive as some other contemporary puzzle games , but he praised the game nonetheless . Bob Tedeschi of The New York Times commented that Toys ' R ' Us had originally chosen to not distribute Hot Potato , but began to stock the game after it looked like a big seller .
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= Nunca Voy a Olvidarte =
" Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " ( English : " I Am Never Going to Forget You " ) is a song written by Roberto Belester and first recorded by Mexican norteño band Bronco for their album Salvaje y Tierno ( 1991 ) . In the song , the protagonist is leaving and vows to never forget the time he spent with his lover . In 1993 , Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Cristian Castro covered the song on his album , Un Segundo en el Tiempo . Castro 's version peaked at number @-@ one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart in the United States became his first number @-@ one single .
The song received a Lo Nuestro and a Billboard Latin Music award for Pop Song of the Year . It earned an award for Latin Pop Song of the Year at the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers Awards of 1994 . In the following year , Puerto Rican @-@ American recording artist La India covered the song as the lead single from her album Dicen Que Soy which peaked at number eleven on the Hot Latin Songs chart , number thirteen on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart , and number @-@ one on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart .
= = Background and recording = =
" Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " was written by Mexican songwriter Roberto Belester for Bronco 's album Salvaje y Tierno ( 1991 ) . Belester composed songs for several well @-@ known Mexican bands such as Los Yonic 's and Los Bukis . The song tells of a protagonist who is leaving his lover and tells her that he is never going to forget her . In 1993 , Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Cristian Castro covered the song on his second studio album , Un Segundo en el Tiempo , which was produced by Alex Zepeda and released as the lead single from the album . According to Castro , he bought Salvaje y Tierno after hearing " Que No Quede Huella " on the radio and wanted to cover " Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " when he listened to it on the CD . The music video for Castro 's cover was produced by Jorge Guerrero Fox Garza and filmed in Cuernavaca which features shots of Castro alone in an old country house near the fireplace and outside on the field remembering a woman he loved .
= = Reception = =
" Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " debuted in the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart at number 31 in the week of August 14 , 1993 , climbing to the top ten two weeks later . The song peaked atop the chart September 18 , 1993 , replacing " Mi Tierra " by Gloria Estefan and was succeeded by " Guadalupe " , by José & Durval , three weeks later . " Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " ended 1993 as the fourth best performing Latin single of the year in the United States . In Mexico City , the song reached number one on the ballads hit parade chart .
At the 6th Lo Nuestro Awards in 1994 , " Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " won the award for Pop Song of the Year . In the same year , it was the Pop Song of the Year at the inaugural Billboard Latin Music awards . " Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " was also the " Song of the Year " at the 1994 Eres Awards . At the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers Awards of 1994 , the song was awarded Latin Pop Song of the Year . In 2005 , the title was used for a compilation album titled Nunca Voy a Olvidarte ... Los Exitos . In 2009 , the song was included on the compilation album La Historia de los Exitos by Fonovisa Records to celebrate the record label 's 25th anniversary . In 2013 , Castro re @-@ recorded the song for his first live album En Primera Fila : Día 1 .
= = Charts = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Allmusic .
Cristian Castro – vocals
Roberto Belester – songwriting
Alejandro " Alex " Zepeda – producer , arranger
= = La India version = =
In 1994 , Puerto Rican @-@ American recording artist La India covered the song on her album , Dicen Que Soy which was produced by Sergio George and released as the album 's first single . It was picked by George for India to cover as he felt it was something women could relate to . India 's version was included on the soundtrack for The 24 Hour Woman .
= = = Reception = = =
On the Hot Latin Songs chart , the song debuted at number twenty @-@ one on the week of October 15 , 1994 and peaked at number eleven three weeks later . On the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart , the song debuted at number fifteen on the week of November 5 , 1994 and peaked at number thirteen a week later . On the Billboard Tropical Songs , the song peaked at number @-@ one on the week of October 29 , 1994 replacing " Quien Eres Tú " by Luis Enrique and was succeeded by " En Las Nubes " by Edgar Joel two weeks later .
David Wilson 's found that the melody and arrangements of the song were " generic " . An editor for Latina magazine remarked India 's cover as " sensational " and that it " flattens " Castro 's version of the song .
= = = Charts = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Allmusic and Dicen Que Soy liner notes .
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= Within You Without You =
" Within You Without You " is a song written by George Harrison and released on the Beatles ' 1967 album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . It was Harrison 's second composition in the Indian classical style , after " Love You To " , and was inspired by his six @-@ week stay in India with his mentor and sitar teacher , Ravi Shankar , over September – October 1966 . Recorded in London without the other Beatles , the song features Indian instrumentation such as sitar , dilruba and tabla , and was performed by Harrison and members of the Asian Music Circle . The recording marked a significant departure from the Beatles ' previous work ; musically , it evokes the Indian devotional tradition , while the overtly spiritual quality of the lyrics reflects Harrison 's absorption in Hindu philosophy and the teachings of the Vedas . Although the song was his only composition on Sgt. Pepper , Harrison 's endorsement of Indian culture was further reflected in the inclusion of yogis such as Paramahansa Yogananda among the crowd depicted on the album cover .
With the worldwide success of the album , " Within You Without You " presented Indian classical music to a new audience in the West and contributed to the genre 's peak in international popularity . It also influenced the philosophical direction of many of Harrison 's peers during an era of utopian idealism marked by the Summer of Love . The song has traditionally received a varied response from music critics , some of whom find it lacklustre and pretentious , while others admire its musical authenticity and consider the message to be the most meaningful on Sgt. Pepper . Writing for Rolling Stone , David Fricke described the track as being " at once beautiful and severe , a magnetic sermon about materialism and communal responsibility in the middle of a record devoted to gentle Technicolor anarchy " .
On the Beatles ' 2006 remix album Love , the song was mixed with the John Lennon @-@ written " Tomorrow Never Knows " , creating what some reviewers consider to be that project 's most successful mashup . Sonic Youth , Rainer Ptacek , Oasis , Patti Smith , Cheap Trick and the Flaming Lips are among the artists who have covered " Within You Without You " .
= = Background and inspiration = =
George Harrison began writing " Within You Without You " in early 1967 while at the house of musician and artist Klaus Voormann , in the north London suburb of Hampstead . Harrison 's immediate inspiration for the song came from a conversation they had shared over dinner , regarding the metaphysical space that prevents individuals from recognising the natural forces uniting the world . Following this discussion , Harrison worked out the song 's melody on a harmonium and came up with the opening line : " We were talking about the space between us all " .
The song was Harrison 's second composition to be explicitly influenced by Indian classical music , after " Love You To " , which featured Indian instruments such as sitar , tabla and tambura . Since recording the latter track for the Beatles ' Revolver album in April 1966 , Harrison had continued to look outside of his role as the band 's lead guitarist , further immersing himself in studying the sitar , partly under the tutelage of master sitarist Ravi Shankar . Harrison later said that the tune for " Within You Without You " came about through his regularly performing musical exercises known as sargam , which use the same scales as those found in Indian ragas .
" Within You Without You " is the first of many songs in which Harrison espouses Hindu spiritual concepts in his lyrics . Having incorporated elements of Eastern philosophy in " Love You To " , Harrison became fascinated by ancient Hindu teachings after he and his wife , Pattie Boyd , visited Shankar in India over September – October 1966 . Intent on mastering the sitar , Harrison first joined other students of Shankar 's in Bombay , until local fans and the press learned of his arrival . Harrison , Boyd , Shankar and the latter 's partner , Kamala Chakravarty , then relocated to a houseboat on Dal Lake in Srinagar , Kashmir . There , Harrison received personal tuition from Shankar while absorbing religious texts such as Paramahansa Yogananda 's Autobiography of a Yogi and Swami Vivekananda 's Raja Yoga . This period coincided with his introduction to meditation and , during their visit to Vrindavan , he witnessed communal chanting for the first time .
The education he received in India , particularly regarding the illusory nature of the material world , resonated with Harrison following his experiences with the hallucinogenic drug LSD ( commonly known as " acid " ) and informed his lyrics to " Within You Without You " . Having considered leaving the Beatles after the completion of their third US tour , on 29 August 1966 , he also gained a philosophical perspective on the effects of the band 's international fame . He later attributed " Within You Without You " to his having " fallen under the spell of the country " after experiencing the " pure essence of India " through Shankar 's guidance .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
The song follows the pitches of Khamaj thaat , the Indian equivalent of Mixolydian mode . Written and performed in the tonic key of C ( but subsequently sped up to C # on the official recording ) , it features what musicologist Dominic Pedler terms an " exotic " melody over a constant C @-@ G " root @-@ fifth " drone , which is neither obviously major nor minor in scale . Based on a musical piece that Shankar had written for All India Radio , the structure of the composition adheres to the Hindustani musical tradition and demonstrates Harrison 's advances in the Indian classical genre since " Love You To " .
Following a brief alap , which serves to introduce the song 's main musical themes , " Within You Without You " comprises three distinct sections : two verses and a chorus ; an extended instrumental passage ; and a final verse and chorus . The alap consists of tambura drone , over which the main melody is outlined on dilruba , a bow @-@ played string instrument that Boyd began learning in India . Throughout the vocal section of the song – the gat , in traditional Indian composition – the rhythm is a 16 @-@ beat tintal in madhya laya ( medium tempo ) . The vocal line is supported throughout by dilruba , in the manner of a sarangi echoing the melody in a khyal piece . The first three words of each verse ( " We were talking " ) have a tritone interval ( E to B ♭ ) , which , in Pedler 's view , enhances the spiritual dissonance that Harrison expresses in his lyrics .
Over the instrumental passage , the tabla rhythm switches to a 10 @-@ beat jhaptal cycle . A musical dialogue ensues in 5 / 4 time , first between the dilruba and sitar , then between a Western string section and sitar , resolving in melodic unison and together stating a rhythmic cadence , known as a tihai , to close the middle segment . After this , the drone is again prominent as the rhythm returns to 16 @-@ beat tintal for the final verse and chorus . On the finished recording , the tonal and spiritual tension is relieved by the inclusion of muted canned laughter .
In his book Indian Music and the West , Gerry Farrell writes of " Within You Without You " : " The overall effect is of several disparate strands of Indian music being woven together to create a new form . It is a quintessential fusion of pop and Indian music . " Peter Lavezzoli , author of The Dawn of Indian Music in the West , describes the song as " a survey of Indian classical and semiclassical styles " in which " the diverse elements ... are skillfully woven together into an interesting hybrid . If anything , the closest comparison that might be made is to the Hindu devotional song form known as bhajan . "
= = = Lyrics = = =
According to Religion News Service writer Steve Rabey , " Within You Without You " " contrast [ s ] Western individualism with Eastern monism " . The lyrics convey basic tenets of Vedanta philosophy , particularly in Harrison 's reference to the concept of maya ( the illusory nature of existence ) , in the lines " And the people who hide themselves behind a wall of illusion / Never glimpse the truth " . Author Joshua Greene paraphrases the song @-@ wide message as : " A wall of illusion separates us from each other … which only turns our love for one another cold . Peace will come when we learn to see past the illusion of differences and come to know that we are one … " The solution espoused by Harrison is for individuals to see beyond the self and each seek change within , further to Vivekananda 's contention in Raja Yoga that " Each soul is potentially divine . The goal is to manifest that divinity … "
At times in the song , Harrison distances himself from those who live in ignorance of these apparent truths – saying , " If they only knew " and asking the listener , " Are you one of them ? " In the final verse , he quotes from the gospels of St Matthew and St Mark , lamenting those who " gain the world and lose their soul " . Author Ian MacDonald defends the " accusatory finger " behind such statements , saying : " this is a token of what was then felt to be a revolution in progress : an inner revolution against materialism . "
In the context of 1967 , the transcendental theme of Harrison 's lyrics aligned with the philosophy behind the Summer of Love – namely , the search for universality and an ego @-@ less existence . Author Ian Inglis considers the line " With our love we could save the world " to be a " cogent reflection " of the Summer of Love ethos , anticipating the utopian message of Harrison 's composition " It 's All Too Much " and the John Lennon @-@ written " All You Need Is Love " . He adds , with reference to the chorus : " The lyrics are given greater depth by the double meaning of without – ' in the absence of ' and ' outside ' – each of which is perfectly applicable to the song 's sentiments . "
= = Production = =
= = = Recording = = =
Harrison recorded " Within You Without You " for the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , an album based around Paul McCartney 's vision of a fictitious band that would serve as the Beatles ' alter egos , after their decision to quit touring . Harrison had little interest in McCartney 's concept ; he later admitted that , following his return from India , " my heart was still out there " , and working with the Beatles again " felt like going backwards " . After it was decided to omit " Only a Northern Song " from the album , the song became Harrison 's sole composition on Sgt. Pepper .
The recording features musical contributions from only Harrison , Beatles aide Neil Aspinall , and a group of uncredited Indian musicians . As with his Indian accompanists on " Love You To " , Harrison sourced these musicians through the Asian Music Circle in north London . According to author Alan Clayson , Harrison missed a Beatles recording session to attend one of Shankar 's London concerts , an absence that served as " fieldwork " for " Within You Without You " .
MacDonald describes the song as " Stylistically … the most distant departure from the staple Beatles sound in their discography " . The basic track was recorded on 15 March 1967 at EMI 's Abbey Road studio 2 in London . The participants sat on a carpet in the studio , which was decorated with Indian tapestries on the walls , with the lights turned low and incense burning . Harrison and Aspinall each played a tambura , while the Indian musicians contributed on tabla , dilruba , tambura and swarmandal . A type of zither , the swarmandal provided the glissando flourishes that introduce the tabla during the alap and signal the return to 16 @-@ beat tintal before the final verse .
The session was also attended by Lennon , artist Peter Blake , and John Barham , an English classical pianist and student of Shankar who shared Harrison 's desire to promote Indian music to Western audiences . In Barham 's recollection , Harrison " had the entire structure of the song mapped out in his head " and sung the melody that he wanted the dilruba player to follow . The twin hand @-@ drums of the tabla were close @-@ miked by recording engineer Geoff Emerick , in order to capture what he later described as " the texture and the lovely low resonances " of the instrument .
= = = Overdubbing and mixing = = =
The first of two overdubbing sessions for " Within You Without You " took place at Abbey Road on 22 March . Two more dilruba parts were added that day , played by an outside musician , after which a reduction mix was carried out , to allow for further overdubs onto the four @-@ track recording .
Producer George Martin then arranged the string orchestration , for eight violins and three cellos , based on Harrison 's instructions . The pair worked hard together on the arrangement , ensuring that Martin 's score imitated the slides and bends of the dilrubas . The orchestral parts , performed by members of the London Symphony Orchestra , were added on 3 April . During the same session , Harrison recorded his vocal and a sitar part , the solo of which , in the description of music critic David Fricke , " sings and swings with the clarity and phrasing of his best rockabilly @-@ fired guitar work " . Harrison also overdubbed occasional interjections on acoustic guitar .
On 4 April , while preparing the final mixes of the song , in stereo and mono , Harrison added crowd laughter taken from a sound effects tape in the Abbey Road library . Martin and Emerick were both opposed to this addition but deferred to Harrison , who later said that the laughter provided " some light relief " , adding : " You were supposed to hear the audience anyway , as they listen to Sergeant Pepper 's Show . " The completed recording was enhanced in the mixes through the liberal application of automatic double tracking . Before Harrison recorded his vocals the previous day , the track had been edited and sped up sufficiently to reduce it in length from an original 6 : 25 to 5 : 05 . In the process , the song 's key was raised a semitone , to C # .
= = Release = =
Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band was released on 1 June 1967 , with " Within You Without You " sequenced as the opening track on side two of the LP . Greene notes that for many listeners at the time , the song provided their " first meaningful contact with meditative sound " . In his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner likened " Within You Without You " to Hermann Hesse 's Siddhartha – an influential novel among the emerging counterculture during the Summer of Love – in terms of the song 's evocation of Hesse 's " idealization of individuality " and " vision of a mysterious East " . Eager to separate the song 's message from the LSD experience at a time when the drug had grown in popularity and influence , Harrison told an interviewer : " It 's nothing to do with pills … It 's just in your own head , the realisation . "
Although Harrison later spoke dismissively of the Sgt. Pepper project and its legacy , he conceded that he had enjoyed working on the record 's iconic cover . For this , he asked Blake to include pictures of Indian yogis and religious leaders – including Yogananda , Mahavatar Babaji , Lahiri Mahasaya and Sri Yukteswar – to feature beside images of the Beatles . Among the song 's lyrics , printed on the back cover , the positioning of the words " Without You " behind McCartney 's head served as a clue in the Paul Is Dead rumour , which grew in the United States partly as a result of the Beatles ' failure to perform live after 1966 .
In 1971 the song was issued as the title track of an EP release in Mexico . Part of a series of Beatles releases sequenced by Lennon , the EP also included the Harrison @-@ written tracks " Love You To " , " The Inner Light " and " I Want to Tell You " . In 1978 " Within You Without You " appeared as the B @-@ side to the " Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band " / " With a Little Help from My Friends " medley , on singles released in West Germany and some other European countries . An instrumental version of the track , at the original speed and in the key of C , appeared on the Beatles ' 1996 outtakes compilation Anthology 2 .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
Recalling the song 's release in his book The Beatles Diary , Barry Miles writes : " Some thought it a masterpiece , some a prime example of mock @-@ philosophical babble . Either way , it was pure Harrison . " David Griffiths of Record Mirror praised the album 's musical and lyrical scope , which included " life @-@ enhancing philosophy " , and added : " George Harrison 's ' Within You Without You ' is a beautifully successful and adventurous statement in song of a Yoga truth . " The Times of India 's music critic similarly admired the Beatles for " explor [ ing ] farther reaches in the musical firmament " and described Harrison 's composition as a " memorable " track . In one of the few unfavourable reviews for Sgt. Pepper , Richard Goldstein , writing in The New York Times , said the song was " remarkable " musically and a highlight of the album , yet he considered the lyrics " dismal " and full of " the very clichés the Beatles helped bury " . Allen Evans of the NME found the " deep , rich rhythm " of the tabla " most appealing " , although he bemoaned that it was difficult to decipher the lyrics " because they merge with the sitar music so closely " .
According to the Beatles ' official biographer , Hunter Davies , writing in 1968 , some contemporary reviewers speculated that the burst of laughter at the end of " Within You Without You " was inserted by Harrison 's bandmates to mock the song . Davies corrected this misconception , saying : " It was completely George 's idea . " In a review published five months after the release of Sgt. Pepper , Hit Parader considered that the album had not endured as well as the Beatles ' previous works , and opined : " Harrison has produced a soothing , sinuous , exotic sound for ' Within You Without You ' . But even though his repetitious recitation of elementary Far Eastern philosophy is probably intended to reflect the infinity of the universe , it soon becomes a bit monotonous . The laughter at the end seems to be deflating the pretentiousness of the lyrics . "
= = = Retrospective assessment = = =
The song has continued to invite widely diverse opinions . Writing in 1988 , author and critic Tim Riley dismissed " Within You Without You " as dull and " directionless " , adding that it was " the most dated piece on the record ... [ and ] could easily have been left off with little to no effect " on the album . Conversely , Ian Inglis considers the song to be " absolutely central to the form and content " of its parent album . Among other Beatles biographers , Ian MacDonald views " Within You Without You " as the " conscience " of Sgt. Pepper and " the necessary sermon that comes with the community singing " , and Kenneth Womack terms it " quite arguably , the album 's ethical soul " .
Writing for Rough Guides , Chris Ingham admires the track as " beautifully put together " ; he describes it as both " some of the most exotic music released under The Beatles ' name " and a " philosophical meditation on life and love beyond self ... [ that ] , once surrendered to , is a central part of the Pepper experience " . Harrison and Lennon biographer Gary Tillery echoes these sentiments , saying : " ' Within You Without You ' was one of the most original and distinctive songs the Beatles ever created , a gem in the album generally considered the pinnacle of their career . And only one Beatle could be given credit for it . " In his book on the history of ambient music , Mark Prendergast includes " Within You Without You " among the album 's " three outstanding cuts " and deems it to be " the most timeless piece of dronal psychedelia ever recorded " .
Musicologist Allan Moore considers that Harrison 's " command of the quasi @-@ Indian medium is of a very high order " and , with regard to the song 's message , he states : " In its explicit , prescient call to the me @-@ generation , perhaps ' Within You Without You ' is a key track [ on the album ] ... expressing the deepest commitment to the counter @-@ culture . " Writing for PopMatters in November 2009 , Ross Langager attributed a similar significance to the track :
Sgt. Pepper is about Britain , and the Summer of Love was always about America . The only song on the album that approaches the ideology and rhetoric of the hippie counterculture was George Harrison 's sole contribution , the lush sitar @-@ washed " Within You Without You " , and it follows that Harrison was the only Beatle to have visited Haight @-@ Ashbury at the peak of the scene . Even then , Eastern philosophy informed the lyric more deeply than did acid culture , and it 's still a dense and stunning composition no matter its ideology .
Among reviews of the 2009 remastered Beatles catalogue , Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph described " Within You Without You " as " dour , droning " and Consequence of Sound grouped it with the " major clunkers " on Sgt. Pepper ; by contrast , Sputnikmusic deemed it to be " vital to the album 's diversity of instrumental material " . AllMusic critic Richie Unterberger admires the " nice haunting melody " , but he considers the track overlong and notes the potential for offence in this , " the first Beatles song where [ Harrison 's ] Indian religious beliefs affected the lyrics with full force " . Writing for Ultimate Classic Rock in 2013 , Dave Swanson described it as a " heady masterpiece of ethereal drone " that captures the " pure bliss of 1967 ... in full bloom " while musically exploring " previously uncharted pop group waters " . In his Harrison obituary for Salon.com , in December 2001 , Ira Robbins considered " Within You Without You " to be " the song that most clearly articulated his devotion , both artistic and philosophical , to India " , with a lyric that " pairs worldview and personality in lines that now seem prophetic " . Robbins concluded : " Whether he was warning others or testing his own conviction , the admonition stands . ' The time will come when you see we 're all one / And life flows on within you and without you . ' "
Joe Bosso of MusicRadar wrote in 2011 that although Harrison had already introduced Indian instrumentation to the Beatles ' sound , the song served as " his Indian music coming @-@ out party " , and he praised the recording as " a glorious , David Lean @-@ like panorama " . Writing for Rolling Stone in 2002 , David Fricke included the track on his list of the " 25 Essential Harrison Performances " . He described it as , variously , the Beatles ' " purest excursion ... into raga " , and " at once beautiful and severe , a magnetic sermon about materialism and communal responsibility in the middle of a record devoted to gentle Technicolor anarchy " .
= = Cultural influence and legacy = =
According to Mikal Gilmore of Rolling Stone , Harrison 's interest in Indian culture " spread like wildfire " among his peers as well as their audience . Author Simon Leng writes that " [ ' Within You Without You ' ] , and Harrison 's leadership of the Beatles into Vedic philosophy , sparked the entire fashion for Indian music and a million backpackers ' pilgrimages to Kashmir ... " Juan Mascaró , a professor in Sanskrit studies at Cambridge University , wrote to Harrison after the song 's release , saying : " it is a moving song , and may it move the souls of millions . And there is more to come , as you are only beginning on the great journey . "
In the opinion of New Yorker journalist Mark Hertsgaard , the lyrics to " Within You Without You " " contained the album 's most overt expression of the Beatles ' shared belief in spiritual awareness and social change " . Harrison 's espousal of Eastern philosophy dominated the band 's extracurricular activities by mid 1967 , such that , author Peter Doggett writes , with Harrison 's " emerge [ ence ] as the champion of all things Indian ... his power within the group increased " . This in turn led to the Beatles ' endorsement of Transcendental Meditation and their highly publicised attendance at Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 's spiritual retreat in Rishikesh , India , early the following year .
Music journalist Rip Rense cites the lyrics to " Within You Without You " as an example of how , in comparison to Lennon and McCartney , " Harrison was deliberately , forthrightly trying to say something [ in his songwriting ] , and often something vast … " Among other contemporary rock musicians , Stephen Stills was so taken with the song that he had its lyrics carved on a stone monument in his yard . Lennon also admired the track , saying of Harrison : " His mind and his music are clear . There is his innate talent , he brought that sound together . " David Crosby – whom Harrison acknowledged as having introduced him to Shankar 's music – described Harrison 's fusion of ideas as " utterly brilliant " , adding : " He did it beautifully and tastefully ... He did it at absolutely the highest level that he could , and I was extremely proud of him for that . " Music critic Ken Hunt describes the song as an " early landmark " in Harrison 's championing of Shankar , and Indian classical music generally , which gained " real global attention " for the first time through the Beatle 's commitment . Peter Lavezzoli also highlights the effect of Sgt. Pepper and its " spiritual centerpiece [ ' Within You Without You ' ] " on Shankar 's popularity , during a year that served as " the annus mirabilis " for Indian music and " a watershed moment in the West when the search for higher consciousness and an alternative world view had reached critical mass " . Musicologist Walter Everett lists Spirit 's " Mechanical World " and the Incredible String Band 's " Maya " , both released in 1968 , and much of the Moody Blues ' 1969 album To Our Children 's Children 's Children as works that were directly influenced by the Beatles ' song .
American musician Gary Wright recalls listening to " Within You Without You " repeatedly in the summer of 1967 while touring Europe for the first time , and he says : " I was transported to another place of consciousness . I 'd never heard such sound textures before . " Writing in the " 100 Rock Icons " issue of Classic Rock , in 2006 , singer Paul Rodgers cited the track to support Harrison 's standing as what the magazine called " the Beatles ' musical medicine man " . Rodgers said : " He introduced me and a generation of people worldwide to the wisdom of the East . His thought @-@ provoking ' Within You Without You ' – with sitars , tablas and deep lyrics – was something completely different , even in a world full of unique music . "
= = Love remix = =
" Within You Without You " was included on the 2006 remix album Love , which was created for the Cirque du Soleil stage show of the same name . Harrison 's vocal appears over the rhythm section from " Tomorrow Never Knows " , after the track opens with Lennon 's lyric from the latter song . Reviewing the album for PopMatters , Zeth Lundy writes : " The ' Within You Without You ' / ' Tomorrow Never Knows ' mash @-@ up , perhaps the most thrilling and effective track on the entire disc , fuses two especially transcendental songs into one : ... a union of two ambiguous , open @-@ ended declarations of spiritual pursuit . " Paul Moody of Uncut similarly considers it to be the " best of all " the mashups on Love , with the two tracks ' " cosmic drones ... fitted together like a glove " .
Remixed and remastered by George Martin and his son Giles , " Within You Without You " / " Tomorrow Never Knows " was the first track prepared for Love . Speaking to Mojo magazine in December 2006 , Giles Martin said that he had first created a demo combining the two songs , which he then nervously presented to McCartney and Ringo Starr for their approval . In Martin 's recollection , " they loved it " , which allowed the project to proceed . The Love remix is one of the songs in The Beatles : Rock Band .
= = Cover versions = =
Big Jim Sullivan , a British session guitarist who became proficient on the sitar , included " Within You Without You " on his album of Indian music @-@ style recordings , titled Sitar Beat and first released in 1967 . In the same year , the Soulful Strings recorded the song for their album Groovin ' with the Soulful Strings , a version that also appeared on the B @-@ side of their most successful single , " Burning Spear " .
In 1988 Sonic Youth recorded " Within You Without You " for the NME 's multi @-@ artist tribute Sgt. Pepper Knew My Father . Fricke highlights this recording as an example of how , regardless of its Indian origins , the composition can be interpreted on electric guitar effectively and " with transportive force " . Big Daddy covered the song on their 1992 Sgt. Pepper tribute album , a release that Moore recognises as " the most audacious " of the many interpretations of the Beatles ' 1967 LP , with " Within You Without You " serving as " the cleverest pastiche " , performed in a free jazz style reminiscent of Ornette Coleman or Don Cherry . Other acts who have covered it for Sgt. Pepper tributes include Oasis , on a BBC Radio 2 project celebrating the album 's 40th anniversary ( 2007 ) ; Easy Star All @-@ Stars ( featuring Matisyahu ) , on Easy Star 's Lonely Hearts Dub Band ( 2009 ) ; and Cheap Trick , on their Sgt. Pepper Live DVD ( 2009 ) . In 2014 , the Flaming Lips , with featured guests Birdflower and Morgan Delt , recorded it for their Sgt. Pepper tribute , With a Little Help from My Fwends .
Guitarist Rainer Ptacek opened his 1994 album Nocturnes with what AllMusic critic Bob Gottlieb describes as a " stunning instrumental " reading of the song , recorded live in a chapel in Tucson . A version by Angels of Venice appeared on their self @-@ titled album , released in 1999 , and Big Head Todd and the Monsters contributed a recording for Songs from the Material World : A Tribute to George Harrison in 2003 . The following year , Thievery Corporation covered the track on their album The Outernational Sound . Patti Smith included it on her 2007 covers album Twelve , a version that , according to BBC music critic Chris Jones , " sounds like [ the song ] could have been written for her " . Peter Knight and his Orchestra , Firefall , Glenn Mercer , R. Stevie Moore and Les Fradkin are among the other artists who have recorded the song .
Dead Can Dance 's 1996 album Spiritchaser includes the track " Indus " , the melody of which was found to be very similar to that of " Within You Without You " . The duo 's singer , Lisa Gerrard , told The Boston Globe that they had subsequently obtained Harrison 's blessing but " the [ record company ] pushed it " , with the result that they were forced to give the former Beatle a partial songwriting credit . In 1978 , the Rutles parodied " Within You Without You " on the track " Nevertheless " , performed by Rikki Fataar .
= = Personnel = =
According to Ian MacDonald :
George Harrison – lead vocals , tambura , sitar , acoustic guitar
Uncredited Indian musicians – dilrubas , tabla , swarmandal , tambura
Neil Aspinall – tambura
Erich Gruenberg , Alan Loveday , Julien Gaillard , Paul Scherman , Ralph Elman , David Wolfsthal , Jack Rothstein , Jack Greene – violins
Reginald Kilbey , Allen Ford , Peter Halling – cellos
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= Herbert J. Ray =
Rear Admiral Herbert James Ray ( 1 February 1893 – 3 December 1970 ) was an officer in the United States Navy who served in World War I and World War II . A 1914 graduate of the Naval Academy , he served on the submarines USS H @-@ 2 and N @-@ 3 during World War I. In March 1942 , as Chief of Staff and Aide to the Commandant of the Sixteenth Naval District , Rear Admiral Francis W. Rockwell , he participated in General Douglas MacArthur 's escape from the Philippines . In Australia , he served with MacArthur 's General Headquarters , Southwest Pacific Area staff . In September 1943 , he became Captain of the battleship USS Maryland , which he commanded in the Battle of Tarawa , Battle of Kwajalein , Battle of Saipan and the Battle of Peleliu . In October 1944 , he participated in the Battle of Surigao Strait , in which Maryland joined the other battleships in engaging the Japanese battleships Fusō and Yamashiro and their escorts . Ray left Maryland in December 1944 , and was appointed Deputy Director of the Naval Division of the US Control Group Council for Germany . After VE Day , he became the Junior United States Member of the Tripartite Naval Commission in Berlin . He retired from the Navy on 30 June 1949 , and received a tombstone promotion to rear admiral due to his combat decorations .
= = Early life = =
Herbert James Ray was born in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , on 1 February 1893 , the son of James Herbert Ray and his wife Mary née Rosseler . He was educated at Rhea County High School . In 1910 , he was appointed to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis , from which he graduated on 6 June 1914 .
On graduation , he was commissioned as an ensign , and joined the crew of the battleship USS Minnesota . In July 1915 , he became an instructor for enlisted ratings in Norfolk , Virginia . He then became part of the crew that was assembled for the new battleship USS Nevada in January 1916 , and served on it when it was commissioned in March 1916 . After the United States declared war on Germany , he underwent submariner training on board the submarine tender USS Fulton from June to November 1917 . During the war he served on the submarines USS H @-@ 2 and N @-@ 3 .
= = Between the wars = =
After the war , Ray was posted to the battleship USS Pennsylvania in March 1919 , the submarine tender USS Savannah in July 1919 , and the destroyer USS Meyer February 1920 . He then became the Executive Officer of the destroyer USS Walker . In November 1920 , he helped fit out the destroyer USS Young , and served on it until April 1921 , when he was transferred to the crew of another new destroyer , the USS Macdonough . He helped fit it out , and then served with it until September 1921 .
Ray returned to Annapolis as an instructor with the Electrical Engineering and Physics Department from September 1921 to June 1923 . He then served on the transport USS Argonne until December 1924 , when he became the Executive Officer of the destroyer USS Wood . In 1926 , he assumed command of the destroyer USS Farenholt . In July , he became Officer in Charge of the Branch Hydrographic Office in Honolulu . He was Aide and Flag Secretary to the Commander Light Cruiser 2 from May 1928 to June 1930 ; Light Cruiser Divisions , Scouting Fleet from June to September 1930 ; and Light Cruiser 3 from September 1930 to July 1931 . Ray married Helen Louise Jacobs from La Plata , Maryland in 1930 . They had two daughters and two sons .
Ray was the Navy Representative on the Joint Army @-@ Navy Selective Services Committee at the War Department in Washington , D.C. , from July 1931 to September 1933 . He then helped fit out the new cruiser USS New Orleans , and became first he First Lieutenant and Damage Control Officer , and then , in February 1935 , he Executive Officer . Following the usual pattern of alternating duty afloat and ashore , he returned to Annapolis in July 1936 for a second two @-@ year tour as an instructor , this time in the Department of English and History . In June 1938 he entered the Naval War College at Newport , Rhode Island . After graduating in June 1939 , he became the Executive Officer of the USS Quincy .
= = World War II = =
= = = Southwest Pacific = = =
In March 1941 , Raybecame Chief of Staff and Aide to the Commandant of the Sixteenth Naval District , Rear Admiral Francis W. Rockwell , at Cavite , where he was promoted to captain on 1 July 1941 . He was serving in this capacity when the Pacific War began . He was awarded the Legion of Merit for his part in the fighting . His citation read :
For exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services to the Government of the United States as Chief of Staff in the Sixteenth Naval District at the outbreak of World War II . Captain Ray continuously performed duties of great responsibility during and after the bombing and destruction of Cavite Navy Yard on 10 December 1941 . In the direction of fire fighting at Cavite , in the evacuation of personnel and material to Corregidor , and in the administration of Naval Facilities at Mariveles on Bataan Peninsula , he displayed courage and marked leadership . His close personal contact with the personnel of Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Three and constant concern with their problems was an outstanding example of leadership and exceptional efficiency in his profession . During this entire period of great stress , he performed exceptionally meritorious service to the government in duties of great responsibility . Captain Ray was sent to Mariveles on 14 December to supervise the work there and Commander Grandfield temporarily assumed the duties of Chief of Staff . On completion of a reorganization at Mariveles , Captain Ray was ordered to Queen Tunnel Corregidor and resumed his duties as Chief of Staff .
In March 1942 , he participated in General Douglas MacArthur 's escape from the Philippines , for which Ray was awarded the Silver Star . His citation read :
For extraordinary heroism and distinguished service in the line of his profession while serving on the Staff of Rear Admiral Francis Rockwell , Commandant , Sixteenth Naval District , during the period 11 to 13 March 1942 , in the Philippine Islands during an extraordinary action a retrograde maneuver involving General Douglas MacArthur . Captain Ray made detailed plans involving exacting preparations for a movement of major strategic importance and of the most hazardous nature , then executed the mission with marked skill and coolness in the face of greatly superior enemy forces .
In Australia , Ray served with MacArthur 's General Headquarters , Southwest Pacific Area . One of his sons , Lieutenant James H. Ray , was on the destroyer USS Jarvis when it was lost with all hands on 9 August 1942 . When Ray was ordered back to the United States in January 1943 , MacArthur awarded him the Army Distinguished Service Medal . His citation read :
For exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States , in a duty of great responsibility in the Southwest Pacific Area during the period from 18 April 1942 to 26 April 1943 . Captain Ray was assigned to General Headquarters , Southwest Pacific Area , upon its establishment , 18 April 1942 , serving as Naval Advisor to the Operations and Intelligence sections of the General Staff from 18 April 1942 to 9 January 1943 . Upon the establishment of the Planning Section of G @-@ 3 , 9 January 1943 , he was assigned as Chief of that section . The accomplishment of the service for which this award is recommended has been completed . This officer has been transferred to another assignment . The entire service of Captain Ray has , since the rendering by him of the service upon which this recommendation is based , been honorable .
= = = USS Maryland = = =
Ray served in the office of the Commander in Chief United States Fleet , Admiral Ernest J. King from April to September 1943 . He then became Captain of the battleship USS Maryland . The ship had been damaged in the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 but returned to service . Maryland participated in the Battle of Tarawa in November 1943 as the flagship of Rear Admiral Harry W. Hill 's V Amphibious Force and Southern Attack Force , and her guns participated in the shore bombardment . In February 1944 , she joined in the Battle of Kwajalein , firing at pillboxes and blockhouses on Roi Island . Maryland 's guns supported the Battle of Saipan , silencing a pair of coastal guns . On 22 June , she was torpedoed by a Mitsubishi G4M " Betty " bomber , but was repaired in time to join Rear Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf ’ s Western Fire Support Group in the Battle of Peleliu . Still with Oldendorff 's group , but now part of the Vice Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid 's Seventh Fleet , Maryland participated in the Battle of Leyte in October . In the Battle of Surigao Strait , it joined the other battleships in engaging the Japanese battleships Fusō and Yamashiro and their escorts . Ray was awarded a second Silver Star . His citation read :
for gallantry and intrepidity in action as Commanding Officer of the USS Maryland ( BB @-@ 46 ) , which contributed materially to the annihilation of enemy surface forces , including two battleships , on 25 October 1944 , in Surigao Straits , Philippine Islands . Captain Ray , by his capable direction , caused his ship to deliver prolonged and effective gunfire against the enemy 's ships .
On 29 November , Maryland was attacked and severely damaged by kamikaze aircraft , and forced to return to Pearl Harbor for repairs . For his services as captain , he was awarded the Bronze Star .
= = = Germany = = =
Ray left Maryland in December 1944 . He was appointed Deputy Director of the Naval Division of the US Control Group Council for Germany . After VE Day , he became the Junior United States Member of the Tripartite Naval Commission in Berlin . He was promoted to the wartime rank of commodore on 26 June 1945 . He returned to the United States in April 1946 . For his services in Europe , he was awarded a second Legion of Merit . His citation read :
For exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services to the Government of the United States in Germany from 1 March 1945 to 20 December 1945 . Commodore Ray distinguished himself by unusually meritorious accomplishments as Deputy Director of the Naval Division , U.S. Group Control Council for Germany , and later , as Deputy Naval Advisor to the Office of Military Government for Germany ( U.S. ) , and as junior member of the Tri @-@ Partite Naval Commission meeting in Berlin from 15 August 1945 until 8 December 1945 . In this duty , he contributed in a high degree to the successful conclusion to the Tri @-@ Partite Naval Commission . He was instrumental in coordinating the Naval work of the U.S. Group Control Council , and other divisions of the U.S. Group Control Council , and in coordinating the efforts of the four powers represented on the Naval Directorate of the Group Control Council for Germany .
= = Later life = =
Ray became Commander of the San Francisco Group of the Nineteenth Fleet in June 1946 . On 10 July , like many other commodores , he was reduced in rank to captain again . He served in this capacity until he retired on 30 June 1949 , at which point he received a tombstone promotion to rear admiral due to his combat decorations . He died on 3 December 1970 at Beale Air Force Base Hospital in California .
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= Fountain of Time =
Fountain of Time , or simply Time , is a sculpture by Lorado Taft , measuring 126 feet 10 inches ( 38 @.@ 66 m ) in length , situated at the western edge of the Midway Plaisance within Washington Park in Chicago , Illinois , in the United States . This location is in the Washington Park community area on Chicago 's South Side . Inspired by Henry Austin Dobson 's poem , " Paradox of Time " , and with its 100 figures passing before Father Time , the work was created as a monument to the first 100 years of peace between the United States and Great Britain , resulting from the Treaty of Ghent in 1814 . Although the fountain 's water began running in 1920 , the sculpture was not dedicated to the city until 1922 . The sculpture is a contributing structure to the Washington Park United States Registered Historic District , which is a National Register of Historic Places listing .
Part of a larger beautification plan for the Midway Plaisance , Time was constructed from a new type of molded , steel @-@ reinforced concrete that was claimed to be more durable and cheaper than alternatives . It was said to be the first of any kind of finished work of art made of concrete . Before the completion of Millennium Park in 2004 , it was considered the most important installation in the Chicago Park District . Time is one of several Chicago works of art funded by Benjamin Ferguson 's trust fund .
Time has undergone several restorations because of deterioration and decline caused by natural and urban elements . During the late 1990s and the first few years of the 21st century it underwent repairs that corrected many of the problems caused by these earlier restorations . Although extensive renovation of the sculpture was completed as recently as 2005 , the supporters of Time continue to seek resources for additional lighting , and the National Trust for Historic Preservation has nominated it for further funding .
= = Planning = =
Time , along with many other public works in Chicago , was funded by Benjamin Ferguson 's 1905 gift of $ 1 million ( $ 26 @.@ 3 million today ) , to a charitable trust formed to " memorialize events in American History " . Lorado Taft initially conceived a sculpture carved from granite ; an alternative plan was to have it chiseled out of Georgia marble , which it is estimated would have cost $ 30 @,@ 000 ( $ 718 @,@ 283 ) a year for five years . The planned work was intended as part of a Midway beautification which was to include a stream , lagoons , and a series of bridges : a Bridge of Arts at Woodlawn Avenue , a Bridge of Religion at the intersection of Ellis Avenue , and a Bridge of Science at Dorchester Avenue ( formerly Madison Avenue ) . As part of the plan , the two ends of the Midway were to be connected by a canal in the deep depressions linking lagoons in Jackson and Washington Parks .
In 1907 , Taft had won the first commission from the Ferguson Fund to create the Fountain of the Great Lakes at the Art Institute of Chicago . Immediately afterwards , inspired by Daniel Burnham 's " Make no little plans " quote , he begin lobbying for a grand Midway beautification plan . In 1912 , Art Institute Trustee Frank G. Logan formally presented Taft 's plans to the fund 's administrators at the Art Institute of Chicago . Taft 's proposed Midway Plaisance beautification plan included two possible commemoration themes . His first choice was to honor the memory of the World 's Columbian Exposition that had been held in Jackson Park in 1893 . His alternative was to commemorate the centennial of the 1814 Treaty of Ghent " marking a century of perfect understanding between England and America " . Since other plans to commemorate the Exposition were under way , the second theme choice was adopted as the justification for a second Taft commission from the Ferguson Fund . Contemporary newspaper accounts anticipated that Taft 's entire Midway beautification plan would be approved easily .
Taft 's initial commission from the trust was limited to the creation of a full @-@ sized plaster model of Fountain of Time , under a five @-@ year $ 10 @,@ 000 ( $ 239 @,@ 428 ) annual installment contract signed on February 6 , 1913 . This would enable the model to be evaluated in 1918 . Taft first created a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) quarter @-@ scale model which received the Trustees ' approval in May 1915 . He eventually produced his full @-@ scale plaster model , 100 feet ( 30 @.@ 5 m ) in width peaking in the center , with an equestrian warrior and a robed model of Father Time with a height of 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . The installation of this model near its intended location was delayed by Taft 's World War I service with the Y.M.C.A. in France as part of a corps of entertainers and lecturers , but was completed in 1920 . However , Taft 's wider vision of a Chicago school of sculpture , analogous to other philosophical Chicago schools such as the contemporaneous Chicago school of architecture style , had lost momentum after the 1913 dedication of his Fountain of the Great Lakes . The Beaux Arts style had become dated ; instead of funding Taft 's large @-@ scale Midway Plaisance beautification plan , and providing the originally planned granite , bronze or Georgia marble materials , the trust only allocated sufficient funds and support for a concrete sculpture .
= = Location and installation = =
Time is in the Chicago Park District , in the Washington Park community area on Chicago 's South Side , near the Midway Plaisance . This location , adjoining the University of Chicago campus directly to the East , makes the sculpture a contributing structure to the Washington Park federal Registered Historic District , listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Time is considered to be the most important piece of monumental art in the Park District , which hosts over 100 art works . Its importance stems from its sculptor , its message , the era in which it was created , and the design of its reflecting pool by Howard Van Doren Shaw . Robert Jones , director of design and construction for the Art Institute of Chicago at the time , stated in 1999 that Time was the first finished art piece to be made of any type of concrete .
The sculpture is located a few blocks from Taft 's studio , the Lorado Taft Midway Studios , now a Chicago Landmark and National Historic Landmark , located at 60th Street and Ingleside Avenue . Other notable sculptures nearby include Henry Moore 's National Historic Landmark Nuclear Energy , which is on the site of the first self @-@ sustaining nuclear reaction at the University of Chicago . Jackson Park , connected to Washington Park and Time by the Midway Plaisance , hosts the Chicago Landmark Statue of the Republic ; at one time the Midway Plaisance , Jackson Park and Washington Park were jointly known as " South Park " .
There is little agreement on the dimensions of Time , with various sources describing it as between 102 to 127 feet ( 31 @.@ 1 to 38 @.@ 7 m ) long . One of the few precise estimates describes it as 126 feet 10 inches ( 38 @.@ 7 m ) long , 23 feet 6 inches ( 7 @.@ 2 m ) wide and 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) tall . The sources are often unclear about whether they are describing the width of the reflecting pool from exterior wall to exterior wall , the width of the water within the reflecting pool 's interior walls , the width of the base of the sculpted mass of humanity , the width of the sculpted masses themselves , or the width of the parcel of land upon which Time is built .
Water began running in the completed sculpture on September 1 , 1920 , although it was not dedicated to the city until November 15 , 1922 . University of Chicago President Harry Pratt Judson delivered an address at the dedication ceremony at the Midway Plaisance , before contributions from Taft . President of the B.F. Ferguson Trust Charles Hutchinson , and John Barton Payne , President of the South Park Board .
= = Design and realization = =
The sculpture is made of a form of hollow @-@ cast concrete , reinforced with steel . It was cast in a 4 @,@ 500 @-@ piece mold , using 250 short tons ( 230 t ) of a material described as " concrete @-@ like " , which incorporated pebbles from the Potomac River . This composite material was an innovation at the time . For years , John Joseph Earley of Washington , DC , had used pebbless that seemed durable in the face of elements such as the weather and urban soot and grime . He had determined that by adding crushed pebbles he could create a new concrete mixture more durable than limestone but cheaper than marble or bronze . The reflection from the silica of the crushed stones complemented the durability with artistic beauty ; the same material was used at Chicago 's Fine Arts Building .
The sculpture depicts a hooded Father Time carrying a scythe , and watching over a parade of 100 figures arranged in an ellipse , with an overall pyramidal geometry . The allegorical procession depicts the entire spectrum of humanity at various stages of life . The contemporary 1920s Chicago Daily Tribune described the figures as " heroic " , and that choice of adjective has stayed with the piece . The figures are said to be passing in review as they rush through the stages of life , and include soldiers , frolicking children and kissing couples . Father Time is described in various newspaper articles as " huge " , " weird " , and " dominant " . Other Tribune critics described Time as a " pet atrocity " of Taft in large part due to its ugliness . One critic described the white figures as reminiscent of false teeth smiling across the end of the Midway .
Time commemorates the first 100 years of peace between the United States and Great Britain after the Treaty of Ghent concluded the War of 1812 on December 24 , 1814 . The design was inspired by the poem " Paradox of Time " by Henry Austin Dobson : " Time goes , you say ? Ah no , Alas , time stays , we go " . Time 's theme has been compared to Shakespeare 's All the world 's a stage monologue in As You Like It , which describes the seven ages of man : infant , schoolboy , lover , soldier , justice , old age , and dementia . Taft 's figures represent birth , the struggle for existence , love , family life , religion , poetry , and war .
Although most of the figures are generic representations of human forms in various walks and stages of life , Taft included himself , with one of his assistants following him , along the west side of the sculpture . He is portrayed wearing a smock , with his head bowed and hands clasped behind his back . His daughters served as models for some of the figures .
Taft is now better remembered for his books , such as The History of American Sculpture ( 1903 ) , regarded as the first comprehensive work on the subject . However , in his day he was well known for portraits and allegorical public sculpture , of which Fountain of Time is a prime example . It was produced in the period following his assignment to design sculptures for William Le Baron Jenney 's 1893 Horticultural Building for the World 's Columbian Exposition . During this period he designed several large @-@ scale public works , including Fountain of the Great Lakes . Taft resided in Illinois for most of his life and worked in the Midway Studios starting in 1906 .
= = Restoration = =
Designed without expansion joints , Time is one of a small number of outdoor sculptures made of reinforced pebble / concrete aggregate , few of which have been created since the 1930s . In 1936 , Time 's weather @-@ related cracks were repaired ; further work occurred in 1955 . The sculpture 's subsequent repairs were followed by a rededication celebration in 1966 . Although the sculpture received regular maintenance , early repair crews often did more harm than good , by using techniques such as sandblasting and patching cracks with rigid materials .
By the 1980s the sculpture was crumbling ; cracks had developed , details of the figures had worn away , and moisture had eroded the internal structure . In wintertime the fountain had to be protected by a tarp . Weather , air pollution , and vandalism meant that hundreds of thousands of dollars were now needed for restoration . The Chicago Park District , University of Chicago , and Art Institute of Chicago conservators all sponsored restoration work , including drying out the cavity of the hollow sculpture , removal of the deteriorated substructure , a newly designed ventilation system within the piece , a protective exterior coating , and repairs to the reflecting pool . In 1989 Chicago Park District allocated $ 150 @,@ 000 to the repair project , which amount was matched by the Ferguson fund . By the end of 1991 , the Park District had collected $ 320 @,@ 000 of the $ 520 @,@ 000 estimated repair costs from public and private funds , although in 1994 the sculpture still awaited repair .
By early 1997 , after almost two decades of activity , the only repairs completed were phase one of the air ventilation system to dehumidify the hollow base , the drainage pipes and a new inner roof . Plans now included the erection of a temporary two @-@ story metal building to protect all but the giant Father Time from the harsh winters and to facilitate year @-@ round repair ; the reinforcement of corroded steel interior portions ; the replacement of inconsistent patches ; the substitution of engineered spacing for natural cracks , and finally , hand @-@ brushed concrete recoating . The temporary building was budgeted at $ 270 @,@ 000 ; the city spent a total of $ 450 @,@ 000 on repairs approved by the Park District that year .
On April 19 , 1999 , the $ 1 @.@ 6 million , two @-@ year phase two restoration began , scheduled for completion by May 2001 . Five workers began repairing the cracks , killing biological growth , removing calcium deposits and pollution @-@ blackened gypsum , and coating the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 930 m2 ) surface with a combination of lime putty , adobe cement and sand . The inoperable reflecting pool was not repaired in this phase . Although this phase was completed in 2001 , its effects were not visible until the following year , when the temporary protective structure was unveiled . The repairs were expected to sustain the sculpture for about 30 – 50 years before any further repairs would be necessary .
In 2003 , the National Endowment for the Arts committed $ 250 @,@ 000 to the Park District for the conservation and restoration of the reflecting pool . In 2004 , the University of Chicago contributed $ 100 @,@ 000 and the Park District Board $ 845 @,@ 000 to repair the pool and its water circulation system . This work was carried out in the summer of 2005 at a slightly reduced budget , and the fountain was filled with water for the first time in over fifty years . In 2007 , efforts began to add lighting . That same year the sculpture was nominated by Partners in Preservation , a fund for the preservation of historic sites , backed by the National Trust for Historic Preservation and American Express . In a widely publicized contest that included open house events where the public could tour and learn about the competing historic sites , $ 1 million was available for preservation efforts in the Chicago metropolitan area , but the fountain was not one of the 15 winning candidates .
= = Gallery = =
' ' Fountain of Time , ' ' before restoration
' ' Fountain of Time , ' ' after restoration ( August 2007 )
= = Fountain of Creation = =
Time was intended to be matched by a sister fountain , Fountain of Creation , on the opposite end of the Midway . Work was begun but was never completed . The finished portions of Fountain of Creation , depicting figures from the Greek legend of the repopulation of earth after the great flood , are considered Taft 's final work , and were given to University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign , his alma mater . The four surviving elements are figures ranging in height from 5 to 7 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 1 m ) , and are collectively named Sons and Daughters of Ducalion and Pyrrha . Two of these elements stand outside the entrance to the university 's Main Library , and two others are located at the south side of Foellinger Auditorium .
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= Blowing from a gun =
Blowing from a gun was a method of execution in which the victim is typically tied to the mouth of a cannon and the cannon is fired . George Carter Stent describes the process as follows :
The prisoner is generally tied to a gun with the upper part of the small of his back resting against the muzzle . When the gun is fired , his head is seen to go straight up into the air some forty or fifty feet ; the arms fly off right and left , high up in the air , and fall at , perhaps , a hundred yards distance ; the legs drop to the ground beneath the muzzle of the gun ; and the body is literally blown away altogether , not a vestige being seen .
Blowing from a gun was a reported means of execution as long ago as the 16th century , by the Mughal Empire , and was used until the 20th century . The method was utilized by Portuguese colonialists in the 16th and 17th centuries , from as early as 1509 across their empire from Ceylon ( modern day Sri Lanka ) to Mozambique to Brazil . The Mughals used the method throughout the 17th century and into the 18th , particularly against rebels .
Arguably , the nation most well known to have implemented this type of execution was the British Empire , in its role as paramount power in India , and in particular as a punishment for native soldiers found guilty of mutiny or desertion . Using the methods previously practised by the Mughals , the British began implementing blowing from guns in the latter half of the 18th century , with the most intense period of use being during the 1857 sepoy mutiny , when both the British and the rebelling sepoys used it frequently .
The practice is said to have been exceptionally used in Afghanistan in 1930 , against 11 Panjshiri rebels .
= = Rituals = =
A commonly reported method of blowing a man from a gun is to tie him in front of the muzzle of the gun and then have him shot . Loading the cannon with an actual cannonball is on occasion reported ; but , more commonly , the use of blank cartridge or grapeshot is attested . The following description of the manner of tying up the convicted is from Afghanistan , 7 July 1839 , ordered by Shuja Shah , during the campaign against Dost Mohammad Khan :
The three men were then tied with ropes to the guns , their backs against the muzzle . The rope , fastened to one of the spokes of the wheel , passed with a knot round the arms , over the muzzle of the gun , round the other arm , and then to the spoke of the opposite wheel , which kept the body fixed .
Although immobilizing a victim in front of a gun before firing the cannon is by far the most reported method , a case from Istanbul in 1596 alleges that the victim was actually put into the gun and executed in that manner . Some reports exist that attest that on occasion , people were fastened to rockets and blown into the air . This is said to have occurred for a Brahmin under Hyder Ali 's reign ( 1761 – 1782 ) , and also , in an 1800 treason case , in the Maratha Empire .
= = Problems with the method = =
Things did not always work out according to plan at such executions ; at a mass execution at Firozpur in 1857 , there was an order that blank cartridge should be used , but some loaded with grapeshot instead . Several of the spectators facing the cannons were hit by the grapeshot and some had to amputate limbs as a result . In addition , some of the soldiers had not been withdrawn properly and sustained damages by being hit by whizzing pieces of flesh and bone . In another case , a soldier who was to be shot managed to fall down just as the shot went off , with the resulting scene taking place :
One wretched fellow slipped from the rope by which he was tied to the guns just before the explosion , and his arm was nearly set on fire . While hanging in his agony under the gun , a sergeant applied a pistol to his head ; and three times the cap snapped , the man each time wincing from the expected shot . At last a rifle was fired into the back of his head , and the blood poured out of the nose and mouth like water from a briskly handled pump . This was the most horrible sight of all . I have seen death in all its forms , but never anything to equal this man 's end .
Others reported with shudders how birds of prey circled above the execution place and swooped down to catch pieces of human flesh in the air , while others were nauseated by the dogs loitering about the place of execution and rushing to the scene to devour some of the " delicacies " spread around as a result of the execution .
= = Mughal Empire = =
Blowing from a gun as a method of execution has a long and varied history on the Indian sub @-@ continent , and many reports from the mid @-@ 18th century and onwards testify to its varied use . The execution method was used during rebellions and as punishment for a variety of crimes . Here , a focus is chosen upon the Mughal tradition of blowing from guns as a local tradition preceding , for example , the British tradition on the same sub @-@ continent .
Several historians note that blowing people from the guns as a method of execution was an " old Mughal punishment " on the Indian sub @-@ continent . Just prior to the institution of the reign of the first Mughal emperor , Babur , his son Humayun is said to have blown from guns 100 Afghan prisoners on 6 March 1526 , in one incident of his father 's many struggles against the Lodi dynasty . During the latter half of the 17th century , members of the Jat people in Northern India rebelled and raided against the Mughal Empire , and the emperor Aurangzeb is said in one account to have ordered one of their leaders blown from a gun . Purbeel Singh , said to have been the last Hindu chief of Umga , close to Aurangabad in today 's Bihar state , was reportedly taken by an unnamed Mughal emperor to Aurungabad , and blown from a gun . The Sikh rebel Banda Singh Bahadur was finally vanquished in 1716 by the emperor Farrukhsiyar , and after his execution , Banda 's son was ordered to be " blown to bits by a cannon " .
While the preceding cases are examples of rebels or military adversaries being blown from guns , the Mughal era also contained a few examples of using this form of execution for other types of perceived crime . For example , in a rather anecdotal story from the times of Jahangir ( r . 1605 – 1627 ) , the emperor had six mullahs blown from guns , for having consented to , and given approval of , the forcible abduction and marriage of a Hindu girl to a Muslim officer . In 1714 , thieves were a severe annoyance to a marching army ; a trap was made , and two thieves caught by the concealed guards were later blown from guns . During a siege in 1719 , the problem of deserters was eventually solved for the commander of the Mughal army by blowing four deserters caught in the act from guns , in presence of his troops .
= = Portuguese Empire = =
Portuguese colonialists are , in several accounts , charged with having used blowing from a gun as a form of capital punishment in many of their colonies . A short review follows :
= = = Sri Lanka = = =
The Portuguese explorer Francisco de Almeida is reported to have blown many individuals from guns at Ceylon , around 1509 . During the Dutch siege of Colombo in 1656 , the city population endured extreme famine . One nursing mother became so starved that her production of milk stopped , and her infant was dying . She chose to kill it , and eat it . Once the Portuguese general became aware of her act of cannibalism , he ordered her blown from a gun , but in this particular instance , the clergy and the principal citizens dissuaded him from carrying out the act .
= = = Mozambique = = =
During explorer Francisco Barreto 's 1569 – 73 campaign in Monomotapa , he at one time imprisoned some 50 Muslim individuals , and had them " impaled , blown from mortars , torn apart on tree @-@ trunks , axed or shot " . In mid @-@ 18th @-@ century Tete , in north @-@ western Portuguese Mozambique , the capital punishment for slaves are said to have been to be blown from guns , and , in the first decade of the 19th century , it is reported that an inveterate raider chief was caught by the Portuguese and blown from a gun .
= = = Brazil = = =
In 1618 Brazil , native resistance against the Portuguese was unshaken , although a leader of them , Amaro , was taken prisoner and blown from a gun .
= = British India = =
= = = Before 1857 = = =
Blowing from a gun as a method of execution was used , perhaps most well known , by British troops during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . The British , however , had a long tradition prior to the 1857 rebellion of executing sepoys found guilty of mutiny or desertion in this manner . According to one historian , the British tradition began in 1760 , when the government examined the modes of capital punishment in use . In the district of the 24 Perganas , it was found that the common military mode of capital punishment was flogging to death . Regarding blowing from a gun as an old Mughal punishment , the government opted for this technique , as being , relative to death by flogging , more deterrent , more public and more humane . Already in 1761 , orders were given in Lakhipur " to fire off at the mouth of a cannon the leader of the thieves who was made prisoner , that others may be deterred " . Technically , in cases of court @-@ martial , it seems that until 1857 the courts were composed of native officers rather than British , but it is added : " although they are presided over , and generally led and ruled , by the superintending officer , whose duty , however , is merely to transcribe the evidence , and assist the native officers with advice and counsel " .
In March 1764 , a subedar ( native officer ) thought to entice his troops over to the enemy ; he was court @-@ martialed and blown from a gun in front of the troops . In September the same year , major Hector Munro executed 24 or 25 " ring leaders " who caused a battalion to desert ( the desertion being on account of " lack of rewards " , " scarcity of provisions " and problems with climate and disease ) . Approving of the execution , one commenter said : " no disposition to mutiny was thenceforth manifested " . In 1775 , a commandant Muctoom Sahib incited his men not to embark for Bombay . Muctoom Sahib was blown from a gun , and the men embarked to Bombay without causing more trouble for the British . In 1782 , mutinies broke out in Bardhaman and Barrackpore . Three mutineers were sentenced to death by the court in Bardhaman , 2 of whom to be blown from a gun , the last to be hanged . In the Barrackpore trials , 4 of the 5 on trial were sentenced to be blown from a gun , while the last was to receive a thousand lashes and " to be drummed out of the cantonments with a rope around his neck " . During the Third Anglo @-@ Mysore War ( 1789 – 1792 ) , six regiments mutinied over arrears of pay and held their officers confined . When order was restored , two of the most active were blown from guns . Not only mutineers were blown from guns , but also soldiers found guilty of desertion , as is shown from a few cases in 1781 and 1783 .
Not only sepoys were executed by being blown from a gun . In 1798 , mutiny broke out in the British unit 1st battalion of the Madras artillery . One British soldier was condemned to be blown from a gun . This , however , seems to have been exceptional , and one historian says that the soldier Forster is the only European on record to have been blown from a gun by the British authorities .
In 1804 , during a military engagement , the troops under lieutenant Birch 's command refused to quit the ground of their encampment . Colonel Burn deemed harsh measures were necessary , convened a court @-@ martial , and two of the officers involved were blown from guns and 9 others " severely flogged " . With full approval of the action , the writer observes : “ a measure which , there is every reason to believe , had the best effect , as the corps behaved during the subsequent siege with the greatest steadiness and propriety ” .
In the 1806 Vellore Mutiny , beginning with a night massacre of British officers and soldiers , with many sepoys killed during the suppression , 6 individuals were sentenced to be blown from the guns . In 1812 , a plot was discovered at Travancore to kill the European officers ; two ring leaders were blown from the guns , and several others were hanged . In 1819 , six deserters who had joined the ousted rajah of the annexed Kingdom of Nagpur were apprehended by the British and were blown from the guns on 7 February . In 1832 Bangalore , a conspiracy allegedly designed to exterminate all Europeans was discovered . Out of some 100 implicated , 4 were sentenced to be blown from the guns , two others to be shot .
Sometimes , although a person was condemned to death , he might hope for a pardon or a commuting of the punishment . In 1784 , a regiment mutinied over lack of pay . Lieutenant General Laing suppressed the rebels and ordered twelve to be blown from guns . The last of the twelve was very lucky , however : Bound to the cannon 's mouth , he had to endure three times that the fuse burnt out . He then asked Lieutenant General Laing whether he was really destined to die in this manner , and Laing chose to pardon him . In 1795 Midnapore , 5 sepoys were condemned in court @-@ martial to be blown from guns on account of mutiny , 3 others to be hanged . Their cases were appealed , however , and their sentences were commuted to be dismissed from service instead . In the 1824 mutiny at Barrackpore , occasioned by the resentment of sepoys to being shipped to the front in the First Anglo @-@ Burmese War , four days after the bloody suppression of the mutiny , one of the leaders , Bindee Tiwarree of the 47th regiment was found hiding , disguised as a faqir . In the ensuing court @-@ martial , he was condemned to be blown from a gun , but instead he was hung in chains , and after his death his body was placed in a gibbet for a few months . In 1836 , a sepoy was found guilty of having fled before the enemy and abandoned his European officers . Rungish was condemned to be blown from a gun , but the sentence was commuted into " transportation beyond the sea " .
= = = The Great Rebellion = = =
To appreciate the scale and frequency of the executions made by the British during the 1857 insurrection , one may , for example , look at the reports of incidents given in merely a single journal , " Allen 's Indian Mail " , for the year 1857 .
On 8 June , two sepoys from the 35th light Infantry were blown from guns . 10 June , in Ludhiana , Peshawar , some 40 from the 54th regiment were blown from guns . On 13 June , ten sepoys from the 45th Regiment at Firozpur were blown from guns , two hanged . The same day , in Ambala , 10 sepoys from the 54th regiment suffered the same fate . The 26th of the same month , in Aurungabad , 1 was blown from a gun , 1 hanged , and 3 were shot . On 8 July , in Jhelum , it is assumed that captured rebels would be blown away . On the 19th , Aurungabad , 1 was blown away , 2 shot . On 5 September , Settara , 6 were blown away . On 17 September , Multan , 1 was blown away , 121 were summarily executed . On 23 September , in Karachi , 1 was blown away , 7 were hanged and 20 deported . ( The local body count on court @-@ martialed individuals then came to 4 blown away , 14 hanged , 22 deported and 3 beheadings . ) At the end of October , in Rohilkhand near Agra , 1 was blown away . On 16 November , Bombay , two sepoys from the 10th regiment were blown away .
As an example of official statistics , rather than a collection of newspaper reports , in an 1859 paper to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom on the rebellion in the Peshawar Valley in the Punjab , for the period May – September 1857 , 523 were recorded executed , of them 459 shot by musketry , 20 hanged ( 13 for desertion ) and the last 44 blown from a gun . Of those 44 , 4 were executed on charges of desertion , rather than mutiny . Official July – November statistics for the area about Agra says that of 78 who were given capital sentences , two had their sentence commuted into imprisonment , whereas 4 were blown from guns . Other official statistics , this time from Indore , state that , of 393 sepoys officially punished , 32 were executed , 21 of them by being blown from guns .
The preceding cases are examples of execution after formal court martial , and do not , therefore , record deaths as occurring during battle or during informal executions or massacres .
Several British were convinced that the sepoy insurgents had blown British women from guns . A specific case , mentioned by several sources , concerns that of Mr. and Mrs. Birch , Mrs. Eckford and Mrs. Defontaine , all of whom were said to have been blown from guns at Fatehgarh .
= = = After 1857 = = =
The Rebellion of 1857 was not the last time that British military used blowing from a cannon as an execution method . In 1871 , for example , 65 members of the Sikh sect Kukas or Namdhari were executed by the military , by being blown from guns .
= = Afghanistan = =
Within Afghanistan , a tradition of using blowing from a gun as capital punishment is attested from the early nineteenth century up to 1930 . Some examples are following :
= = = Early cases = = =
In 1802 , the forces of Mahmud Shah Durrani inflicted a crushing defeat on the Ghilzai tribes , and to discourage further aggression , he ordered one leader and his two sons blown from guns , as well as building a minaret out of Ghilzai skulls . In 1803 , when Shah Shujah Durrani ousted his half @-@ brother Mahmud from power , he revenged himself on an ally of Mahmud , Ashik , by blowing him from a gun for having captured by means of treachery Shujah 's and Mahmud 's half @-@ brother Zaman Shah Durrani , who had been king of the Durrani Empire prior to having been ousted by Mahmud in 1800 .
= = = The iron emir , 1880 – 1901 = = =
In 1880 , Abdur Rahman Khan became emir of Afghanistan , and he swiftly gained the nickname " the iron emir " for his perceived brutality and strong rule . For example , one source estimates that , during his 20 years on the throne , an average of 5 @,@ 000 executions a year took place , several by blowing from guns . For example , in December 1889 alone , 24 are recorded as having been blown from guns , and many others executed in other ways .
= = = Tajik reign of terror , 1929 = = =
In January 1929 , a new cycle of extreme violence broke out in Afghanistan when the Tajik Habibullāh Kalakāni became emir . The British minister Humphreys wrote : " None was safe , houses were pillaged indiscriminately , women were ravished and a reign of terror was established unprecedented in the annals of bloody Afghan history " . Political opponents were often blown from guns or executed in other ways . Habibullah 's regime was toppled in October 1929 , and then the Kuhestani Tajiks were persecuted . An article in The New York Times from 6 April 1930 was headlined with : " Eleven Afghans Blown from Guns at Kabul " .
= = In fiction = =
In Flashman in the Great Game , written by George MacDonald Fraser and set during the 1857 Indian Rebellion , Harry Flashman , a British Army officer who is impersonating an Indian , is knocked unconscious and captured during a British attack on the camp of Rani Lakshmibai . Flashman is assumed to be a rebel and awakens gagged and tied over the muzzle of a gun . He narrowly manages to avoid execution and has the rebels who were to be executed alongside him freed , an uncharacteristically humane act for a character usually portrayed as a liar , a bully and a scoundrel .
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= Little Orphant Annie =
" Little Orphant Annie " is an 1885 poem written by James Whitcomb Riley and published by the Bowen @-@ Merrill Company . First titled " The Elf Child " , Riley changed the name to " Little Orphant Allie " at its third printing ; however , a typecasting error during printing renamed the poem to its current form . Known as the " Hoosier poet " , Riley wrote the rhymes in nineteenth century Hoosier dialect . As one of his most well known poems , it served as the inspiration for the character Little Orphan Annie upon whom was based a comic strip , plays , radio programs , television shows , and movies .
The subject was inspired by Mary Alice " Allie " Smith , an orphan living in the Riley home during her childhood . The poem contains four stanzas ; the first introduces Annie and the second and third are stories she is telling to young children . Each story tells of a bad child who is snatched away by goblins as a result of their misbehavior . The underlying moral and warning is announced in the final stanza , telling children that they should obey their parents and be kind to the unfortunate , lest they suffer the same fate .
= = Background = =
James Whitcomb Riley was a poet who achieved national fame in the United States during late nineteenth and early twentieth century . " Little Orphant Annie " is one of Whitcomb 's most well known poems . Originally published in the Indianapolis Journal on November 15 , 1885 under the title " The Elf Child " , the poem was inspired by a girl named Mary Alice " Allie " Smith .
Mary Alice Smith was born near Liberty , Union County Indiana 25 September 1850 . She lived on a small farm with her parents until ( as one story goes ) both parents died when she was about nine years old some stories say that Mary 's mother died with she was very young and her father , Peter Smith , died when she was ten . Other evidence points to her father being incarcerated at the time . What ever the cause she was considered an orphan . Mary 's uncle , a John Rittenhouse , came to Union County and took the young orphan to his home in Greenfield where he " dressed her in black " and " bound her out to earn her board and keep " . Mary Alice was taken in by Captain Reuben Riley as a " bound " servant to help his wife Elizabeth Riley with the housework and her four children ; John , James , Elva May and Alex . As was customary at that time , she worked alongside the family to earn her board . In the evening hours , she often told stories to the younger children , including Riley . The family called her a " Guest " not a servant and treated her like she was part of their family . Smith did not learn she was the inspiration for the character until the 1910s when she visited with Riley .
Riley had previously presented a fictionalized version of Mary Alice Smith in his short story “ Where Is Mary Alice Smith ? , ” published in The Indianapolis Journal of 30 September 1882 . In it , Mary Alice arrives at her benefactor family ’ s home and wastes no time in telling the children a grisly story of murder by decapitation and then later introduces them to her soldier friend Dave who is soon killed upon going off to war . The plot of this short story was heavily incorporated into the 1918 movie adaptation as well as Johnny Gruelle ’ s 1921 storybook .
Both “ The Elf Child ” and “ Where Is Mary Alice Smith ? ” were printed in book form for the first time in 1885 in The Boss Girl .
“ The Elf Child ” kept its original title in its first two printings , but Riley decided to change its title to " Little Orphant Allie " in an 1889 printing . The printing house incorrectly cast the typeset during the printing , unintentionally renaming the poem to " Little Orphant Annie " . Riley at first contacted the printing house to have the error corrected , but decided to keep the misprint because of the poem 's growing popularity .
When reprinted in The Orphant Annie Book in 1908 , the poem was given an additional , introductory verse ( “ Little Orphant Annie she knows riddles , rhymes and things ! … ” ) .
During the 1910s and 1920s , the title became the inspiration for the names of Little Orphan Annie and the Raggedy Ann doll , created by fellow Indiana native Johnny Gruelle . The rhyme 's popularity led it to being reprinted many times . It was later compiled with a number of other children 's poems in an illustrated book and sold .
The verses of the poem detail the scary stories told by Annie when her housework was done , repeating the phrase " An ' the Gobble @-@ uns ' at gits you ef you don 't watch out ! . " [ sic ] It was popular among children , and many of the letters Whitcomb received from children commented on the poem . It remains a favorite among children in Indiana and is often associated with Halloween celebrations .
= = Poem = =
Riley recorded readings of several of his poems for the phonograph during the early twentieth century . Only four of the readings were ever released to the public ; one was " Little Orphant Annie " . Written in nineteenth century Hoosier dialect , the words can be difficult to read in modern times ; however , its style helped feed its popularity at the time of its composition . Riley achieved fame not just for writing poetry , but also from his readings . Like most of his poetry , " Little Orphant Annie " was written to achieve the best effect when read aloud .
The poem consists of four stanzas , each with twelve lines . Riley dedicated his poem " to all the little ones , " which served as an introduction to draw the attention of his audience when read aloud . The alliteration , parallels , phonetic intensifiers and onomatopoeia add effects to the rhymes that become more detectable when read aloud . The exclamatory refrain ending each stanza is spoken with more emphasis . The poem is written in the first person and in a regular iambic meter . It begins by introducing Annie , and then sets a mood of excitement by describing the children eagerly gathering to hear her stories . The next three stanzas are each a story which Annie tells the children . Each story tells of a bad child who is snatched away by goblins and has an underlying moral which is announced in the final stanza , encouraging children to obey their parents and teachers , help their loved ones , and care for the poor and disadvantaged .
Little Orphant Annie
Little Orphant Annie 's come to our house to stay ,
An ' wash the cups an ' saucers up , an ' brush the crumbs away ,
An ' shoo the chickens off the porch , an ' dust the hearth , an ' sweep ,
An ' make the fire , an ' bake the bread , an ' earn her board @-@ an ' -keep ;
An ' all us other children , when the supper @-@ things is done ,
We set around the kitchen fire an ' has the mostest fun
A @-@ list 'nin ' to the witch @-@ tales ' at Annie tells about ,
An ' the Gobble @-@ uns ' at gits you
Ef you
Don 't
Watch
Out !
Wunst they wuz a little boy wouldn 't say his prayers , --
An ' when he went to bed at night , away up @-@ stairs ,
His Mammy heerd him holler , an ' his Daddy heerd him bawl ,
An ' when they turn 't the kivvers down , he wuzn 't there at all !
An ' they seeked him in the rafter @-@ room , an ' cubby @-@ hole , an ' press ,
An ' seeked him up the chimbly @-@ flue , an ' ever ' -wheres , I guess ;
But all they ever found wuz thist his pants an ' roundabout : --
An ' the Gobble @-@ uns ' ll git you
Ef you
Don 't
Watch
Out !
An ' one time a little girl ' ud allus laugh an ' grin ,
An ' make fun of ever ' one , an ' all her blood @-@ an ' -kin ;
An ' wunst , when they was " company , " an ' ole folks wuz there ,
She mocked ' em an ' shocked ' em , an ' said she didn 't care !
An ' thist as she kicked her heels , an ' turn 't to run an ' hide ,
They wuz two great big Black Things a @-@ standin ' by her side ,
An ' they snatched her through the ceilin ' ' fore she knowed what she 's about !
An ' the Gobble @-@ uns ' ll git you
Ef you
Don 't
Watch
Out !
An ' little Orphant Annie says , when the blaze is blue ,
An ' the lamp @-@ wick sputters , an ' the wind goes woo @-@ oo !
An ' you hear the crickets quit , an ' the moon is gray ,
An ' the lightnin ' -bugs in dew is all squenched away , --
You better mind yer parunts , an ' yer teachurs fond an ' dear ,
An ' churish them ' at loves you , an ' dry the orphant 's tear ,
An ' he 'p the pore an ' needy ones ' at clusters all about ,
Er the Gobble @-@ uns ' ll git you
Ef you
Don 't
Watch
Out !
= = Film adaptations = =
" Little Orphant Annie " was made into a silent film by the Selig Polyscope Company in 1918 , featuring Colleen Moore as Annie . She had previously been in A Hoosier Romance , also based on Riley 's work . Riley also appeared in the film as the silent narrator .
A short animated film based on the poem was released by Soyuztelefilm studio in Russia in 1992 , directed by Yulian Kalisher . The poem was translated into Russian by Oleg Yegorov .
= = Derivative work = =
In The Orphant Annie Story Book ( 1921 ) , author Johnny Gruelle augments the character ’ s background story and goes to great lengths to soften her image , portraying her as telling pleasant tales of fairies , gnomes and anthropomorphic animals rather than her characteristic horror stories .
= = In Popular Culture = =
In the TV series , Getting On ( U.S. TV series ) the character of Birdy Lamb recites part of the poem at the end of Episode 3 of Season 3 .
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= Malin Åkerman =
Malin Maria Åkerman ( Swedish pronunciation : [ ˈmɑːlɪn ² oːkɛrˌman ] ; born May 12 , 1978 ) is a Swedish Canadian actress , model and singer . She became known for making appearances in several Canadian productions . In the early 2000s , she had many television and film parts , including The Utopian Society ( 2003 ) and Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle ( 2004 ) . Following a supporting role on the comedy series The Comeback ( 2005 ) , Åkerman gained her first starring roles in the feature films The Heartbreak Kid ( 2007 ) and 27 Dresses ( 2008 ) .
Åkerman played Silk Spectre II in the 2009 superhero film Watchmen , a role for which she was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress . The same year , she had supporting and starring roles in both The Proposal and Couples Retreat , two commercial hits that garnered mixed to negative reviews . In 2010 , she became part of the main cast on the comedy series Childrens Hospital . She starred in four feature films in 2012 , including the comedy Wanderlust and the musical film Rock of Ages . In 2012 , she had a recurring role on the sitcom Suburgatory and starred in the short @-@ lived comedy series Trophy Wife from 2013 to 2014 , both of which aired on ABC .
Apart from acting and occasional modelling , Åkerman had a brief music career as the lead vocalist for alternative rock band The Petalstones , but eventually left to focus on her acting career . She was married to the band 's drummer Roberto Zincone from 2007 until 2013 .
= = Early life = =
Åkerman was born in Stockholm , Sweden , to aerobics teacher and part @-@ time model Pia ( née Sundström ) and insurance broker Magnus Åkerman . She has one sister , singer Jennifer Åkerman . When she was two years old , the family moved to Canada after her father was offered a job there . Four years later , her parents divorced , and her father moved back to Sweden . Both of her parents remarried , giving Åkerman one half @-@ brother and two half @-@ sisters . After her mother remarried , they moved to Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake , Ontario . Later in her teenage years , her mother divorced again . Åkerman attended many different schools , including Sir Winston Churchill Secondary School in St. Catharines , Ontario . She once attended a Catholic school , though she was raised as a Buddhist . She has recalled some portions of her childhood as " painful " , explaining that " I loved my father very much and I only got to see him during the school holidays . But I think it was an advantage that they split up when I was very young , so I could get used to it . " She visited her father in Falsterbo , Sweden , during school breaks and talked to him regularly over the phone . She cites her parents as " supportive , positive influences " in her life .
As a child , Åkerman had no plans to become an actress . Her mother introduced her to modelling while she was still in primary school , and she later landed several advertising campaign deals , but she decided to quit at age twelve . Four years later she returned to modelling after being discovered by Ford Models in a shopping mall in St. Catharines . She was signed to the agency and later won a contract with skincare company Noxzema . She soon moved to Toronto while attending North Toronto Collegiate Institute and later on in her OAC year , Dante Alighieri Academy . At the age of eighteen , inspired by the " helplessness " she sometimes felt during her childhood , she decided to become a child psychologist . She supported her education by modelling for television commercials and catalogue layouts . While studying for a year at York University in Toronto , she was simultaneously offered guest roles on television as a result of her exposure in commercials . She saw the acting gigs as further opportunities to pay for her education , but found herself enjoying it and decided to drop out of school to become an actress . She moved to Los Angeles , California in 2001 to pursue her acting career full @-@ time .
= = Career = =
= = = 1997 – 2008 = = =
Åkerman made her acting debut on the Canadian science fiction series Earth : Final Conflict in 1997 , in a smaller role as a robot . She originally landed a role on an MTV pilot with Rachel McAdams , but the project was never picked up by the network . In 2000 , she guest starred on Relic Hunter and had a smaller role in the American film The Skulls . The following year , she made appearances on the Canada @-@ based series Doc and Twice in a Lifetime . In 2001 , she moved to Los Angeles , California in hopes of pursuing a broader acting career . At first , she worked as a waitress and stayed at a friend 's house . In 2002 , she received smaller role in the film The Utopian Society . The film was edited by Francesco Sondelli , the guitarist for alternative rock band Ozono . Sondelli asked Åkerman to help the band with song lyrics and later asked her to sing . Åkerman subsequently became the band 's singer , and they changed their name to The Petalstones . The band 's debut album , Stung , was released in August 2005 , but Åkerman eventually left to focus on her acting career , admitting that she " actually can 't sing " . She described her singing as " sort of a self @-@ made , self @-@ taught , if @-@ you @-@ can 't @-@ hit @-@ the @-@ note @-@ scream @-@ it kind of thing " .
In 2004 , she got a small role in the film Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle , but considered moving back to Canada as most of her auditions failed . She was then cast in a supporting role as Juna on the HBO television series The Comeback , with Lisa Kudrow in the main role . Kudrow played a former sitcom star who tried to restart her career . Åkerman 's appearance on the show garnered media attention and resulted in her being offered more roles . A year later , she guest starred on an episode of Love Monkey and two episodes of Entourage . Before the Entourage episodes aired , she landed a role in the 2007 comedy film The Brothers Solomon . The film was a box office bomb and received largely critical reviews .
Åkerman signed up for a role opposite Ben Stiller in the comedy film The Heartbreak Kid , directed by the Farrelly Brothers , in 2006 . She played in the lead female role as Lila , the newly wedded wife of Stiller 's character . The film follows the couple 's honeymoon in Mexico , where Stiller 's character falls in love with another woman and realizes that the marriage was a mistake . A remake of the 1972 film of the same name , it was released in October 2007 to generally poor reviews , as critics deemed it " neither as daring nor as funny " as the directors ' earlier films . Åkerman 's performance garnered more positive reviews ; Desson Thomson of The Washington Post called her a " fabulous comic partner " to Stiller , while Roger Moore of Times Herald @-@ Record asserted that she had outperformed him . The film grossed $ 14 million in its opening weekend in the United States , and went on to gross $ 127 million globally .
In 2007 , Åkerman joined the cast of 27 Dresses , a romantic comedy film directed by Anne Fletcher with Katherine Heigl in the lead role . The film follows Heigl 's character Jane , who has always been the bridesmaid and dreams of her own wedding . Åkerman played Jane 's sister Tess . The film was shot during the summer of 2007 , and was released in January 2008 to weak critical reception as it was considered " clichéd and mostly forgettable " . The film was more successful commercially , with a gross of $ 160 million . Åkerman played the title role in Bye Bye Sally , a short film directed by Paul Leyden and based on Lisa Mannetti 's short story Everybody Wins . The film premiered at the 2009 Newport Beach Film Festival .
= = = 2009 – 11 = = =
In 2009 , Åkerman starred as Silk Spectre II in the superhero film Watchmen , an adaptation of Alan Moore 's graphic novel of the same name . Directed by Zack Snyder , the feature film is set in an alternate reality in 1985 where a group of retired vigilantes investigate an apparent conspiracy against them . Snyder favoured Åkerman over other more well @-@ known actresses as he felt that they could not play such a serious part . Åkerman rehearsed with " months of hardcore training " and went on a very strict diet . She wore a brunette wig , high heels and an uncomfortable latex costume , which provided little protection when performing stunts , and she often bruised herself during filming . Åkerman stated that her character carries the emotion of the film as she is the only woman among several men . Premiering in February 2009 , the film received generally favourable reviews , and was a commercial success , grossing $ 185 million worldwide . Although Åkerman was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress and a Teen Choice Award for her performance in the film , critics were generally negative towards her acting .
Åkerman appeared in the 2009 romantic comedy film The Proposal , starring Sandra Bullock and Ryan Reynolds in the lead roles . Åkerman played a supporting role as Gertrude , the ex @-@ girlfriend of Reynolds ' character . Although the film received mixed reviews , it went on to gross $ 317 million worldwide . Also in 2009 , Åkerman starred in the comedy film Couples Retreat , opposite Jon Favreau and Vince Vaughn . The film follows four couples as they travel to a tropical island resort for couples therapy . Åkerman played Ronnie , the wife of Vaughn 's part . She enjoyed playing a mother for the first time and tried to make her character as truthful as possible , which included dyeing her hair brown to not look like a " blonde bombshell " . The film premiered in theatres in October 2009 and grossed $ 34 million in its opening weekend in the United States , entering number one at the box office , and totalled $ 171 million worldwide . Reception for the film was mainly negative , although Åkerman 's performance was met with more positive reactions .
In 2010 , Åkerman co @-@ starred as Annie in the Josh Radnor @-@ directed comedy @-@ drama film happythankyoumoreplease . As her character has alopecia , Åkerman shaved off her eyebrows and wore a bald cap to cover her hair . She was originally offered a different part , but felt that she wanted to play Annie as it was different from her previous roles . The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2010 and received an audience award for Favorite U.S. Drama . Reviews from critics were polarized , but Åkerman received praise . Later in 2010 , she guest starred on the How I Met Your Mother episode " The Wedding Bride " , and joined the cast of the currently ongoing Adult Swim comedy series Childrens Hospital . Playing the part of the promiscuous Dr. Valerie Flame ( which is itself a part portrayed by Swedish @-@ only speaking " actress " Ingrid Hagerstown as a show @-@ within @-@ a @-@ show ) , Åkerman joined during the series ' second season along with Henry Winkler . The series was originally a web series and Åkerman accepted the role after viewing several webisodes . " It was totally up my alley , my kind of humor " , she said of the series . The same year , she played a supporting role in the romantic comedy film The Romantics with Katie Holmes , Josh Duhamel and Anna Paquin . The film premiered in September 2010 on limited release to generally negative reviews .
In 2010 , she starred in Sebastian Gutierrez 's comedy film Elektra Luxx opposite Carla Gugino and Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt . The film is a sequel to 2009 's Women in Trouble . Åkerman played Trixie , an awkward drug store clerk who falls for Gordon @-@ Levitt 's part , who in turn is obsessed with Gugino 's character , a retired porn star . Åkerman was offered the role during a screening of Women in Trouble . The film premiered in March 2011 on limited release and received generally unfavourable reviews ; critics dismissed its many subplots and called it a " bizarre sex comedy " . Next , Åkerman starred in the lead female role in the film The Bang Bang Club , which follows a group of young photojournalists in South Africa during the final stages of the apartheid . Åkerman played Robin Comley , a newspaper photo editor . The film premiered during the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival to mixed reviews from the press . In 2010 , Åkerman signed up for a part in newcomer Aaron Harvey 's Catch .44 , a drama @-@ thriller film with Forest Whitaker and Bruce Willis in the male lead roles . The film was generally ignored by critics and movie goers alike .
= = = 2012 – present = = =
Åkerman had a supporting role in the 2012 comedy film Wanderlust , with Jennifer Aniston and Paul Rudd . The film focuses on an overworked couple who end up at a commune when they try to slow things down . Åkerman played Eva , a woman at the commune . The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics , who were divided regarding its humour , but ultimately praised the cast . Wanderlust underperformed at the box office , earning just over $ 20 million worldwide during its theatrical run . Åkerman appeared in the comedy film The Giant Mechanical Man , which premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 23 , 2012 , to average reviews . She had a supporting role in the 2012 rock musical film Rock of Ages , based on the stage production of the same name . She played Constance Sack , a journalist who interviews Tom Cruise 's character Stacee Jaxx . She hired a vocal coach as her role required her to sing ; she and Cruise recorded a duet of Foreigner 's " I Want to Know What Love Is " ( 1984 ) . Although the film grossed lower than expected , its opening weekend gross in the United States became the third @-@ highest ever for an adaption of a stage production .
Åkerman starred in the 2012 bank heist action film Stolen opposite Nicolas Cage . In 2010 , she replaced Lindsay Lohan as Linda Lovelace in the planned film Inferno : A Linda Lovelace Story but the project never entered production . Two other projects , Cottage Country and The Numbers Station , were released in 2013 . She is up for a role in Serpent Girl , based on Matthew Carnahan 's book of the same name . In February 2012 , Åkerman was cast in the ABC comedy pilot The Smart One opposite Portia de Rossi and Jean Smart . The pilot was not ordered to series . In May 2012 , it was revealed that Åkerman will play Blondie frontwoman Debbie Harry in Randall Miller 's film CBGB . In the fall of 2012 , Åkerman guest starred as Alex on two season two episodes of ABC 's Suburgatory .
Åkerman played the lead role on the ABC sitcom Trophy Wife . Åkerman played Kate Harrison , the third wife of Pete Harrison ( Bradley Whitford ) . Marcia Gay Harden and Michaela Watkins also star as Pete 's ex @-@ wives . The show received positive reviews , with critics singling out Åkerman for praise . Matt Webb Mitovich of TVLine said she " no less than shines here , coming off as fun @-@ loving but not flaky , warm and not overheated " . Gabriel Mizrahi of The Huffington Post called Åkerman " terrific " and Roth Cornet of IGN singled out her chemistry with co @-@ star Bradley Whitford and her aptitude for physical comedy . Åkerman said that she was initially put off by the title , having previously expressed frustration at constantly being asked to play the " trophy wife . " However , when she read the script , she loved the writing and the character and how " not trophy wife " she is . In 2013 , Akerman was a presenter with Josh Stamberg ( Drop Dead Divas ) at Women 's Image Network Awards .
Åkerman co @-@ led the critically acclaimed horror comedy The Final Girls in 2015 with Taissa Farmiga , portraying a mother and daughter who are reunited in a slasher film . In 2016 , Akerman costars in Showtime 's ' ' Billions as Lara Axelrod .
= = Personal life = =
Åkerman was born in Sweden and grew up in Canada ; she has " conflicting feelings " for the two countries . In an interview for Toronto Star , she said , " Every time I 'm in Canada I feel more Swedish , and every time I 'm in Sweden I feel more Canadian . I belong in both places and I love them both equally . " She holds both Swedish and Canadian passports . Apart from speaking fluent English and Swedish , she also speaks French and Spanish . She describes herself as a feminist as she believes in equal treatment for both sexes , but also considers that " We [ women ] are different " , adding that she " embrace [ s ] those differences . " She has revealed that she is dyslexic and said that it took her " a long time " to learn her lines . " I get horrified when I have to do table reads with the whole cast , because there ’ s a lot of stuttering coming from me , so I have to do a lot of prep " , she explained . Because of this , she prefers to improvise her lines .
Åkerman was raised a Buddhist , which inspired the lotus flower tattoo on her upper back . She also has a tattooed ' Z ' on her right wrist , honouring her husband , Italian musician Roberto Zincone . The two met in 2003 when Åkerman was the lead singer for The Petalstones , for which Zincone served as the drummer . After band practices , they usually socialized , using a dictionary as he could not speak English . They eventually started dating and married at Grand Hotel Moon Valley in Sorrento , Italy on June 20 , 2007 . The couple had one son , Sebastian Zincone , born on April 16 , 2013 . On November 25 , 2013 , the couple announced that they were separating . Zincone filed for divorce on December 2 , 2013 .
Åkerman is noted for frequently appearing in nude scenes in her films , such as The Heartbreak Kid and Watchmen . She has stated that she feels comfortable as long as the scenes are not gratuitous . In an interview for Daily Mail , she commented , " I spent a lot of time as a child in Sweden ; it ’ s natural there ... I don 't know many women who go to bed with their husband at night and have sex with a bra on ... So let 's make it real in the movies . " In 2008 , she made her first appearance on AskMen.com 's " 99 Most Desirable Women " list at number 60 . The same year , men 's magazine Maxim placed her at number 59 in their annual " Hot 100 " rankings . The following year , the magazine ranked her at number four . Although admitting that sex appeal is one of the " best assets " , Åkerman considers being beautiful both " a blessing and a curse " , stating , " I tend to get a lot of scripts in which people want me to play the trophy wife , which is frustrating because I want the interesting , meaty roles . "
In 2012 , Åkerman travelled to Tanzania with Opportunity International , and has since begun support of their international development work , becoming a Young Ambassador for Opportunity in June 2012 and hosting a fundraiser for Opportunity in October 2012 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
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= Captain America : The Winter Soldier =
Captain America : The Winter Soldier is a 2014 American superhero film featuring the Marvel Comics character Captain America , produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures . It is the sequel to 2011 's Captain America : The First Avenger and the ninth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) . The film was directed by Anthony and Joe Russo , with a screenplay by Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely , who had also written The First Avenger . It stars Chris Evans as Captain America , leading an ensemble cast that includes Scarlett Johansson , Sebastian Stan , Anthony Mackie , Cobie Smulders , Frank Grillo , Emily VanCamp , Hayley Atwell , Robert Redford and Samuel L. Jackson . In Captain America : The Winter Soldier , Captain America , Black Widow , and Falcon join forces to uncover a conspiracy within S.H.I.E.L.D. while facing a mysterious assassin known as the Winter Soldier .
A major influence in The Winter Soldier was conspiracy fiction from the 1970s such as Three Days of the Condor , with the script also drawing from the Winter Soldier story arc written by Ed Brubaker . The script was written in 2011 , with the Russo brothers entering negotiations to direct in June 2012 and casting beginning the following month . Principal photography commenced in April 2013 in Los Angeles , California before moving to Washington , D.C. and Cleveland , Ohio . While the directors aimed for more realism , with focus on practical effects and intense stunt work , 2 @,@ 500 visual effects shots were done by six different companies .
Captain America : The Winter Soldier premiered in Los Angeles on March 13 , 2014 . It was released internationally on March 26 , 2014 , and in North America on April 4 , 2014 , in 2D , 3D , and IMAX 3D . The film became a critical and commercial success , grossing over $ 714 million worldwide . It also received an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects . A sequel titled Captain America : Civil War also directed by the Russo brothers was released on May 6 , 2016 .
= = Plot = =
Two years after the Battle of New York , Steve Rogers works in Washington D.C. for the espionage agency S.H.I.E.L.D. under Director Nick Fury , while adjusting to contemporary society . Rogers and Agent Natasha Romanoff are sent with S.H.I.E.L.D. ' s counter @-@ terrorism S.T.R.I.K.E. team , led by Agent Rumlow , to free hostages aboard a S.H.I.E.L.D. vessel from Georges Batroc and his mercenaries . Mid @-@ mission , Rogers discovers Romanoff has another agenda : to extract data from the ship 's computers for Fury . Rogers returns to the Triskelion , S.H.I.E.L.D. ' s headquarters , to confront Fury and is briefed about Project Insight : three Helicarriers linked to spy satellites , designed to preemptively eliminate threats . Unable to decrypt the data recovered by Romanoff , Fury becomes suspicious about Insight and asks senior S.H.I.E.L.D. official Alexander Pierce to delay the project .
On his way to rendezvous with Maria Hill , Fury is ambushed by assailants led by a mysterious assassin called the Winter Soldier . Fury escapes to Rogers ' apartment , and warns Rogers that S.H.I.E.L.D. is compromised . After handing Rogers a flash drive containing data from the ship , Fury is gunned down by the Winter Soldier . Fury dies in surgery , and Hill recovers the body . The next day , Pierce summons Rogers to the Triskelion . When Rogers withholds Fury 's information , Pierce brands him a fugitive . Hunted by S.T.R.I.K.E. , Rogers meets with Romanoff . Using data in the flash drive they discover a secret S.H.I.E.L.D. bunker in New Jersey , where they activate a supercomputer containing the preserved consciousness of Arnim Zola . Zola reveals that ever since S.H.I.E.L.D. was founded after World War II , Hydra has secretly operated within its ranks , sowing global chaos with the objective of making humanity willing to surrender its freedom in exchange for security . The pair narrowly escape death when a S.H.I.E.L.D. missile destroys the bunker , and realize that Pierce is Hydra 's leader within S.H.I.E.L.D.
Rogers and Romanoff enlist the help of former USAF pararescueman Sam Wilson , whom Rogers befriended , and acquire his powered " Falcon " wingpack . Deducing that S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Jasper Sitwell is a Hydra mole , they force him to divulge that Zola developed a data @-@ mining algorithm that can identify individuals who might become future threats to Hydra 's plans . The Insight Helicarriers will sweep the globe , using satellite @-@ guided guns to eliminate these individuals . Rogers , Romanoff , and Wilson are ambushed by the Winter Soldier , who kills Sitwell . During the fight , Rogers recognizes the Winter Soldier as Bucky Barnes , his friend who was captured and experimented upon during WWII . Hill manages to extract the trio to a safehouse where Fury , who had faked his death , is waiting with plans to sabotage the Helicarriers by replacing their controller chips .
After the World Security Council members arrive for the Helicarriers ' launch , Rogers broadcasts Hydra 's plot to everyone at the Triskelion . Romanoff , disguised as one of the Council members , disarms Pierce . Fury arrives and forces Pierce to unlock S.H.I.E.L.D 's database so that Romanoff can leak classified information , exposing Hydra to the public . Following a struggle , Fury kills Pierce . Meanwhile , Rogers and Wilson storm two Helicarriers and replace the controller chips , but the Winter Soldier destroys Wilson 's suit and fights Rogers on the third . Rogers fends him off and replaces the final chip , allowing Hill to take control and have the vessels destroy each other . Rogers refuses to fight the Winter Soldier in an attempt to reach his friend , but as the ship collides with the Triskelion , Rogers is thrown out into the Potomac River . The Winter Soldier rescues the unconscious Rogers before disappearing into the woods . With S.H.I.E.L.D. in disarray , Romanoff appears before a Senate subcommittee and Fury , under the cover of his apparent death , heads to Eastern Europe in pursuit of Hydra 's remaining cells . Rogers and Wilson decide to find the Winter Soldier , while Rumlow , who was a double agent for Hydra , is hospitalized following the Triskelion 's destruction .
In a mid @-@ credits scene , Baron Wolfgang von Strucker , at a Hydra lab , proclaims that the " age of miracles " has begun as scientists examine an energy @-@ filled scepter and two prisoners : one with superhuman speed , the other with telekinetic powers . In a post @-@ credits scene , the Winter Soldier visits a Bucky memorial at the Smithsonian Institution .
= = Cast = =
Chris Evans as Steve Rogers / Captain America :
A World War II veteran who was enhanced to the peak of human physicality by an experimental serum , frozen in suspended animation , and is now struggling to adjust to the modern world . Describing his character 's adjustment to the modern world , Evans said , " It 's not so much about his shock with [ technology ] ... It 's more about the societal differences . He 's gone from the ' 40s to today ; he comes from a world where people were a little more trusting , the threats not as deep . Now , it 's harder to tell who 's right and wrong . Actions you take to protect people from threats could compromise liberties and privacy . That 's tough for Steve to swallow . " Evans trained in parkour , Brazilian jiu @-@ jitsu , karate , boxing , kickboxing , and gymnastics , as the Russo brothers believed that bringing Rogers into the modern day also meant that he had studied and mastered modern fighting styles and techniques . The filmmakers also looked to make the character 's shield , which has traditionally been used for defense , a more offensive weapon .
Scarlett Johansson as Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow :
A highly trained spy working for S.H.I.E.L.D. , who partners with Rogers . Screenwriter Christopher Markus said that Black Widow was a " great contrast " to Captain America , describing her as " incredibly modern , not very reverent , and just very straightforward whereas Steve is , you know a man from the 40s . He 's not a boy scout , but he is reserved and has a moral center , whereas her moral center moves . " The Russos added , " She 's a character who lies for a living . That 's what she does . He 's a character who tells the truth . Give them a problem and they 'll have different ways of approaching it . She 's pushing him to modernize , and he 's pushing her to add a certain level of integrity to her life . " When asked about Romanoff 's relationship with Rogers , Johansson said , " By a series of unfortunate encounters , they will be in a situation in which their friendship becomes more intimate . They share many similarities because they live on the defensive without relying on anyone . Also , the two have been working for the government throughout their professional careers . With their friendship they begin to question what they want and what is their true identity . "
Sebastian Stan as Bucky Barnes / Winter Soldier :
Steve Rogers ' best friend , who has re @-@ emerged as an enhanced brainwashed assassin after being thought killed in action during World War II . About the character , Feige said , " Winter Soldier has been methodically , almost robotically , following orders for 70 years . " Stan said despite his nine @-@ picture deal with Marvel Studios including his appearance in The First Avenger , he was not sure about an imminent return for Bucky , and only heard the sequel was named after the Winter Soldier through a friend attending San Diego Comic @-@ Con. The actor endured five months of physical training to prepare for the role and did historical research stating , " I dove into the whole Cold War thing . I looked at the KGB . I looked at all kinds of spy movies , and all kinds of documentaries about that time , and what it was about . I grabbed anything from that time period . Anything about brainwashing . " Stan also practiced daily with the knife used by the Winter Soldier . Regarding Bucky 's transition into the Winter Soldier , Stan said , " You know , the truth of the situation is although he looks very different and there 's different things about him , it still comes from the same person . I think you 'll get to see that no matter what . I think part of my goal here was to make sure that you see an extension of that version but just a different color of that same version in a way . I think he 's still the same guy ; he 's cut from the same cloth . " Stan stated he felt the character 's introduction in the film was " sort of like a preview of the guy , " with more to the character being explored in The Winter Soldier sequel , Captain America : Civil War .
Anthony Mackie as Sam Wilson / Falcon :
A former pararescueman trained by the military in aerial combat using a specially designed wing pack . About the role , Mackie said " [ Wilson is ] a really smart guy who went through major military training and becomes a tactical leader . " Remarking , " He 's the first African @-@ American superhero . It makes me feel all the work I 've done has been paying off . I have a son , nephews and nieces , and I love the idea that they can dress up as the Falcon on Halloween . They now have someone they can idolize . That 's a huge honor for me . " Marvel , who cast Mackie because of his " energy and sense of fun , " did not let him read a script before signing on . Mackie spent five months doing two @-@ a @-@ day workouts and eating an 11 @,@ 000 calorie per day diet to get into shape for the role . Commenting on Rogers ' relationship with Wilson , Evans said , " Meeting Mackie 's character , he used to serve , now he works at the VA counseling guys who come home with PTSD — they connect on that level . I think they 're both wounded warriors who don 't bleed on other people . Cap has no one to bleed on . I think Mackie knows how to handle people like that . … Sometimes when things are bad , trusting a stranger is the way to go . "
Cobie Smulders as Maria Hill :
A high @-@ ranking S.H.I.E.L.D. agent who works closely with Nick Fury . Smulders said she performed some of her own stunts in the film , explaining , " I try to do my own stunts whenever I can . You 're only allowed to do certain stunts . There is an amazing team of stunt people that do most of the work in this film . But , I studied a lot of tae kwon do . I also did a lot of training just with weapons because I 'm not very comfortable around guns . I had to get comfortable because that 's my character 's thing ... I like to get really physical so I feel empowered when I am on set and even though you don 't see it on screen , maybe I am taking people out that you don 't see off camera . "
Frank Grillo as Brock Rumlow :
Commander of S.H.I.E.L.D. ' s counter @-@ terrorism S.T.R.I.K.E. team . About the character , Grillo said , " He is a bad @-@ ass guy . [ He ] pretty much beats the shit out of everyone in the movie and that 's really it . " Regarding Rumlow 's alter ego , Grillo said , " Very early on the Russos said , ' Look , this is an origin film for this character . We 're gonna discover who this is and this is a big movie with a lot of moving parts , but we 're gonna discover you in this film and , you know , here 's the information about who Brock Rumlow turns into and blah , blah , blah . ' And so we 've had multiple discussions about what comes after that , that thing . So , you know , it 's obvious Rumlow is covered in rubble and burned to crisp at the end , but you see he 's still there . They don 't do that for no reason . "
Emily VanCamp as Sharon Carter / Agent 13 :
A S.H.I.E.L.D. agent assigned to guard Rogers without his knowledge . About the character , VanCamp said , " I play Agent 13 / Sharon Carter which everyone knows but we don 't really touch on that in this film . We 're just sort of introducing her . When we first see her we realize she 's living next to Captain America ... they sort of have a little thing going on and as we all know in the comic books they had a love affair off and on for years . They had a very complicated relationship . It 's almost as if they are planting the seeds now . Sort of leaving room to go wherever they want to go with it . " Regarding her casting , Joe Russo said , " We wanted someone that Cap would have an immediate interest in . It had to be a strong @-@ willed person , and we felt that Emily 's work on Revenge was a great test tube for what this character could be . She 's obviously very credible with physicality , she holds the screen really well , and she even looks like the character from the books . "
Hayley Atwell as Peggy Carter :
A retired officer with the Strategic Scientific Reserve and a co @-@ founder of S.H.I.E.L.D. , who is a former love interest of Steve Rogers . On receiving the script , Atwell realized the character " would be 96 , and I would be up to the eyeballs in prosthetics . " The visual effects team was not satisfied with the initial make @-@ up used to make Atwell look older , and eventually resorted to aging her through CGI methods .
Robert Redford as Alexander Pierce :
A senior leader within S.H.I.E.L.D. , a member of the World Security Council and an old comrade of Nick Fury . Redford was cast in part as an homage to his roles in 1970s thrillers such as Three Days of the Condor , and for what the directors described as " an acting legend playing a villainous role " akin to Henry Fonda in Once Upon a Time in the West . As to what attracted him to the film , Redford said it interested him by being different from his usual work , and that he " wanted to experience this new form of filmmaking that 's taken over where you have kind of cartoon characters brought to life through high technology . "
Samuel L. Jackson as Nick Fury :
The director of S.H.I.E.L.D. Regarding Fury 's questionable code of ethics , Jackson said , " Almost everything that comes out of Nick Fury 's mouth is a lie in some sense . He has to ask , is he even lying to himself , too ? He has a very good idea of what 's going on but his paranoia keeps him from believing some of it . " Jackson added , " You see Nick Fury the office guy , him going about the day @-@ to @-@ day work of S.H.I.E.L.D. and the politics as opposed to that other stuff . It 's great to have him dealing with Captain America in terms of being able to speak to him soldier to soldier and try to explain to him how the world has changed in another way while he was frozen in time . Some of the people who used to be our enemies are now our allies – him trying to figure out , ' Well , how do we trust those guys ? ' or ' How do we trust the guys that you didn 't trust who don 't trust you ? ' And explaining to him that the black and white of good guys / bad guys has now turned into this gray area . " McFeely said , " Fury represents an obstacle for Steve in some ways . They don 't always agree on how S.H.I.E.L.D. ought to be used . " The writers gave Fury a more prominent role in The Winter Soldier , since within a plot featuring S.H.I.E.L.D. being dismantled , Fury would " take the brunt of it " . They also intended on having a character that had so far been depicted as a self @-@ assured man in charge being depicted as vulnerable , to enhance the sense of danger of the Hydra conspiracy .
Additionally , Toby Jones , Maximiliano Hernández , and Garry Shandling reprise their roles from previous Marvel Studios films as Arnim Zola , Jasper Sitwell , and Senator Stern , respectively . Georges St @-@ Pierre plays Georges Batroc , a mercenary and a master of the French form of kickboxing known as savate . Callan Mulvey plays Jack Rollins , a member of S.H.I.E.L.D. ' s S.T.R.I.K.E. unit . Chin Han , Jenny Agutter ( who previously appeared in The Avengers ) , Alan Dale , and Bernard White appear as members of the World Security Council . Comedic actors Danny Pudi and DC Pierson have small roles as a S.H.I.E.L.D. technician and an Apple Store employee , respectively . Gary Sinise narrates a Captain America @-@ themed Smithsonian Institution exhibit , and Stan Lee cameos as a security guard there . Winter Soldier creator Ed Brubaker makes a cameo as a scientist working on the Winter Soldier . Co @-@ director Joe Russo cameos as a doctor , and Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely cameo as two S.H.I.E.L.D. interrogators . Thomas Kretschmann , Henry Goodman , Elizabeth Olsen and Aaron Taylor @-@ Johnson appear , uncredited , as Baron Wolfgang von Strucker , Dr. List , the Scarlet Witch , and Quicksilver , respectively , in the mid @-@ credits scene .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In April 2011 , before Captain America : The First Avenger was released in theaters , screenwriters Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely announced Marvel had already hired the duo to work on the film 's sequel . In September 2011 , Chris Evans said that a sequel may not be released until 2014 . In January 2012 , Neal McDonough , who played Dum Dum Dugan in Captain America : The First Avenger , mentioned that a sequel would likely be filmed after the completion of Thor : The Dark World , which would likely have been before the end of 2012 . By March 2012 , Marvel whittled down the possible directors for the sequel to three candidates : George Nolfi , F. Gary Gray , and brothers Anthony and Joseph Russo . Walt Disney Studios announced the planned release of the sequel to Captain America : The First Avenger on April 4 , 2014 . Disney stated , " The second installment will pick @-@ up where … The Avengers leaves off , as Steve Rogers continues his affiliation with Nick Fury and S.H.I.E.L.D. and struggles to embrace his role in the modern world . " Markus later elaborated , " I think S.H.I.E.L.D. is the water [ Rogers is ] swimming in . It 's definitely a Captain America movie . You know , if the first movie was a movie about the US Army , then this is a movie about S.H.I.E.L.D ... You will learn about S.H.I.E.L.D. You will learn about where it came from and where it 's going and some of the cool things they have . " In April , F. Gary Gray withdrew his name from consideration , choosing instead to direct the N.W.A biographical film Straight Outta Compton .
= = = = Writing = = = =
McFeely said the writing process began in the middle of 2011 , around the release of The First Avenger , with him and Markus " noodling on in hopes that there would be a second one and we did a lot of just throwing stuff at the wall and seeing what stuck " . The first few months of writing were a back and forth process with Marvel , but that after an outline was finished , the story did not change much . They opted to set the story in the present day , and , after " experimenting with flashback elements for more period World War II stuff " , decided to abandon the flashbacks as " it became unwieldy . " The film would be " Cap versus the world we all live in today " , while averting excessive comedy regarding the hero 's time displacement , as Markus considered the Captain " the most adaptive man on the planet . " The tone would be more grounded in reality despite the advanced technology to contrast the fantasy elements from both the first Captain America and The Avengers . Despite that , the comic book origins guaranteed that the film would not have verisimilitude . This still proved a challenge in the reveal of Arnim Zola , that had to be extensively rewritten to convey how " this grounded espionage paranoid thriller suddenly screeches to a halt and you switch gears really quickly with this ghost in the machine " that introduces more science fiction elements .
Markus and McFeely wanted to adapt Ed Brubaker 's Winter Soldier storyline from the comics , which they described as " the tone of Cap ’ s modern franchise " , but it took the duo six months to convince themselves that they could do it . In the meantime , while thinking how to progress from the war film tone of The First Avenger , the writers settled on the conspiracy genre for the screenplay , and cited Three Days of the Condor , The Parallax View , and Marathon Man as influences , feeling it better conveyed Captain America 's trust issues and contrasting values in the new world he was living in , with Markus saying , " If you put that 1940s man into present day geo @-@ politics everything is going to seem like a conspiracy . It ’ s just going to seem dirty and underhanded and shifty , and people won ’ t be telling the truth . " Three Days of the Condor in particular was used as the main source of the script structure , following the idea that the protagonist is being chased by a threat they , along with the audience , only discover halfway through the film .
The writers felt this approach was similar to how Stan Lee reinvented Captain America in the 1960s and 1970s , with " the Captain dealing with all sorts of the same things that the country [ was ] dealing with – Vietnam , Watergate and all that stuff – so he gets to have opinions on that " , thus making the " guy who is ostensibly from the more black and white 1940s react to this ultimately grey world that we live in . " Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige described the film as a political thriller , and as the duo struggled to figure out a third act , Feige suggested that S.H.I.E.L.D. be brought down and have Captain America fight the agency . The writers thought this was a great story point , for implementing " the physical manifestation of Cap changing the world . " Markus even noted how the 1970s comics had similar conspiracies . The Hydra reveal made sure to include returning characters among the undercover villains , as well as references to the comics such as Arnim Zola being kept alive as a machine . Feige later elaborated on the political thriller nature of the film saying ,
In our attempt to make all of our films feel unique and feel different we found ourselves going back to things like [ Three Days of the Condor ] . Also the other political thrillers of the ' 70s : The Parallax View , All the President 's Men . This was a time that Cap existed in the comics . He found himself in the swinging ' 60s followed by the Watergate Era followed by the Reagan Era followed by where we are today . In the comics it was a hell of a journey for Steve . And we couldn 't take him through those years because in our cinematic universe he was asleep . But we wanted to force him to confront that kind of moral conundrum , something with that ' 70s flavor . And in our film that takes the form of S.H.I.E.L.D.
Feige stated that Steve Rogers would be paired with other characters from The Avengers like Black Widow and Nick Fury , because unlike Tony Stark and Thor , who could return to their own supporting casts , Rogers had nowhere else to go , " and it just made sense that he was the one that stayed with what remains of the Avengers at the end of the film . ” The writers considered including Hawkeye , but " he didn ’ t have enough to do and suddenly it seemed like we were giving him short shrift " , leading all of his parts to be fulfilled by Black Widow , and Joe Russo adding that Jeremy Renner 's schedule could not be worked out for him to appear . As to why the Red Skull from The First Avenger did not appear in The Winter Soldier , Joe Russo explained , " I know we have a guy in a computer , but the tone we were chasing was sort of that conspiracy thriller . And we wanted to try and ground the movie as much as we could . And Red Skull , he ’ s a fantastical character and didn ’ t necessarily fit for Cap 2 and especially because it was about the fall of S.H.I.E.L.D. Certainly Hydra exists and that ’ s his legacy , but there ’ s something interesting about the fact that his legacy outlived the skull . And they ’ re still dealing with the demons of it , but not necessarily him . ”
Chris McKenna , who worked with the Russo brothers on the sitcom Community , contributed to the script by writing jokes for the film .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
By June 2012 , the Russo brothers entered negotiations to direct the sequel , and Samuel L. Jackson was confirmed to return as S.H.I.E.L.D. leader Nick Fury . Feige sought out the Russos after watching the genre @-@ parodying season 2 finale of Community which they directed , and for the additional ideas they brought to the initial story pitch . Joe Russo detailed that since the intent was for a political thriller , " all the great political thrillers have very current issues in them that reflect the anxiety of the audience . " Thus the brothers opted to include references to drone warfare , targeted killing and global surveillance . Joe even noted how during principal photography , the issues became more topical due to the disclosure of several National Security Agency surveillance @-@ related documents . At the 2012 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , it was announced that the official title for the sequel is Captain America : The Winter Soldier , and that the Russo brothers would direct the film . After signing on to direct , the Russo brothers met with Ed Brubaker to learn more about where the Winter Soldier character came from , his thinking and the themes behind the character . In July 2012 , Anthony Mackie entered negotiations to star as Falcon alongside Chris Evans in the sequel . Sebastian Stan was also confirmed to be reprising his role as James Barnes . By August 2012 , Anna Kendrick , Felicity Jones , and Imogen Poots were being considered front @-@ runners for a leading role in the film .
In September 2012 , Chris Evans stated that filming would begin in March 2013 . Evans also stated that Rogers ' adjustment to the modern world , which was originally set to be included in The Avengers , would be better suited for Captain America : The Winter Soldier . At the end of the month , The Greater Cleveland Film Commission announced that Captain America : The Winter Soldier would film in Cleveland , Ohio after the production was approved for a $ 9 @.@ 5 million tax credit . Producer Nate Moore said that after also serving as a location in The Avengers , Cleveland 's government was helpful in providing large locations for filming , which " provided production value which we probably could not have built in a backlot . " McFeely joked that while writing ambitious action scenes " I did not realize a great American metropolis would say ' Sure , shut down three miles of freeway and go to town ' . " Portions of the film were also scheduled to be shot in California and Washington , D.C.
By October , Emilia Clarke , Jessica Brown Findlay , Teresa Palmer , Imogen Poots , and Alison Brie were being considered for Rogers ' love interest in the film , and Scarlett Johansson was brought back to reprise her role as Black Widow . Later in the month , Frank Grillo was testing for the role of the villain Crossbones in the film , and by the end of the month , Grillo closed a deal to portray the character and Cobie Smulders signed on to reprise her role as Maria Hill from The Avengers .
In January 2013 , Hayley Atwell , who played Peggy Carter in Captain America : The First Avenger , said that she would not appear in the sequel . However Stanley Tucci , who played Dr. Abraham Erskine in the previous film , later said that Atwell would reappear in a flashback scene . Also in January , Marvel Studios announced that the film would be released in 3D , and Anthony Mackie said filming would begin on April 1 , 2013 . Later that month , Toby Jones , who portrayed Arnim Zola in the first film , said that he would reprise the role in the sequel . By the end of the month , stages were being built for a shoot at Raleigh Manhattan Beach Studios in Los Angeles .
In February 2013 , Emily VanCamp entered negotiations to play a female lead in the film . By March 2013 , Maximiliano Hernández was signed to reprise his role as S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Jasper Sitwell from Thor and The Avengers and Robert Redford entered in talks to join the cast , as a high @-@ ranking member of S.H.I.E.L.D , which he later confirmed . Toward the end of March , UFC fighter Georges St @-@ Pierre was cast as a character based on the comics ' Batroc the Leaper in the film .
Captain America 's uniform was altered from the ones seen in previous films , with a Kevlar @-@ based ballistic component that would protect Captain America but at the same time function like a military uniform . Joe Russo said , " We wanted to use his Super Soldier outfit from the [ Steve Rogers : Super Soldier series ] as a way to represent , thematically , his place in the world of S.H.I.E.L.D. and the difference between working for S.H.I.E.L.D. and being Captain America . " For the Falcon costume , the filmmakers were interested in adding more of a tactical design than was represented in the comic books , by including real @-@ world webbing , straps and gear and stripping away the more comic book elements .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on April 1 , 2013 , at the Raleigh Manhattan Beach Studios in Los Angeles , under the working title Freezer Burn . Scenes taking place on the " Lemurian Star " were filmed on the Sea Launch Commander , docked in Long Beach , California . In early May , Dominic Cooper confirmed he would return as Howard Stark . On May 14 , 2013 , production moved to Washington , D.C. with filming taking place at the National Mall and the Theodore Roosevelt Bridge . The following day , Garry Shandling was spotted on set reprising his Iron Man 2 role of Senator Stern . Other filming locations in Washington , D.C. included the Willard Hotel and Dupont Circle .
Filming in Cleveland began on May 17 and was scheduled to last until mid @-@ June with locations scheduled on the West Shoreway , the Southerly Wastewater Treatment Plant in Cuyahoga Heights and the Lakeview Cemetery Dam . Cleveland was chosen as a stand @-@ in for Washington , D.C , with the city 's East 6th Street doubling as 7th and D Streets in Southwest D.C. Other locations in Cleveland included the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland , the Cleveland Public Library , Cleveland State University , the Cleveland Arcade , Tower City Center , the Cleveland Museum of Art , and the Western Reserve Historical Society . Interior shots were also filmed inside private homes and the Pilgrim Congregational Church in Tremont . Filming in Cleveland concluded on June 27 , 2013 .
Trent Opaloch , best known for his work on District 9 and Elysium , was brought in as the director of photography . Opaloch stated that while attempting to emulate the 1970s thrillers that served as inspiration for the writers and directors , the staging and lighting tried to bring realism through " classic framing and naturalistic lighting " , and the filming was done with hand @-@ held cameras . To achieve this , Opaloch used Arri Alexa Plus 4 : 3 cameras with Panavision anamorphic lenses and Codex Digital recorders . Stunt work aimed for realistic action , prioritizing practical effects . The fight scenes were staged for months , with a choreography that aimed to highlight Captain America 's superhuman qualities , and " move away from impressionistic action into specificity " : the raid on the S.H.I.E.L.D. vessel had stealthiness as the Captain knocked out enemies to avert detection , and the freeway fight with Winter Soldier was more " last minute " to highlight the characters ' struggle to survive .
In contrast to the quick editing and moving cameras of modern action films , The Winter Soldier aimed to feature longer action scenes that felt more visceral and dangerous . The Russos mentioned the bank robbing scene of Heat as a major influence , which they described as " the most intense eight minutes of filmmaking I 've seen in a movie theater " , and action scenes directed by Brian De Palma , such as the vault heist in Mission : Impossible , where " very likable characters are put in impossible situations that the audience is put on the edge on how they 'd escape " . Examples of these types of scenes include the ambushes on Nick Fury in the street and Captain America in the elevator .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Additional photography was filmed in December 2013 and January 2014 , in order for the Russos to accurately show the state of each character after the defeat of S.H.I.E.L.D. , having read the script of Avengers : Age of Ultron to guide their choices . Joss Whedon , director of The Avengers and Avengers : Age of Ultron , wrote and directed the mid @-@ credits scene , which featured Quicksilver , the Scarlet Witch , and Baron Wolfgang von Strucker . The title sequences were created by design firm Sarofsky , who had worked with the Russos since Community . Sarofsky collaborated with comic book artist David W. Mack on the sequences .
Anthony Mackie said the Russo brothers relied on minimal use of computer @-@ generated imagery , stating , " The Russos , what they did that was so great was , they wanted to stay with live action , which is a dying art form . If they can build it , they built it . If we could do it , we did it . They wanted to do as little CGI as possible . That 's why the movie looks so great . " Nevertheless , six special effects companies are involved in creating the visual effects of the film , including Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) , Scanline VFX , Lola VFX , Luma Pictures , Whiskytree and The Embassy , with previsualization completed by Proof . The film contained 2 @,@ 500 visual effects shots , with 900 worked on by ILM . The film featured extensive use of digital doubles . Russell Earl , ILM visual effects supervisor , said , " The character that we did the most work on was Falcon . We knew we were going to do CG wings . We also did some shots with wires and some with stunt doubles and head replacement . And we needed a very good digital double . "
Lola VFX , who worked on the pre @-@ serum Steve Rogers scenes in this film and Captain America : The First Avenger , also worked on shots featuring an elderly Peggy Carter . This involved digitally transposing the facial features of an elderly actress onto the face of actress Hayley Atwell who had performed her lines with no make @-@ up and only a few tracking markers .
The Helicarriers in the film were completely digital . Earl said , " In [ The Avengers ] it was more like an aircraft carrier , now it ’ s an aircraft carrier with the addition of battle ship @-@ sized guns . We were all over the carriers [ with the virtual camera ] . We were on the decks ; we were flying next to them . We had a lot of close ups and different angles . And we didn ’ t just have one ; we had three . On top of that , we had to destroy them all . " This CGI environment was also used in close ups . Earl said , " The challenge was to get in all of the detail to make it feel like it is a real , working ship . We created details down to the railings and all the human @-@ scale stuff . ... For the shots in which we were destroying them , we had to have the internals as well – the hallways , the storage areas . " Many of the shots of Washington , D.C. were digitally created due to numerous flight restrictions in the city which necessitated that locations be recreated by computer . However , aerial footage of the city was filmed and used for live action plate photography for shots involving the Triskelion , which is located on Theodore Roosevelt Island on the Potomac River .
350 different versions of the film were made , to accommodate for the different formats it would be released in domestically , while also accounting for international localization and formats . The versions had to be completed in 17 days , versus a normal turnaround time of three to four weeks for contemporary films , to make its theatrical release date . One of the various changes for localization was the contents of Captain America 's notebook list seen at the beginning of the film . The first five items were different depending on where the film was released , while the final five items were the same across all prints . Marvel held online polls allowing fans to select the items featured in each country 's release .
= = Music = =
In June 2013 , Henry Jackman announced that he would compose the film 's score . About the score Jackman said , " ... it 's 50 % production and all the tricks I 've learnt from spending years in the record industry but then it 's also got the kind of injection of symphonic , thematic , heroic music that all kind of merges into one musical , and hopefully coherent piece " . A soundtrack album was released by Hollywood Records on April 1 , 2014 .
= = Release = =
Captain America : The Winter Soldier was released in 32 markets on March 26 , 2014 and in North America on April 4 , 2014 , in 2D , 3D and IMAX 3D . The film debuted on 668 IMAX screens worldwide , a record for films releasing in April . The world premiere took place on March 13 , 2014 at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California . The Paris premiere occurred on March 17 at Le Grand Rex , the London premiere took place on March 20 at Westfield London , the Beijing premiere took place on March 24 and the Cleveland premiere took place on April 1 . Chris Evans and Scarlett Johansson auctioned off passes to one of the premieres for charity .
= = = Marketing = = =
In July 2013 , Marvel Studios released a teaser poster depicting a damaged and discolored Captain America shield . The Los Angeles Times said , " the image suggests that [ Captain America ] might see some serious battle in the sequel " while Rolling Stone said , " the image hints at darker themes in the sequel " . Later that month , Marvel Studios head and producer Kevin Feige , directors Joe and Anthony Russo , and cast members Chris Evans , Scarlett Johansson , Samuel L. Jackson , Sebastian Stan , Anthony Mackie , Cobie Smulders , Emily VanCamp , and Frank Grillo held a panel at 2013 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International and presented footage from the film . In addition , Marvel had booths depicting a Smithsonian @-@ type exhibit showing Captain America and the Howling Commandos from Captain America : The First Avenger . At the end of the month , audiences were shown a glimpse of the film along with some of Marvel 's other Phase Two slate of films at Disney XD 's Disney Fandom event .
In August 2013 , Feige , Evans , Stan , and Mackie presented a clip of the film at Disney 's D23 Expo . In September 2013 , Marvel announced that it is again partnering with Harley @-@ Davidson , continuing their relationship from Captain America : The First Avenger , with Captain America riding the company 's Softail Breakout motorcycle in the film .
In October 2013 , Marvel released the first trailer for Captain America : The Winter Soldier . The Hollywood Reporter said , " it looks like it 'll live up to the ' political thriller ' that 's been promised for months now . " The Los Angeles Times said , " [ the ] trailer runs 2 ½ minutes and teases plenty of action , conspiracy and clever banter between Captain America and his S.H.I.E.L.D. colleagues , with a smattering of the previously released Comic @-@ Con International and D23 footage . " The Los Angeles Times also noted that the day before the release of the trailer , the studio released " a teaser for a trailer . " The trailer received 23 @.@ 5 million views in the 24 hours after its release . In November 2013 , Jed Whedon , the co @-@ creator of the television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , said that there are plans to reference events from the film into the show , stating , " Nick Fury is in [ Captain America : The Winter Soldier ] , and S.H.I.E.L.D. makes an appearance , so we will definitely try to tee @-@ up some stuff and probably play a little bit of the fallout from that film . "
In January 2014 , Disney announced that in honor of the film , Captain America would be making appearances at Disneyland . The meet and greet experience opened March 7 , 2014 and is called Captain America : The Living Legend and Symbol of Courage , located at Innoventions in Tomorrowland . Also in January , Marvel Comics released a prelude digital comic titled , Marvel 's Captain America : The Winter Soldier Infinite Comic , written by Peter David , with art by Rock @-@ He Kim . The comic sees the return of the " Zodiac " , the mysterious weapon first seen in the One @-@ Shot Agent Carter , which has fallen into the wrong hands . Captain America , Black Widow , and Rumlow must track the weapon down and put it back in S.H.I.E.L.D. protection .
The first televised advertisement for Captain America : The Winter Soldier aired during Super Bowl XLVIII on February 2 , 2014 . According to The Hollywood Reporter , Disney paid over $ 4 million per 30 @-@ second spot . The Los Angeles Times said , " The clip promoting the April 4 release had a recognizably melancholy tone as Chris Evans ' patriotic hero grapples with the moral ambiguities of the modern age . " Also in February , Gameloft announced that a mobile video game , titled Captain America : The Winter Soldier – The Official Game , would be released in conjunction with the release of the film in late March 2014 for iOS and Android platforms . A few days later General Motors announced that Chevrolet partnered with Marvel Entertainment and provided a specially designed Corvette Stingray C7 for use by the Black Widow in the film . The vehicle debuted at the 2014 Chicago Auto Show , where fans received limited @-@ edition Captain America comic books . Evans was named the grand marshal of the 2014 Daytona 500 to promote the film 's release . Later in the month , a 30 @-@ second television spot received " a lot of attention on social media " for a line featured in the clip . The line , which was said by Captain America , suggests that Nick Fury would die in the film . The Hollywood Reporter noted that it all seemed " a bit too obvious " , noting the fact that Jackson , who plays Fury , is reprising the role in Avengers : Age of Ultron , although pointing out that it could be in a postmortem flashback appearance .
In March 2014 , Marvel released the Captain America Experience app , that allowed fans to capture a pictures of themselves with Captain America , and let them share it on Instagram and Twitter using specific hashtags to unlock 10 early screenings of the film across the United States , which took place on March 20 . On March 18 , ABC aired a one @-@ hour television special titled , Marvel Studios : Assembling a Universe , which included a sneak peek of Captain America : The Winter Soldier . On April 1 , 2014 , Evans and Stan rang the opening bell of the New York Stock Exchange in honor of the film 's theatrical release . Jackson appeared in advertisements for Sky Broadband .
= = = Home media = = =
Captain America : The Winter Soldier was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment for digital download on August 19 , 2014 and on Blu @-@ ray , Blu @-@ ray 3D , and DVD on September 9 , 2014 . The physical media releases include behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes , audio commentary , deleted scenes , and a blooper reel .
The film was also collected in a 13 @-@ disc box set , titled " Marvel Cinematic Universe : Phase Two Collection " , which includes all of the Phase Two films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . It was released on December 8 , 2015 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Captain America : The Winter Soldier earned $ 259 @.@ 8 million in North America and $ 454 @.@ 7 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 714 @.@ 4 million . It became the seventh @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2014 worldwide . Deadline.com calculated the net profit for the film to be $ 166 @.@ 2 million , when factoring together " production budgets , P & A , talent participations and other costs , with box office grosses , and ancillary revenues from VOD to DVD and TV , " placing it ninth on their list of 2014 's " Most Valuable Blockbusters " .
Captain America : The Winter Soldier made $ 10 @.@ 2 million in Thursday night showings , more than double the midnight gross of its predecessor . It set an April single @-@ day ( $ 36 @.@ 9 million ) and April opening @-@ weekend record ( $ 95 @.@ 0 million ) , while its opening weekend was a 46 % increase over its predecessor . The film held the number one spot at the box office for three consecutive weekends , before being overtaken by The Other Woman in its fourth weekend . It achieved the largest total gross among films released in the month of April . At the end of its theatrical run , the film became the fourth highest @-@ grossing film of 2014 behind American Sniper , The Hunger Games : Mockingjay - Part 1 , and Guardians of the Galaxy .
Captain America : The Winter Soldier topped the box office on its opening weekend with $ 75 @.@ 2 million from 32 overseas markets . The film debuted at number one in many territories , including Australia , China , and Russia and set a 3 @-@ day opening @-@ weekend record in China among Disney films , with $ 38 @.@ 81 million . It topped the box office outside North America on two consecutive weekends , followed by two weeks in second , behind Rio 2 .
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 89 % approval rating with an average rating of 7 @.@ 5 / 10 based on 256 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " Suspenseful and politically astute , Captain America : The Winter Soldier is a superior entry in the Avengers canon and is sure to thrill Marvel diehards . " Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned a score of 70 out of 100 based on 47 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . CinemaScore audiences gave Captain America : The Winter Soldier an " A " grade rating on an A + to F scale .
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter said the film " takes the bold ( for Marvel ) step of reducing CGI spectacle to a relative minimum in favor of reviving the pleasures of hard @-@ driving old @-@ school action , surprising character development and intriguing suspense . " Scott Foundas of Variety said it is " chockfull of the breathless cliffhangers dictated by the genre , but equally rich in the quiet , tender character moments that made the first film unique among recent Marvel fare . " Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times said , " While not on a par with The Avengers or the first and third Iron Man movies , this is another rock @-@ solid chapter in the big @-@ screen story of Marvel . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly noted the topicality of the film , stating , " Captain America : The Winter Soldier is the first superhero film since the terrorist @-@ inflected The Dark Knight that plugs you right into what 's happening now . " Ty Burr of The Boston Globe said the film " delivers all the 3D CGI mayhem audiences have come to expect from the Marvel entertainment juggernaut , but there ’ s darkness and confusion just under its comic @-@ book surface . " Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal said , " What makes The Winter Soldier so enjoyable , and what will make it so profitable , is its emotional bandwidth — all the vivid , nuanced life lived by its characters in between their frenzied escapades , " and felt it fixed all the shortcomings of The First Avenger " and then some " .
Conversely , Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said , " [ Captain America : The Winter Soldier ] is everything a big budget superhero film should be – except inspired . " Manohla Dargis of The New York Times said , " Like many others of its type , [ Captain America : The Winter Soldier ] gets off to a kinetic start only to lose steam before blowing everything up . " Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph said , " You can 't help but feel disappointment that a film with a relatively spicy premise becomes , in the end , so risk @-@ averse . " Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle said the film " has the usual overlong running time [ for the comic book superhero genre ] , the halfhearted feints in the direction of human feeling and the obligatory action sequences that are big without being either exciting or particularly legible . " Joe Williams of the St. Louis Post Dispatch felt " On paper this sequel has some promising elements , but on screen it retreats from the very issues that it raises , and on a shelf next to Captain America : The First Avenger , The Winter Soldier is pale . " Jake Coyle of the Associated Press said the film 's biggest misstep was the handling of Stan 's Winter Soldier , and that it was " getting difficult to tell the Marvel movies apart " .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Sequel = =
Captain America : Civil War was released on May 6 , 2016 , and again is directed by the Russo brothers . Evans , Johansson , Stan , Mackie , VanCamp and Grillo reprise their roles from The Winter Soldier and they are joined by Robert Downey , Jr. as Tony Stark / Iron Man , Paul Bettany as Vision , Jeremy Renner as Clint Barton / Hawkeye , Don Cheadle as James " Rhodey " Rhodes / War Machine , Elizabeth Olsen as Wanda Maximoff / Scarlet Witch , Paul Rudd as Scott Lang / Ant @-@ Man , and William Hurt as Thaddeus " Thunderbolt " Ross , all reprising roles from previous MCU films .
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= The Last One ( Friends ) =
" The Last One " is the series finale of the television sitcom Friends . The episode serves as the seventeenth and eighteenth episode of season ten ; the episode 's two parts were classified as two separate episodes . It was written by series creators David Crane and Marta Kauffman , and directed by executive producer Kevin S. Bright . The series finale first aired on NBC in the United States on May 6 , 2004 , when it was watched by 52 @.@ 5 million viewers , making it the most watched entertainment telecast in six years and the sixth most watched overall television series finale in U.S. history , as well as the most watched episode from any television series throughout the decade 2000s on U.S. television . In Canada , the finale aired simultaneously on May 6 , 2004 on Global , and was viewed by 5 @.@ 16 million viewers , becoming the highest viewed episode of the series , and also becoming highest @-@ viewed and highest @-@ rated episode ever in Canada for a sitcom .
The series finale closes several long running storylines . Ross Geller ( David Schwimmer ) confesses his love for Rachel Green ( Jennifer Aniston ) , and they decide to resume their relationship ; and Monica Geller ( Courteney Cox ) and Chandler Bing ( Matthew Perry ) adopt twins and move to the suburbs . The episode 's final scene shows the group leaving their apartments for the final time and going to Central Perk for one last cup of coffee .
Prior to writing the episode , Crane , Kauffman and Bright watched finales from other sitcoms for inspiration . Kauffman found that she liked the ones that stayed true to the series . Filming took place at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank , California ; part one was taped on January 16 , and part two on January 23 . The finale was well received by critics and the cast members .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part 1 = = =
Phoebe Buffay ( Lisa Kudrow ) and Joey Tribbiani ( Matt LeBlanc ) pack the belongings of Monica and Chandler , who have accompanied Erica ( Anna Faris ) to the hospital . Rachel leaves Ross ' bedroom after their apparent reunion in the previous episode . Erica gives birth to twins , much to the surprise of Monica and Chandler , who were expecting only one child . At his apartment , Joey shows Phoebe his house @-@ warming gift for Monica and Chandler : a chick and duckling to replace the ones that died . Ross arrives and confesses to the pair that he slept with Rachel . Rachel emerges from her bedroom and , to his disappointment , tells Ross that their night together was " the perfect way to say goodbye " .
Later at the Central Perk café , Phoebe convinces Ross to tell Rachel how he feels about her before she leaves for her new job in Paris . As he is about to tell her , Central Perk manager Gunther ( James Michael Tyler ) confesses his love for Rachel . Back at Monica and Chandler 's apartment , Ross decides not to tell Rachel , for fear of rejection . She prepares to leave to catch her flight , but waits long enough for Monica and Chandler to return with the twins , named Erica ( after their biological mother ) and Jack ( after Monica 's father ) . After Rachel leaves , Ross has a change of heart , and Phoebe takes him in her taxi to follow Rachel to the airport .
= = = Part 2 = = =
Joey returns to his apartment to fetch the chick and the duck he was hiding , but finds they have become trapped in the foosball table . Chandler and Joey decide to break it open when they cannot find any other way of getting the birds out . Phoebe 's reckless driving gets her and Ross to JFK Airport and , after buying a ticket to get past security , they search the information boards for Rachel 's flight number . When they cannot locate her flight on any of the information boards , Ross calls and checks the number with Monica but discovers they are at the wrong airport ; Ross and Phoebe drove to JFK , while Rachel was flying out of nearby Newark Airport . Phoebe phones Rachel , who has already boarded her flight , to stall her for time . When a passenger ( Jim Rash ) overhears Phoebe saying there is a problem with the fictitious " left phalange " of the plane , he gets off the plane , prompting everyone else to leave . Chandler and Joey , who are emotionally attached to the foosball table , find they are unable to bear breaking it open , so Monica nonchalantly offers to do it for them . After they retrieve the birds , Chandler suggests Joey keeps them .
Phoebe and Ross arrive at the airport as Rachel boards the plane again . Ross tells her he loves her , but she is unable to deal with his confession and gets on the plane anyway . Ross returns home , dejected , and finds a message from Rachel on the phone . She explains her actions and decides to get off the plane , but the message cuts off . Ross turns around to see Rachel standing in the doorway and they kiss . The following morning , the friends gather in Monica and Chandler 's empty apartment . With some time remaining before Monica and Chandler leave for their new house , the six all leave their keys to the apartment on the kitchen counter and decide to go for one last cup of coffee together , although it is only implied and never stated that this will be at Central Perk . As the last line of the series , Chandler sarcastically quips , " Sure ... where ? " . The final scene is a shot of the apartment , panning round slowly from the living space to the front door .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and music = = =
The series ' creators completed the first draft of the hour @-@ long finale in January 2004 , four months prior to its airing on May 6 . Before writing the episode , David Crane , Marta Kauffman and Kevin S. Bright decided to watch the series finales of other sitcoms , paying attention to what worked and what did not . Kauffman found that they liked the ones which stayed true to the series , and they found the finale of The Mary Tyler Moore Show to be the gold standard . The writers had difficulty writing the finale , and spent several days thinking about the final scene without being able to write a word . Crane said that they did not want to do " something high concept , or take the show out of the show " .
The music playing as the camera pans across the empty apartment at the end of the episode is " Embryonic Journey " by Jefferson Airplane . The song " Yellow Ledbetter " by the band Pearl Jam is also featured in the episode — after Rachel boards the plane for the first time — making it the first Pearl Jam song to be licensed for a television show . A spokesperson for the group said it was , " simply a matter of the show 's producers asking permission " .
= = = Filming = = =
The episode was filmed in Los Angeles , California on Stage 24 at Warner Bros. Studios , where Friends had been filmed since its second season . The first part was taped on January 16 , and the second on January 23 , 2004 . After the series finale , Stage 24 was renamed " The Friends Stage " .
A month before the filming of the final episode , Aniston said that with each episode it got " harder just to read the lines . " She explained that the cast was " all just nerves and raw emotions [ ... ] No one knows how to feel . We may need to be sedated on the last night . " The producers promised a tearful ending , and the cast admitted their crying was not faked when they filmed their scenes . LeBlanc revealed it had been too much for him and the rest of the cast ; he said Kudrow started crying first , and when he looked at Aniston and Cox they also appeared emotional . Schwimmer , who LeBlanc thought was the " consummate professional " , was also upset , so LeBlanc " just lost it . " Maggie Wheeler , who was Chandler 's " on and off " girlfriend Janice , told People , " the entire cast had to go back and have their makeup redone before starting , " and that Perry broke the tension by saying , " Somebody is gonna get fired . " Perry told the New York Daily News that he did not cry , " but I felt like I was about to for like seven hours . "
Although it was planned that some key scenes of the episode would be filmed without an audience in order to avoid leaks of plot spoilers , the producers decided not to worry about the issue and filmed it all in front of the live studio audience . The producers also instigated the rumor that multiple endings would be filmed ; in fact , only one was planned and shot .
At the start of each Friends episode filming , the cast would ordinarily be introduced to the studio audience one at a time , but this time the cast headed out for their pre @-@ curtain bow together . " That made me cry , " said Diane Newman , who was the script supervisor of the show . Among the specially invited audience of the taping were Hank Azaria , who played Phoebe 's scientist boyfriend in several episodes over the years ; David Arquette , who filmed his wife Cox and the others backstage with a video camera ; and Wheeler . Missing was Brad Pitt , Aniston 's then @-@ husband ; Pitt told the producers he wanted to be surprised when the finale aired on television . Although some guests were invited , around 75 % of the studio audience were ' ordinary ' members of the public so that their reactions would be congruous with the rest of the series . However , friends , family and colleagues of the cast and crew served as extras throughout the episode .
= = Reception = =
= = = Promotion , ratings and awards = = =
NBC heavily promoted the series finale , which was preceded by weeks of hype . The top price for a 30 @-@ second commercial during the U.S. broadcast was approximately $ 1 million USD . Viewing parties were organized by local NBC affiliates around the United States , including an event at Universal CityWalk featuring a special broadcast of the finale on an outdoor Astrovision screen . It was shown in New York City , where over 3 @,@ 000 people watched it on big screens in parks . The finale was the subject of two episodes of Dateline NBC , one of which ran for two hours . Prior to the airing of the episode , a one @-@ hour retrospective of clips from previous episodes was shown . Following the finale , The Tonight Show with Jay Leno was filmed on the set of the Friends ' Central Perk cafe , which featured the series ' cast as guests . The advertising rates for the finale averaged $ 2 million for 30 seconds of commercial time . This currently remains as the largest advertising rate ever for a sitcom , breaking the previous record held by the Seinfeld finale at $ 1 @.@ 7 million .
The finale was watched by 52 @.@ 5 million American viewers , making it the most watched entertainment telecast in six years , and the most watched episode of the decade 2000s on U.S. television . " The Last One " was not the most watched Friends episode in the series ' history ; that distinction belongs to " The One After the Superbowl " which , as the title suggests , aired immediately after Super Bowl XXX on January 28 , 1996 and drew an audience of 52 @.@ 9 million viewers . The Friends finale was the sixth most watched overall series finale in U.S. television history , behind the finales of M * A * S * H , Roots , Cheers , The Fugitive and Seinfeld , which were watched by 125 , 100 , 92 @.@ 5 , 78 and 76 @.@ 3 million viewers , respectively . The retrospective episode was watched by under 36 million viewers , and the finale was the second most @-@ watched television show of the year , behind the Super Bowl .
The episode was nominated for two Primetime Emmy Awards at the 56th Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Multi @-@ Camera Sound Mixing for a Series or Special and Outstanding Multi @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Series , but lost to the final season of Frasier in both categories .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Reviews of the series finale were generally positive . Robert Bianco of USA Today described the finale as entertaining and satisfying , and praised it for deftly mixing emotion and humor while showcasing each of the stars . Sarah Rodman of the Boston Herald praised Aniston and Schwimmer for their acting , but felt that their characters ' reunion " felt a bit too neat , even if it was what most of the show 's legions of fans wanted . " Newsday 's Noel Holston called the episode " sweet and dumb and satisfying , " while Roger Catlin of The Hartford Courant felt that newcomers to the series would be " surprised at how laughless the affair could be , and how nearly every strained gag depends on the sheer stupidity of its characters . "
An editorial in USA Today highlighted the view of many critics who found problem with the aging cast , commenting , " Friends was getting creaky even as it remained popular . " Heather Havrilesky of Salon.com said that despite the " nauseating hype and the disappointing season and the lackluster finale , it 's important to remember what a great show this was for such a very long time . " Ken Parish Perkins of the Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram gave the finale a B grade , calling it " more touching than comical , more satisfying in terms of closure than knee @-@ slappingly funny . "
= = = Response from the staff = = =
The cast members reportedly got together in Los Angeles to watch the finale . It was well received by the main cast , who were confident that the fans would have the same reaction . David Schwimmer said , " It 's exactly what I had hoped . We all end up with a sense of a new beginning and the audience has a sense that it 's a new chapter in the lives of all these characters . " At the taping of the episode , the cast and crew passed around yearbooks , custom @-@ made by the production staff , and signed them for each other . The cast gave the producers inscribed Cartier SA watches , while the producers gave the cast Neil Lane jewelry . As the sets were broken down , the cast and crew each got a chunk of the street outside Central Perk in a glass box as a keepsake .
There were 3 separate wrap parties - a dinner at the Aniston @-@ Pitt residence on January 19 , 2004 , a sit down at cast hangout Il Sole in West Hollywood on January 22 , and a big party for 1 @,@ 000 guests on January 24 at Los Angeles ' Park Plaza Hotel . At the party at the Park Plaza Hotel , The Rembrandts performed the theme song of Friends , " I 'll Be There for You " , and the cast gave a re @-@ enactment of the pilot episode 's first scene .
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= A Vision of the Last Judgment =
A Vision of the Last Judgment is a painting by William Blake that was designed in 1808 before becoming a lost artwork . The painting was to be shown in an 1810 exhibition with a detailed analysis added to a second edition of his Descriptive Catalogue . This plan was dropped after the exhibition was cancelled , and the painting disappeared . Blake 's notes for the Descriptive Catalogue describe various aspects of the work in a detailed manner , which allow the aspects of the painting to be known . Additionally , earlier designs that reveal similar Blake depiction of the Last Judgment have survived , and these date back to an 1805 precursor design created for Robert Blair 's The Grave . In addition to Blake 's notes on the painting , a letter written to Ozias Humphrey provides a description of the various images within an earlier design of the Last Judgment .
= = Origins = =
Blake claimed to have seen visions throughout his life , and he claimed that they were a common aspect of life . His understanding of these events was , as he explained , similar to the experiences of biblical prophets . In the commentary to A Vision of the Last Judgment , Blake claimed that the image originated in a particular vision he experienced that allowed him to see the host of Heaven praising God . The actual design of A Vision of the Last Judgment was created in 1808 as an expansion of his 1805 work The Day of Judgment . Blake created this work to be used in Blair 's The Grave , which was published 1808 .
The seven foot by five foot painting was to be shown in an 1810 exhibit of Blake 's work , but the exhibit was cancelled after problems resulting from an 1809 exhibit of his works . The actual painting was lost , but earlier versions of the work survived . These include an 1808 watercolour version made for Elizabeth Ilive , wife of George Wyndham , 3rd Earl of Egremont , that was displayed at their Petworth House . A similar illustration in pencil and ink became part of the Rosenwald Collection . Other editions included watercolours made for Thomas Butts in 1806 , 1807 , and 1809 , one for John Flaxman in 1806 ( lost ) , and an 1809 unsold version in tempera . These are in addition to The Day of Judgment made for Blair 's The Grave .
The painting was to be discussed in Blake 's Descriptive Catalogue , a work that , in 1809 , described Blake 's feelings about various painters and poets in addition to descriptions of his own works and their various meanings . Blake planned to create another edition for the 1810 collection but the plan was stopped after the exhibition was cancelled . Notes for what Blake planned to write for the works A Vision of the Last Judgment and Public Address survived . The notes were discovered by William Michael Rossetti and first mentioned in a letter to Horace Scudder on 27 November 1864 . Rossetti transcribed the notes for Alexander Gilchrist 's The Life of William Blake , an early biography on Blake . One piece of the work was missing : part of page 71 was sent by Rossetti to Scudder . Blake discussed the 1808 watercolour sold to Ilives in two works , a poem , " The Caverns of the Grave Ive Seen " , written for Ilives provided by Blake with her design. and a description of Ilives 's design for Humphry in January 1808 .
= = Painting = =
The description provided by Blake to Humphrey explains that the work depicts the resurrection . The top of the work depicts Christ on the Throne of Judgment with Heaven opened up across the painting . Behind Christ are the heads of infants which represent creation coming from Jesus . Christ is surrounded by the four Zoas and seven angels that have vials filled with God 's wrath . An image of a tabernacle with a cross inside is depicted above Christ . An image of baptism is to Christ 's right and the Last Supper is to Christ 's left with both representing eternal life . Further to Christ 's right is the resurrection of the just and to the left is the resurrection and subsequent fall of the wicked . Adam and Eve are below Christ , and Abraham and Moses are nearby . Below Moses is Satan wrapped by the Serpent and in the centre is the book of death . At the top is the book of life , and the Christian Church is the figure of a woman on top of the moon .
Blake , in his notes to A Vision of the Last Judgment , describes how his design is to work : " If the Spectator could Enter into these Images in his Imagination approaching them on the Fiery Chariot of his Contemplative Thought [ ... ] then would he arise from his Grave " . He relies on the word representation frequently in the work , and he tries to represent action in a visible manner that distances his depiction of the apocalypse from a traditional version that disguises the various components of an apocalyptic vision . To Blake , he must create an image of the Last Judgment , then represent the image , and then describe with a written gloss of the work . This creates a layer of representation that separates the audience from the apocalyptic experience , which undermines the concept of apocalypse as both mysterious and directly experienced .
In discussing the nature of time , Blake wrote in his notes : " The Greeks represented Chronos or Time as a very Aged Man ; this is Fable , but the Real Vision of Time is in Eternal Youth . I have , however , somewhat accommodated my Figure of Time to the common opinion , as I myself am also infected with it & my Visions also infected , as I see Time Aged , alas , too much so . "
= = Themes = =
Blake based his portrayal of the apocalypse on his belief that God 's love allowed for a personal apocalypse as part of the human experience . In the notes to the work , he claimed that " whenever any Individual Rejects Error & Embraces Truth a Last Judgment passes upon that Individual " . This idea is connected to views of David Hartley of the " pure disinterested love of God " , and appears in other works by Blake , including his Jerusalem . Also , Blake 's Milton describes the process that an individual goes through during an apocalypse , which includes having to confront their errors and their flaws . There is no peace during the struggle , as it involves a direct interaction between contrary views that would eventually establish the new state .
On the details in the painting , Blake claimed that each component had a specific meaning that provides an allegory @-@ like dimension to the work . Blake dismissed the idea of using allegory within his works except , as he wrote in a letter to Butts , 6 July 1803 , " Allegory Address 'd to the intellectual powers , while it is altogether hidden from the Corporeal Understanding , is My Definition of the Most Sublime Poetry " .
Blake 's philosophical interpretation of time is similar to Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's depiction of the relationship between time and the state of limbo within his poem " Limbo " . Both claim that their understanding of time is connected to the common , contemporary view , but they alter their perspective of time within their works to that of an older person . The figure of time appears in other works by Blake , including as the figure Los and in the illustration Blake made for Edward Young 's Night Thoughts .
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= Romanticism in Scotland =
Romanticism in Scotland was an artistic , literary and intellectual movement that developed between the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries . It was part of the wider European Romantic movement , which was partly a reaction against the Age of Enlightenment , emphasising individual , national and emotional responses , moving beyond Renaissance and Classicist models , particularly to the Middle Ages .
In the arts , Romanticism manifested itself in literature and drama in the adoption of the mythical bard Ossian , the exploration of national poetry in the work of Robert Burns and in the historical novels of Walter Scott . Scott also had a major impact on the development of a national Scottish drama . Art was heavily influenced by Ossian and a new view of the Highlands as the location of a wild and dramatic landscape . Scott profoundly affected architecture through his re @-@ building of Abbotsford House in the early nineteenth century , which set off the boom in the Scots Baronial revival . In music , Burns was part of an attempt to produce a canon of Scottish song , which resulted in a cross fertilisation of Scottish and continental classical music , with romantic music becoming dominant in Scotland into the twentieth century .
Intellectually , Scott and figures like Thomas Carlyle played a part in the development of historiography and the idea of the historical imagination . Romanticism also influenced science , particularly the life sciences , geology , optics and astronomy , giving Scotland a prominence in these areas that continued into the late nineteenth century . Scottish philosophy was dominated by Scottish Common Sense Realism , which shared some characteristics with Romanticism and was a major influence on the development of Transcendentalism . Scott also played a major part in defining Scottish and British politics , helping to create a romanticised view of Scotland and the Highlands that fundamentally changed Scottish national identity .
Romanticism began to subside as a movement in the 1830s , but it continued to significantly affect areas such as music until the early twentieth century . It also had a lasting impact on the nature of Scottish identity and outside perceptions of Scotland .
= = Definitions = =
See also : Romantic literature in English
Romanticism was a complex artistic , literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the eighteenth century in western Europe , and gained strength during and after the Industrial and French Revolutions . It was partly a revolt against the political norms of the Age of Enlightenment which rationalised nature , and was embodied most strongly in the visual arts , music , and literature , but significantly influenced historiography , philosophy and the natural sciences .
Romanticism has been seen as " the revival of the life and thought of the Middle Ages " , reaching beyond Rationalist and Classicist models to elevate medievalism and elements of art and narrative perceived to be authentically medieval , in an attempt to escape the confines of population growth , urban sprawl and industrialism , embracing the exotic , unfamiliar and distant . It is also associated with political revolutions , beginning with those in Americana and France and movements for independence , particularly in Poland , Spain and Greece . It is often thought to incorporate an emotional assertion of the self and of individual experience along with a sense of the infinite , transcendental and sublime . In art there was a stress on imagination , landscape and a spiritual correspondence with nature . It has been described by Margaret Drabble as " an unending revolt against classical form , conservative morality , authoritarian government , personal insincerity , and human moderation " .
= = Literature and drama = =
Although after union with England in 1707 Scotland increasingly adopted English language and wider cultural norms , its literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation . Allan Ramsay ( 1686 – 1758 ) laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature , as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry , helping to develop the Habbie stanza as a poetic form . James Macpherson ( 1736 – 96 ) was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation . Claiming to have found poetry written by the ancient bard Ossian , he published translations that acquired international popularity , being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics . Fingal , written in 1762 , was speedily translated into many European languages , and its appreciation of natural beauty and treatment of the ancient legend has been credited more than any single work with bringing about the Romantic movement in European , and especially in German literature , through its influence on Johann Gottfried von Herder and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe . It was also popularised in France by figures that included Napoleon . Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic , but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience .
Robert Burns ( 1759 – 96 ) and Walter Scott ( 1771 – 1832 ) were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle . Burns , an Ayrshire poet and lyricist , is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and a major influence on the Romantic movement . His poem ( and song ) " Auld Lang Syne " is often sung at Hogmanay ( the last day of the year ) , and " Scots Wha Hae " served for a long time as an unofficial national anthem of the country . Scott began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads . His first prose work , Waverley in 1814 , is often called the first historical novel . It launched a highly successful career , with other historical novels such as Rob Roy ( 1817 ) , The Heart of Midlothian ( 1818 ) and Ivanhoe ( 1820 ) . Scott probably did more than any other figure to define and popularise Scottish cultural identity in the nineteenth century . Other major literary figures connected with Romanticism include the poets and novelists James Hogg ( 1770 – 1835 ) , Allan Cunningham ( 1784 – 1842 ) and John Galt ( 1779 – 1839 ) . One of the most significant figures of the Romantic movement , Lord Byron , was brought up in Scotland until he acquired his English title .
Scotland was also the location of two of the most important literary magazines of the era , The Edinburgh Review ( founded in 1802 ) and Blackwood 's Magazine ( founded in 1817 ) , which significantly influenced the development of British literature and drama in the era of Romanticism . Ian Duncan and Alex Benchimol suggest that publications like the novels of Scott and these magazines were part of a highly dynamic Scottish Romanticism that by the early nineteenth century , caused Edinburgh to emerge as the cultural capital of Britain and become central to a wider formation of a " British Isles nationalism . "
Scottish " national drama " emerged in the early 1800s , as plays with specifically Scottish themes began to dominate the Scottish stage . Theatres had been discouraged by the Church of Scotland and fears of Jacobite assemblies . In the later eighteenth century , many plays were written for and performed by small amateur companies and were not published and so most have been lost . Towards the end of the century there were " closet dramas " , primarily designed to be read , rather than performed , including work by Scott , Hogg , Galt and Joanna Baillie ( 1762 – 1851 ) , often influenced by the ballad tradition and Gothic Romanticism .
The Scottish national drama that emerged in the early nineteenth century was largely historical in nature and based around a core of adaptations of Scott 's Waverley novels . The existing repertoire of Scottish @-@ themed plays included Shakespeare 's Macbeth ( c . 1605 ) , Friedrich Schiller 's Maria Stuart ( 1800 ) , John Home 's Douglas ( 1756 ) and Ramsay 's The Gentle Shepherd ( 1725 ) , with the last two being the most popular plays among amateur groups . Ballets with Scottish themes included Jockey and Jenny and Love in the Highlands . Scott was keenly interested in drama , becoming a shareholder in the Theatre Royal , Edinburgh . Baillie 's Highland themed Family Legend was first produced in Edinburgh in 1810 with the help of Scott , as part of a deliberate attempt to stimulate a national Scottish drama . Scott also wrote five plays , of which Hallidon Hill ( 1822 ) and MacDuff 's Cross ( 1822 ) were patriotic Scottish histories . Adaptations of the Waverley novels , first performed primarily in minor theatres , rather than the larger Patent theatres , included The Lady in the Lake ( 1817 ) , The Heart of Midlothian ( 1819 ) ( specifically described as a " romantic play " for its first performance ) , and Rob Roy , which underwent over 1 @,@ 000 performances in Scotland in this period . Also adapted for the stage were Guy Mannering , The Bride of Lammermoor and The Abbot . These highly popular plays saw the social range and size of the audience for theatre expand and helped shape theatre @-@ going practices in Scotland for the rest of the century .
= = Art = =
The Ossian cycle itself became a common subject for Scottish artists , and works based on its themes were created by figures such as Alexander Runciman ( 1736 – 85 ) and David Allan ( 1744 – 96 ) . This period saw a shift in attitudes to the Highlands and mountain landscapes in general , from viewing them as hostile , empty regions occupied by backward and marginal people , to interpreting them as aesthetically pleasing exemplars of nature , occupied by rugged primitives , who were now depicted in a dramatic fashion . Produced before his departure to Italy , Jacob More 's ( 1740 – 93 ) series of four paintings " Falls of Clyde " ( 1771 – 73 ) have been described by art historian Duncan Macmillan as treating the waterfalls as " a kind of natural national monument " and has been seen as an early work in developing a romantic sensibility to the Scottish landscape . Runciman was probably the first artist to paint Scottish landscapes in watercolours in the more romantic style that was emerging towards the end of the eighteenth century .
The effect of Romanticism can also be seen in the works of late eighteenth- and early nineteenth @-@ century artists such as Henry Raeburn ( 1756 – 1823 ) , Alexander Nasmyth ( 1758 – 1840 ) and John Knox ( 1778 – 1845 ) . Raeburn was the most significant artist of the period to pursue his entire career in Scotland . He was born in Edinburgh and returned there after a trip to Italy in 1786 . He is most famous for his intimate portraits of leading figures in Scottish life , going beyond the aristocracy to lawyers , doctors , professors , writers and ministers , adding elements of Romanticism to the tradition of Reynolds . He became a knight in 1822 and the King 's limner and painter for Scotland in 1823 . Nasmyth visited Italy and worked in London , but returned to his native Edinburgh for most of his career . He produced work in a range of forms , including his portrait of Romantic poet Robert Burns , which depicts him against a dramatic Scottish background , but he is chiefly remembered for his landscapes and has been seen as " the founder of the Scottish landscape tradition " . The work of Knox continued the theme of landscape , directly linking it with the Romantic works of Scott , and he was also among the first artists to depict the urban landscape of Glasgow .
= = Architecture = =
The Gothic revival in architecture has been seen as an expression of Romanticism , and according to Alvin Jackson , the Scots baronial style was " a Caledonian reading of the gothic " . Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture are from Scotland . Inveraray Castle , constructed from 1746 with design input from William Adam , incorporates turrets into a conventional Palladian @-@ style house . His son Robert Adam 's houses in this style include Mellerstain and Wedderburn in Berwickshire and Seton House in East Lothian . The trend is most clearly seen at Culzean Castle , Ayrshire , remodelled by Robert from 1777 .
Important for the re @-@ adoption of the Scots Baronial in the early nineteenth century was Abbotsford House , the residence of Scott . Re @-@ built for him from 1816 , it became a model for the revival of the style . Common features borrowed from sixteenth- and seventeenth @-@ century houses included battlemented gateways , crow @-@ stepped gables , pointed turrets and machicolations . The style was popular across Scotland and was applied to many relatively modest dwellings by architects such as William Burn ( 1789 – 1870 ) , David Bryce ( 1803 – 1876 ) , Edward Blore ( 1787 – 1879 ) , Edward Calvert ( c . 1847 – 1914 ) and Robert Stodart Lorimer ( 1864 – 1929 ) . Examples in urban contexts include the building of Cockburn Street in Edinburgh ( from the 1850s ) as well as the National Wallace Monument at Stirling ( 1859 – 69 ) . The rebuilding of Balmoral Castle as a baronial palace , and its adoption as a royal retreat by Queen Victoria from 1855 – 58 , confirmed the popularity of the style .
In ecclesiastical architecture , a style similar to that developed in England was adopted . Important figures in this movement included Frederick Thomas Pilkington ( 1832 – 98 ) , who developed a new style of church building which accorded with the fashionable High Gothic , but which adapted it for the worship needs of the Free Church of Scotland . Examples include Barclay Viewforth Church , Edinburgh ( 1862 – 64 ) . Robert Rowand Anderson ( 1834 – 1921 ) , who trained in the office of George Gilbert Scott in London before returning to Edinburgh , worked mainly on small churches in the " First Pointed " ( or Early English ) style that is characteristic of Scott 's former assistants . By 1880 , his practice was designing some of the most prestigious public and private buildings in Scotland , such as the Scottish National Portrait Gallery ; the Dome of Old College , Medical Faculty and McEwan Hall , Edinburgh University ; the Central Hotel at Glasgow Central station ; the Catholic Apostolic Church in Edinburgh ; and Mount Stuart House on the Isle of Bute .
= = Music = =
One characteristic of Romanticism was the conscious creation of bodies of nationalist art music . In Scotland this form was dominant from the late eighteenth century to the early twentieth century . In the 1790s Robert Burns embarked on an attempt to produce a corpus of Scottish national song , building on the work of antiquarians and musicologists such as William Tytler , James Beattie and Joseph Ritson . Working with music engraver and seller James Johnson , he contributed about a third of the eventual songs of the collection known as The Scots Musical Museum , issued between 1787 and 1803 in six volumes . Burns collaborated with George Thomson in A Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs , published from 1793 to 1818 , which adapted Scottish folk songs with " classical " arrangements . Thompson was inspired by hearing Scottish songs sung by visiting Italian castrati at the St Cecilia Concerts in Edinburgh . He collected Scottish songs and obtained musical arrangements from the best European composers , who included Joseph Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven . Burns was employed in editing the lyrics . A Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs was published in five volumes between 1799 and 1818 . It helped make Scottish songs part of the European cannon of classical music , while Thompson 's work brought elements of Romanticism , such as harmonies based on those of Beethoven , into Scottish classical music . Also involved in the collection and publication of Scottish songs was Scott , whose first literary effort was The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border , published in three volumes ( 1802 – 03 ) . This collection first drew the attention of an international audience to his work , and some of his lyrics were set to music by Schubert , who also created a setting of Ossian .
Perhaps the most influential composer of the first half of the nineteenth century was the German Felix Mendelssohn , who visited Britain ten times , for a total of twenty months , from 1829 . Scotland inspired two of his most famous works , the overture Fingal 's Cave ( also known as the Hebrides Overture ) and the Scottish Symphony ( Symphony No. 3 ) . On his last visit to England in 1847 , he conducted his own Scottish Symphony with the Philharmonic Orchestra before Queen Victoria and Prince Albert . Max Bruch ( 1838 – 1920 ) composed the Scottish Fantasy ( 1880 ) for violin and orchestra , which includes an arrangement of the tune " Hey Tuttie Tatie " , best known for its use in the song Scots Wha Hae by Burns .
By the late nineteenth century , there was in effect a national school of orchestral and operatic music in Scotland . Major composers included Alexander Mackenzie ( 1847 – 1935 ) , William Wallace ( 1860 – 1940 ) , Learmont Drysdale ( 1866 – 1909 ) , Hamish MacCunn ( 1868 – 1916 ) and John McEwen ( 1868 – 1948 ) . Mackenzie , who studied in Germany and Italy and mixed Scottish themes with German Romanticism , is best known for his three Scottish Rhapsodies ( 1879 – 80 , 1911 ) , Pibroch for violin and orchestra ( 1889 ) and the Scottish Concerto for piano ( 1897 ) , all involving Scottish themes and folk melodies . Wallace 's work included an overture , In Praise of Scottish Poesie ( 1894 ) ; his pioneering symphonic poem about his namesake , medieval nationalist William Wallace AD 1305 – 1905 ( 1905 ) ; and a cantata , The Massacre of the Macpherson ( 1910 ) . Drysdale 's work often dealt with Scottish themes , including the overture Tam O ’ Shanter ( 1890 ) , the cantata The Kelpie ( 1891 ) , the tone poem A Border Romance ( 1904 ) , and the cantata Tamlane ( 1905 ) . MacCunn 's overture The Land of the Mountain and the Flood ( 1887 ) , his Six Scotch Dances ( 1896 ) , his operas Jeanie Deans ( 1894 ) and Dairmid ( 1897 ) and choral works on Scottish subjects have been described by I. G. C. Hutchison as the musical equivalent of Abbotsford and Balmoral . McEwen 's more overtly national works include Grey Galloway ( 1908 ) , the Solway Symphony ( 1911 ) and Prince Charlie , A Scottish Rhapsody ( 1924 ) .
= = Historiography = =
In contrast to Enlightenment histories , which have been seen as attempting to draw general lessons about humanity from history , the German philosopher Johann Gottfried von Herder in his Ideas upon Philosophy and the History of Mankind ( 1784 ) , set out the concept of Volksgeist , a unique national spirit that drove historical change . As a result , a key element in the influence of Romanticism on intellectual life was the production of national histories . The nature and existence of a national Scottish historiography has been debated among historians . Those authors who consider that such a national history did exist in this period indicate that it can be found outside of the production of major historical narratives , in works of antiquarianism and fiction .
An important element in the emergence of a Scottish national history was an interest in antiquarianism , with figures like John Pinkerton ( 1758 – 1826 ) collecting sources such as ballads , coins , medals , songs and artefacts . Enlightenment historians had tended to react with embarrassment to Scottish history , particularly the feudalism of the Middle Ages and the religious intolerance of the Reformation . In contrast many historians of the early nineteenth century rehabilitated these areas as suitable for serious study . Lawyer and antiquarian Cosmo Innes , who produced works on Scotland in the Middle Ages ( 1860 ) , and Sketches of Early Scottish History ( 1861 ) , has been likened to the pioneering history of Georg Heinrich Pertz , one of the first writers to collate the major historical accounts of German history . Patrick Fraser Tytler 's nine @-@ volume history of Scotland ( 1828 – 43 ) , particularity his sympathetic view of Mary , Queen of Scots , have led to comparisons with Leopold von Ranke , considered the father of modern scientific historical writing . Tytler was co @-@ founder with Scott of the Bannatyne Society in 1823 , which helped further the course of historical research in Scotland . Thomas M 'Crie 's ( 1797 – 1875 ) biographies of John Knox and Andrew Melville , figures generally savaged in the Enlightenment , helped rehabilitate their reputations . W. F. Skene 's ( 1809 – 92 ) three part study of Celtic Scotland ( 1886 – 91 ) was the first serious investigation of the region and helped spawn the Scottish Celtic Revival . Issues of race became important , with Pinkerton , James Sibbald ( 1745 – 1803 ) and John Jamieson ( 1758 – 1839 ) subscribing to a theory of Picto @-@ Gothicism , which postulated a Germanic origin for the Picts and the Scots language .
Among the most significant intellectual figures associated with Romanticism was Thomas Carlyle ( 1795 – 1881 ) , born in Scotland and later a resident of London . He was largely responsible for bringing the works of German Romantics such as Schiller and Goethe to the attention of a British audience . An essayist and historian , he invented the phrase " hero @-@ worship " , lavishing largely uncritical praise on strong leaders such as Oliver Cromwell , Frederick the Great and Napoleon . His The French Revolution : A History ( 1837 ) dramatised the plight of the French aristocracy , but stressed the inevitability of history as a force . With French historian Jules Michelet , he is associated with the use of the " historical imagination " . In Romantic historiography this led to a tendency to emphasise sentiment and identification , inviting readers to sympathise with historical personages and even to imagine interactions with them . In contrast to many continental Romantic historians , Carlyle remained largely pessimistic about human nature and events . He believed that history was a form of prophecy that could reveal patterns for the future . In the late nineteenth century he became one of a number of Victorian sage writers and social commentators .
Romantic writers often reacted against the empiricism of Enlightenment historical writing , putting forward the figure of the " poet @-@ historian " who would mediate between the sources of history and the reader , using insight to create more than chronicles of facts . For this reason , Romantic historians such as Thierry saw Walter Scott , who had spent considerable effort uncovering new documents and sources for his novels , as an authority in historical writing . Scott is now seen primarily as a novelist , but also produced a nine @-@ volume biography of Napoleon , and has been described as " the towering figure of Romantic historiography in Transatlantic and European contexts " , having a profound effect on how history , particularly that of Scotland , was understood and written . Historians that acknowledged his influence included Chateaubriand , Macaulay , and Ranke .
= = Science = =
Romanticism has also been seen as affecting scientific enquiry . Romantic attitudes to science varied , from distrust of the scientific enterprise to endorsing a non @-@ mechanical science that rejected the mathematicised and the abstract theorising associated with Newton . Major trends in continental science associated with Romanticism include Naturphilosophie , developed by Friedrich Schelling ( 1775 – 1854 ) , which focused on the necessity of reuniting man with nature , and Humboldtian science , based on the work of Alexander von Humboldt ( 1769 – 1859 ) . As defined by Susan Cannon , this form of inquiry placed a stress on observation , accurate scientific instruments and new conceptual tools ; disregarded the boundaries between different disciplines ; and emphasised working in nature rather than the artificial laboratory . Privileging observation above calculation , Romantic scientists were often attracted to the areas where investigation , rather than calculation and theory , was most important , particularly the life sciences , geology , optics and astronomy .
James Allard identifies the origins of Scottish " Romantic medicine " in the work of Enlightenment figures , particularly the brothers William ( 1718 – 83 ) and John Hunter ( 1728 – 93 ) , who were , respectively , the leading anatomist and surgeon of their day and in the role of Edinburgh as a major centre of medical teaching and research . Key figures that were influenced by the Hunters ' work and by Romanticism include John Brown ( 1735 – 88 ) , Thomas Beddoes ( 1760 – 1808 ) and John Barclay ( 1758 – 1826 ) . Brown argued in Elementa Medicinae ( 1780 ) that life is an essential " vital energy " or " excitability " and that disease is either the excessive or diminished redistribution of the normal intensity of the human organ , which became known as Brunonianism . This work was highly influential , particularly in Germany , on the development of Naturphilosophie . This work was translated and edited by Beddoes , another graduate of Edinburgh , whose own work , Hygeia , or Essays Moral and Medical ( 1807 ) expanded on these ideas . Following in this vein , Barclay in the 1810 edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica identified physiology as the branch of medicine closest to metaphysics . Also important were the brothers John ( 1763 – 1820 ) and Charles Bell ( 1774 – 1842 ) , who made significant advances in the study of the vascular and nervous systems , respectively .
The University of Edinburgh was also a major supplier of surgeons for the royal navy , and Robert Jameson ( 1774 – 1854 ) , Professor of Natural History at Edinburgh , ensured that a large number of these were surgeon @-@ naturalists , who were vital in the Humboldtian and imperial enterprise of investigating nature throughout the world . These included Robert Brown ( 1773 – 1858 ) , one of the major figures in the early exploration of Australia . His later use of the microscope paralleled that noted among German students of Naturphilosophie , and he is credited with the discovery of the cell nucleus and the first observation of Brownian motion . Charles Lyell 's work Principles of Geology ( 1830 ) is often seen as the foundation of modern geology . It was indebted to Humboldtian science in its insistence on measurements of nature , and , according to Noah Heringman , retains a much of the " rhetoric of the sublime " , which is characteristic of Romantic attitudes to landscape .
Romantic thinking was also evident in the writings of Hugh Miller , stonemason and geologist , who followed in the tradition of Naturphilosophie , arguing that nature was a pre @-@ ordained progression towards the human race . Publisher , historian , antiquarian and scientist Robert Chambers ( 1802 – 71 ) became a friend of Scott , writing a biography of him after the author 's death . Chambers also became a geologist , researching in Scandinavia and Canada . His most influential work was the anonymously published Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation ( 1844 ) , which was the most comprehensive written argument in favour of evolution before the work of Charles Darwin ( 1809 – 82 ) . His work was strongly influenced by transcendental anatomy , which , drawing on Goethe and Lorenz Oken ( 1779 – 1851 ) , looked for ideal patterns and structure in nature and had been pioneered in Scotland by figures including Robert Knox ( 1791 – 1862 ) .
David Brewster ( 1781 – 1868 ) , physicist , mathematician and astronomer , undertook key work in optics , where he provided a compromise between Goethe 's Naturphilosophie @-@ influenced studies and Newton 's system , which Goethe attacked . His work would be important in later biological , geological and astrological discoveries . Diligent measurement in South Africa allowed Thomas Henderson ( 1798 – 1844 ) make the observations that would allow him to be the first to calculate the distance to Alpha Centauri , before returning to Edinburgh to become the first Astronomer Royal for Scotland from 1834 . Influenced by Humboldt , and much praised by him , was Mary Somerville ( 1780 – 1872 ) , mathematician , geographer , physicist , astronomer and one of the few women to gain recognition in science in the period . A major contribution to the " magnetic crusade " declared by Humboldt was made by Scottish @-@ born astronomer John Lamont ( 1805 – 79 ) , head of the observatory in Munich , when he found a decennial period ( ten @-@ year cycle ) in the Earth 's magnetic field .
= = Politics = =
In the aftermath of the Jacobite risings , a movement to restore Stuart King James II of England to the throne , the British government enacted a series of laws that attempted to speed the process of the destruction of the clan system . Measures included a ban on the bearing of arms , the wearing of tartan and limitations on the activities of the Episcopalian Church . Most of the legislation was repealed by the end of the eighteenth century as the Jacobite threat subsided .
Soon after , there was a process of the rehabilitation of highland culture . Tartan had already been adopted for highland regiments in the British army , which poor highlanders joined in large numbers until the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 , but by the nineteenth century it had largely been abandoned by the ordinary people of the region . In the 1820s , tartan and the kilt were adopted by members of the social elite , not just in Scotland , but across Europe . The international craze for tartan , and for idealising a romanticised Highlands , was set off by the Ossian cycle and further popularised by the works of Scott . His " staging " of the royal visit of King George IV to Scotland in 1822 and the king 's wearing of tartan resulted in a massive upsurge in demand for kilts and tartans that could not be met by the Scottish linen industry . Individual clan tartans was largely defined in this period , and they became a major symbol of Scottish identity . This " Highlandism " , by which all of Scotland was identified with the culture of the Highlands , was cemented by Queen Victoria 's interest in the country , her adoption of Balmoral as a major royal retreat and her interest in " tartanry " .
The romanticisation of the Highlands and the adoption of Jacobitism into mainstream culture have been seen as defusing the potential threat to the Union with England , the House of Hanover and the dominant Whig government . In many countries Romanticism played a major part in the emergence of radical independence movements through the development of national identities . Tom Nairn argues that Romanticism in Scotland did not develop along the lines seen elsewhere in Europe , leaving a " rootless " intelligentsia , who moved to England or elsewhere and so did not supply a cultural nationalism that could be communicated to the emerging working classes . Graeme Moreton and Lindsay Paterson both argue that the lack of interference of the British state in civil society meant that the middle classes had no reason to object to the union . Atsuko Ichijo argues that national identity cannot be equated with a movement for independence . Moreton suggests that there was a Scottish nationalism , but that it was expressed in terms of " Unionist nationalism " . A form of political radicalism remained within Scottish Romanticism , surfacing in events like the foundation of the Friends of the People in 1792 and in 1853 the National Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights , which was in effect a federation of romantics , radical churchmen and administrative reformers . However , Scottish identity was not directed into nationalism until the twentieth century .
= = Philosophy = =
The dominant school of philosophy in Scotland in the late eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth century is known as Common Sense Realism . It argued that there are certain concepts , such as our existence , the existence of solid objects and some basic moral " first principles " , that are intrinsic to our make @-@ up and from which all subsequent arguments and systems of morality must be derived . It can be seen as an attempt to reconcile the new scientific developments of the Enlightenment with religious belief . The origins of these arguments are in a reaction to the scepticism that became dominant in the Enlightenment , particularly that articulated by Scottish philosopher David Hume ( 1711 – 76 ) . This branch of thinking was first formulated by Thomas Reid ( 1710 – 96 ) in his An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense ( 1764 ) . It was popularised in Scotland by figures including Dugald Stewart ( 1753 – 1828 ) and in England by James Beattie . Stewart 's students included Walter Scott , Walter Chambers and Thomas Brown , and this branch of thought would later be a major influence on Charles Darwin . William Hamilton ( 1788 – 1856 ) attempted to combine Reid 's approach with the philosophy of Kant .
Common Sense Realism not only dominated Scottish thought but also had a major impact in France , the United States , Germany and other countries . Victor Cousin ( 1792 – 1867 ) was the most important proponent in France , becoming Minister of Education and incorporating the philosophy into the curriculum . In Germany the emphasis on careful observation influenced Humboldt 's ideas about science and was a major factor in the development of German Idealism . James McCosh ( 1811 – 94 ) brought Common Sense Realism directly from Scotland to North American in 1868 when he became president of Princeton University , which soon became a stronghold of the movement . Noah Porter ( 1811 – 92 ) taught Common Sense Realism to generations of students at Yale . As a result , it would be a major influence on the development of one of the most important offshoots of Romanticism in New England , Transcendentalism , particularly in the writing of Ralph Waldo Emerson ( 1803 – 82 ) .
= = Decline = =
In literature , Romanticism is often thought to have ended in the 1830s , with a few commentators , like Margaret Drabble , describing it as over by 1848 . Romanticism continued much longer in some places and areas of endeavour , particularly in music , where it has been dated from 1820 to 1910 . The death of Scott in 1832 has been seen as marking the end of the great romantic generation , and Scottish literature and culture in general lost some of its international prominence from this point . Scott 's reputation as a writer also went into decline in the late nineteenth century , only recovering in the twentieth . Economic and social change , particularly the better communications brought by the railways , decreased the ability of Edinburgh to function as an alternative cultural capital to London , with its publishing industry moving to London . Lack of opportunities in politics and letters led many talented Scots to leave for England and elsewhere . The sentimental Kailyard tradition of J. M. Barrie and George MacDonald , of those that continued to pursue Scottish topics at the end of the nineteenth century , was seen by Tom Nairn as " sub @-@ romantic " .
In art , the tradition of Scottish landscape painting continued into the later nineteenth century , but Romanticism gave way to influences including French Impressionism , Post @-@ Impressionism and eventually Modernism . The Scots baronial style continued to be popular until the end of the nineteenth century , when other styles began to dominate . Although Romanticism persisted in music much longer than in almost every area , it fell out of fashion in the twentieth century and anti @-@ Romantic currents in Britain virtually buried Victorian and Edwardian music not written by Edward Elgar or Arthur Sullivan . The idea of the historical imagination was replaced with the source @-@ based empiricism championed by Ranke . Marinel Ash has noted that after the death of Scott , Scottish national history lost its momentum , and the Scottish literati stopped writing Scottish histories . Colin Kidd has observed a change of attitudes to historical writing and suggests that this was one reason for a lack of the development of political nationalism . In science , the rapid expansion of knowledge increased a tendency towards specialisation and professionalism and a decline of the polymath " man of letters " and amateurs that had dominated Romantic science . Common Sense Realism began to decline in Britain in the face of the English empiricism outlined by John Stuart Mill in his An Examination of Sir William Hamilton 's Philosophy ( 1865 ) .
= = Influence = =
Scotland can make a claim to have begun the Romantic movement with writers such as Macpherson and Burns . In Scott it produced a figure of international fame and influence , whose virtual invention of the historical novel would be picked up by writers across the world , including Alexandre Dumas and Honoré de Balzac in France , Leo Tolstoy in Russia and Alessandro Manzoni in Italy . The tradition of Scottish landscape painting significantly influenced art in Britain and elsewhere through figures like J. M. W. Turner , who took part in the emerging Scottish " grand tour " . The Scottish baronial style influenced buildings in England and was taken by Scots to North America , Australia and New Zealand . In music , the early efforts of men like Burns , Scott and Thompson helped insert Scottish music into European , particularly German , classical music , and the later contributions of composers like MacCuun were part of a Scottish contribution to the British revival of interest in classical music in the late nineteenth century .
The idea of history as a force and the romantic concept of revolution were highly influential on transcendentalists like Emerson , and through them on American literature in general . Romantic science maintained the prominence and reputation that Scotland had begun to obtain in the Enlightenment and helped in the development of many emerging fields of investigation , including geology and biology . According to Robert D. Purington , " to some the nineteenth century seems to be the century of Scottish science " . Politically the initial function of Romanticism as pursued by Scott and others helped to diffuse some of the tension created by Scotland 's place in the Union , but it also helped to ensure the survival of a common and distinct Scottish national identity that would play a major part in Scottish life and emerge as a significant factor in Scottish politics from the second half of the twentieth century . Externally , modern images of Scotland worldwide , its landscape , culture , sciences and arts , are still largely defined by those created and popularised by Romanticism .
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= Chevrolet Cobalt SS =
The Chevrolet Cobalt SS is a line of three sport compact versions of the Chevrolet Cobalt built on the General Motors Delta platform at Lordstown Assembly in Ohio , United States . It featured two forced induction inline @-@ four Ecotec engines , as well as a third naturally aspirated engine in 1SS trim , later called the Cobalt Sport .
The Cobalt SS was GM 's first foray into the tuner market , launching with a 205 hp ( 153 kW ; 208 PS ) supercharged 2 @.@ 0 L engine in late 2004 as a 2005 model , paired with the F35 manual of Opel . The following year , a naturally aspirated 1SS model equipped with GM 's new 2 @.@ 4 L , 171 hp ( 128 kW ; 173 PS ) engine was added ; it had both automatic and manual transmission options . The supercharged version continued until it was discontinued after 2007 for a more economical turbocharged 2 @.@ 0 L engine producing 260 hp ( 194 kW ; 264 PS ) making it the manual only , highest trim Cobalt in the second quarter of 2008 ( See timeline ) .
The powertrain of the Cobalt SS received generally positive reviews , especially the turbocharged version , the car drew criticism for its interior quality , and its exterior styling , which was described as too reminiscent of its predecessor , the Cavalier . Reports surfaced in May 2009 that General Motors planned to eliminate the Cobalt SS as soon as December 2009 , but they proved to be untrue . Production continued , but ordering options for late 2010 models were limited , and production of all Cobalts ended in June 2010 . The car has been replaced by the Cruze , but a high performance version to directly replace the Cobalt SS has not yet been announced , nor any possible powertrains .
= = Model details = =
= = = Overview = = =
Of the five engines General Motors has placed in the Cobalt since its launch , three have been designated SS . The first was launched in 2004 as a 2005 model with a new powertrain that had debuted one year earlier on the Saturn ION Red Line . It was available as a Supercharged coupe only . The naturally aspirated 2 @.@ 4 L LE5 engine was the next SS to launch in late 2005 as a 2006 model , available as both a coupe and sedan for the duration of its run . However , in late 2007 , at the same time the announcement cancelling the SS Supercharged was made , GM also announced that the 2 @.@ 4 L would be renamed " Cobalt Sport " , rendering Chevrolet without a Cobalt SS for the first half of the 2008 model year . The 2 @.@ 0 L LNF turbocharged Cobalt was the last to launch in the second quarter of 2008 ; initially available only as a coupe until a sedan option was offered for the 2009 model year but again deleted for 2010 after less than 500 were produced .
All three models of the Cobalt SS feature four wheel , anti @-@ lock disc brakes . Compared to the base Cobalt , the SS has lower front and rear fascias for a more aggressive look with integrated foglamps , side rocker moldings , interior accents , and a chrome exhaust tip . Exclusive to the 2 @.@ 0 L Cobalt are a titanium @-@ faced sport analogue cluster with a 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) speedometer , an A @-@ pillar mounted boost gauge , reclining front bucket seats with two @-@ tone leather @-@ appointed seating surfaces , vertical adjusting head restraints and driver @-@ side lumbar and height adjusters , and a sport @-@ tuned FE5 suspension with a 24 mm front stabilizer bar and 22 mm rear stabilizer bar .
= = = SS Supercharged = = =
Available as a coupe only , the SS Supercharged featured the 2 @.@ 0 L LSJ Ecotec engine with an Eaton M62 Roots type supercharger and air @-@ to @-@ liquid intercooler . The engine makes 205 hp ( 153 kW ) at 5600 rpm and 200 lb · ft ( 271 N · m ) at 4400 rpm . 18 @-@ inch broad @-@ spoke wheels with P215 / 45R18 summer Pirelli tires are standard . Optional for the LSJ was a performance package coded G85 that added Recaro bucket seats and a limited slip differential ( LSD ) . LSD was optional for 2005 models ( performance package came with LSD ) and was standard in 2007 + models . The G85 option continues in the LNF Cobalt , but adds only the LSD . The car has become notable for a high profile spoiler that was standard in 2005 , but optional from 2008 when a lower profile spoiler used on all other Cobalt coupes became an option .
GM offers dealer @-@ installed performance upgrade packages called " stage kits " that are covered by factory warranty . The Stage 1 kit consists of new fuel injectors and a reprogram of the ECU , and yields up to a 30 hp ( 22 kW ) improvement . The Stage 2 kit consists of new fuel injectors and the same reprogram with a smaller serpentine belt and pulley for the supercharger , producing a 36 hp improvement and 18 lbft of torque . Both stage 1 and 2 kits increase the engine redline to 7 @,@ 000 rpm . The Stage 3 kit consists of a smaller , 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) supercharger pulley , a 2 @-@ pass intercooler end plate and a customizable replacement ECU . The Stage 3 ECU allows for the use of a 50 @-@ shot of nitrous , 100 octane fuel and an adjustable redline from 6 @,@ 750 to 8 @,@ 000 rpm . Stage 3 produces 248 hp ( 185 kW ) using 93 octane fuel , up to 260 hp ( 194 kW ) using 100 octane fuel , and much higher power with nitrous . Stage 3 is for track use only , and to emphasize this , air conditioning is disabled with the Stage 3 ECU .
A problem frequently encountered with the car , due to a combination of its high torque , front drive , and short first gear is wheel hop , wheelspin and a general lack of traction . Items like upgraded front and rear trans and motor mounts would eliminate this . The GM Performance Division later tried to rectify these problems in the turbocharged car by providing wider , stickier tires and stronger axles .
= = = SS Turbocharged = = =
The LSJ engine did not meet emissions requirements for the 2008 model year , and General Motors ' contract with Eaton had expired . The non @-@ supercharged 2 @.@ 4 L Cobalt SS also lost its Super Sport designation for the 2008 model year and was renamed " Sport " . However , in fall 2007 , a more powerful Cobalt SS was announced for the second quarter of 2008 . The car would be equipped with the 2 @.@ 0 L , turbocharged , direct injected , VVT , LNF Ecotec engine , making 260 hp ( 194 kW ) at 5300 rpm and 260 lb · ft ( 353 N · m ) at 2000 rpm , and remain mated to the F35 5 @-@ speed manual transmission . The engine had been introduced in a rear wheel drive application for the 2007 GM Kappa platform , which includes the Saturn Sky , Pontiac Solstice , and Opel GT .
Also new for the 2008 SS were SS @-@ embroidered sport seats with suede @-@ like UltraLux inserts , several new exterior colors , and wider 18 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) forged , split @-@ spoke wheels with P225 / 40R18 Continental AG tires , reminiscent of those offered for the Chevrolet Corvette C6 . The car 's electronics are also new , and along with greater assist in poor traction conditions , add a " no @-@ lift @-@ shift " feature which allows the driver to maintain turbocharger boost during upshifts . During a no @-@ lift @-@ shift , the driver shifts normally by depressing the clutch , but the accelerator pedal is held wide open . Also new is " launch control " , which feathers the throttle at roughly 4800 rpm until engagement of the clutch , allowing more consistent launches in competitive situations . To use the feature the driver presses twice on the traction control button which first turns off traction control , and then notifies the driver through the Driver 's Information Center that the launch control of Competitive Mode has been enabled . However , turbocharged Cobalt owners have found that better times can be achieved while racing when the car is manually launched . These features help propel the car from 0 to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) in a class @-@ leading 5 @.@ 5 seconds , and a quarter mile time of 13 @.@ 9 seconds at 102 @.@ 5 mph ( 165 @.@ 0 km / h ) .
New for 2009 is the aforementioned four @-@ door sedan option , as well as an optional " reconfigurable performance display " ( RPD ) for the coupe only . The $ 295 option replaces the boost gauge in the A @-@ pillar , and allows the driver manipulation of traction control , stability control , " shift points " , and the engagement of Competition Mode , as well as information regarding the car 's engine torque and horsepower , g @-@ force , boost , wideband air fuel ratio , barometric pressure , temperature , and battery voltage . For 2010 , RPD is standard , as is a power sunroof . The red / ebony and grey / ebony interior color options are also dropped , as is the turbocharged sedan .
A stage 1 kit which raises power to 290 hp ( 216 kW ) and 340 lb · ft ( 461 N · m ) was made available in October 2009 after several delays . The kit can be installed by the owner of the car , but final alteration of the vehicle 's engine control unit must take place at a GM dealer .
= = = SS Naturally aspirated = = =
Chevrolet introduced a naturally aspirated Cobalt SS in the fall of 2005 , as a 2006 model available as both a coupe and sedan . It featured the 2 @.@ 4 L LE5 Ecotec engine with variable valve timing , making 171 hp at 5 @,@ 600 rpm and 163 lb @-@ ft at 5000 rpm , later upped to 167 lb · ft ( 226 N · m ) at 4500 rpm . The LE5 engine was new for 2006 and was introduced on both the FWD Delta platform and RWD Kappa platform . For the 2006 and 2007 model years the car was called SS , or " 1SS " , but was replaced with the moniker " Cobalt Sport " for 2008 with the anticipated introduction of the turbocharged super sport car later on in the model year . For the first time , a 4 @-@ speed automatic transmission was offered , the 4T45 . The 5 @-@ speed manual is also different from the Cobalt SS Supercharged , it is the Getrag F23 transmission with different ratios that is offered for the 2 @.@ 2 L L61 engine in the Cobalt LS and LT .
Other changes over the supercharged car are notable but not drastic ; 17 @-@ inch broad @-@ spoke wheels with narrower P205 / 50R17 all @-@ season Pirelli tires are standard , as is the low profile spoiler . 2 @.@ 4 L and 2 @.@ 2 L Sport Package Cobalts have a 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) speedometer with optional white face gauges . The car rides on the FE3 suspension , superior and more sport @-@ tuned to that of base Cobalts but less refined than the FE5 on the supercharged and turbocharged cars . Brakes on the 2.4L naturally aspirated and supercharged model are identical , but the turbocharged model receives an upgraded Brembo braking system The front and rear bumpers are the same , but the front lacks a lip accessory and the bottom of the rear fascia is slightly different . With the negligible exception of exterior styling and some interior trims , the vehicle is identical to the Pontiac G5 GT .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of the supercharged Cobalt SS were generally positive . While the Cavalier received very negative reviews , the supercharged Cobalt was seen as an improvement , and a worthy first entry for GM into the tuner market . However , the general fit and finish was poor , and power levels were not up to par with other competitors . Journalist Thom Blackett said , " When compared with more contemporary cars including the Dodge Neon SRT @-@ 4 and the Subaru WRX , that SS badge seems to lose some of its luster . " The F35 transmission has also been deemed inferior to that in the newest of generation of Honda 's Civic Si . Critics also disliked the heavy wheels which negatively affected handling , as well as the spoiler which obstructed rearward visibility . Speaking of the high profile aero wing , automotive journalist Alexandra Straub said , " the deck @-@ lid spoiler was directly in my line @-@ of @-@ sight when looking out of the rearview mirror . It 's almost like it cut everything in half . " Some Cobalt SS owners have traded spoilers with lower trim owners to obtain a less aggressive look , or traded the entire trunklid with Cobalt LS owners , for whom a rear spoiler is merely optional . The naturally aspirated Cobalt SS has been seen as an improvement over the base models with its slightly more potent 2 @.@ 4 L engine , but notably inferior to the supercharged car . The powertrain of the 2008 turbocharged Cobalt SS received rave reviews . John Neff of Autoblog said , " The GM Performance Division completely reworked the Cobalt SS for 2008 , swapping in a more powerful turbocharged engine , upgrading the rest of the mechanicals , and tweaking the entire package on the world 's most demanding race tracks , including the famed Nürburgring in Germany . The result is – and we 're not kidding here – the most impressive performance car to wear a bow @-@ tie badge on sale today . " Journalists were impressed with the performance of the car in relation to the price ; Neff added that the " 2009 Cobalt SS Turbo is freakishly good at going fast and the best bang @-@ for @-@ the @-@ buck value below $ 30 @,@ 000 . " Ron Kiino of Motor Trend said , " at only $ 22 @,@ 995 , the SS could stand for Super Steal . " The MSRP was raised to $ 24 @,@ 095 for the 2009 model year .
The Nürburgring @-@ tuned suspension gives the SS some of the best handling characteristics of any General Motors front wheel drive vehicle , and the suspension is stiffer and more refined than the supercharged car . Since the interior is hardly changed other than the seats , those criticisms remain . Of the interior in the turbocharged sedan , Car and Driver said it " is constructed primarily of plastics cheap enough to be rejected from a Chinese toy factory ; the Tata Nano probably has a fancier parking @-@ brake lever . " The new Cobalt was the winner in its price class ( under $ 30 @,@ 000 ) of Car and Driver 's 2008 Lightning Lap competition at Virginia International Raceway , beating lap times of several cars in the $ 30,000- $ 60 @,@ 000 class , including the Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution X.
= = Racing = =
Four Chevrolet Cobalt SS 's were used in the Continental Challenge Street Tuner class in 2009 .
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= New Jersey Route 5 =
Route 5 is a 3 @.@ 18 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 12 km ) state highway located entirely in Bergen County , New Jersey , United States . It runs from U.S. Route 1 / 9 in Ridgefield east down the New Jersey Palisades to end at County Route 505 ( River Road ) at the Hudson River in Edgewater . The route is a two- to four @-@ lane undivided highway its entire length , passing mostly through wooded residential neighborhoods . The route passes under Route 63 in Palisades Park , with access to that route provided by Bergen Boulevard , and intersects the southern terminus of Route 67 in Fort Lee .
The route was designated in 1916 as part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 10 , which was to run from Paterson east to the terminal of the Fort Lee Ferry in Edgewater , using the Paterson and Hackensack Turnpike between Paterson and Hackensack , the Bergen Turnpike from Hackensack to Ridgefield , and a new alignment between Ridgefield and Edgewater . In 1927 , the route was renumbered to Route 5 , with initial plans to build a new alignment for the route between Ridgefield and Little Ferry . Route 5 was also planned to run concurrent with Route 6 ( now U.S. Route 46 ) between Paterson and Ridgefield . However , the plans were modified in 1929 to build Route 6 on a new alignment and have Route 5 end at Route 1 ( now U.S. Route 1 / 9 ) in Ridgefield . The former alignment was designated as Route 10N with maintenance eventually turned over to the county . The eastern terminus of Route 5 was moved to its current location by the 2000s . In 2007 , construction began to improve the route in Palisades Park by replacing bridges and widening the road , with work expected to be completed in later 2009 .
= = Route description = =
Route 5 begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 / 9 ( North Broad Avenue ) in Ridgefield , heading east as a two @-@ lane undivided road through residential areas . It crosses County Route 31 ( Maple Avenue ) and enters Palisades Park . In Palisades Park , the road passes over Delia Avenue and turns south as it heads through wooded residential neighborhoods . Route 5 passes under Route 63 and enters Fort Lee , where the route immediately intersects Bergen Boulevard , which provides access to Route 63 . From there , the road heads east through wooded neighborhoods before turning north onto Glen Road .
Route 5 comes to an intersection with County Route 29 ( Anderson Avenue ) and County Route 54 ( Central Boulevard ) , where the route continues east on Central Boulevard as a four @-@ lane undivided road through inhabited areas . It meets the southern terminus of Route 67 ( Palisade Avenue ) and continues south along that road . After 0 @.@ 36 mi ( 0 @.@ 58 km ) of following Palisade Avenue , Route 5 makes a left turn onto a two @-@ lane road , with County Route 27 continuing south on Palisade Avenue . The route descends the New Jersey Palisades on a winding road with hairpin turns , crossing into Edgewater . In Edgewater , the road briefly heads through commercial areas before ending at County Route 505 ( River Road ) along the Hudson River .
= = History = =
Pre @-@ 1927 Route 10 was legislated in 1916 to run from Paterson east by way of Hackensack and Ridgefield to the Public Service Railway 's Fort Lee Ferry at Edgewater . From Paterson it used the existing Paterson and Hackensack Turnpike ( Market Street and Essex Street ) to Hackensack and the Bergen Turnpike ( Hudson Street ) to Ridgefield . Rather than use existing roads from Ridgefield down the Palisades to Edgewater , a whole new route was surveyed with better grades . This road was built by 1922 . At its east end , Route 10 ran south several blocks on River Road to the ferry , just south of Dempsey Avenue . In Ridgefield , Broad Avenue was used to get between the new alignment and Bergen Turnpike .
In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 10 was renumbered to Route 5 . Plans at the time were to build a new alignment from east of Ridgefield to Little Ferry southeast of Hackensack and form Route S5 ( now Route 93 ) along the old road from Little Ferry to Ridgefield . The new Route 6 would share the alignment of Route 5 from Paterson to west of Hackensack , where it would turn southeast onto a new alignment to Little Ferry , then run with Route 5 again to east of Ridgefield and split onto its own alignment to the George Washington Bridge .
In 1929 , the routes were redefined . Route 6 would be a completely new alignment from Paterson to the George Washington Bridge , and Route 5 would only run east from Route 1 ( Broad Avenue , now U.S. Route 1 / 9 ) in Ridgefield . The alignment of Route 10 west of Ridgefield was designated Route 10N until it was eventually turned over to the county . Route 5 retained its routing in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering . By the 2000s , the section of Route 5 along River Road to the former ferry was removed . In June 2007 , construction began on a $ 24 @.@ 6 million project to improve the route through Palisades Park . This project , which is to be completed later in 2009 , will involve the replacement of the bridge over Delia Avenue , the removal of a bridge over an abandoned rail line , and the widening of the two @-@ lane road to include a shoulder .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Bergen County .
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= Lisa Hannigan =
Lisa Margaret Hannigan ( born 12 February 1981 ) is an Irish singer , songwriter , and musician . She began her musical career as a member of Damien Rice 's band . Since beginning her solo career in 2007 she has released two albums : Sea Sew ( 2008 ) and Passenger ( 2011 ) . Hannigan 's music has received award nominations both in Ireland and the USA .
= = Early life and education = =
Hannigan was born in Dublin but grew up in Kilcloon , County Meath , Ireland . She attended primary school at Scoil Oilibhéir Naofa in Kilcloon and secondary school at The King 's Hospital in Palmerstown and enrolled at Trinity College , Dublin to study Art History .
= = Career = =
While still in college , Hannigan met Damien Rice at a concert in Dublin in early 2001 . Rice enlisted Hannigan to sing on his 2002 album O and his later album " 9 " , featured in the hit " 9 Crimes " . She toured with Rice as part of his band during that period , lending vocal support and occasionally playing electric guitar , bass guitar or drums .
In 2007 , Hannigan returned to Dublin and began a solo career . Some of Hannigan 's live recordings were made available through trading networks radio shows . These recordings included : " Willy " by Joni Mitchell , " Be My Husband " by Nina Simone ( from the 1965 album Pastel Blues ) , " Mercedes Benz " by Janis Joplin and " Love Hurts " by Roy Orbison . Hannigan also performed live with her own band , called The Daisy Okell Quartet and contributed guest vocals to the recordings of Mic Christopher , The Frames and Herbie Hancock .
= = = Sea Sew = = =
Lisa Hannigan 's debut solo album , titled Sea Sew , was rehearsed in a barn in Thomastown and recorded in Dublin before being released in Ireland in September 2008 . The lead single , " Lille " , was made available as a free Internet download and other tracks were available for preview on her Myspace page . The sleeve featured needle @-@ work by Hannigan . Some music critics called the recording one of the best Irish albums of the year .
Sea Sew received favourable reviews in the Los Angeles Times and The New York Times . The single " Lille " , released in August 2008 on Irish and American radio stations . Hannigan performed at Electric Picnic 2008 . Hannigan was the opening act for singer @-@ songwriter Jason Mraz on his U.S. tour in 2008 .
That year , she appeared on the charity album Even Better Than the Disco Thing and performed a duet of Mick Flannery 's new song " Christmas Past " with Flannery on Tony Fenton 's Christmas Special on Today FM . In December 2008 , she made her UK solo debut at St Johns Church in London . Hannigan signed with ATO Records in the U.S. , where her album was released in February 2009 .
Sea Sew was nominated for the Choice Music Prize and Best Irish Album at the Meteor Music Awards in January 2009 .
That year , Hannigan appeared on the American television shows Jay Leno and The Colbert Report . In 2009 , Hannigan also appeared on the BBC 's Later ... with Jools Holland , performing her song " I Don 't Know " . Sea Sew rose in the UK charts following this appearance and she performed at Glastonbury 2009 music festival and went on tour later in the year . She performed at the nomination ceremony and she was greeted by confused journalists wondering " Lisa who ? " .
Hannigan performed at Electric Picnic 2009 Later in 2009 , she toured the United States with David Gray and performed solo shows in New York , Los Angeles and London . She then began a tour of Ireland to finish the year . Hannigan 's song " An Ocean and a Rock " was used in a 2009 Irish video supporting same @-@ sex marriage entitled " Sinéad 's Hand " . As part of an advertisement campaign for Oxfam 's Make Trade Fair , Hannigan was drenched in melted chocolate and she participated in the Irish musical collective The Cake Sale with lead vocal on the track Some Surprise , which was played on the US television series Grey 's Anatomy .
Hannigan also contributed to the 2009 charity album , Sparks n ' Mind , released in aid of Aware .
In 2009 , a broadcast of Other Voices was recorded .
" Braille " from the album Sea Sew was also used in the film Ondine in 2009 .
= = = Passenger = = =
Hannigan recorded her second album , titled Passenger , at Bryn Derwen Studios in North Wales with producer Joe Henry and engineer Ryan Freeland . The album was released in the US and Canada on 20 September 2011 , and on 7 October in Ireland and the UK .
Hannigan performed at the Eurosonic Festival in 2012 when Ireland was the " Spotlight Country " .
= = = At Swim = = =
Hannigan announced on her website that her third album - produced in collaboration with Aaron Dessner - would be released during 2016 . The album is titled At Swim and is expected to be released on August 19 , 2016 . On May 24 , 2016 Hannigan revealed a short teaser in relation to the albums launch . " Prayer To The Dying " and " Ora " are two tracks which have appeared among promotional material in the lead up to the release . Lisa will tour Ireland extensively in the lead up to the album release . " Praying To The Dying " appeared on iTunes ( only on pre @-@ orders ) and Spotify on June 9 and 10 respectively . It appeared on the New Music Friday playlist on Spotify Germany , Ireland , Sweden and UK .
= = = Soundtracks and film work = = =
In 2004 Hannigan credited on soundtrack for " Closer " ( song : Cold Water , arranged and performed by Damien Rice and Lisa Hannigan , featuring Vyvienne Long ) .
In 2007 Hannigan credited on soundtrack for " Shrek the Third " ( song : 9 Crimes , performed by Damien Rice and Lisa Hannigan ) .
In 2009 Hannigan credited on soundtrack for " Ondine " ( songs : Braille , Lille , written and performed by Lisa Hannigan ) .
In 2013 Hannigan contributed vocals to the soundtrack for Alfonso Cuarón 's film Gravity .
In 2014 Hannigan provided vocals along with John Smith for the Steven Price conducted soundtrack for the Brad Pitt blockbuster ' Fury ' . On September 14 , Lisa performed in the Roundhouse for the iTunes Concert Series .
In 2014 she voiced the character of Bronagh , the Selkie mother of the main characters in the animated film Song of the Sea , and provided several songs to the film 's soundtrack .
In 2015 , she sang a version of " Danny Boy " for the seventh episode of the second season of Fargo .
= = Reception = =
Her music has received critical praise , airplay and award nominations both in her native Ireland and the United States . In 2008 , her debut album Sea Sew spawned the single " Lille " , a Choice Music Prize nomination , two Meteor Music Awards nominations and a Mercury Prize nomination .
Hannigan performs using " broken @-@ down , wheezy old instruments " . Herbie Hancock said of her vocals , " there 's so much jazz in the notes and phrases that she picks . She was singing the ninths , the elevenths of the chords ... I mean some of the things sound like choices that Miles would have made . "
= = Discography = =
Sea Sew ( 2008 )
Passenger ( 2011 )
At Swim ( 2016 )
= = Awards = =
= = = Hot Press Readers ' Poll = = =
Hannigan has four Hot Press Readers ' Poll awards . She won Best Debut Album , Best Irish Album , Best Irish Track and Best Female in 2009 .
= = = Choice Music Prize = = =
Hannigan 's debut album , Sea Sew , was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in January 2009 .
Hannigan 's second album , Passenger , was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in January 2012 and she also lost out to Jape that year .
= = = Meteor Music Awards = = =
Hannigan and her work was nominated in the Best Irish Female and Best Irish Album categories at the Meteor Music Awards in 2009 . She was the only solo artist nominated in more than one category at the awards . She lost to Imelda May and The Script 's self @-@ titled album respectively .
= = = Mercury Prize = = =
Sea Sew was nominated for the Mercury Prize on 21 July 2009 . It was Hannigan 's first nomination .
Hannigan was referred to as 2009 's " token folk nominee " in the UK , with the NME calling her a " token folkie " . One British journalist even claimed she was " truly obscure " and part of the " moribund sensitive singer @-@ songwriter genre " . Ed Power , writing in the Irish Independent , criticised such claims , wondering if Jape ( whose album Ritual beat Hannigan to the Choice Music Prize ) had come close to receiving a Mercury nomination — " Or , for that matter , how many of the judges had even heard of him " .
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= Leslie Morshead =
Lieutenant General Sir Leslie James Morshead , KCB , KBE , CMG , DSO , ED ( 18 September 1889 – 26 September 1959 ) was an Australian soldier , teacher , businessman , and farmer , whose military career spanned both world wars . During the Second World War , he led the Australian and British troops at the Siege of Tobruk ( 1941 ) and at the Second Battle of El Alamein , achieving decisive victories over Erwin Rommel 's Afrika Korps . A strict and demanding officer , his soldiers nicknamed him " Ming the Merciless " , later simply " Ming " , after the villain in the Flash Gordon comics .
When the First World War broke out in August 1914 , Morshead resigned his teaching position and his commission in the Cadet Corps to travel to Sydney and enlist as a private in the 2nd Infantry Battalion of the First Australian Imperial Force . He was commissioned as a lieutenant in September . He landed at Anzac on 25 April 1915 , and his battalion made the farthest advance of any Australian unit that day . Invalided to Australia , he became commander of the 33rd Infantry Battalion , which he led on the Western Front at Messines , Passchendaele , Villers @-@ Bretonneux , and Amiens .
Between the wars Morshead made a successful business career with the Orient Steam Navigation Company , and remained active in the part @-@ time Militia , commanding battalions and brigades . In 1939 , he was appointed to command the 18th Infantry Brigade of the 6th Division in the Second Australian Imperial Force . In 1941 , he became commander of the 9th Division , which he led in the Siege of Tobruk and the Second Battle of El Alamein . He returned to Australia in 1943 , where he was appointed to command II Corps , which he led during the New Guinea campaign . In 1945 , he commanded I Corps in the Borneo campaign .
= = Early life = =
Morshead was born on 18 September 1889 in Ballarat , Victoria , the sixth of seven children of William Morshead , a gold miner who had emigrated from Cornwall via Canada , and his wife Mary Eliza Morshead , formerly Rennison , the Australian @-@ born daughter of a fellow Cornish immigrant . William died when Morshead was six years old . He was educated at Mount Pleasant High School , where he was appointed a junior teacher in 1906 .
In 1909 , he became a student at the Melbourne Teachers Training College to obtain formal teaching qualifications . After his graduation in December 1910 , he was awarded a scholarship to complete an education diploma at the University of Melbourne , but decided to defer for a year in order to teach at schools in country Victoria . He became a schoolteacher , teaching first at Tragowell in the Swan Hill district , and then at Fine View State School in the Horsham district . In 1911 he entered Trinity College at the University of Melbourne . After failing an exam in deductive logic , he decided to quit the state school system , and in 1912 took up a position at The Armidale School in the New England district of New South Wales . In 1914 he moved to the prestigious Melbourne Grammar School .
Morshead had been commissioned as a lieutenant in the Australian Army Cadets in 1908 . At Armidale , he was appointed commander of the school cadet unit , and was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Militia on 10 February 1913 . He was promoted to captain in September . At Melbourne Grammar he commanded a company in that school 's much larger cadet unit . While at Melbourne Grammar , he met Myrtle Catherine Woodside , the daughter of a Happy Valley , Victoria , grazier , and the sister of one of Morshead 's pupils .
= = First World War = =
= = = Gallipoli = = =
Morshead 's teaching career was interrupted by the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 . He resigned both his teaching position and his commission in the Cadet Corps and travelled up to Sydney to enlist as a private in the 2nd Infantry Battalion of the First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) because it was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel George Braund , whom Morshead knew well from his time teaching in Armidale . Morshead 's time in the ranks was brief , as he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the AIF on 19 September . He embarked for Egypt on the transport Suffolk on 18 October 1914 . While his battalion was in training there , he was promoted to captain on 8 January 1915 .
The 2nd Infantry Battalion landed at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915 . Morshead 's platoon transferred from the transport Derfflinger to the destroyer HMS Usk , which took it to within 500 yards ( 460 m ) of the shore . They then transferred to wooden boats which were towed to the shore , arriving at around 09 : 30 . The battalion made the farthest advance of any Australian unit that day , reaching the slopes of Baby 700 , but was driven back by a Turkish counter @-@ attack in the afternoon . It beat off further counter @-@ attacks over the next three days . Morshead assumed command of C Company on 28 April . The battalion defeated major Turkish attacks on its position on 18 May and 8 June .
Promoted to major on 8 June , Morshead distinguished himself in the Battle of Lone Pine on 6 August . So intense was the fighting that of the 22 officers in the battalion , Morshead was the only one who did not become a casualty . However , on 16 September , like many others , he succumbed to dysentery and paratyphoid fever . He was evacuated to the 3rd General Hospital on Lemnos , and then to England on the hospital ship Aquitania , where he was admitted to the 3rd London General Hospital in Wandsworth , England . For his services in the Gallipoli campaign , he was mentioned in despatches .
= = = Western Front = = =
Morshead returned to Australia on 22 January 1916 where he was treated at the 4th General Hospital at Randwick , New South Wales . After he recovered , he was posted to the 33rd Infantry Battalion , which was being raised in Armidale as part of the 3rd Division . He became its commander on 16 April , and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel three days later . He embarked for England again with his battalion on 4 May 1916 .
The 33rd Infantry Battalion trained at Larkhill on the Salisbury Plain in England until November 1916 , when it embarked at Southampton for France . On 7 December it relieved a British battalion in the quiet " nursery " sector of the Western Front around Armentières . Morshead was mentioned in despatches , and awarded the Distinguished Service Order . His citation , written by his division commander , Major General John Monash , read :
This officer has displayed conspicuous ability in administration and organisation of his battalion , which has attained a high standard of fighting efficiency . His energetic attention to the training of his officers and men prior to embarkation was responsible for the smoothness and despatch with which his battalion relieved a British battalion in the line a few days after arriving at the front . Since the battalion has taken its place in the line it has proved itself to be an efficient fighting unit due to this officer 's personality and marked capacity for command . He organised and controlled two raids on the enemy 's trenches and carried them out successfully . His courage and strong personality has created an excellent spirit in all ranks of the battalion . This officer previously served at Gallipoli .
Official historian Charles Bean described Morshead as :
a dapper little schoolmaster , only 28 years of age , in whom the traditions of the British Army had been bottled from his childhood like tight @-@ corked champagne ; the nearest approach to a martinet among all the young Australian colonels , but able to distinguish the valuable from the worthless in the old army practice ; insistent on punctiliousness throughout the battalion as in the officers ’ mess , with the assistance of a fine adjutant , Lieutenant Jones : and an imperturbable second @-@ in @-@ command , Major White , and with his own experience of fighting as a junior captain of the 2nd Battalion upon Baby 700 in the Anzac Landing , he had turned out a battalion which anyone acquainted with the whole force recognised , even before Messines , as one of the very best .
Morshead subsequently led the 33rd Infantry Battalion through the Battle of Messines in June 1917 , and the disastrous Battle of Passchendaele in October , where the 3rd Division suffered heavy losses . In March 1918 , the 3rd Division was sent to the Somme sector to help halt the German Spring Offensive . The 9th Infantry Brigade , of which the 33rd Infantry battalion was a part , was detached from the 3rd Division and sent to Villers @-@ Bretonneux . On 30 March , the 9th Infantry Brigade 's commander , Brigadier General Charles Rosenthal , ordered Morshead to restore the front around Aubercourt . With the aid of the British 12th Lancers , the battalion was able to restore the line , although it was unable to advance as far as Rosenthal hoped . The 33rd Infantry Battalion was then relieved , and withdrawn to Villers @-@ Bretonneux to rest . However , on 4 April , Morshead was astonished to find that the line had again been broken and Villers @-@ Bretonneux threatened . In the First Battle of Villers @-@ Bretonneux , the battalion participated in halting the advance , and prevented the Germans from capturing the town . On 18 April , the 33rd Infantry Battalion was still in the town when it was heavily shelled with poison gas . Many men , including Morshead , became mustard gas casualties . He did not return to his unit until June .
Morshead again led the 33rd Infantry Battalion in the Battle of Amiens . For the fighting in August 1918 , he was awarded the French Légion d 'honneur in the grade of Chevalier . His citation , written by his new division commander , Major General John Gellibrand , read :
For gallantry , initiative and ability in action during the operations on SOMME in August 1918 . On 8 August 1918 , during the attack east of Hamel , Lieutenant Colonel Morshead was in command of the special force for the purpose of clearing Accroche Wood . He executed this task with great skill , and then fought his battalion to its objectives , capturing 500 prisoners , many guns and a large quantity of materiel at very little cost to his own force .
Subsequently during the advance north of Bray on 22 to 24 August 1918 , when the situation on his left flank was uncertain , Lieutenant Colonel Morshead gallantly maintained his position refusing his left flank , thus enabling the remainder of his brigade to maintain its position .
On 30 / 31 August , north of Cléry , he again fought his battalion with great ability and success .
His military ability , fine fighting spirit and cheerfulness under all circumstances had a most inspiring effect upon all ranks and contributed greatly to the success of the operation .
For his service on the Western Front , Morshead was made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George in December 1919 , and was mentioned in despatches three more times .
= = Between the wars = =
Morshead returned to Australia in November 1919 and his AIF appointment was terminated in March 1920 . He considered applying for a regular army commission , but found that these were reserved for graduates of the Royal Military College , Duntroon . He tried farming , accepting a soldier settlement block of 23 @,@ 000 acres ( 9 @,@ 300 ha ) near Quilpie , Queensland , but this venture was a failure , and he returned to Melbourne , where he married Myrtle at Scots Church , on 17 November 1921 . They had a daughter , Elizabeth in 1923 .
After working in odd jobs he joined the Orient Line in Sydney on 24 October 1924 . He was appointed passenger manager of the Sydney office in 1926 . Many Orient Line appointments followed . He became publicity manager in January 1927 , acting manager of the Melbourne office in May 1928 , passenger and publicity superintendent , and then temporary business manager of the Brisbane office in April 1931 . He returned to Sydney , and then moved to the Melbourne office , where he became temporary office manager , a position which became permanent in December 1933 ; in 1937 he went back to the Sydney office .
All this time , he remained active in the part @-@ time Militia , commanding the 19th Infantry Battalion from 1921 to 1925 . He became commander of the 36th Infantry Battalion on 1 August 1926 . He was promoted to colonel in 1933 , and was appointed to command the 14th Infantry Brigade on 1 January 1933 . When he moved to Melbourne in 1934 , he transferred to command of the 15th Infantry Brigade , then part of the 3rd Division under Major General Sir Thomas Blamey . On returning to Sydney in 1937 he assumed command of the 5th Infantry Brigade . During a visit to England in 1937 as part of his duties with the Orient Line , he had occasion to observe the British Army on manoeuvres in East Anglia , and was impressed by the pace of modern mechanised forces . He also realised that the Australian Army was lagging a long way behind in both human and technical resources . He was promoted to brigadier in 1938 . Known for his right @-@ wing views even before the war , he was also a member of the clandestine far @-@ right wing paramilitary organisation the New Guard .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Britain = = =
On 6 October 1939 , Morshead was selected by Blamey to command the 18th Infantry Brigade in the new 6th Division . This brigade was composed of four battalions from the smaller states , and would have been a natural assignment for a regular officer had Prime Minister Robert Menzies not restricted commands to senior posts to Militia officers , few of whom had much experience of the Army outside their home states . Morshead met with Blamey on 13 October to select officers for the new brigade . Like the other brigadiers , he was given a regular officer as Brigade Major , in this case Major Ragnar Garrett .
Morshead formally enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 10 October 1939 and was given the AIF serial number NX8 . He was given the rank of colonel and made temporary brigadier three days later . A delay in preparing 18th Infantry Brigade 's camp in the Hunter Region meant that it was not concentrated there until December . In the meantime its battalions trained in their home states . After the 16th Infantry Brigade departed for Palestine in January 1940 , the 18th Infantry Brigade moved into its vacated accommodation at Ingleburn , New South Wales . As a consequence , its training proceeded more slowly than that of the 16th and 17th Infantry Brigades .
The 18th Infantry Brigade finally embarked from Sydney on the Mauretania on 5 May 1940 but en route was diverted to the United Kingdom owing to the dangerous military situation there following the Battle of France . It moved into camps on the Salisbury Plain , where the 3rd Division had trained back in 1916 . The Australian force there under Major General Henry Wynter was poorly equipped but the 18th Infantry Brigade was nonetheless given an important role in the defence of Southern England . In September 1940 , Wynter was informed that his force would become the nucleus of a new 9th Division , which he was appointed to command . Morshead and his 18th Infantry Brigade embarked for the Middle East on 15 November , reaching Alexandria on 31 December . Morshead was made a Commander of Order of the British Empire on 1 January 1941 . Before his other two brigades could arrive from England and Australia , Wynter became seriously ill . Blamey decided to send him home and appointed Morshead to command the 9th Division on 29 January 1941 .
According to Official Historian Barton Maughan :
Morshead was every inch a general . His slight build and seemingly mild facial expression masked a strong personality , the impact of which , even on a slight acquaintance , was quickly felt . The precise , incisive speech and flint @-@ like , piercing scrutiny acutely conveyed impressions of authority , resoluteness and ruthlessness . If battles , as Montgomery was later to declare , were contests of wills , Morshead was not likely to be found wanting .
= = = Tobruk = = =
In February 1941 , the 9th Division was completely reorganised , with its 18th and 25th Infantry Brigades transferred to the 7th Division . In return , it received the 20th and 24th Infantry Brigades , the latter short one battalion which was on garrison duty in Darwin . The 9th Division , less its partly trained and equipped artillery , was ordered to move to the Tobruk – Derna area where it would relieve the 6th Division , so that formation could participate in the Battle of Greece . The half @-@ trained and half @-@ equipped 9th Division was pitched into the thick of the action almost immediately , steadying the retreat of Commonwealth forces from the newly arrived German Afrika Korps , under General Erwin Rommel , and occupying the vital port of Tobruk . Morshead was given command of the Tobruk garrison which , as the retreat ( known to the Australians as the " Benghazi handicap " ) continued , became surrounded , hundreds of miles behind enemy lines . Lieutenant General John Lavarack determined that Tobruk could be held and ordered Morshead to defend it . He also ordered the 18th Infantry Brigade to reinforce the garrison , bringing it up to four brigades , with British artillery and tank units brought up to provide support .
General Sir Archibald Wavell instructed Morshead to hold the fortress for two months while the rest of Wavell 's forces reorganised and mounted a relief mission . With the 9th Division , 18th Infantry Brigade and supporting forces from various Allied nations , Morshead 's force decisively defeated Rommel 's powerful initial assaults , and retained possession of the fortress . His strategy for the defence of Tobruk is still mentioned in officer training colleges around the world as an example of how to arrange and conduct in @-@ depth defences against a superior armoured force . An important part of Morshead 's tactics was conducting offensive operations when these were possible . His attitude was summed up in a reported remark , made when his attention was drawn to a British propaganda article entitled " Tobruk can take it ! " Morshead commented : " we 're not here to take it , we 're here to give it . "
Aggressive use of snipers , artillery and counter @-@ attacks achieved surprise at crucial junctures , and kept Rommel 's forces off balance . The Axis troops learned to fear the aggressive patrolling of the Australian infantry who dominated no @-@ man 's @-@ land and made constant raids on enemy forward positions for intelligence , to take prisoners , to disrupt attack preparations and minelaying operations , even to steal supplies that were not available in Tobruk . The troops were backed up by well @-@ sited artillery and mobile reserves . The 9th Division held Tobruk not for eight weeks , but for eight months , during which time three separate relief campaigns by the main Allied force in Egypt failed . Axis propagandists described Morshead as " Ali Baba Morshead and his 20 @,@ 000 thieves " , and branded the defenders of the port as the " Rats of Tobruk " , a sobriquet that they seized on and wore as a badge of pride . Morshead 's men referred to him humorously as " Ming the Merciless " , and later simply as " Ming " , after the villain in Flash Gordon comics .
By July 1941 , Morshead had become convinced that his troops were becoming tired . Their health was deteriorating and , in spite of his efforts , their morale and discipline were slipping . He informed Generals Blamey and Auchinleck that they should be relieved . Auchinleck arranged for the 18th Infantry Brigade to be relieved by the Polish Carpathian Brigade so that it could rejoin the 7th Division in August but baulked at relieving the 9th Division . At this point , political considerations came into play . The newly installed government of Prime Minister John Curtin in Australia , on Blamey 's advice , took up the matter with Prime Minister Winston Churchill , who protested that the relief would cause a postponement of Operation Crusader . As it turned out , the operation had to be postponed anyway . In October 1941 , Morshead and most of the 9th Division was replaced by the British 6th Division . The 9th Division moved to Syria to serve as an occupation force , as well as resting , re @-@ equipping and training reinforcements .
The Battle of Tobruk marked a rare defeat for German armoured forces at this stage of the war . For his part in the battle , Morshead was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 6 January 1942 . He was also awarded the Virtuti Militari by the Polish government in Exile and was decorated by Generał broni Władysław Sikorski on 21 November 1941 .
= = = El Alamein = = =
The outbreak of war with Japan in December 1941 , and the imminent threat of invasion saw the 6th and 7th Divisions transferred to the Far East in early 1942 . In March , Morshead was given command of all Australian forces in the Mediterranean theatre , and was promoted to lieutenant general , while still remaining commander of the 9th Division .
Morshead was one of only a few Allied divisional commanders with a distinct record of success at this stage of the war and had been acting commander of the British XXX Corps , a formation largely composed of Commonwealth troops , on two occasions . He had hopes that he might be given command of a corps , as Harry Chauvel had been in the Great War . Many war correspondents , including Gavin Long , thought that Morshead would be an excellent choice , but disagreements with Auchinleck had led to the latter labelling Morshead " a difficult subordinate " , who , while an excellent division commander , was not up to the demands of commanding a corps . Moreover , while Chauvel had been an Australian , he had been a regular officer , while Morshead was not . The new commander of the British Eighth Army , Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery felt that a reservist could not " possess the requisite training and experience " to command a corps . Morshead was passed over in favour of Oliver Leese , a British regular officer , who was junior to him and had never commanded a division in action .
At the Second Battle of El Alamein , the 9th Division was given responsibility for clearing a corridor through the German and Italian forces in the North and threatening to cut off those between the coastal road and the sea . In the initial assault the division hacked its way through the enemy defences but failed to clear the minefields . As the British attack faltered , the main effort switched to the 9th Division , which punched a massive dent into the German and Italian position over the next five days at great cost , " crumbling " the Afrika Korps in the process , and ultimately forcing Rommel to retreat . " I am quite certain " , Leese informed Morshead , " that this breakout was made possible by Homeric fighting over your divisional sector . " During the El Alamein Campaign , the 9th Division suffered 22 % of the British Eighth Army 's casualties ; 1 @,@ 177 Australians were killed , while 3 @,@ 629 were wounded , 795 were captured and 193 were missing . Morshead received yet another mention in despatches in June 1942 , and in November 1942 he was also created a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath .
= = = New Guinea Campaign = = =
After El Alamein , Morshead and the 9th Division were recalled to the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) . Morshead arrived in Fremantle on 19 February 1943 where he was welcomed home by Lieutenant General Gordon Bennett , who had been his divisional commander in Sydney between the wars . Morshead then flew to Melbourne where he was met by Lady Morshead , Sir Winston Dugan and Sir Thomas Blamey , who informed Morshead that he would take over command of a corps . In March 1943 , Morshead became commander of II Corps , handing over command of the 9th Division to Major General George Wootten . The association between Morshead and the 9th Division was not entirely broken however , as it formed part of his corps , along with the 6th and 7th Divisions , all three of which were undergoing jungle warfare training on the Atherton Tableland for upcoming battles in New Guinea . It was Blamey 's intention that Morshead would spend some time learning the art of jungle warfare before his II Corps replaced Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring 's I Corps in New Guinea . Morshead 's chief of staff at II Corps was Brigadier Henry Wells , who had been his chief of staff at El Alamein .
In late September 1943 , Morshead was summoned to New Guinea to relieve Herring by Lieutenant General Sir Iven Mackay , the commander of New Guinea Force , which he did on 7 October 1943 . Morshead found a difficult situation . The Japanese not only held the high ground overlooking the Australian beachhead at Finschhafen , they were rapidly reinforcing their position and were about to mount a major counterattack . Morshead demanded and got critical reinforcements , including Matilda tanks of the 1st Tank Battalion . The Japanese counterattack was crushed . Morshead relieved Brigadier Bernard Evans of command of the 24th Infantry Brigade , replacing him with Brigadier Selwyn Porter , who had commanded a brigade in the Kokoda Track campaign . Unlike most reliefs of senior officers in SWPA this relief , while controversial at the time , has attracted little attention since .
Adjusting to jungle warfare was a challenge for both Morshead and his men . Gavin Long recalled that
Morshead picked up the day 's Intelligence Summary and read something like : " The gun at 965476 is now identified as a light AA gun . A Jap was killed by a booby trap at 543267 " , and gestured as much as to say what kind of war is this ? He has come back from a war in which divisions fought divisions , and artillery barrages on the maximum scale were used to one in which it is news that there is one Jap gun in a certain area , and a scout is killed at a certain point .
On 7 November 1943 , Morshead became acting commander of New Guinea Force and Second Army on Mackay 's departure to become the Australian High Commissioner to India . This became permanent on 20 January 1944 . Major General Frank Berryman became commander of II Corps . Because of some sensitivities concerning the relative seniority of Berryman and Major General George Alan Vasey , Blamey placed Vasey 's 7th Division directly under Morshead 's command . Vasey soon chafed under Morshead 's command , feeling that " he has too many favourites both individually and collectively " , with men who had served at El Alamein receiving preferential treatment . Morshead was in overall charge of the forces in New Guinea in the battles of Sattelberg , Jivevaneng , Sio and Shaggy Ridge . His perseverance was rewarded with the capture of Madang in April 1944 .
= = = Borneo Campaign = = =
Morshead handed over command of New Guinea Force to Lieutenant General Stanley Savige on 6 May 1944 , and returned to Australia , where he remained the commander of the Second Army . Despite the fact that Morshead had been in command in an active area , some critics of the government picked up on the public announcement in November that Morshead would command Second Army , and charged that he had been " shelved " . On the contrary , Blamey had recommended to Curtin that Morshead should succeed him as Commander in Chief in the event that he became incapacitated . However , dealing with the politicians held little appeal for Morshead , and while he was pleased at the recognition , hoped that this would not occur .
In the event , this was not the end of Morshead 's wartime service , just a respite . In July 1944 , Morshead was appointed as commander of I Corps on the Atherton Tableland . Although nominally a lesser command , it would be the spearhead of the Australian Army in subsequent operations . The staff was that of Morshead 's former II Corps , as the I and II Corps headquarters had exchanged names . In February 1945 , Morshead received word that his objective would be Borneo . General Douglas MacArthur placed I Corps under his direct command for the operation . Morshead had to make a series of landings at Tarakan , North Borneo and Balikpapan on the east and north west coasts of the island . These were carried out with great efficiency , achieving their objectives with low casualties .
The British government proposed that British Lieutenant General Sir Charles Keightley be given command of a Commonwealth Corps for Operation Coronet , the proposed invasion of Honshu , the main island of Japan , but the Australian government had no intention of concurring with the appointment of an officer with no experience fighting the Japanese , and counter @-@ proposed Morshead for the command . The war ended before the issue was resolved .
= = Post @-@ war life = =
After the war Morshead returned to civilian life , becoming the Orient Steam Navigation Company 's Australian general manager on 31 December 1947 . He continued to receive honours for his military service , including a further mention in despatches in 1947 and the American Medal of Freedom with Silver Palm . He was president of the Bank of New South Wales , the chairman of David Jones , and director of several companies . From 1950 Morshead headed ' The Association ' , a secret organization similar to the New Guard movement with which he had been involved in the mid @-@ 1920s , and which was prepared to oppose communist attempts at subversion . It was quietly disbanded in 1952 .
In later life , Morshead turned down various offers of military and diplomatic posts , as well as the governorship of Queensland . He did serve as president of the Boy Scouts Association of New South Wales and the Big Brother Movement , a British youth emigration support scheme , and was a trustee of the Gowrie scholarship trust fund , which provided assistance to the descendants of Second World War veterans . In 1957 he was appointed chairman of a committee which reviewed the group of departments concerned with defence . The Menzies government accepted the committee 's recommendation that Supply and Defence Production be amalgamated , but dropped the key proposal that the Department of Defence absorb the Departments of Army , Navy and Air . This reform was finally carried out by the Whitlam government in 1975 .
Morshead died of cancer on 26 September 1959 at St Vincent 's Hospital , Sydney . He was given a military funeral at which former soldiers of the 9th Division paid their respects , after which his body was cremated . He was survived by his wife and daughter . Morshead was commemorated in several ways . The road Morshead Drive which runs past the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in Canberra is named after him . In the Canberra suburb of Lyneham is the Morshead War Veterans Home , with high @-@ dependency care and associated self @-@ care two @-@ bedroom houses . His portrait by Ivor Hele is held by the Australian War Memorial , as are his wartime papers .
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= Jim Thome =
James Howard " Jim " Thome ( / ˈtoʊmi / ; born August 27 , 1970 ) is a retired American baseball player who played 22 seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) , from 1991 to 2012 . He played for six different teams , most notably the Cleveland Indians during the 1990s and the Philadelphia Phillies in the early 2000s . A prolific power hitter , Thome hit 612 home runs during his career — the seventh @-@ most all time — along with 2 @,@ 328 hits , 1 @,@ 699 runs batted in ( RBIs ) , and a .276 batting average . He was a member of five All @-@ Star teams and won a Silver Slugger Award in 1996 .
Thome grew up in Peoria , Illinois , as part of a large blue @-@ collar family of athletes , who predominantly played baseball and basketball . After attending Illinois Central College , he was drafted by the Indians in 1989 and made his major league debut in 1991 . Early in his career , he played third base before eventually becoming a first baseman . With the Indians , Thome was part of a core of players that led the franchise to two World Series appearances in three years during the mid @-@ 1990s . He spent over a decade with Cleveland before leaving via free agency after the 2002 season to join the Philadelphia Phillies , with whom he spent the following three seasons . Traded to the Chicago White Sox before the 2006 season , Thome won the American League Comeback Player of the Year Award that year and reached the 500 home run club during his three @-@ season tenure with the team . By this point in his career , back pain limited Thome to being a designated hitter . After stints with the Los Angeles Dodgers and Minnesota Twins , he made brief returns to Cleveland and Philadelphia before ending his career with the Baltimore Orioles . Upon retiring , Thome accepted an executive position with the White Sox .
Throughout his career , Thome 's strength was power hitting . In six different seasons , he hit more than 40 home runs , and in 2003 , he led the National League in home runs with 47 . His career on @-@ base plus slugging ( OPS ) of .956 is 19th all time . In 2011 , he became the eighth MLB player to hit 600 home runs . One of Thome 's trademarks was his unique batting stance , in which he held the bat out with his right hand and pointed it at right field before the pitcher threw , something he first saw in The Natural . Thome was known for his consistently positive attitude and " gregarious " personality . An active philanthropist during his playing career , he was honored with two Marvin Miller Man of the Year Awards and a Lou Gehrig Memorial Award for his community involvement .
= = Early life = =
Thome was born in Peoria , Illinois , on August 27 , 1970 , the youngest of five children . Everyone within the blue @-@ collar Thome family played sports : Jim 's grandmother was hired at a local Caterpillar plant solely to play for the company 's softball team ; his father built bulldozers for Caterpillar and played slow @-@ pitch softball ; his aunt is a member of the Women 's Softball Hall of Fame ; and his two older brothers , Chuck III and Randy , played baseball at Limestone High School . Thome learned to play baseball from his father on a tennis court , and also played basketball in what he described as the " ghetto " of Peoria , noting that he was the only white kid there but that he earned the respect of his fellow players . One day during his youth , Thome sneaked into the Cubs ' clubhouse at Wrigley Field in an unsuccessful attempt to obtain an autograph from his favorite player , Dave Kingman . Though Thome received signatures from several other players , this experience influenced him to be generous with signing autographs for fans during his playing career .
Like his older brothers , Thome attended Limestone High School where he achieved all @-@ state honors in basketball and as a baseball shortstop . Although he had hoped to draw the attention of scouts , at just 175 pounds ( 79 kg ) he was relatively underweight for his 6 @-@ foot @-@ 2 @-@ inch ( 188 cm ) height , meaning that he attracted only passing interest — the average Major League Baseball ( MLB ) player weighed 195 pounds ( 88 kg ) in 1993 . Thome graduated in 1988 and , after not being drafted , enrolled at Illinois Central College where he continued his baseball and basketball careers . After one season , he was drafted by MLB 's Cleveland Indians as an " afterthought " in the 13th round of the 1989 MLB draft .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues ( 1989 – 1991 ) = = =
For the 1989 season , Thome was assigned to the Gulf Coast League Indians , a minor league affiliate of the Cleveland Indians . He finished the year with a .237 batting average , no home runs , and 22 runs batted in ( RBIs ) . After his rookie season , he met " hitting guru " Charlie Manuel , who later became his manager and mentor . Unlike most Indians staff , Manuel saw potential in Thome and worked hard with him , particularly on his hip motion while swinging the bat . Thome later said , " [ Manuel ] saw something in me I didn 't . " During this work , Manuel suggested to Thome that he point his bat out to center field before the pitch to relax himself like Roy Hobbs did when batting in the baseball film The Natural . The work paid off ; in 1990 , Thome hit .340 and totaled 16 home runs and 50 RBIs playing at both the Rookie and Class A levels of the minor leagues . Thome spent most of the 1991 season splitting time between Double @-@ A ( Minor League Baseball ) and Triple @-@ A ( Minor League Baseball ) where , in combination , he hit .319 with 7 home runs and 73 RBIs .
= = = Cleveland Indians ( 1991 – 2002 ) = = =
= = = = 1991 – 1997 = = = =
Thome made his MLB debut on September 4 , 1991 , as a third baseman against the Minnesota Twins . In the game , he recorded two hits in four at bats ( 2 @-@ for @-@ 4 ) . He hit his first career home run on October 4 . Injuries shortened his 1992 campaign , during which he played for both the Indians and their Triple @-@ A affiliate , the Colorado Springs Sky Sox . Across the minor and major leagues that year , he combined to hit .236 with 4 home runs and 26 RBIs in 52 games . In 1993 , playing mostly for the Charlotte Knights , the Indians ' new Triple @-@ A affiliate , he led the International League with a .332 batting average and 102 RBIs , complemented by 25 home runs . This performance earned him a late season promotion to the major league , where he hit .266 with 7 home runs and 22 RBIs in 47 games .
After seven consecutive seasons with a losing record , " a new ballpark and a few offseason acquisitions coupled with rising young stars have made the Indians legitimate contenders " for the division title during their 1994 season . The Indians ' core of offensive players included Carlos Baerga , Kenny Lofton , Sandy Alomar , Jr . , Thome , and Eddie Murray . A " promising youngster " , for the first time in his career , Thome spent the entire 1994 season with Cleveland , playing in 98 games while hitting .268 with 20 home runs and 52 RBIs . With help from the aforementioned core , the Indians held the wild card spot in the American League ( AL ) and were one game behind the Chicago White Sox in the standings for the AL Central Division lead before the 1994 players ' strike forced cancellation of the season 's remaining games . During the strike @-@ shortened season , Thome had his first career multi @-@ home run game , hitting two solo home runs on June 22 , 1994 , against Detroit Tigers ' pitcher John Doherty . It was not until 1995 that the Indians ' success led to a playoff berth . Thome was among the team 's leaders at the plate , hitting .314 with 25 home runs and 73 RBIs , and the Indians finished with a 100 – 44 record to win the AL Central but lost the 1995 World Series to the Atlanta Braves in six games . Thome hit .211 in the World Series with one home run and two RBIs . Preceding the Indians ' 1996 season , sportswriters predicted that Thome would be moved up in the batting order and bat in the sixth position ( he had hit anywhere from the fifth to the eighth positions during his first two seasons ) . During the 1996 season , Thome hit 38 home runs , once hitting a 511 @-@ foot ( 156 m ) homer at Cleveland 's Jacobs Field , the longest home run ever at a Cleveland ballpark .
Before their 1997 season , the Indians moved Thome , originally a third baseman , to first base after acquiring third baseman Matt Williams from the San Francisco Giants . That year , Thome helped the Indians set a new franchise single @-@ season record for home runs ( 220 ) , contributing 40 of them . Thome also totaled an AL @-@ high 120 walks to go along with 102 RBIs . Cleveland returned to the World Series , but they lost to the Florida Marlins in seven games ; Thome hit .286 with two home runs and four RBIs in the World Series .
= = = = 1998 – 2002 = = = =
The next three seasons were not as successful as the previous three for either Thome or the Indians . In July 1998 , Thome hit his 24th home run of that season while helping the Indians end the Yankees ' 10 @-@ game winning streak . An article in Sports Illustrated published in July 1998 commented that despite Thome 's early career success ( two All @-@ Star Games and appearances in two of the previous three World Series ) , he was only " faintly famous " nationally and was not particularly well @-@ known outside of Cleveland or his hometown , Peoria . His former teammate Jeromy Burnitz said , " You can 't really say he 's underrated , because everybody considers him one of the top hitters in the American League , but he 's surrounded by so many good players , it 's hard to stand out on that team . "
In August , Thome broke a bone in his right hand and spent several weeks on the disabled list , missing 35 games . He finished the year with 30 home runs and 85 RBIs while posting a .293 batting average . In Game 3 of the AL Championship Series against the New York Yankees , he hit two home runs off Andy Pettitte en route to a 6 – 1 Cleveland victory . Cleveland subsequently lost the series to the Yankees .
Headed into Cleveland 's 1999 season , there were high hopes for the Indians ; writers expected Thome to bat in the cleanup spot of the batting order . In May 1999 , Thome hit a grand slam against Yankees pitcher Orlando Hernández , which helped Cleveland to a 7 – 1 victory . In total , his batting average fell to .277 , but he increased both his home run and RBI totals to 33 and 108 , respectively . In Game 1 of the AL Division Series , Thome hit a game @-@ tying two @-@ run home run off of Derek Lowe that sprung Cleveland 's defeat of the Boston Red Sox by a score of 3 – 2 . However , after leading two @-@ games @-@ to @-@ none , Cleveland lost the five @-@ game series .
During the 2000 season , Thome hit .269 with 37 home runs and 106 RBIs . On June 21 , he hit his 20th home run of the year against the Chicago White Sox , marking the seventh consecutive season in which he hit 20 or more home runs . On September 29 , while in the midst of a tight race for the AL Wild Card spot , Thome led the Indians to an 8 – 4 victory against the Toronto Blue Jays by hitting a two @-@ run home run . After the game , Thome was quoted as saying , " This team has battled all year , so this was nothing new . Here we are , and we 're here tomorrow to play another day . " Despite finishing with a record of 90 – 72 , the Indians missed the playoffs . For the 2001 Indians ' season , he finished second in the AL with 49 home runs . In addition , Thome had 124 RBIs and 111 walks . However , he led the league with 185 strikeouts . He and Juan González , who totaled 140 RBIs , powered the Indians to another division title . Despite these numbers , the Indians could once again only reach the AL Division Series , where they lost in five games to the Seattle Mariners .
Thome had his best season with Cleveland in 2002 , leading the AL in walks ( 122 ) , slugging percentage ( .677 ) and on @-@ base plus slugging ( OPS ) ( 1 @.@ 122 ) , while batting .304 ( 16th in AL ) with a .445 on @-@ base percentage ( second in AL ) . He also hit a career @-@ high 52 home runs ( 2nd in AL ) and collected 118 RBIs ( seventh in AL ) . The 52 home runs set a new Cleveland Indians ' single @-@ season record and made Thome the 21st major league player to join the 50 home run club .
At the conclusion of the 2002 season , Thome , who was a free agent , rejected the Indians ' " generous , long @-@ term contract " offer ( despite their offer to build a statue of him ) to instead sign a six @-@ year , $ 85 million contract with the Philadelphia Phillies – he thought the Phillies were closer to winning a championship than the Indians . With the Phillies , Thome 's salary rose from $ 8 million per year to $ 11 million per year . Thome hit a franchise record 334 home runs in his first stint with the Indians .
= = = Philadelphia Phillies ( 2003 – 2005 ) = = =
Thome hit 47 home runs in his first season with the Phillies , finishing one behind Mike Schmidt 's single @-@ season team record of 48 in 1980 , and tied with Alex Rodriguez for the MLB lead in 2003 . On June 14 , 2004 at Citizens Bank Park , Thome hit his 400th career home run , surpassing Al Kaline for 37th on the all @-@ time home run list . He ended the 2004 Phillies season with 42 home runs . In 2004 , Thome won the Lou Gehrig Memorial Award , which is given to players who best exemplify Gehrig 's character and integrity both on and off the field .
Thome missed a significant portion of the first half of the Phillies ' 2005 season due to injury ; he compiled only a .207 batting average with 7 home runs and 30 RBIs going into the All @-@ Star break . He was only sporadically effective ; one result was that Phillies fans booed him and cheered for replacement Ryan Howard instead . He had season @-@ ending surgery on his right elbow in August , while Howard won the NL Rookie of the Year Award . The Phillies traded Thome and cash considerations to the Chicago White Sox on November 25 , 2005 , for outfielder Aaron Rowand and minor league pitching prospects Gio Gonzalez and Daniel Haigwood . Though the emergence of Howard made Thome more expendable to the squad , another factor in his trade to the White Sox was his family situation – Thome 's mother , the " go @-@ to lady " in his family and his biggest fan , had died a year earlier , and he worried about his father . Since Philadelphia was willing to trade him , Thome waived the no @-@ trade clause in his contract for the good of the team and requested that if possible , they trade him to Chicago so he could be with his father .
= = = Chicago White Sox ( 2006 – 2009 ) = = =
Thome became Chicago 's regular designated hitter in April 2006 and flourished in his first season in Chicago . He set the team record for most home runs in the month of April ( 10 ) , overtaking Frank Thomas 's previous record by one . He also set a major league record by scoring in each of Chicago 's first 17 games . For the season , Thome hit 42 home runs , drove in 109 runs , and hit .288 , though he struck out in 30 % of his plate appearances , the highest percentage in the AL . On May 1 , 2006 , Thome returned to Cleveland to play against the Indians in his first game as a visitor at Jacobs Field , and received an unenthusiastic reception .
On September 16 , 2007 , Thome joined the 500 home run club by hitting a walk @-@ off home run against Los Angeles Angels pitcher Dustin Moseley . Thome became the 23rd major leaguer to reach the milestone and the third in the 2007 MLB season ( the others were Frank Thomas and Alex Rodriguez ) , as well as the first ever to do it with a walk @-@ off home run . Several family members including his father were on hand to witness the accomplishment , which occurred at a game during which the White Sox distributed free Thome bobbleheads to fans . Thome celebrated by pointing upward in homage to his late mother as he rounded the bases .
On June 4 , 2008 , Thome hit a 464 @-@ foot ( 141 m ) home run — which at the time was the ninth @-@ longest home run in U.S. Cellular Field history — against Kansas City Royals pitcher Luke Hochevar in a 6 – 4 White Sox victory . He hit a solo home run in the AL Central Tiebreaker game , which proved to be the difference as the White Sox defeated the Minnesota Twins , 1 – 0 . Thome 's hitting remained strong during Chicago 's 2009 season – he hit his 550th career home run . On July 17 , 2009 , he hit a grand slam and a three @-@ run home run for a single @-@ game career @-@ high seven RBIs . By the conclusion of the season , he had passed Reggie Jackson for 11th place on the all @-@ time home run list with 564 home runs .
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers ( 2009 ) = = =
On August 31 , 2009 , the White Sox traded Thome to the Los Angeles Dodgers along with financial considerations for minor league infielder Justin Fuller . Thome waived his no @-@ trade clause because he thought the Dodgers could win the World Series , something he had never done during his career , but Thome 's only appearances with the Dodgers were as a pinch hitter , due to chronic foot injuries that limited his mobility . An additional reason for Thome to come to Los Angeles was the opportunity to reunite with former Cleveland teammates Manny Ramirez and Casey Blake . He hit .235 with no home runs and three RBIs while with the Dodgers ( 4 @-@ for @-@ 17 ) . After the season , Thome filed for free agency , eventually signing with the Minnesota Twins .
= = = Minnesota Twins ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = =
Thome hit his first home run with the Twins on April 8 , during the Twins ' season @-@ opening road trip . The Twins opened Target Field , their new home stadium , on April 12 , 2010 . This was the third time in Thome 's career that his team had opened a new stadium – the 1994 Cleveland Indians when they opened Jacobs Field , and the 2004 Philadelphia Phillies when they opened Citizens Bank Park . On July 3 , Thome hit two home runs , passing fellow Twin Harmon Killebrew for tenth on the all @-@ time home run list . The game was stopped and the Twins played a pre @-@ recorded message from Killebrew congratulating Thome on the accomplishment , during which Killebrew noted he was happy Thome did it while a member of the Twins . Thome hit the first walk @-@ off hit in Target Field on August 17 , a 445 @-@ foot two @-@ run home run in the bottom of the 10th inning against the White Sox . It was the 12th walk @-@ off home run of his career , tying him for the most all time ( a record he subsequently broke ) . On September 4 , Thome again hit two home runs in a single game to tie and then pass Mark McGwire for the ninth spot on the career home run list . Thome surpassed Frank Robinson 's home run total on September 11 , when he hit his 587th career home run in the top of the 12th inning in Cleveland . Toward the end of the season , Thome commented that playing with the Twins made him feel rejuvenated . He finished the 2010 season with a .283 average , 25 home runs and 59 RBIs . Thome posted his best slugging percentage since 2002 .
In January 2011 , Thome accepted a one @-@ year , $ 3 million contract with incentives to continue playing for the Twins . On July 17 , Thome hit the longest home run ever at Target Field , a 490 @-@ foot ( 150 m ) home run into the upper deck in right @-@ center field . He hit his 599th and 600th career home runs ( in two straight at bats ) at Comerica Park in Detroit on August 15 , making him only the eighth player to achieve that home run total .
= = = Second stint with Cleveland ( 2011 ) = = =
On August 26 , 2011 , Thome waived his contractual no @-@ trade clause to return to his first team , the Cleveland Indians , in exchange for future considerations for the Twins . On September 18 , the clubs announced that Minnesota had received $ 20 @,@ 000 for him , which Aaron Gleeman of NBC Sports called " silly " and " nothing " ; Paul Hoynes of The Plain Dealer wrote that ticket and jersey sales alone from re @-@ acquiring Thome covered the money they paid to acquire him . On September 23 , Cleveland held a ceremony to honor Thome , and revealed plans to erect a statue depicting him in Heritage Park . In the game , he hit a home run that landed near the proposed location for his statue . While with Cleveland in 2011 , Thome played in 22 games , predominantly hitting fifth in the batting order , and he posted a .296 batting average with 3 home runs and 10 RBIs . Through 2011 , he was second among all active major leaguers in career home runs ( 604 ; behind Alex Rodriguez ) and RBIs ( 1 @,@ 674 ; Rodriguez ) , and fifth in career slugging percentage ( .556 ; behind Albert Pujols , Rodriguez , Ryan Braun , and Howard ) . Thome was the Indians ' all @-@ time leader in home runs ( 337 ) , walks ( 1 @,@ 008 ) , and strikeouts ( 1 @,@ 400 ) .
= = = Second stint with Philadelphia ( 2012 ) = = =
After the 2011 season , Thome agreed to a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 25 million deal that returned him to Philadelphia . He called coming back to Philadelphia a " no @-@ brainer " in his news conference . He also mentioned that , due to Ryan Howard 's Achilles tendon injury , he would " spend the offseason preparing himself to play first base once or twice a week " , despite not having played defensively since 2007 . Thome started his first game at first base since 2007 on April 8 , 2012 , during which he started a 3 – 6 – 3 double play .
Thome experienced stiffness in his lower back in the Phillies ' game against the Chicago Cubs on April 28 , and early in May , he was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list with a strained lower back . At the time , he was batting only .100 . Thome returned to the club in early June , and prepared for interleague play against the Baltimore Orioles as the DH . Thome finished the nine @-@ game interleague road trip with four home runs and 14 RBIs .
On June 17 , Thome became the fourth major league player to hit 100 home runs with three different teams , joining Reggie Jackson , Darrell Evans and Rodriguez . Six days later , Thome hit a pinch @-@ hit walk @-@ off home run in the ninth inning off of Jake McGee to beat the Tampa Bay Rays , 7 – 6 . This was Thome 's 609th home run , tying Sammy Sosa for seventh all @-@ time in home runs while also setting the new record for most walk @-@ off home runs ( 13 ) in the modern era . Thome 's last game as a Phillie was an afternoon loss to the Miami Marlins on June 30 . After the game ( which coincided with Howard 's return from the disabled list ) , the team announced that Thome had been traded to Baltimore to serve as their designated hitter .
= = = Baltimore Orioles ( 2012 ) = = =
The Orioles cited Thome 's veteran experience on a playoff @-@ bound team as a primary factor in acquiring him . Orioles catcher Matt Wieters said of Thome ,
" I think you look at him and say : This is a guy who loves the game more than anyone . He 's the first guy to the park , the first guy to the weight room , the first guy hitting . "
On July 20 , Thome hit his first home run with the Orioles , his 610th of all time moving him past Sosa for seventh place all @-@ time , against the Indians at Progressive Field . On August 6 , Thome was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list with a herniated disk ; he remained on the DL until September 21 . In his first game back , he drove in the game @-@ winning RBI in extra innings against the Boston Red Sox . After beating the Indians in a game where he hit his 611th career home run , Thome said , " There 's a lot [ of ] memories . I 've had great memories on that side and then coming in here as an opponent against them . Any time you come home , they say , it 's very special . It 's even more special to get the W 's . That 's , I think , the main thing . The bottom line is I played here a long time . " Orioles teammates remarked at Thome 's commitment to talking about the game while in the dugout . Thome remarked , " I talk the game . When I set in the dugout during games I talk baseball to these guys . They 'll ask , ' Hey , what 's this pitcher like ? ' or ' What about the game ? ' ' What about all those Indians teams you were on ? ' I did it to Eddie Murray when he was in his 40s . " The Orioles made the playoffs , but lost in five games to the Yankees during the AL Division Series . Thome hit .133 in the playoffs with no home runs or RBIs .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
On July 2 , 2013 , Thome joined the White Sox organization as special assistant to the general manager . In the future , Thome aspires to be a manager , an aspiration that White Sox chairman Jerry Reinsdorf wholeheartedly supports ; Reinsdorf commented , " He can be a batting coach . He 'd be a great batting coach , but someday he 'll be a manager . " In March 2014 , Thome clarified that he is not officially retired ; while he " loves " his front office job with the White Sox , he would " have to take " a call about him playing again . However , on August 2 , 2014 , he signed a one @-@ day contract with the Cleveland Indians to retire officially as a member of the team .
= = Player profile = =
= = = Offense = = =
Thome is regarded as a great example of a " pure " power hitter , as indicated by his .278 Isolated Power ( ISO ) rating . Thome 's consistency was a draw for clubs to continue to sign him , even toward the very end of his 22 @-@ year career and after most sluggers ' productivity fades . In 2011 , he was ranked the sixth @-@ best designated hitter in MLB history by Fox Sports . During his career , he compiled a .284 batting average against fastballs but compiled just a .170 batting average against sliders . Since Thome was a pull hitter , opposing teams often employed a defensive shift against him ; by playing three infielders on the right side of the field and the outfielders towards his pull side , teams put themselves in better position to field batted balls . In 2011 , Lindy 's Sports described him as an " extremely patient veteran slugger who launches cripple fastballs and breaking @-@ ball mistakes to all fields " , though they did note that he struck out frequently , had poor speed , and should serve only as a designated hitter . During his career , he had strong power numbers ; in 15 of his 22 seasons , he had a slugging percentage of over .500 . He is an example of a " three @-@ true @-@ outcome " player ; 47 @.@ 6 % of his career plate appearances resulted in either home runs , strikeouts , or walks , the highest of all time by nearly seven percentage points . He is a self @-@ described slow runner , but has said that he always hustled . He stole only 19 bases after 1994 .
= = = Defense = = =
Thome began his career playing third base and did so until the 1997 season , when he converted to first base to make room at third after the Indians traded for Williams . Injuries , however , took their toll and confined him almost exclusively to being a designated hitter in the latter stages of his career . Overall , he spent 10 separate stints on the disabled list , mostly for his back . By the end of Thome 's career , his back prevented him from playing the field effectively – he played first base four times with the Phillies in 2012 which marked the first time he played the field since 2007 with the White Sox . By the end of his career , writers described him as being a " huge liability in the field " .
= = = Playing characteristics = = =
Thome was known throughout the baseball world for wearing high socks and for his unique batting stance . In 1997 , the Indians wore high socks for his birthday in August , but ended up wearing them for the remainder of the season out of superstition and eventually reached the World Series . Upon his return to the Indians in 2011 , the club again sported the high socks as a tribute . His batting stance featured him pointing his bat to center field prior to the pitch . Thome adopted this stance from Charlie Manuel , who was the Indians hitting coach , and since then Ryan Howard has also adopted it . Thome credits his calm demeanor to his role model during his early playing years , Eddie Murray , once commenting ,
" Eddie taught me to play the game exactly the same when you fail and when you succeed . Hit a home run , hey , enjoy the moment , but then let it go . If you strike out with the bases loaded , same thing , let it go . I don 't smash helmets when I strike out , because it 's not the helmet 's fault , it 's my fault . "
= = = Personality = = =
Thome 's friendly personality has been the subject of much attention . In a 2007 poll of 464 MLB players , he tied with Mike Sweeney for second @-@ friendliest player , behind Sean Casey . After Thome hit his 600th home run , Twins closer Joe Nathan said , " He is the world 's nicest man . " Teammate Michael Cuddyer added , " He is the nicest , gentlest , kindest guy you will ever meet ... to everything except the baseball , he still hits that really hard . " His kindness comes up in conversations with many MLB players . When he signed with the Phillies in the offseason before the 2012 season , Phillies general manager Rubén Amaro , Jr. cited Thome 's constant positive attitude as a main reason for his signing . As an exercise in remaining humble , he annually visited his high school prior to spring training . A Sports Illustrated article said that Thome frequently signs autographs for fans and that he is " endlessly patient with requests " . In a piece for Philadelphia magazine discussing Thome 's Baseball Hall of Fame prospects , sportswriter Stephen Silver wrote ,
" It 's not just the numbers . Thanks to his gregarious personality , Thome is the rare athlete who played in several cities and was beloved everywhere he went . I saw the Twins and Phillies play each other in Philadelphia when Thome was with the Twins , and the same two teams in Minnesota two years later when Thome was a Phillie , and the opposing crowd cheered Thome both times , even when he hit home runs for the road team . Thome was similarly loved in his long stints in Cleveland and Chicago , as well as shorter runs in Los Angeles and Baltimore . "
A fan poll in The Plain Dealer in 2003 named him the most popular athlete in Cleveland sports history .
= = = Career legacy = = =
Despite his injuries throughout his later years , Thome totaled , according to Fangraphs , 71 @.@ 6 Wins Above Replacement ( WAR ) , a sabermetrics baseball statistic intended to quantify a player 's total contributions to a team . He was one of few players whose prime was during the steroid era and was not suspected of using steroids ; Thome adamantly denies ever using performance @-@ enhancing drugs . Soon after the announcement of his front office position ( which signified the end of his playing career ) , writers began to speculate as to whether or not Thome would make it to the Baseball Hall of Fame , and more specifically , whether he would gain entrance in his first year of eligibility in 2018 . Writers also questioned whether Thome 's candidacy would be hindered by his lack of self @-@ promotion and others ' tendency to overlook him .
= = Personal life = =
Thome and his wife , Andrea , have two children , Lila Grace and Landon . He has also established funds to put his 10 nieces and nephews through college . During the offseason he lives in Burr Ridge , Illinois . ESPN 's SportsCenter reported that shortly after his nephew , Brandon , was paralyzed in an accident , he asked Thome to hit a home run for him ; Thome obliged , hitting two in the subsequent game . Thome is also a philanthropist and provided help to the communities surrounding the teams for which he played . In recognition of his community involvement , he was given the Marvin Miller Man of the Year Award in 2001 and 2004 , and the Lou Gehrig Memorial Award in 2004 . In 2013 , after the November 17 , 2013 tornado outbreak struck Washington , Illinois , just 15 miles from his hometown , he and his wife pledged to donate $ 100 @,@ 000 to relief efforts . Among the philanthropic endeavors Thome and his wife heavily support are Children 's Home + Aid , which strives to help underprivileged children predominantly with finding care ( e.g. , foster care , adoption , etc . ) , and an annual benefit to raise money for the Children 's Hospital of Illinois , continuing a tradition his mother started years ago . Moreover , the Thomes try " to stay connected with at least one or two organizations in each of the cities " that Thome has played .
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= House of Rufus =
House of Rufus is a collection of six studio albums , two live albums ( one being a double album ) , four additional albums of previously unreleased material , and six DVDs recorded by Canadian @-@ American singer @-@ songwriter Rufus Wainwright , reissued as a 19 @-@ disc box set in the United Kingdom on July 18 , 2011 . Wainwright 's official site claimed that the collection " spans Rufus ' entire career and represents the most complete collection of Rufus Wainwright recordings to date . "
The box set 's title commemorates his five @-@ night residency of the same name at London 's Royal Opera House during July 18 – 23 , 2011 . Only 3 @,@ 000 copies were produced for worldwide distribution . The collection contains " hard @-@ to @-@ find " tracks and is encased in a red velvet @-@ covered book . While some reviewers questioned the need for such an extensive collection , critical reception of the box set was mostly positive .
= = Background = =
The box set 's release was confirmed on Wainwright 's official site on March 21 , 2011 . Only 3 @,@ 000 copies were produced for worldwide distribution . Box sets were sold for £ 150 in the United Kingdom , € 170 throughout Europe , and were available as imports in the United States for $ 350 . As part of the marketing strategy to promote the collection and concert series , Universal Music Catalogue developed a " treasure hunt " video for YouTube where visitors identified clues , and navigated links within a collage of Wainwright 's music videos . According to Wainwright , the rarities box set was a " little Rufus blast " before he began work on his next pop album . Wainwright also said the following of the collection : " There 's my old demos , a lot of them were recorded in Montreal ... when I had a very , very different voice , I kind of sounded like a little old man . There 's that and there 's a lot of fabulous collaborations with my mother , my father and some other great artists . " Wainwright had originally intended to call the box set The Rufus Cycle . After being told the title was " too sophisticated " , he went with House of Rufus , partly inspired by Lady Gaga 's Haus of Gaga . Wainwright claimed the box set 's release shortly after his father 's ( Loudon Wainwright III ) box set 40 Odd Years was " totally serendipitous " .
The box set 's title commemorates Wainwright 's five @-@ night residency at London 's Royal Opera House during July 18 – 23 , 2011 , also referred to as the " House of Rufus " ( sometimes the " Haus of Rufus " ) or billed as " Five Nights of Velvet , Glamour and Guilt " . During the first night , Wainwright performed his tribute concert to Judy Garland , recorded previously in June 2006 , and released as Rufus Does Judy at Carnegie Hall in 2007 . The production was repeated on July 22 , the fourth concert of the series . The July 19 and 21st shows included performances alongside his sister Martha Wainwright and father Loudon . The residency 's final night included a program called " Rufus Does Rufus " , and featured Wainwright performing selections from his 2009 opera Prima Donna . Stephen Oremus conducted the Britten Sinfonia for three of the performances , and soprano Janis Kelly was featured in the " concert version " of Prima Donna . Reception of the residency performances was mixed .
= = Contents = =
The box set contains six studio albums : Rufus Wainwright ( 1998 ) , Poses ( 2001 ) , Want One ( 2003 ) , Want Two ( 2004 ) , Release the Stars ( 2007 ) , and All Days Are Nights : Songs for Lulu ( 2010 ) . Each of the albums contain material that was not released previously . Also included are two live albums — the Grammy @-@ nominated 2007 double album Rufus Does Judy at Carnegie Hall , and Milwaukee at Last ! ! ! , released in 2009 — each with previously unreleased tracks , along with four additional albums of rarities and six DVDs . Musicians described as " friends and family members " who appear on one disc of collaborations include Kate & Anna McGarrigle , The Pet Shop Boys , Teddy Thompson , Martha Wainwright , and Loudon Wainwright III . Another disc contains demo tracks from the tape which earned Wainwright a recording contract . DVD recordings include : Live at the Fillmore , Rufus ! Rufus ! Rufus ! Does Judy ! Judy ! Judy ! : Live from the London Palladium , Milwaukee at Last ! ! ! , a collection of Release the Stars commentary and live performances , All I Want and Prima Donna : The Making of an Opera . House of Rufus contains approximately thirty unreleased or " hard @-@ to @-@ find " tracks . The collection is encased in a " red velvet @-@ covered 90 @-@ page hardback book " featuring lyrics , photos , hand @-@ drawn tour posters , art prints , and liner notes by Neil Tennant , Linda Thompson , Lenny Waronker , Martha Wainwright , and Rufus himself . Wainwright dedicated the box set to publicist Barbara Charone , " without whom it wouldn 't have been possible " .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of the box set was mostly positive , though some reviewers questioned the necessity for such an elaborate collection , especially given Wainwright 's age , and the higher @-@ than @-@ expected price . Will Hodgkinson of The Times wrote that a box set for Wainwright , whom he described as a " not yet middle @-@ aged artist " , was unnecessary , but that the collection " shine [ s ] a spotlight on its creator 's rare , remarkable songwriting " . Hodgkinson called Wainwright and the box set " charming " overall , but thought that the " excess of material stops the great moments from really shining out " . Hive magazine contributor Luke Hannaford complimented Rufus and Loudon 's performance of Richard Thompson 's " Down Where the Drunkards Roll " , which was recorded specifically for this collection , describing it as " achingly beautiful " . Martin Aston 's review for BBC Music was positive ; in addition to other tracks , Aston complimented " Get Out of Town " ( Cole Porter , 1938 ) and " Sweet Repose " , both demos he considered to be " unreleased stunners that betray [ Wainwright 's ] show tune soul " .
Though she noted the higher @-@ than @-@ expected cost of the box set , Helen Brown of The Daily Telegraph wrote that it served as an " impressive array " that showcased Wainwright 's range and hard work . Evening Standard contributor David Smyth wrote that " this luxurious treasure chest will be too deep for almost anyone apart from its creator " . Smyth found the Rufus Family and Friends album to be " most charming " , specifically " What 'll I Do " which features the whole Wainwright family . Brian Boyd of The Irish Times considered the box set to be " sensory overload " , and thought that the quality of the previously unreleased material appearing on the studio albums varied , but called the collection " magnificent ... from a delightfully unorthodox and consistently engaging performer " . Boyd also noted the cost of the box set , but complimented the quality of its packaging and " extras " .
= = Track listing = =
Studio albums
Live albums
DVDs
Box set albums
( * ) designates previously unreleased material
Track listings adapted from Allmusic , Hive magazine and Universal Music .
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= Port Macquarie @-@ Hastings Council dismissal , 2008 =
The dismissal of the Port Macquarie @-@ Hastings Council on 27 February 2008 marked the end of a series of events involving a project which was initiated in 2001 in the New South Wales coastal town of Port Macquarie to build a cultural and entertainment centre , known to locals as the Glasshouse . The project , initially a joint venture with the management of the neighbouring shopping centre , Port Central , was originally expected to cost the Council A $ 7 @.@ 3 million . However , by late 2007 , despite the centre not yet having opened , the costs had blown out to over A $ 41 @.@ 7 million , with interest repayments likely to extend the Council 's liability to A $ 66 million .
On 27 July 2007 , a full public inquiry was announced by the Minister for Local Government , Paul Lynch . The inquiry reported its findings in February 2008 . It found that the Council had failed to provide appropriate financial and project management and had lost control of the costs , that the project costs had harmed the Council 's ability to provide services and amenities to the community , and that the Council 's communications management strategy had resulted in inadequate consultation with the public and inappropriate regard to their concerns . The Minister for Local Government dismissed the Council and its Mayor , Rob Drew , and appointed an administrator upon receiving the inquiry 's report . Drew was critical of the process throughout , maintaining that errors had been made and misinformation had been accepted as fact ; however , the New South Wales Urban Task Force , a property development lobby group , believed the sacking served as a warning to other Councils to stick to " core responsibilities " .
The events continued to impact upon the community and the individuals involved . At a federal by @-@ election for the normally safe National Party seat of Lyne in which Port Macquarie is located , the former mayor , who was the endorsed National candidate , failed to win against Rob Oakeshott , an independent politician , and a former state member of parliament who had been openly critical of the Council throughout the drama . During the period under administration , voluntary redundancies were offered to 27 staff in order to improve the Council 's financial position .
In 2012 , the community elected a representative Council and Mayor ; replacing the administrator appointed in 2008 .
= = Background = =
On 30 March 1999 , the Council met to initiate planning for a centre to house the visual and performing arts at the former Civic Centre site in the Port Macquarie central business district . It recommended a project plan be developed by 2001 . On 21 August 2000 a Cultural Facilities Taskforce was created . In December 2000 , the Council approached the management of the neighbouring shopping centre , Port Central , about a possible joint venture on the site , and the Council endorsed further negotiations on 28 May 2001 . The joint venture was expected to cost around A $ 13 @.@ 5 million , with the Council contributing A $ 7 @.@ 3 million . The joint venture collapsed in August 2002 because the Council was not prepared to accommodate the needs of their commercial partner to make the project viable , and decided to go it alone . The new centre became an icon building under the direction of the Council 's General Manager , managed by a Project Control group including the Mayor and Deputy Mayor . The costs blew out considerably by 28 June 2004 , when the Council unanimously backed the project , outlays had already reached A $ 15 – A $ 20 million , and by late 2007 they had reached A $ 41 @.@ 7 million . This was due to a range of factors including that the Council bought and demolished neighbouring shops to make the facility big enough to include meeting rooms and conference facilities , and a drain built by convicts in the 19th century and still in remarkably good condition was discovered by archaeologists and needed to be preserved .
= = The Payne report = =
In October 2006 , the NSW Department of Local Government announced it would investigate the Council 's financial management and would try to determine whether it properly considered the impact the added costs could have on its other functions . The investigation , which commenced on 6 November 2006 , was conducted under Section 430 of the Local Government Act , 1993 ( NSW ) , which allows the Director @-@ General of the Department to investigate any aspect of a Council or of its work or activities . The report , delivered in May 2007 to the Minister of Local Government , concluded that the Council did not exercise due diligence and that there had been a failure to scope the project , and recommended to the Minister that a Section 740 public inquiry , which would be independent and have some of the powers and protections of a Royal Commission , be held . A Section 740 inquiry is a necessary step before a Council can be dismissed .
On 21 May 2007 , Councillors Lisa Intemann and Jamie Harrison , who believed the Council had exceeded its mandate and failed to consult with the community , led a public rally in Port Macquarie . The Mayor , Rob Drew , believed the centre development should be an exciting time for Port Macquarie and was critical of opposition to the project , characterising it as " slanderous accusations " and " fomenting discontent " . He acknowledged the report raised concerns about the processes behind the project , but insisted the project itself was sound , saying in a press release , " I for one make no apologies that this is a multi @-@ purpose facility which will provide for performers , community groups , which will provide for conferences , seminars and meetings , which will provide for activities never seen before in Port Macquarie . " Harrison meanwhile told ABC News , " The report has said categorically that [ the ] Council has lied to the community about the cost of the arts centre at every opportunity it 's had and it 's put a gloss or a spin on it " .
By June , the mayor was looking for political support to avert a full public inquiry . The National Party , whose members were dominant on the Council , and MLC Melinda Pavey had been particularly critical of the actions of the Department of Local Government in the General Purpose Standing Committee . Local independent MP , Rob Oakeshott said , however , that the Council should instead address the findings of the report , and stop arguing about the facts or using emotional arguments in support of it . He also cautioned against getting politicians involved , stressing that this was a formal legal process .
= = The Willan inquiry = =
On 27 July 2007 , the Minister for Local Government announced a Section 740 inquiry into Port Macquarie @-@ Hastings Council and the Glasshouse project , with particular regard to aspects of financial and project management , the project 's impact on the Council to provide services and amenities to the community , and the openness and transparency of decisions made by the Council . He appointed Frank Willan , a former administrator of Glen Innes Severn Council in 2004 , as Commissioner . The mayor expressed disappointment , asserted the methodology of the earlier Section 430 investigation was faulty , and believed the Council 's management and decision @-@ making processes would be vindicated .
After 18 days of public hearings and a total of 765 submissions , Mr Willan released the inquiry report in February 2008 . The report contained a number of critical findings . The key finding was that the Council and its Councillors had not been rigorous in seeking accurate information about the project , had been swayed by developers and supporters and had failed to plan and manage the project and had lost control of the " uncontrollably escalating " cost . The result was an adverse impact upon works and services in other areas of the Council 's operation . The Glasshouse , in the commissioner 's view , would not have been able to generate the projected income once it opened . It further found that the community had been " consistently misled " , that the Council had improperly used its support group to campaign against critics and its " communication strategies have driven its processes " . The Council had therefore failed to meet its charter . Willan recommended to the Minister that all civic offices be declared vacant , an administrator be appointed , and that changes to the way Councils dealt with their own proposals be enacted .
= = Sacking and aftermath = =
Upon the report 's release , the Local Government Minister , Paul Lynch , concluded on 27 February 2008 that it gave him no choice but to dismiss the Council and appoint Dick Persson , who had administered Warringah Council in 2003 , to serve as administrator . He said of the development , " What seems to have happened is that a reasonable community facility has been treated by the Council as an icon which must be built come hell or high water , regardless of the cost to ratepayers . " He emphasised that in his view , incompetence rather than corruption was the reason for the cost blowout , which would reach A $ 66 million once interest repayments were accounted for . The outgoing Mayor , Rob Drew , criticised the dismissal , calling it " atrocious " .
The New South Wales Urban Task Force , a property development lobby group , believed the sacking served as a warning to other Councils to stick to " core responsibilities " , and in late March , the administrator adopted stricter financial measures listed in an independent review of the project .
In September and October 2008 , by @-@ elections in the Port Macquarie area at both federal and state level gave a new forum to some of the players in the controversy . When the member for the federal seat of Lyne , Mark Vaile , retired from politics on 30 July 2008 , Oakeshott and Drew , the latter standing as the endorsed National Party candidate , emerged as the major candidates in the resulting by @-@ election on 6 September . With the Glasshouse as a major issue , Oakeshott won 63 @.@ 80 % of the primary vote to Drew 's 22 @.@ 88 % , with a further 10 @.@ 07 % coming to Oakeshott via preferences . In Oakeshott 's old state seat of Port Macquarie , former Councillors Jamie Harrison and Lisa Intemann ran as independents , between them attracting 15 @.@ 8 % of the vote , whilst former Oakeshott staffer Peter Besseling went on to win the election against the endorsed National candidate .
On 17 December 2008 , the Council announced that some staff would be offered voluntary redundancies as part of a strategy to address the $ 7 @.@ 1 million deficit it faced for the 2008 – 2009 financial year without increasing Council rates . The following day , it set a deadline of 19 January 2009 and clarified that 27 positions were being made redundant , while 29 vacancies would not be filled . The redundancies proceeded as planned , although forced redundancies down the track were not ruled out .
On 20 January 2009 , administrator Dick Persson announced his decision to step down at the end of the month , largely due to the demands of being away from his Sydney home for several days a week . He described the Glasshouse project as a " wrong decision " by the Council , attributing it to " woolly thinking with the best of intentions from people not experienced with planning and delivering major capital works . " He was replaced in the role by Garry Payne , head of the Department of Local Government .
On 8 September 2012 , the community elected a Mayor and Councillors , to form a new Port Macquarie @-@ Hastings Council . Former State member for Port Macquarie , Peter Besseling , was elected Mayor and Lisa Intemann , the only member of the dismissed council to contest the 2012 election , was re @-@ elected as Councillor .
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= White Plume Mountain =
White Plume Mountain is an adventure module for the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons fantasy role @-@ playing game , written by Lawrence Schick and published by TSR in 1979 . The 16 @-@ page adventure bears the code " S2 " ( " S " for " special " ) The adventure is a dungeon crawl where the players ' characters are hired to retrieve three " notorious " magical weapons : a trident , a war hammer and a sword , each possessing its own intelligence . The adventure contains art by Erol Otus , and a cover by Jeff Dee . A sequel , Return to White Plume Mountain , was published in 1999 , and an updated version conforming to v3.5 rules was released online in 2005 .
White Plume Mountain was well received by critics . It was ranked the 9th greatest Dungeons & Dragons adventure of all time by Dungeon magazine in 2004 . One judge , commenting on the ingenuity required to complete the adventure , described it as " the puzzle dungeon to end all puzzle dungeons . " A review for British magazine White Dwarf gave it an overall rating of 8 / 10 , noting that the adventure focuses on problem solving . It is also the favorite adventure of Wired magazine 's Ken Denmead , who described it as the " amusement park of dungeons " . Other adventures in the S series include Tomb of Horrors , Expedition to the Barrier Peaks , and Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth .
= = Plot summary = =
White Plume Mountain is set in the World of Greyhawk , a campaign setting for Dungeons & Dragons . The module is a dungeon crawl , precipitated by the theft of three magical , sentient weapons : a trident named Wave , a war hammer named Whelm , and a sword named Blackrazor ( all three were introduced in this adventure ) . The weapons ' former owners each received a copy of a taunting poem , instructing them that the weapons are located in White Plume Mountain . The poem is signed by the wizard Keraptis , who thirteen hundred years ago descended into the volcanic mountain with a company of gnomes and disappeared . The player characters goal is to follow the same path and retrieve the weapons from Keraptis ' lair .
The adventure is divided into 27 encounters across a 16 @-@ page module . Encounters are varied and each presents its own challenges . Encounter seven necessitates characters jumping from platform to platform above a sea of hot mud whilst evading erupting geysers ; this in turn leads to encounter eight and a room of permanent darkness where a vampire guards Whelm . Encounter 17 occurs in a giant but fragile bubble located above a boiling lake , with the players needing to defeat a giant crab and retrieve Wave without damaging the bubble . Encounter 26 involves negotiating a magical ziggurat populated by various monsters ( including sea lions , giant crayfish , giant scorpions , and manticores ) before encounter 28 , a battle against an ogre mage who possesses Blackrazor . A final challenge on departing is an encounter with two to four efreet if the characters have succeeded in taking two or three of the magical weapons .
= = Publication history = =
The original White Plume Mountain adventure was written by Lawrence Schick , and was published by TSR in 1979 . It features interior art by Erol Otus and David C. Sutherland III , calligraphy by Darlene Pekul , and a front cover by Sutherland . The module includes a 12 @-@ page booklet and an outer folder which featured a two @-@ color cover in the original printing ; the module was expanded to 16 pages and rereleased with a full @-@ color cover by Jeff Dee in 1981 . The adventure was included as part of the Realms of Horror abridged compilation produced in 1987 . To celebrate the 25th anniversary of the Dungeons & Dragons game in 1999 , a reprinting of the original adventure was made available in the Dungeons & Dragons Silver Anniversary Collector 's Edition boxed set , with slight modifications to make it distinguishable from the original ( for collecting purposes ) . Wizards of the Coast also released a sequel to the adventure in 1999 , Return to White Plume Mountain , as part of the TSR 25th Anniversary series of publications . The events in the sequel are assumed to take place 20 years following those in the original . It was made into a novel of the same name by Paul Kidd for the Greyhawk Classics series .
Schick wrote the module while applying for a job with TSR . He took what he felt were the best parts from his previously created dungeons and put them together to create White Plume Mountain . After looking at it , TSR hired him and published the module without making any changes . Looking back in an interview , Schick said that he was " a little embarrassed to this day by Blackrazor , inasmuch as it 's such a blatant rip @-@ off of Elric 's Stormbringer ; I would not have put it into the scenario if I ever thought it might be published . " Schick later admitted that it was gratifying to have his adventure published as @-@ is , " but also a little embarrassing , since the adventure was really just a sampler of clever ideas that were never fully fleshed out . Its central conceit , a ' funhouse ' dungeon full of tricky obstacles designed to challenge adventurers for the amusement of a mad wizard , was already a cliché even at that date . "
In 2005 , an online version of the adventure was released as a free download , updated to conform with v3.5 rules ( Wizards of the Coast periodically alters the rules of Dungeons & Dragons and releases a new version ) . The revised module is designed for characters of the seventh level of experience . Return to White Plume Mountain has also received a v3.5 update and is likewise available for free download on their website . In both of the revised modules , the classic weapons associated with them ( Blackrazor , Whelm and Wave for White Plume Mountain , Frostrazor for Return to White Plume Mountain ) have been converted into Legacy Weapons .
All four modules of the S @-@ series were included as part of the Dungeons of Dread hardcover collection , released on March 19 , 2013 . In the foreword , Schick wrote that " unlike Tomb of Horrors , the challenges in White Plume Mountain were designed to make players think , work together as a party , and ultimately win through and feel successful . Players liked that . "
= = Reception = =
White Plume Mountain was well received by critics . Dungeon Master for Dummies lists White Plume Mountain as one of the ten best classic adventures , referring to it as a " classic dungeon crawl . " It was ranked the 9th greatest Dungeons & Dragons adventure of all time by Dungeon magazine in 2004 , on the 30th anniversary of the Dungeons & Dragons game . Judge Mike Mearls commented on the ingenuity required to complete the adventure , describing it as " the puzzle dungeon to end all puzzle dungeons " . Further , when speaking to why it is one of the top adventures ever , he said that while it lacked the " sheer brutality " of Tomb of Horrors , it made up for it with " crazy , over the top , pure fun " . Another Judge , Clark Peterson , said that he liked the three magical weapons : Wave , Whelm , and Blackrazor . To Peterson , just the inclusion of Blackrazor makes White Plume Mountain a " classic " . The editors of Dungeon felt that the adventure was defined by the ziggurat and its monsters .
Kirby T. Griffis reviewed the adventure in The Space Gamer # 37 . Griffis found the background interesting , namely Keraptis having stolen the magical weapons from prominent dealers , and the player having been hired to get them back , with only a cryptic poem to help . He found the module well organized and its content more believable than most , and despite its shortness he stated , " This on the whole is a very good module . There are no real flaws . "
Jim Bambra reviewed White Plume Mountain for the British magazine White Dwarf , and rated it favorably at 8 / 10 overall . He gave playability , enjoyment , and skill ratings of 9 / 10 , and a complexity rating of 7 / 10 . He noted that the adventure focuses on problem solving , with " many interesting problems for players to overcome " . Comparing it to the challenges in the previous S series adventure Tomb of Horrors , Bambra found White Plume Mountain " quite lenient . " Where in Tomb of Horrors a wrong decision would leave the player 's character dead , in White Plume Mountain it merely leaves the player frustrated . The adventure 's tests are " designed to stretch a party to its limits , not deal death at every opportunity " .
Ken Denmead of Wired says that White Plume Mountain is his favorite adventure , if not necessarily the best . For him , it was the " amusement park of dungeons " . He describes the story arc , where the adventurers are hired to retrieve three magic items , as similar to the A @-@ Team or The Equalizer : " You 've been hired to help when no one else has been able . " He felt that while the sword Blackrazor was a " blatant ripoff of Elric " , it was " still way cool " .
Denmead commented on several of the adventure 's encounters . He felt the cavern with boiling mud , hanging disks , and geysers , was " just cruel " . Concerning the permanently dark room that houses a vampire , he commented on the ease with which one player 's character can easily hit that of another in the gloom . He describes the room where a giant crab guards the trident Wave as " basically a bubble inside a tank of boiling water " , noting the crab knows not to pierce the walls and asks , " Are you that smart ? " Also , if the players end the adventure with the magic weapons , they need to " bribe " their Dungeon Master to allow them to keep the items .
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= Plectania nannfeldtii =
Plectania nannfeldtii , commonly known as Nannfeldt 's Plectania , the black felt cup , or the black snowbank cup fungus , is a species of fungus in the family Sarcosomataceae . The fruit bodies of this species resemble small , black , goblet @-@ shaped shallow cups up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) wide , with stems up to 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long attached to black mycelia . Fruit bodies , which may appear alone or in groups on the ground in conifer duff , are usually attached to buried woody debris , and are commonly associated with melting snow . Plectania nannfeldtii is found in western North America and in Asia , often at higher elevations . Similar black cup fungi with which P. nannfeldtii may be confused include Pseudoplectania vogesiaca , P. nigrella , and Helvella corium .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described by British mycologist Fred Jay Seaver in 1928 , who called it Paxina nigrella in his monograph of the cup fungi of North America . The type specimens were found in 1914 in Tolland , Colorado , by mycologist Lee Oras Overholts ; further collections were reported from Colorado and California in 1930 . The species has also been referred to as Macropodia nigrella , Helvella nigrella , and Macroscyphus nigrellus .
In 1957 Richard Korf transferred the species to its current name , changing the specific epithet in the process as Plectania nigrella was already in use ( it is a synonym of Pseudoplectania nigrella ) . The name chosen by Korf honors the Swedish mycologist John Axel Nannfeldt , responsible for some early advances in the understanding of this fungus and other cup fungi . P. nannfeldtii is classified in Korf 's section Plectania of the genus Plectania because of its ellipsoid ascospores . Vernacular names for the species include the " black felt cup " , " Nannfeldt 's Plectania " , or the " black snowbank cup fungus " .
= = Description = =
The fruit body of Plectania nannfeldtii is shallowly cup- or goblet @-@ shaped and may be up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter . The edges of the cup are somewhat wavy , and remain curled inward until they flare out when they are very old . The external surface is covered with delicate blackish @-@ brown hairs , while the color of the surface underneath is also brownish @-@ black . The surface wrinkles when the fruit body is dry . The internal , convex surface of the cup contains the spore @-@ producing tissue layer known as the hymenium ; it is black . The stem is thin and may be up to 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long with a diameter of 2 – 3 mm , tapering towards the base . Like the fruit body , it is covered in delicate brownish @-@ black hairs , and it is similar in color to the outer surface of the cup . The dense , coarse mycelium at the base of the stem is black . The flesh is thin and blackish @-@ gray .
Edibility has not been determined for this species .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
In mass , the spores are white . The spores are hyaline ( translucent ) , ellipsoid , with dimensions of 30 – 35 by 15 µm . Opinions are divided about the distribution of oil droplets in the spores : Miller says that the spores typically have two oil droplets at either end , Trudell and Ammirati , in their field guide to mushrooms of the Pacific Northwest , says that the spores " lack large oil drops " , while Evenson claims that there are " numerous tiny oil drops . " The walls of the spores have thin horizontal ridges that are cyanophilic , that is , they are visible with light microscopy when stained with methyl blue . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the asci , are about 500 µm long and 20 µm wide . The asci are operculate , that is , with a flap at one end that opens to discharge the spores . Interspersed between the asci are numerous sterile , filamentous dark @-@ brown cells called paraphyses that are slightly enlarged on one end , and 380 – 420 µm long by 4 – 5 µm wide .
= = = Similar species = = =
Based on external appearance , Plectania nannfeldtii is similar to Pseudoplectania vogesiaca . Although this latter species may be difficult to distinguish by its less hairy external fruit body surface , its microscopic characters identify it more definitively : P. vogesiaca has spores that are much smaller , typically with widths of 12 – 14 µm . Helvella corium is another black cup fungus that appears in the spring ; it has smaller spores , whitish margins on the cup edges , and shorter stems than P. nannfeldtii . Pseudoplectania nigrella is smaller , with a hairier outer surface , a darker inner cup surface , and a rudimentary stem .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Plectania nannfeldtii is typically found at higher elevations in coniferous forests growing on wet twigs or other rotting woody debris , often in or near snow . It often begins its development underneath the snow , reaching maturity as the snowbank recedes to expose it ; one source suggests that its metabolic heat may help it melt a path through snow as it grows . It may grow singly , scattered or in clusters , and has been noted to have a preference for the wood of Picea engelmannii and Abies lasiocarpa as well as other conifers . In North America , it is found in the Western United States and Canada , where it fruits from late May to early August ; it is common in the Sierra Nevada and in higher elevations of the Pacific Coast Ranges . Its distribution also includes China and Japan .
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= 7 : 15 A.M. =
" 7 : 15 A.M. " is the tenth episode of the American fairy tale / drama television series Once Upon a Time . The series takes place in the fictional seaside town of Storybrooke , Maine , in which the residents are actually characters from various fairy tales that were transported to the " real world " town by a powerful curse . In this episode , Emma Swan ( Jennifer Morrison ) and Regina Mills ( Lana Parrilla ) become suspicious of the Stranger ( Eion Bailey ) and his visit to Storybrooke , while David ( Josh Dallas ) and Mary Margaret 's ( Ginnifer Goodwin ) feelings for each other grow , which parallels with Prince James ' ( Dallas ) search for Snow ( Goodwin ) after he falls for her .
The episode 's teleplay was written by executive story editor Daniel T. Thomsen , while co @-@ creators Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz wrote the story . Ralph Hemecker directed the installment . " 7 : 15 A.M. " was filmed in November 2011 in Vancouver and surrounding areas of British Columbia , where the crew endured difficult weather conditions . It featured the first full introductions of the Stranger and Red Riding Hood ( Meghan Ory ) .
" 7 : 15 A.M. " first aired in the United States on ABC on January 22 , 2012 to an estimated 9 @.@ 33 million viewers , placing second in its timeslot . Critical reception to the episode ranged from mixed to positive ; most critics positively focused on Snow and Charming 's storyline and praised Dallas and Goodwin for their performances and excellent chemistry . The episode was included in Reawakened : A Once Upon a Time Tale – a novelization of the first season – which was published by Hyperion Books in 2013 .
= = Plot = =
= = = In the Opening Sequence = = =
Snow White is seen in her thief cloak walking through the forest .
= = = In the Characters ' Past = = =
In the Enchanted Forest , Red Riding Hood ( Meghan Ory ) brings supplies and news to her friend , Snow White ( Ginnifer Goodwin ) . Prince Charming ( Josh Dallas ) is set to marry Abigail ( Anastasia Griffith ) in two days . Snow White wishes there were a way to get Charming out of her head as she is still in love with him . Red suggests she see Rumpelstiltskin ( Robert Carlyle ) and Snow takes her advice . Rumpelstiltskin takes some water and a piece of Snow 's hair to make a potion that will make her forget Charming . He warns that love is a powerful disease and the cure must be extreme .
At the palace , Charming struggles with his feelings for Snow . The King ( Alan Dale ) commands him to forget her because the marriage to Abigail is worth great wealth to the kingdom . Charming sends a letter by carrier pigeon to Snow begging her to come and see him so they can be together . The letter reaches her just before she can take the potion . Snow makes it to the palace but she is seized by the guards and thrown into the dungeon . There she meets a dwarf named Grumpy ( Lee Arenberg ) , who was falsely imprisoned for stealing a diamond that he wanted to give to his girlfriend . Another dwarf , Stealthy ( Geoff Gustafson ) , shows up to rescue Grumpy , who asks Stealthy to free Snow as well . The guards kill Stealthy as they try to escape and try to recapture Grumpy . Snow threatens to burn down the palace unless they let Grumpy go and take her in his place . The King tells Snow he will not let her interfere with the wedding . She must tell Charming she does not love him , or the King will kill him . Snow obeys because she loves Charming too much to let him die , but both are left heartbroken . Snow leaves and is soon joined by Grumpy and six other dwarfs , who offer her a place to stay . She considers the potion but Grumpy warns her that those feelings however painful , are part of her . Charming calls off the wedding to look for Snow and the dwarves hear about it from Red Riding Hood . Grumpy joyfully tells Snow the good news , but she has forgotten about Charming . The pain was too great to bear and she drank the potion .
= = = In Storybrooke = = =
In Storybrooke , Henry ( Jared S. Gilmore ) leaves for school and notices the Stranger ( Eion Bailey ) fixing his motorcycle . Henry asks him about why he was in town , but the Stranger only mentions that a storm is brewing . Regina ( Lana Parrilla ) notices the interaction so she asks Emma Swan ( Jennifer Morrison ) to find out about the Stranger . Emma catches up with him at Granny 's and asks him what he is doing in town , and what 's in his box . He agrees to tell , on the condition he can buy Emma a drink sometime . She agrees so the Stranger reveals a typewriter . He is a writer in town for inspiration . Emma inquires about the drink , and he reminds her she agreed to " sometime . "
The same day , Mary Margaret ( Goodwin ) rushes out the door and gives Emma an excuse that she has to make a volcano . In truth she has been going to Granny 's at 7 : 15 every morning to see David ( Dallas ) getting coffee for himself and Kathryn ( Griffith ) . Emma , who can always spot a lie , follows Mary Margaret to call out her stalking behavior and suggests she stop seeing him . Mary Margaret buys some chocolate to drown her woes and runs right into Kathryn , who is picking up a pregnancy test . Regina notices this , and warns Mary Margaret to stay away from David , and it was their personal life .
Later on in the day , Mary Margaret finds a dove in the forest trapped in some wire mesh . The town vet ( Kwesi Ameyew ) at the shelter where David works tells her the bird will be okay but only if she returns to her flock . David offers to help Mary Margaret return the dove but she declines . He follows her anyway and is able to save her from falling off a cliff . It starts to pour so the two take shelter in an empty cabin . David asks Mary Margaret what is wrong and she admits she still has feelings for him , and he is the reason she goes to Granny 's at 7 : 15 . David replies that he goes to Granny 's to see her . They nearly kiss but Mary Margaret stops it because she knows about Kathryn 's pregnancy test . David explains that his feelings for Kathryn are memories but his feelings for Mary Margaret are real . She says they have to forget each other . The next day Mary Margaret and David try to avoid seeing each other by going to Granny 's at 7 : 45 . Ultimately , they realize they cannot stay apart , and they kiss . Regina watches them from a distance .
= = Production = =
The episode 's teleplay was written by executive story editor Daniel T. Thomsen , while co @-@ creators Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis co @-@ wrote the story . Renegade veteran Ralph Hemecker , directed the installment in November 2011 . As with the rest of the first season , all exterior shots of the town of Storybrooke were filmed in the small town of Steveston , British Columbia . Interior shots were mainly shot on sound stages in their Vancouver studio , often with green screens . Goodwin stated in the episode 's DVD audio commentary that she preferred practical sets to green screens , as she found the former easier to act with . She also mentioned her hatred of her character 's short hair throughout the episode , variously describing it as boyish , a mullet , and a Jewfro .
According to Dallas , it rained on days that were supposed to be sunny , while other days of production lacked rain when they were supposed to be rainy . Goodwin added that the scene of Snow and Charming releasing the birds was freezing because of the heavy rain . Their scene in the cabin took place on the first day of the episode 's production . Her near @-@ death scene involved a real cliff , though the height was exaggerated later using CGI and a green screen ; a stunt double stood in for some of the shots .
" 7 : 15 A.M. " featured the first full introduction of Red Riding Hood ( Meghan Ory ) – though she appears briefly in four earlier episodes – as well as the first full appearance of the Stranger ( Eion Bailey ) . Bailey 's multi @-@ episode casting was first announced in October 2011 , and he appeared briefly during the conclusion of the previous episode . The episode was included in Reawakened : A Once Upon a Time Tale – a novelization of the first season – which was published by Hyperion Books in 2013 .
= = Cultural references = =
Producer Damon Lindelof had an uncredited voice cameo as the Storybrooke weatherman . Apollo bars from Lindelof 's series Lost were also featured in the episode . Mary Margaret is seen reading The Mysterious Island by Jules Verne , which is a book also featured in TRON : Legacy , a film written by Horowitz and Kitsis .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" 7 : 15 A.M. " first aired on January 22 , 2012 in the United States . An estimated 9 @.@ 30 million viewers watched the episode , placing second in its timeslot behind a NFC Championship Game between the New York Giants and the San Francisco 49ers . The episode earned a ratings share of 3 @.@ 2 / 7 among adults aged 18 to 49 and a 5 @.@ 4 / 8 score overall . The episode 's ratings and viewership made the series the number one non @-@ sports program among viewers and young adults on Sunday nights .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed to positive reviews from television critics .
Writing for IGN , Amy Ratcliffe gave " 7 : 15 A.M. " a score of 7 out of 10 , an indication of a " good " episode . She felt that Goodwin and Dallas had good chemistry , making the audience root for them despite David 's married status . Entertainment Weekly writer Hilary Busis praised Goodwin 's performance , especially when her character tells Charming she no longer loves him . Tor.com 's Teresa Jusino lauded the episode for containing a " beautifully @-@ written script that focuses on two of the most intriguing and endearing characters on the show , " effectively indicating to viewers " exactly why Mary Margaret and David ( and Snow and James ) are in love . " Jusino concluded that the episode provided " a great respite from the previous week ’ s lull , and provided not only a story that pulled viewers in , but one that provided some wonderful character detail . "
The Huffington Post 's Laura Prudom applauded the differences between the characters in Storybrooke and their fairytale counterparts ; she felt that this narrative device would help prevent viewers from getting frustrated if Snow and Charming grew further apart in one land but closer in the other . Prudom also enjoyed the writers ' decision to make David " indecisive and , as a result , also somewhat selfish , " while James is ready to leave his fiance for Snow . Prudom concluded that the episode " expertly combined all the elements that make Once Upon a Time one of the most addictive and heartfelt new shows of the season , blending emotion , mystery and narrative thrust while giving us a deeper understanding of our favorite characters . I hope the next batch of episodes can keep up the momentum established this week . "
The Wall Street Journal 's Gwen Orel wrote that " maybe it ’ s the curse wearing off , but the use of parallel worlds and stories is better and better , sometimes even gesture to gesture . It ’ s about Snow and thwarted love this week , and that ’ s always compelling . " Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club was more critical of the episode and gave it a C + . He felt that it was " the strongest episode of the series since Rumpelstiltskin ’ s first " flashback in " Desperate Souls " because it did a better job handling the fairytale storyline . However , Sava faulted it for containing predictable elements , having many of the characters acting stupidly , and for being " painfully obvious while trying to be clever , aiming for poignancy but getting laughs instead . " Sava praised Griffiths ' performance for " min [ ing ] her wooden dialogue for some real emotional weight . "
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= Cora Cross =
Cora Cross is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders , played by Ann Mitchell . Cora is the mother of Tanya Branning ( Jo Joyner ) and Rainie Cross ( Tanya Franks ) and the grandmother of Lauren ( Jacqueline Jossa ) and Abi Branning ( Lorna Fitzgerald ) . Cora initially appeared from 11 to 15 April 2011 , and returned as a regular character on 28 July . Cora is described as having " a brash , outspoken attitude and does not care who she offends " , deemed " an archetypal East End matriarch " and Inside Soap says that Cora is a " brash , loud lady who likes to tell everyone what she thinks and has absolute no shame . "
In May 2011 , when it was confirmed that Cora would be returning to EastEnders , executive producer Bryan Kirkwood said , " We all love Cora here — actress Ann Mitchell could be one of the Walford greats " . Kirkwood was keen to find a new matriarch for the show after the loss of Peggy Mitchell , played by Barbara Windsor and explained that Cora is a perfect fit . Kate White of Inside Soap praised Cora and added she could watch Ann Mitchell acting " her socks off " all day long .
Mitchell took hiatus in April 2015 , returned for a five @-@ month guest stint from July to December 2015 , and is due to make a full return in late 2016 .
= = Storylines = =
Cora turns up at her daughter Tanya Branning 's ( Jo Joyner ) house unannounced , and revealing that Tanya 's fiancé Greg Jessop ( Stefan Booth ) invited her to their wedding against Tanya 's wishes . Cora 's other daughter , Rainie Cross , ( Tanya Franks ) also arrives at Tanya 's house , which Tanya is initially unhappy about , but Cora vouches for her by promising that she is now clean from drugs and explains that Rainie 's counsellor thinks she should reconnect with her family . Tanya soon softens towards her mother and sister . On Tanya 's hen night , Cora takes a dislike to Vanessa Gold ( Zöe Lucker ) after Vanessa laughs about them living on a council estate . The next day , Tanya 's ex @-@ husband , Max , goes to Tanya 's house after tearing their daughter Abi Branning 's ( Lorna Fitzgerald ) bridesmaid dress ; Tanya does not want to see him so Cora attempts to sort him out . She tells Max that although the girls have his name , they are Crosses deep down . It is later revealed that Rainie is staying at Cora 's house . Cora then attends Tanya 's wedding , and finds it amusing when Jane Beale ( Laurie Brett ) says she kissed Greg the night before . Cora departs after the wedding on 15 April , and Rainie later reveals that she has moved out of her mother 's home .
Cora returns months later as she can no longer handle her abusive neighbours and asks to stay with Tanya for a few days . Tanya lets her stay longer , and on her birthday , she visits The Queen Victoria public house and meets Patrick Trueman ( Rudolph Walker ) and Alfie Moon ( Shane Richie ) . She gets drunk and confronts Tanya about forgetting her birthday and how she treats Rainie . Cora also guesses that Tanya does not love Greg , but Tanya denies this . Cora reveals she has been evicted from her home because her neighbour has an ASBO , but when Cora , Tanya and Rainie return there to empty the house , the neighbour reveals that Cora is the one with the ASBO . She looks after Tanya 's young son Oscar Branning ( Charlee and Neo Hall ) but he annoys her due to the noise he makes . She leaves him to play on the stairs but he falls down them , leaving him with minor injuries .
Eventually Cora is forced to move out of Tanya 's and convinces Dot Branning ( June Brown ) to let her stay with her and her sister Rose Cotton ( Polly Perkins ) . She asks Anthony Moon ( Matt Lapinskas ) to help her move her things , saying he can keep one of her belongings as payment . He asks for her candlesticks , but she says they are the only decent thing she owns , so she lets him buy them for £ 200 . She later finds out they could be worth £ 1000 , so convinces Anthony 's father Eddie ( David Essex ) to give her an extra £ 300 , but he believes them to be worth £ 8000 . Dot later kicks Cora out for laughing at her and using language that Dot dislikes . Cora arrives at Tanya 's house just as Shirley Carter ( Linda Henry ) is throttling Rainie so Cora fends Shirley off and threatens her . Tanya then lets Cora stay with her . When Max returns because Abi is worried about Tanya , it leads to Lauren revealing that Tanya has cervical cancer and has stopped her treatment . Tanya explains that she did not tell anyone because of how it was for her when her father , William , was dying of cancer . She then tells Cora and Rainie that William did not die peacefully as they thought , but he was in constant pain so Tanya helped him to die . Cora is initially horrified , but after Tanya explains further the circumstances surrounding William 's death , they reconcile .
Cora then vows to support Tanya through her illness . Cora starts voluntary work at a cancer charity shop , where she is quickly promoted to manager . Cora also returns to live with Dot and Rose . Cora suspects Max of having an affair with Roxy Mitchell ( Rita Simons ) . Max gets Roxy to admit to Cora that she attempted to seduce him , but that he refused her . Cora then warns Roxy to stay away from Max before throwing her out . Lucy Beale ( Hetti Bywater ) confides in Cora as she is unsure if she will see her father again . Having smashed Cora 's shop window , Sasha Dixon ( Rebecca Sanneh ) is made to do shifts in the shop to pay for the damage . Cora swindles funeral director Les Coker ( Roger Sloman ) as a means of increasing shop sales . When Lola Pearce ( Danielle Harold ) goes into labour , Cora helps deliver her baby daughter , Lexi .
Cora pretends to be in a relationship with Patrick at a funeral of one of his old friends . Tanya assumes the relationship is real , so Cora is angry that Tanya is interfering . Cora and Patrick then decide to start a real relationship , taking it slowly . Tanya tries to make up for upsetting Cora by replacing a bracelet she lost , but discovers a birth certificate for a sister she knew nothing about , Ava Anderton ( Clare Perkins ) . Cora refuses to discuss the matter , until later , when she burns the birth certificate and tells Tanya that Ava died shortly after birth . Tanya asks Cora find Rainie so she can be a bridesmaid at Tanya 's second wedding to Max . Rainie sends her addiction sponsor to meet Cora , who reveals that Rainie has been sober for six weeks , Rainie blames Cora for her bad behaviour and does not want any further contact with her . Cora bins Rainie 's bridesmaid dress and simply tells Tanya that Rainie refused to be a bridesmaid . Cora begins behaving strangely and angrily tells Tanya the truth about Rainie .
When Patrick questions Cora about a cake she is baking , she tells him it is for Ava 's birthday , she is in fact alive and she was forced to give her up for adoption by her parents because she was unmarried and the baby was mixed race . Her erratic behaviour continues and she is subsequently fired from the charity shop . Patrick reveals to Tanya that Ava is alive , so Tanya tracks her down to a school in Dalston where she works as a deputy headmistress . Tanya is shocked to discover that Ava is mixed @-@ race and decides to leave things . However , she leaves her purse behind , and Ava returns it to Tanya 's home , where Cora is horrified when she introduces herself by her name . Tanya reveals the truth , and Cora leaves after slapping Tanya for meddling in her private life . She is angry at Patrick when he says he told Tanya the truth and ends the relationship . Cora then speaks to Ava , and Ava has many questions . Ava says she thought about finding Cora before but decided against it as she wanted to keep the past in the past , and says that nothing has changed now , rejecting Cora . Ava leaves and Cora cries . Cora later goes to Ava 's workplace and gives her a Christmas card , and a short while later , Ava brings one for Cora . She also reconciles with Patrick but they stay friends .
As Christmas nears , Cora reunites with Tanya , and is invited for Christmas with the Brannings . At Derek Branning 's ( Jamie Foreman ) funeral , Cora delivers an honest eulogy . Cora comforts Tanya after she splits with Max . She befriends her grandson , Ava 's son Dexter Hartman ( Khali Best ) , who helps to bring Cora and Ava closer . Cora is a support to Tanya and Lauren while Lauren goes through alcoholism . Tanya takes Lauren away to a clinic , but Tanya does not return when Lauren does . When Dexter 's father Sam James ( Cornell S John ) arrives , he tries to win Cora over but she sees that Ava and Dexter are upset and warns him off . Ava and Sam reunite , and Cora eventually tells Dexter , who is initially angry but comes to terms with the relationship . Cora is jealous when Patrick picks Betty Spragg ( Tessa Wyatt ) as his dance partner , making fun of her behind her back and angering Patrick , putting a strain on their friendship . Abi and Kim Fox ( Tameka Empson ) plot to get Cora and Patrick back together , locking them in a shed . Patrick ends his friendship with Betty and resumes a relationship with Cora .
When Tanya moves away from Walford , Cora continues to live with Lauren and Abi , and they are later joined by Dexter when Ava moves to Newcastle . Cora supports her granddaughters when Max is in prison for attempted murder , but following his release from prison and separation from his third wife Kirsty ( Kierston Wareing ) , he buys 5 Albert Square , and throws Cora and Dexter out , as they do nothing around the house . They move in with Patrick , but he ends his relationship with Cora in March 2014 due to her insensitive comments that she makes to Dot following the death of her son Nick Cotton ( John Altman ) . He later tells her that she and Dexter have one month to find somewhere else . Cora steals money from the laundrette to rent a flat , but after Dot finds her stealing money from the washing machines , Cora loses hope until Stan Carter ( Timothy West ) , who she has recently befriended agrees to give her some cash . Cora and Dexter later move into a flat together . Lauren and Abi move in with her when Max is revealed to have been sleeping with Lauren 's best friend Lucy , before her recent murder . Cora becomes suspicious that Max is withholding information from the police and calls them to clarify his statement . She later warns him not to hurt Lauren and Abi any further .
Cora and Stan start dating and Stan , who has terminal prostate cancer , decides he wants to commit the time he has left with her . He surprises her with a Christmas dance , but things are ruined when Stan 's ex @-@ wife Sylvie Carter ( Linda Marlowe ) walks in on them together . Cora decides to move to Newcastle with Dexter and Ava , but after Stan apologises to her and goes with her to the station , she has a change of heart and decides to stay . Stan then takes Cora to a retro dance event , but Cora walks out when Sylvie arrives there . She goes back there with Babe Smith ( Annette Badland ) but leaves again after seeing Stan and Sylvie sharing a dance and a kiss and learning that Babe has had feelings for Stan all along .
Several weeks later , Stan invites Cora to a horse racing match in hopes of rekindling their relationship , but she turns him down as she feels she will lose him again . The same day , Stan collapses due to his cancer spreading leaving him paralysed from the waist down . Two days later , after much hesitation , Cora visits Stan in hospital to say goodbye to him , but is unperturbed by Babe 's presence in caring for Stan . After Babe privately recalls to Cora how much she loved Stan from the minute she met him , Cora is surprised when Stan proposes to her . She rejects his proposal , not wanting to hurt Babe 's feelings , but Babe , realising that her and Stan were never meant to be , encourages Cora to accept the proposal for his last chance of happiness , but told her that he 's love Sylvie more . Two weeks later , Stan passes away from his cancer , devastating Cora . After his funeral she departs , saying she will stay with Tanya in Exeter , and is then seen calling her and waiting for her to pick her up .
A few months later , a dishevelled Cora attends a charity drive for the homeless at the community centre , but ensures nobody sees her . When Abi calls Tanya , she discovers Cora has not visited Tanya . Abi is distressed and attempts to find her . Cora is found by Abi , Jane and Carol Jackson ( Lindsey Coulson ) sleeping rough in a bus shelter and at first does not recognise Abi , however , she soon returns to Walford and lives in an allotment shed and in alleyways . Babe continues to make fun of her homeless state and when Cora steals food from the Vic , she humilities Babe by exposing her past with Queenie Trott ( Judy Cornwell ) . Eventually , Cora 's friends and neighbours stage a protest , surprisingly led by Babe , at the local council 's Christmas party and they are forced to house Cora .
= = Character creation = =
= = = Casting = = =
Cora and her casting were announced on 21 March 2011 . It was announced that award @-@ winning actress , Ann Mitchell would be playing the role . Mitchell said of her casting " As a lifelong fan of EastEnders , I am thrilled to join the cast . I am a great fan of June Brown 's [ who plays Dot Branning ] and am looking forward to sharing some scenes with her . " Executive producer Bryan Kirkwood opined : " I 'm very excited to have the much @-@ loved Ann Mitchell joining us . Cora Cross is a formidable woman , cut from the same cloth as many glorious Walford women of the past , and Ann Mitchell is just perfect for the role . " It is Mitchell 's second role in EastEnders , having previously played Jane Williams from 2001 to 2002 . Cora initially appeared from 11 to 15 April 2011 . On 31 May 2011 , it was confirmed that Cora would be returning to EastEnders as a regular character . Kirkwood said , " We all love Cora here — actress Ann Mitchell could be one of the Walford greats . She 'll be returning late in the summer and is here to stay . " Kirkwood added that he was keen to establish the Cross women . Mitchell was originally a guest artiste , appearing from 11 April to 15 April but was brought back as a regular character as of 28 July 2011 .
In an interview with Inside Soap , the executive producer of EastEnders , Bryan Kirkwood commented : " With the loss of Barbara Windsor , I was keen to find a new matriarch for the show , and Ann Mitchell is a dream booking . I 've always been a fan of her work , and with the storyline we 've got planned , we 'll wonder how we ever did without Cora " . Discussing the permanent return of Cora , Tanya Franks commented : " Ann Mitchell isn 't that scary in real life ! It 'll be nice to see these three crazy women as a family unit . There 's room for lots more skeletons to fall out of the closet . "
= = = Personality = = =
Cora was described as having " a brash , outspoken attitude and does not care who she offends . She also quickly puts Tanya under scrutiny , believing that success has turned her into a snob " . It was said that she secretly wants to heal the rift between Tanya and Rainie . Cora has also been described as a " bolshie battleaxe " . The BBC website describes Cora as " tough as old boots " and to " cross her at your peril . " It continues to read : " Outwardly , Cora ’ s tough as old boots and doesn ’ t give a stuff what people think of her . But underneath all her bling and hair dye there is a sadness to her . She ’ s lonely , and wishes she had a relationship with her daughters Tanya and Rainie . Unpredictable Cora has lived on an estate all her life . She ’ s never really had any money and finds it impossible to hold down a job . Even though she ’ s always skint , she does enjoy the finer things in life . She ’ s a fan of gold , and her big earrings may even outshine some of Pat 's . This lary lady won ’ t back down from an argument and holds life long grudges . Cross Cora at your peril ! "
Inside Soap says that Cora is a " brash , loud lady who likes to tell everyone what she thinks and has absolute no shame . " An EastEnders informant says : " She 'll be a massive embarrassment to Tanya , who likes to think she 's risen above her roots and made a better life for herself . While Cora will be pretty impressed with Tanya 's lot , she 'll be quick to accuse her daughter of becoming snobby and stuck @-@ up . That 'll lead to plenty of drama and lots of comedy . " Mitchell said that Cora has a " gutsy spirit " and " thick skin " .
= = Development = =
In an interview with Digital Spy , Jake Wood was asked what kind of a dynamic he thinks that viewers could expect from Max and Cora . He replied : " If Max does move back home , they 'd potentially have to spend a lot of time together , so I think they 'd have to put their differences aside for Tanya 's sake . Ann Mitchell is a superb actor and Cora is a great character - a great addition to the show . I 'm very happy that she 's here . " Also in an interview with Digital Spy , Jo Joyner commented on the relationship between Tanya and Cora at present . She said : " I think that now we 've explored all of the history with Tanya 's father , the two of them are in a new territory . Cora can sometimes be distant and cold , but you have to remember that they hadn 't spoken for a long time . At the moment , because of Tanya 's illness , Cora is being supportive and quite ' mummy ' - but there 's always the possibility that things could take a turn for the worse with their relationship , so I think that could change . " Joyner later added : " There 's some really great stuff to come with Max , Cora and Tanya and her past . It all comes to a bit of a head . "
In October 2011 , Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy reported that Max would be returning to EastEnders with his brother Derek ( Jamie Foreman ) and teased that Tanya will reveal a long @-@ held family secret which will shock Cora . Tanya reveals to Cora and Rainie that she helped her father to die . Joyner stated that particularly enjoyed filming the scene where Tanya reveals the truth about her father 's death . Rudolph Walker revealed in July 2012 that Cora and Patrick Trueman are to embark on a fling with each other . Upon Tanya discovering that Cora had another daughter , Mitchell said that many twists and turns will follow . She added : " The whole situation has pierced her thick skin . "
= = = Ava Hartman = = =
In September 2012 , Kilkelly reported that Tanya would discover Cora has been keeping a secret from her for years . Tanya discovers that Cora once had a daughter by the name of Ava , after coming across a birth certificate by accident . Tanya questions Cora , but she remains secretive and refuses to talk to her daughter . Cora later opens up to Tanya and tells that her daughter was called Ava , but that she died shortly after birth . It was later announced that Ava would be introduced to the show and that actress Claire Perkins had been cast in the role . Mitchell said that Cora was " forced to give up Ava " adding " The baby 's father was black and he left Cora before he knew she was pregnant . She was 18 and unmarried , and at that time , having a baby in her situation was a social stigma . She was made to feel enormous shame by her parents , who forced her to give the baby up for adoption . " On the subject of Cora keeping the secret for a significant amount of time , Mitchell also said that it 's down to guilt and wanting things to be kept safe and uncomplicated . Mitchell added " It 's going to be mayhem . The implications will be huge . The family will want answers , and I 'm sure we won 't be seeing the back of Ava . "
= = Reception = =
Speaking of Cora 's arrival , Jane Simon of the Daily Mirror said " Tanya 's mum Cora provides a stark warning about the dangers of Botox . She turns up tonight looking like Ronald McDonald in drag - no wonder Tanya 's been avoiding her . " The Daily Mail 's Jaci Stephen deemed Cora " an archetypal East End matriarch " . Stephen wrote : " brash and blunt , what she lacks in diplomacy she makes up for in style , even if that 's not the way daughter Tanya always sees it . The role is a perfect fit for actress Ann who , as gangster Dolly Rawlins in Widows , was one of the Eighties ' most iconic TV females . Daniel Kilkelly from Digital Spy said of Cora 's guest stint , " During her brief stay on Albert Square , Cora quickly became known for her brash attitude and outspoken ways . " Kate Woodward from Inside Soap said the introduction of Cora and Sylvia Goodwin ( Stephanie Cole ) from Coronation Street proved that soap operas need more " outspoken older women " . She commented that the characters cannot resist a barb and say the things many people would not ; just like " famous battleaxe " Blanche Hunt ( Maggie Jones ) . Cora and Sylvia have the " edge " that cannot be achieved by younger characters . Woodward described Cora as rough and that she owned a " gob as scary as her slap @-@ plastered mug " . Woodward later said that " outrageous Rose is the perfect foil for caustic Cora " . She named them as " the best double @-@ act ever " and added that they deserved an whole episode dedicated to them .
Kate White from the publication later praised the character saying " All hail the new queen of soap — fabulous Cora is everything the discerning viewer could ever want . " White added she could watch Mitchell acting " her socks off " all day long . The writer later said that Cora has the " undisputed title of The Biggest Hair In Soap " . Michael Cregan of Inside Soap said that Cora has " proved that she isn 't a woman to be messed with " . He also admitted that " it was a real surprise " to see Cora 's vulnerable side as she listened to the truth of her husband 's supposed " peaceful death " . He added that it is clear that viewers still have a lot to learn about Cora . In October 2011 , Inside Soap readers voted Cora their " favourite soap battleaxe " over Sylvia Goodwin ( Stephanie Cole ) and Edna Birch ( Shirley Stelfox ) . Kevin O 'Sullivan of the Daily Mirror rated one of Cora 's lines his favourite . Cora said " I used to be able to walk down the street and stop traffic . " O 'Sullivan replied : " So she was a lollipop lady . " In Heat , Julie Emery called Cora " a bouffanted harridan of a mother " . Simon of the Daily Mirror later hinted that " Cora has a real soft spot for bad boy Derek Branning . " A writer for the Daily Mirror called Rose Cotton ( Polly Perkins ) , Patrick Trueman ( Rudolph Walker ) and Cora " diamond geezers " . Mitchell revealed in July 2012 that she was shocked to see that Cora has a young fanbase . She added that it is very interesting as people seem to believe there is great division between young and old people , and that youngsters respond to her because she is a tough mother and grandmother . A writer for Press Association called Cora a " larger @-@ than @-@ life pensioner " . Mitchell received a nomination in the " Funniest Female " category at the 2012 Inside Soap Awards for her portrayal of Cora . Upon receiving the nomination , Mitchell commented " I 'm chuffed to be nominated for this award , Cora 's sense of humour is so dry . I love her . She 's so much fun to play ! "
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= Pipistrellus raceyi =
Pipistrellus raceyi , also known as Racey 's pipistrelle , is a bat from Madagascar , in the genus Pipistrellus . Although unidentified species of Pipistrellus had been previously reported from Madagascar since the 1990s , P. raceyi was not formally named until 2006 . It is apparently most closely related to the Asian species P. endoi , P. paterculus , and P. abramus , and its ancestors probably reached Madagascar from Asia . P. raceyi has been recorded at four sites , two in the eastern and two in the western lowlands . In the east , it is found in open areas and has been found roosting in a building ; in the west it occurs in dry forest . Because of uncertainties about its ecology , it is listed as " Data Deficient " on the IUCN Red List .
With a forearm length of 28 @.@ 0 to 31 @.@ 2 mm ( 1 @.@ 10 to 1 @.@ 23 in ) , Pipistrellus raceyi is small to medium @-@ sized for a species of Pipistrellus . The body is reddish above and yellow @-@ brown below . The wings are dark and the feet are small . Males have a long penis and baculum ( penis bone ) , which is somewhat similar to those of P. endoi , P. abramus and P. paterculus . In the skull , the rostrum ( front part ) is less flat than in related species and the supraorbital ridges ( above the eyes ) are prominent . The fourth upper premolar does not touch the upper canine and the second lower premolar is well @-@ developed .
= = Taxonomy = =
Since they were first recorded in 1905 , when Thomas and Schwann described the species Vespertilio matroka ( currently Neoromicia matroka ) , the classification and status of small vespertilionid bats ( " pipistrelles " ) from Madagascar have remained unclear . Although several species were recorded , they remained little known . A species of the genus Pipistrellus with affinities to Oriental ( southeastern Asian ) species was first recorded in 1995 , and several later authors recorded one or more unidentified Pipistrellus species .
In 2006 , Paul Bates and colleagues reported on a collection of 44 Malagasy " pipistrelles " received by the Harrison Institute , which included several species new to Madagascar , as well as a single species new to science . This species , a member of Pipistrellus , was described as Pipistrellus raceyi . In a 2007 article , Steven Goodman mentioned it as part of a flurry of new bat species from Madagascar ; the number of species increased from 27 in 1995 to 37 in 2007 . The specific name , raceyi , honors bat researcher Paul Racey and the describers suggested the common name " Racey 's pipistrelle bat " . P. raceyi closely resembles the Asian species P. endoi , P. paterculus , and P. abramus , and Bates and colleagues hypothesized that it may be related to these species . If this is true , the ancestors of P. raceyi presumably reached Madagascar from Asia , not from Africa like most of the island 's bat fauna . P. raceyi shares this distinction with a few other Malagasy bats : the large fruit bat Pteropus rufus and both species of the small insectivorous bat Emballonura recorded on Madagascar .
= = Description = =
Pipistrellus raceyi is a small to medium @-@ sized pipistrelle . It is long @-@ furred and the body is reddish above , with the head a trifle darker , and yellowish @-@ brown below . The glandular swellings on the muzzle , next to the nose , are hairless . The dark , short , round ears bear three to five ridges . The crescent @-@ shaped tragus ( a projection on the inner side of the outer ear ) is about half as long as the ear and contains a slight constriction on the back side of its base . The wings are dark . The third through fifth metacarpals ( hand bones ) are about equally long , but the first phalange ( finger bone ) on the third finger is short . P. endoi has a longer first phalange on the third metacarpal . P. raceyi has short tibiae ( lower leg bones ) and small feet and the tail is shorter than the head and body . Forearm length is 28 @.@ 0 to 31 @.@ 2 mm ( 1 @.@ 10 to 1 @.@ 23 in ) , tail length is 22 @.@ 9 to 30 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 90 to 1 @.@ 19 in ) , hindfoot length is 5 @.@ 3 to 7 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 21 to 0 @.@ 30 in ) , and ear length is 7 @.@ 5 to 10 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 42 in ) in 13 measured specimens . Females average slightly larger than males .
Males have a long , straight penis with a notch between the shaft and the narrow , egg @-@ shaped glans penis . Near the top , the penis is haired , but the base is almost naked . In the baculum ( penis bone ) , the shaft is long and narrow and slightly curved . The length of the penis and baculum distinguish P. raceyi from all comparably sized African and Malagasy vespertilionids . P. endoi , P. paterculus , and P. abramus have more similar bacula , but that of P. abramus is more curved , the shaft and the tip are more robust in P. paterculus , and the proximal ( near ) end is more robust in P. endoi . In males , penis length is 9 @.@ 6 to 11 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 38 to 0 @.@ 46 in ) and baculum length is 8 @.@ 8 to 10 @.@ 0 mm ( 0 @.@ 35 to 0 @.@ 39 in ) .
In the skull , there is a well @-@ defined lowered area in the middle of the rostrum ( front part ) , which nearly touches the back margin of the large , V @-@ shaped nasal aperture ( opening for the nose ) . Next to the aperture are two elevated areas , above the incisors . The zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) are slender . The supraorbital ridges ( located above the eyes ) are well @-@ developed . P. abramus , P. endoi , and P. paterculus have a flatter rostrum and less prominent supraorbital ridges . The braincase is of average size and bears a poorly developed sagittal crest on its roof . The supraoccipital , the backmost part of the skull , is convex . The sides of the concave palate are about parallel .
The dental formula is 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 33 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 3 ( two incisors , one canine , two premolars , and three molars in the upper jaw , and three incisors , one canine , two premolars , and three molars in the lower jaw ) . Because the ancestors of P. raceyi lost the first upper incisor and first and third upper and lower premolars , the upper incisors are designated I2 and I3 and the premolars are designated P2 and P4 ( uppers ) and p2 and p4 ( lowers ) . I2 has a well @-@ developed second cusp in addition to the main cusp and I3 about reaches the height of the second cusp of I2 . The stout upper canine bears a single cusp . P2 is prominent and is displaced slightly towards the inner side of the toothrow . P4 does not contact the canine . The first and second upper molar ( M1 and M2 ) are about equally large , but M3 is smaller . Each of the lower incisors bears three cusps and the third ( i3 ) may touch the lower canine ( c1 ) . The latter tooth has a second cusp , which reaches higher than i3 . The p2 touches the back of c1 and attains between 59 @-@ 100 % the crown area of p4 . The first two lower molars ( m1 and m2 ) have the back group of cusps ( talonid ) larger than the front one ( trigonid ) , and m3 is again smaller .
= = Distribution , ecology , and behavior = =
Pipistrellus raceyi is known from four places on Madagascar , all below 80 m ( 260 ft ) altitude , of which two are on the west and two on the east side of the island . Among the eastern collection sites , Kianjavato is a rural town surrounded by farmland and secondary forests , where P. raceyi were collected while leaving a hollow in the concrete wall of a house and in a mistnet over a river , and Tampolo is in a heavily disturbed agriculturally used area . Both western localities , Kirindy and Mikea , are in dry forest . In Kirindy , the pipistrelle Hypsugo anchietae has also been recorded . The true distribution of P. raceyi is probably larger than that currently known . Nothing is known about the diet , but vespertilionid bats generally eat insects .
There is very limited data on reproduction . Young are probably born near the start of the rainy season , in November – December , when food is plentiful . Six bats were caught at the roost site in Kianjavato , of which only one was a male ; this led Bates and colleagues to suggest that the species may be polygynous , with groups consisting of a male and multiple females .
= = Conservation status = =
The IUCN Red List has assessed Pipistrellus raceyi as " Data Deficient " because of insufficient knowledge about its abundance and habitat requirements . All four known sites are near forest , but that may be a sampling artifact . Although deforestation may pose a threat , each of the collection sites has some sort of forest protection measures in place .
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= 58th National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game =
The 58th National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game , also known as the 2011 National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game presented by Discover , was the National Hockey League 's ( NHL ) annual All @-@ Star Game played on January 30 , 2011 . The game took place during the 2010 – 11 NHL season at the RBC Center in Raleigh , North Carolina , home of the Carolina Hurricanes . Originally , the Game was supposed to be hosted by the Phoenix Coyotes , but due to ownership issues , the NHL decided to move the game . After bidding for the game reopened , it was awarded to Carolina and fulfilled a nine @-@ year @-@ old promise made to the franchise by NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman .
The 2011 version of the All @-@ Star Game featured a break from the traditional way in which teams were organized . Instead of using conferences or player nationalities as in the past , teams were selected by captains in a fantasy draft days prior to the game . Fans still elected players to the All @-@ Star Game , but instead of the traditional 12 starters ( six for each team ) , they elected only six players , with the remaining 36 players involved in the game selected by the NHL . Sidney Crosby received the most votes of any player , but due to a concussion he was unable to participate in the game . The participating players voted for team captains , selecting Nicklas Lidstrom of the Detroit Red Wings and Eric Staal of the Hurricanes .
Staal won the first pick in the draft and selected longtime teammate Cam Ward , while the Toronto Maple Leafs ' Phil Kessel was the last player chosen . The annual SuperSkills Competition was held the night before the Game and featured Alexander Ovechkin winning his third consecutive Breakaway Challenge . In addition , Zdeno Chara broke his own SuperSkills Competition record for hardest shot at 105 @.@ 9 mph ( 170 @.@ 4 km / hr ) . Team Staal won the contest 33 – 22 .
Team Lidstrom won the game 11 – 10 , the 21 combined goals was the fourth highest total scored in an NHL All @-@ Star Game . The first Penalty shot in All @-@ Star Game history was called after Ovechkin threw his stick to break @-@ up a Matt Duchene breakaway . Registering one goal and two assists , Patrick Sharp of the losing Team Staal won the Most Valuable Player Award . Jeff Skinner was the youngest player to ever play in an NHL All @-@ Star Game . Shea Weber recorded four assists , making him only the second defenceman to accomplish the feat in one All @-@ Star Game . Fellow defenceman Lidstrom registered a + 7 rating , the highest in an All @-@ Star Game since 1991 . Winning goaltender Tim Thomas became the first goaltender in NHL history to win three consecutive All @-@ Star Games .
= = Background = =
The 58th National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game was originally scheduled to be hosted by the Phoenix Coyotes at Jobing.com Arena in Glendale , Arizona . However , due to the ongoing bankruptcy case , potential ownership changes in the Coyotes organization , and the possibility of relocation , the NHL decided to reopen bidding to host the game . In the bidding process , 14 teams made bids for All @-@ Star Games or NHL Drafts for the next three years . Out of all the bids , the NHL chose the Carolina Hurricanes to be the new host team and on April 7 , 2010 , the announcement was made by NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman and Hurricanes President and General Manager Jim Rutherford .
The awarding of the All @-@ Star Game fulfilled a nine @-@ year @-@ old promise Bettman made to the city of Raleigh . In 2001 , he promised the organization that they would host an All @-@ Star Game if the season ticket base reached 12 @,@ 000 . After reaching that plateau , Bettman indicated that other community assets were still required to secure a bid . Most notably , a proper convention center for ancillary events was needed , along with a four @-@ star hotel , which was completed in 2009 with the new Raleigh Convention Center and adjoining Raleigh Marriott City Center in downtown Raleigh .
Three months after receiving the All @-@ Star Game , the Hurricanes unveiled the logo for the 2011 game . The logo was designed with some homage to the host team and city hidden within it . The shape of the logo is similar to the Hurricanes primary logo , along with the team colors of red , black and silver . The banners at the top and bottom of the logo are inspired by the state flag of North Carolina .
The NHL and the city of Raleigh also presented a three @-@ day festival to coincide with All @-@ Star weekend called NHL All @-@ Star Wide Open . The festivities include a series of free concerts , headlined by the band 3 Doors Down , interactive games and attractions , special appearances , Hockey Hall of Fame trophy and memorabilia displays , pin trading and trading card zones and a street party similar to the city 's own annual festival , Raleigh Wide Open . There was also a charity 5K fun run , starting and ending at RBC Center with the Carolina Hurricanes " Kids ' N Community Foundation " being the beneficiary of the raised funds .
= = New format = =
On November 10 , 2010 , the National Hockey League Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) unveiled a new format for selecting the NHL All @-@ Star teams : the traditional conference format was replaced by a " fantasy draft . " Fans voted for six players , from either conference ( three forwards , two defencemen and one goaltender ) , and the NHL selected another 36 players , for a total of 42 players . The chosen players then appointed two captains ; the NHL and NHLPA , with input from the players , named two alternate captains for each team . Each team had two forwards and one defenceman as its captain and alternates . The captains and alternates selected their team members in a fantasy @-@ style draft held on January 28 , 2011 . The first pick was determined by a coin toss , with alternating picks after the first . Teams consisted of three goaltenders , six defencemen and 12 forwards . Although the draft rules did not dictate a strict order in which positions had to be filled , to guarantee the final picks were not constrained by having to satisfy roster composition rules , the teams ' three goaltenders had to be chosen by the end of round ten , and all defencemen had to be chosen by the end of round 15 . According to NHL Vice President of Hockey and Business Development Brendan Shanahan , the new format was introduced to add excitement and intrigue into all the events , while make it more fun for everyone involved .
For 2011 , the NHL eliminated the YoungStars Game which had been played in the previous five All @-@ Star weekends . However , rookies were still featured at the Super Skills Competition . A group of 12 Calder Trophy @-@ eligible players were split into two groups of six . At the conclusion of the fantasy draft 's 15th round , one rookie was selected from the 12 to choose which team his group would join for the competition .
This was the first time the traditional " East vs. West " format was not used since 2002 , when the World All @-@ Star Team defeated North America 8 – 5 in Los Angeles .
= = The Guardian Project = =
During the All @-@ Star weekend , the NHL announced a new " superhero franchise " , The Guardian Project . Created by comic book writer Stan Lee , the project featured 30 new superheroes representing the 30 NHL teams , all which were unveiled at the All @-@ Star Game . The goal of the project was to appeal to pre @-@ teen and teenage boys in hopes of bringing in " new audience to the NHL , while engaging the existing , established hockey fan base through a compelling tale of good vs. evil . "
= = Voting = =
One hundred players were chosen to be on the ballot for the All @-@ Star Game ( minimum of two players from each team ) , but fans were also given the option to write in any player who was not listed . Ballots were all digital for the fourth consecutive time , giving fans the ability to cast votes online at NHL.com and Facebook . Votes could also be cast via text messages from mobile devices and Smartphone users could vote by way of a mobile ballot feature . The NHL put no limitation on the number of votes an individual could cast . When fan balloting ended , 14 @.@ 3 million votes had been cast and the top six were named to the All @-@ Star Game . The six top vote recipients were from only two teams , the Pittsburgh Penguins ( 4 ) and Chicago Blackhawks ( 2 ) . Individually , Sidney Crosby led all players with 635 @,@ 509 votes , while teammate Kris Letang was elected as a write @-@ in candidate . The six players elected by the fans are listed below with their vote totals .
= = Draft = =
After naming the remaining All @-@ Stars , each player voted for team captains . The players selected the 12 @-@ time All @-@ Star , Nicklas Lidstrom , and the captain of the host Carolina Hurricanes , Eric Staal . Lidstrom was assigned the home blue uniforms while Staal received the away whites . The NHL further named their alternate captains , placing Ryan Kesler and Mike Green with Staal while Patrick Kane and Martin St. Louis joined Team Lidstrom . Prior to the draft , the NHL determined head coaches for the teams via a coin toss . Chicago 's Joel Quenneville and his assistant , Mike Haviland , were named coaches as a result of winning the Stanley Cup last year . Philadelphia Flyers Head Coach Peter Laviolette and the Vancouver Canucks ' Alain Vigneault earned the distinction by having the highest winning percentage through January 8 , 2011 . After the coin toss , Quenneville was assigned to Team Staal , while Laviolette and Vigneault were given Team Lidstrom .
Team Staal won the first pick in the draft , and Eric Staal chose longtime teammate Cam Ward with his first pick . With the fifth pick in the draft , Team Staal selected Daniel Sedin . His twin brother Henrik was taken with the next pick by Team Lidstrom . The All @-@ Star Game marked the first time the two have ever played against each other in an organized game . Throughout the draft , Eric Staal selected players that had a personal connection with him . He selected his brother , Rangers defenceman Marc Staal , in the seventh round , fellow Thunder Bay native Patrick Sharp in the eighth round , and teammate Jeff Skinner in the 11th round . The last player selected was Toronto 's Phil Kessel . As a reward for being the last selection , he was given a new car and $ 20 @,@ 000 was given to the charity of his choice . Kessel stated he would put the money toward a cancer charity he became involved with in 2006 when he was battling testicular cancer . When the time came for the rookies to decide which team they would participate in the skills competition , Taylor Hall , who won the right via a puck flip , chose Team Lidstrom for his group . All players were allowed to wear the numbers they use in their respective teams . For Team Lidstrom , Henrik Sedin and Dustin Byfuglien both wore number 33 , while Brad Richards and Steven Stamkos wore number 91 . Team Staal had three pairs having same number : Patrick Sharp and Corey Perry with number 10 , Daniel Sedin and Dan Boyle with number 22 and Paul Stastny and Patrik Elias with number 26 . The complete team rosters are listed below with players appearing in the order in which they were chosen .
= = = Withdrawn = = =
Prior to the draft several players withdrew due to injury or , in the case of Jarome Iginla , family concerns .
= = SuperSkills Competition = =
The SuperSkills competition began with the Fastest Skater competition , where the competitors skated one lap around the rink . The winner of each round earned a point for their team . The opening round was skated backwards , followed by each team 's rookie representative . Then two goaltenders skated off before returning to the traditional form . Following preliminary rounds the two fastest competitors from each team faced off in a final round , where Michael Grabner defeated Taylor Hall earning two points for Team Staal . The Breakaway Challenge featured six players ( three from each team ) taking four shoot @-@ out attempts . Fans voted for the winner via text message . The winner earned four points for his team . Second place was awarded three points and third received one point . Alexander Ovechkin won by a wide margin defeating second place P. K. Subban by over 17 percentage points , it was the third consecutive win in the competition by Ovechkin . Loui Eriksson finished third to round out the point earners from the competition . The Shooting Accuracy featured two players shooting targets in the four corners of the net . Winners were determined by the fastest player to hit all four targets . Daniel Sedin hit all four targets on four shots in his first round setting the overall fastest time hitting them all in just 7 @.@ 3 seconds . He followed that up by hitting four in five shots during the final round to defeat the Blackhawks ' Patrick Kane .
Following Shooting Accuracy , both teams participated in the Skills Challenge Relay . Each team broke into two groups and went through a series of drills designed to showcase players ' skills . It started with one timers , then proceeded to passing , where a single player had to complete a pass into six small nets . From there it went to the Puck Control Relay , having a participant skate through a series of cones with a puck . Another player then took on the Stick Handling drill , controlling a puck through a series of stationary pucks . The relay ended when a final player completed the Shooting Accuracy , again hitting all four targets . The two groups from Team Lidstrom finished first and third in the competition , gaining their team a total of five points . During the Hardest Shot competition reigning champion Zdeno Chara was defeated in his preliminary round match up by Shea Weber . In the final round , Chara again matched up with Weber . Chara successfully defended his title by defeating Weber with a shot registering 105 @.@ 9 mph . The speed set a new SuperSkills record surpassing his own record and marking the fourth time he has won the event . Despite being down by a large margin prior to the Elimination Shootout , Team Lidstrom still had an opportunity to win the contest . Players continued to shoot provided they scored – scoring one point per goal , until only one player remained . However , the shoot @-@ out was won by Team Staal 's Corey Perry as he was the only player to score in all three of his attempts . The full results are listed below .
= = Game play = =
The scoring started early in the game as Team Staal 's Alexander Ovechkin scored the game 's first goal in just 50 seconds into the first period . When he took his first shift Jeff Skinner officially became the youngest player to play in an All @-@ Star game ( 18 years , 259 days ) surpassing the mark set in 1984 by Steve Yzerman by eight days . By the time Claude Giroux scored , less than five minutes later , Team Staal had opened up a 4 – 0 lead . Team Lidstrom 's Marc @-@ Andre Fleury allowed the four goals on only nine shots while his counterpart Cam Ward stopped the first four shots he faced . The tide turned a little over halfway through the first period when Anze Kopitar scored on a backhand shot . Team Lidstrom completed the first period comeback with under four minutes left in the period when Eriksson and Matt Duchene scored 23 seconds apart to tie the game at four . Team Lidstrom finished the period scoring on four of their final ten shots .
Team Staal recaptured the lead early in the second with goals by Patrick Sharp and Kris Letang . They were unable to hold the lead though as Team Lidstrom tied the game at six with a second goal from Kopitar and one by Steven Stamkos . They quickly took their first lead on a goal by Daniel Briere just 1 : 20 later , ending the period up 7 – 6 .
Early in the third period Eric Staal tied the game at seven with his first goal of the game . Minutes later Duchene got a breakaway , but before he could take a shot , Ovechkin threw his stick at the puck , resulting in the first penalty shot in All @-@ Star game history , and only the third penalty assessed during the past ten years of All @-@ Star competition . Duchene took the shot against Henrik Lundqvist , who stopped the attempt . Kris Letang scored shortly after the penalty shot to give back the lead to Team Staal . Briere scored a little over a minute later assisted by Weber and Henrik Sedin to re @-@ tie the game . Weber 's assist was his fourth of the game making him the second defenceman in history to record four assists in an All @-@ Star Game ( Ray Bourque , 1985 ) . Team Lidstrom added two more goals before Rick Nash scored to cut the deficit to one . With about a minute and a half left in the game , Team Staal pulled their goaltender for the extra attacker . The decision backfired as Eriksson scored on the empty net with 1 : 11 remaining . Eric Staal scored with 33 @.@ 6 seconds reaming to bring his team back within one goal , but they failed to get another shot on goal before time ran out . By coming back from a four @-@ goal deficit to win the game Team Lidstrom set the record for biggest comeback victory in All @-@ Star history . Lidstrom finished the game with a + 7 rating , the highest rating since 1991 when Adam Oates was also a + 7 for the Wales Conference . Tim Thomas earned the victory becoming the first goaltender to win three straight All @-@ Star Games . Patrick Sharp was named Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) after registering one goal and two assists in a losing cause for Team Staal . The combined 21 goals was the fourth highest total in NHL All @-@ Star Game history .
= = = Summary = = =
W – Tim Thomas L – Henrik Lundqvist
Key
Player1 ( Player2 , Player3 ) 1 : 00 denotes that Player1 scored a goal after 1 : 00 , with assists from Player2 and Player3 .
GWG denotes the game @-@ winning goal .
EN denotes an empty net goal
W denotes the goaltender awarded the win .
L denotes the goaltender assigned the loss .
Source : NHL
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= Ilyushin Il @-@ 30 =
The Ilyushin Il @-@ 30 was a Soviet turbojet @-@ powered tactical bomber designed as a higher @-@ performance , swept wing version of the Ilyushin Il @-@ 28 in the late 1940s . Its thin wing and engine nacelles necessitated the use of tandem landing gear , the first Soviet aircraft to do so . It was apparently canceled before the prototype made its first flight , although sources disagree on this .
= = Development = =
The Il @-@ 30 was a follow @-@ on to the Il @-@ 28 , although design began on 21 June 1948 , before the Il @-@ 28 had flown . It was designed to meet a requirement for a jet bomber that could carry 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) to a range of 3 @,@ 500 km ( 2 @,@ 200 mi ) with a maximum speed no less than 1 @,@ 000 km / h ( 620 mph ) . The design took that of the Il @-@ 28 as a starting point , but had thin , mid @-@ mounted swept wings with a 35 ° sweep angle chosen to allow the aircraft to reach its required speed . It was intended to be powered by two new Lyulka TR @-@ 3 axial @-@ flow turbojet engines with 45 @.@ 1 kN ( 10 @,@ 140 lbf ) thrust each in wing @-@ mounted nacelles . Both the fuselage and the nacelles were area ruled .
The thin wing and the 2 ° anhedral necessary to cure the excessive lateral stability limited the amount of fuel that could be carried and tip tanks were required to meet the range requirement . The slim engine nacelles did not allow the main landing gear to be stowed there as was done in the Il @-@ 28 . The solution was to house them within the fuselage — the first bicycle landing gear on a Soviet aircraft — with small , twin @-@ wheeled , outriggers mounted underneath the nacelles to stabilize the aircraft on the ground . The aircraft had a crew of four , the pilot , a bombardier , and two gunners . The pilot , bombardier and the dorsal gunner shared one pressurized compartment that was subdivided into the cockpit and the bombardier 's position in the extensively glazed nose . The dorsal gunner was placed back @-@ to @-@ back with the pilot underneath the canopy and the tail gunner had his own separate pressurized compartment at the rear of the aircraft . Defensive armament was six 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) Nudelman @-@ Rikhter NR @-@ 23 cannon , two fixed forward and one pair each in the Il @-@ V @-@ 12 dorsal turret immediately behind the cockpit and the Il @-@ K6 tail turret . Maximum bomb load was 4 @,@ 000 kg ( 8 @,@ 800 lb )
The initial results were favorable , and a full @-@ scale mockup was formally reviewed in March 1949 . The prototype was completed by August 1949 , but an incident involving the rival swept @-@ wing Tupolev Tu @-@ 82 that broke an engine mount during a low @-@ altitude flight led to delays as additional tests were demanded to determine the strength of the wings before the first flight was made . By the following year , the Il @-@ 30 program had lost momentum as the Ilyushin OKB was ordered to concentrate its resources on facilitating the service introduction of the Il @-@ 28 . It was formally terminated by government order on 20 August 1950 , and the prototype was eventually scrapped at the beginning of the 1960s . Aviation historian Bill Gunston quotes a maiden flight date of 9 September 1949 , but Vaclav Nemecek says 1951 .
Although the Il @-@ 30 never actually flew , it was the subject of much ( misinformed ) speculation in the West . Some of the common misconceptions were that it had a ventral gun mount and that it was the first Soviet bomber to attain the speed of 1 @,@ 000 km / h ( 620 mph ) .
= = Specifications ( estimated ) = =
Data from OKB Ilyushin : A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft
General characteristics
Crew : 4
Length : 18 m ( 59 ft 1 in )
Wingspan : 16 @.@ 5 m ( 54 ft 2 in )
Wing area : 100 m2 ( 1 @,@ 100 sq ft )
Empty weight : 22 @,@ 967 kg ( 50 @,@ 634 lb )
Gross weight : 17 @,@ 033 kg ( 37 @,@ 552 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × Lyulka TR @-@ 3 turbojet , 45 @.@ 1 kN ( 10 @,@ 100 lbf ) thrust each
Performance
Maximum speed : 1 @,@ 000 km / h ( 621 mph ; 540 kn )
Cruising speed : 850 km / h ( 528 mph ; 459 kn )
Range : 3 @,@ 500 km ( 2 @,@ 175 mi ; 1 @,@ 890 nmi )
Service ceiling : 13 @,@ 000 m ( 42 @,@ 651 ft )
Armament
Guns : 6 × 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) Nudelman @-@ Rikhter NR @-@ 23 autocannon
Bombs : 4 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 8 @,@ 800 lb )
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= Lafayette Afro Rock Band =
Lafayette Afro Rock Band was an American funk rock band formed in Roosevelt , Long Island , New York that relocated to France in 1970 . Though almost unknown in their native United States , they are now universally celebrated as one of the standout funk bands of the 1970s and admired for their use of break beats . The band also recorded as Ice and as Krispie and Company ( or Crispy and Company ) .
Upon their relocation to Paris , the local music scene influenced the group 's work , and they adopted the name Lafayette Afro Rock Band after releasing their debut LP . The band 's next two LPs , Soul Makossa and Malik , respectively included the songs " Hihache " and " Darkest Light , " which would be sampled in numerous culturally significant hip @-@ hop compositions . Following collaborations with Mal Waldron and Sunnyland Slim , the band 's popularity waned , leading to their breakup in 1978 .
= = History = =
The Lafayette Afro Rock Band was formed as the Bobby Boyd Congress in 1970 , in homage to their original vocalist Bobby Boyd . Upon deciding that the funk scene in the United States was too saturated for them to viably compete in , they relocated to France in 1971 ; with Bobby Boyd splitting from the group to pursue a musical career in America , they renamed themselves ' Soul Congress ' , then ' Ice ' . After regular performances in Paris ' Barbès district — an area made up primarily of North African immigrants — they caught the eye of producer Pierre Jaubert and became the house session band at his Parisound studio . The influence of their surroundings led Ice to increasingly weave African rhyme schemes , textures , and beat tendencies in their original funk style , and as such they changed their name to Lafayette Afro Rock Band following the 1972 release of the poorly produced Each Man Makes His Own Destiny .
In 1974 , Lafayette Afro Rock Band replaced guitarist Larry Jones with Michael McEwan , and released Soul Makossa ( released in the U.S. as Movin ' and Groovin ' ) . The title track was a cover version of Manu Dibango 's international hit , " Soul Makossa . " LP Though it failed to chart , it made sufficient impact that its standout song , the oft @-@ covered " Hihache " , was sampled regularly for over 20 years by artists as diverse as Janet Jackson , Biz Markie , LL Cool J , De La Soul , Digital Underground , Naughty by Nature , and the Wu @-@ Tang Clan . Lafayette Afro Rock Band 's follow @-@ up effort , the 1975 LP Malik , prominently featured the Univox Super @-@ Fuzz and liberal usage of the vocoder . It met equal enduring success , with a modified horn and saxophone sample of " Darkest Light " being featured prominently in Public Enemy 's " Show ' Em Whatcha Got " . The original sax solo on " Darkest Light " from the Malik LP was played by Leroy Gomez who later became popular as the lead singer of Santa Esmeralda group with the 1977 mega @-@ hit single " Don 't Let Me Be Misunderstood " . After Public Enemy 's usage of the song was highly praised , samples of " Darkest Light " backed numerous culturally significant songs , including " Back to the Hotel " , the multi @-@ platinum 1992 single " Rump Shaker " by new jack group Wreckx @-@ n @-@ Effect and rapper Jay @-@ Z 's 2006 single " Show Me What You Got " .
Mal Waldron , an American jazz and world music composer who came to fame after performing as Billie Holiday 's accompanist until her death , collaborated with the Lafayette Afro Rock Band in 1975 , employing them to back him on his unreleased Candy Girl album . Shortly later , legendary blues pianist Sunnyland Slim sought out the band 's services , and recorded the collaboration album Depression Blues . The group subsequently reverted to the " Ice " moniker , releasing material concurrently on an " Various Artists " formatted 1975 released LP " Tonight at the Discotheque " under the art @-@ names " Captain Dax " , " Les Atlantes " and " Crispy and Co . " ( spelled in French and German speaking countries as " Krispie & Company " ) . As the latter they even scored two UK charts hits , " Brazil " in 1975 made No. 26 , while " Get it together " made No. 21 in 1976 . After success faded in Europe the band found luck in Japan .
After scoring with the mildly successful single " Dr. Beezar , Soul Frankenstein " , they released Afro Agban and Funky Flavored to little fanfare before returning to America and permanently disbanding . In 1978 , French record label Superclasse released ten uninspiring , previously unreleased recordings , followed by a 1999 Best of compilation which was more warmly received .
= = Reception = =
Lafayette Afro Rock Band toiled in obscurity during their years of activity , but have now become of interest to Western critics and music historians due to their ubiquitous break beats . As a result of their obscurity , when compared to their contemporaries like Cameo , Funkadelic or Kool & The Gang , few copies of their studio LPs have survived ; this has led to , with the exceptions of " Hihache " and " Darkest Light " , the attention of critics and historians being drawn to the band 's three greatest hits albums : Afon : Ten Unreleased Afro Funk Recordings , Darkest Light : The Best of and The Ultimate Collection . Music historian Dave Thompson unfavorably reviewed Afon , but praised Darkest Light , singling out " Soul Frankenstein , " " The Gap , " " Conga , " " Malik , " " Soul Makossa , " " Scorpion Flower , " " Nicky " and " Darkest Light " as the " high points " of the " ultimate point of entry " for the band . British music newspaper Melody Maker and Allmusic critic Jason Ankeny have also both favorably reviewed Darkest Light , with Ankeny stating that it is " one of the great documents of classic funk . " The Ultimate Collection received particular acclaim from Allmusic writer Jason Birchmeier , who asserted that it was " a gem " that " you can 't go wrong with . "
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
Each Man Makes His Own Destiny ( 1972 , as Ice )
Soul Makossa ( 1973 )
Voodounon EP ( 1974 )
Malik ( 1975 ) - America Records
Tonight at the Discotheque ( 1975 , various artists )
Funky Flavored ( 1976 , as Crispy and Co . )
Frisco Disco ( 1976 , as Ice )
Afro Agban ( 1977 , as Ice )
= = = Singles = = =
Oglenon / Azeta ( 1974 )
Brazil / Love can ( 1975 , as Crispy & Co . , or Krispie & Compagny )
A.I.E. ( A Mwana ) / Super Queen ( 1975 , as Ice )
Get It Together / Down in St. Tropez ( 1975 , as Crispy & Co . , or Krispie & Compagny )
Sunara / Get It Together ( 1976 , same )
Dr. Beezar , Soul Frankenstein ( 1976 , as Captain Dax )
= = = Compilations = = =
Afon : Ten Unreleased Afro Funk Recordings ( 1978 )
Darkest Light : The Best of ( 1999 )
The Ultimate Collection ( 2001 )
= = Selected samples = =
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= Great Dismal Swamp maroons =
The Great Dismal Swamp maroons were freed and escaped slaves who inhabited the marshlands of the Great Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Carolina . Although conditions were harsh , research suggests that thousands lived there between about 1700 and the 1860s . Harriett Beecher Stowe told the maroon people 's story in her 1856 novel Dred : A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp . The most significant research on the settlements began in 2002 with a project by Dan Sayers of American University .
= = Location = =
The Great Dismal Swamp spans an area of southeastern Virginia and northeastern North Carolina between the James River near Norfolk , Virginia , and the Albemarle Sound near Edenton , North Carolina . The swamp is estimated to have originally been over 1 million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km2 ) , but human encroachment has destroyed up to 90 % of the swampland . Today , the Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge is just over 112 thousand acres ( 450 km2 ) .
= = History = =
The first African slaves brought to the British colonies in Virginia in 1619 came on a Dutch ship . At the time , slaves were treated similarly to indentured servants , becoming free with the passage of a certain period of time . Others gained freedom by converting to Christianity , since the English of that time did not typically enslave Christians . Slave labor was used in many efforts to drain and log the Great Dismal Swamp during the 18th and 19th centuries . Escaped slaves living in freedom came to be known as maroons or outlyers . The origin of the term " maroon " is uncertain , with competing theories linking it to Spanish , Arawak or Taino root words . Maroonage , runaway slaves in isolated or hidden settlements , existed in all the Southern states , and swamp @-@ based maroon communities existed in the Deep South , in Alabama , Florida , Georgia , Louisiana , and South Carolina . Maroonage in the Upper South was largely limited to Virginia and the Great Dismal Swamp .
At the beginning of the 18th century , maroons came to live in the Great Dismal Swamp . Most settled on mesic islands , the high and dry parts of the swamp . Inhabitants included slaves who had purchased their freedom as well as escaped slaves . Other escaped slaves used the swamp as a route on the Underground Railroad as they made their way further north . Some slaves lived there in semi @-@ free conditions , but how much independence slaves actually enjoyed there has been a topic of much debate . Nearby whites often left enslaved maroons alone so long as they paid a quota in logs or shingles , and businesses may have ignored the fugitive nature of escaped slaves who provided work in exchange for trade goods .
Herbert Aptheker stated already in 1939 , in " Maroons Within the Present Limits of the United States " , that likely " about two thousand Negroes , fugitives , or the descendants of fugitives " lived in the Great Dismal Swamp , trading with white people outside the swamp . Results of a study published in 2007 , " The Political Economy of Exile in the Great Dismal Swamp " , say that thousands of people lived in the swamp between 1630 and 1865 , Native Americans , maroons and enslaved laborers on the canal . A 2011 study speculated that thousands may have lived in the swamp between the 1600s and 1860 . While the precise number of maroons who lived in the swamp at that time is unknown , it is believed to have been one of the largest maroon colonies in the United States . It is established that " several thousand " were living there by the 19th century . However , fear of slave unrest and fugitive slaves living among maroon population caused concern amongst local whites . A militia with dogs went into the swamp in 1823 in an attempt to remove the maroons and destroy their community , but most people escaped . In 1847 , North Carolina passed a law specifically aimed at apprehending the maroons in the swamp . However , unlike other maroon communities , where local militias often captured the residents and destroyed their homes , those in the Great Dismal Swamp mostly avoided capture or the discovery of their homes .
Little is known of Native American activity in the area prior to 1600 , though the presence of hunting bolas indicates that the area may have served as a hunting ground as far back as 5 @,@ 000 years ago . Native American communities were already in existence in the swamp when the maroons began to settle there . Because leaving the area could inevitably lead to recapture , the inhabitants often used what was readily available in the swamp , even recycling tool remnants left by Native Americans . Since the maroons had few possessions , the few small artifacts that have been recovered have given historians little insight into their day @-@ to @-@ day lives . To date , excavation has yet to find any human remains . According to Sayers , historical archaeologist at American University who has led research on the maroons of the swamp , it is possible that the acidity of the water disintegrated any bones which may have been left behind .
Some maroons were born to escaped slaves and lived in the swamp for their entire lives despite the hardships of swamp life : dense underbrush , insects , poisonous snakes , and bears . The difficult conditions also made the swamp an ideal hiding place , not just for escaped slaves but also for free blacks , slaves who worked on the swamp 's canals , Native Americans , and outcast whites such as criminals . Maroons are known to have often interacted with slaves and poor whites to obtain work , food , clothes , and money . Some fugitive slaves plundered nearby farms and plantations , stole from anchored boats , and robbed travelers on nearby roads ; those caught were tried for murder or theft . Some maroon communities were set up near the Dismal Swamp Canal , built between 1793 – 1805 and still in operation . These maroons interacted more with the outside world than those who lived in the swamp 's interior , and had more contact with outsiders once canal construction began . Some took jobs on the canal , and with increased contact with the outside world , some people living in the swamp eventually moved away . During the American Civil War , the United States Colored Troops entered the swamp to liberate the people there , many of whom then joined the Union Army . Most of the maroons who remained in the swamp left after the Civil War .
= = Research = =
The Great Dismal Swamp Landscape Study began in 2002 and was led by Dan Sayers , a historical archaeologist at American University 's Department of Anthropology . In 2003 , he conducted the first excavation in the swamp , and in 2009 , in partnership with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( which manages the Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge ) and American University , initiated the annual research program titled the Great Dismal Swamp Archaeology Field School . This effort continues the work of the landscape study . It examines the impact of colonialism , slavery , and development on the swamp , especially on the self @-@ sustaining maroon settlements in the swamp 's interior . It also studies native lifestyles before European contact . Prior to Sayers ' efforts , no field research had been done on the Great Dismal Swamp maroons . Even today , the swamp is impenetrable in places ; a research group gave up in 2003 because it lost its way so many times . Sites deep in the swamp 's interior are still so remote that a guide is needed to find them . The National Endowment for the Humanities gave the " We The People Award " of $ 200 @,@ 000 to the project in 2010 .
In fall 2011 , a permanent exhibit was opened by the National Park Service to commemorate those who lived in the swamp during pre @-@ Civil War times . Sayers summarizes : " These groups are very inspirational . As details unfold , we are increasingly able to show how people have the ability , as individuals and communities , to take control of their lives , even under oppressive conditions . "
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= Proposed redefinition of SI base units =
A committee of the International Committee for Weights and Measures ( CIPM ) has proposed revised formal definitions of the SI base units , which are being examined by the CIPM and which will likely be adopted at the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures ( CGPM ) in the fall of 2018 . The metric system was originally conceived as a system of measurement that was derivable from nature . When the metric system was first introduced in France in 1799 technical problems necessitated the use of artifacts such as the prototype metre and kilogram . In 1960 the metre was redefined in terms of the wavelength of light from a specified source , making it derivable from nature , leaving the kilogram as the only unit still defined by an artifact . If the proposed redefinition is accepted , the metric system ( SI ) will , for the first time , be wholly derivable from nature .
The proposal can be summarised as follows :
There will still be the same seven base units ( second , metre , kilogram , ampere , kelvin , mole , and candela ) . Of these , the kilogram , ampere , kelvin and mole will be redefined by choosing exact numerical values for the Planck constant , the elementary electric charge , the Boltzmann constant , and the Avogadro constant , respectively . The second , metre and candela are already defined by physical constants and it is only necessary to edit their present definitions . The new definitions will improve the SI without changing the size of any units , thus ensuring continuity with present measurements .
Further details are found in the draft chapter of the Ninth SI Units Brochure .
The last major overhaul of the metric system was in 1960 when the International System of Units ( SI ) was formally published as a coherent set of units of measure . SI is structured around seven base units that have apparently " arbitrary " definitions and another twenty units that are derived from these base units . Although the units themselves form a coherent system , the definitions do not . The proposal before the CIPM seeks to remedy this by using the fundamental quantities of nature as the basis for deriving the base units . This will mean , amongst other things , that the prototype kilogram will cease to be used as the definitive replica of the kilogram . The second and the metre are already defined in such a manner .
A number of authors have published criticisms of the revised definitions — in particular that proposal had failed to address the impact of breaking the link between the mole and the kilogram , the dalton and the unified atomic mass unit , and the Avogadro constant and Avogadro 's number .
= = Background = =
The basic structure of SI was developed over a period of about 170 years ( 1791 to 1960 ) . Since 1960 technological advances have made it possible to address various weaknesses in SI , notably the dependence on an artifact to define the kilogram .
= = = Development of SI = = =
During the early years of the French Revolution , the leaders of the French National Constituent Assembly decided to introduce a completely new system of measurement based on the principles of logic and natural phenomena . The resulting mètre des Archives and kilogramme des Archives were defined in terms of artefacts that were a " best attempt " at fulfilling these principles .
In 1875 , by which time the use of the metric system had become widespread in Europe and in Latin America , twenty industrially developed nations met for the Convention of the Metre . The result was the signing of the Treaty of the Metre under which three bodies were set up to take custody of the international prototype kilogram and metre and to regulate comparisons with national prototypes . They were :
CGPM ( General Conference on Weights and Measures / Conférence générale des poids et mesures ) — The Conference meets every four to six years and consists of delegates of the nations who had signed the convention . It discusses and examines the arrangements required to ensure the propagation and improvement of the International System of Units and it endorses the results of new fundamental metrological determinations .
CIPM ( International Committee for Weights and Measures / Comité international des poids et mesures ) — The Committee consists of eighteen eminent scientists , each from a different country , nominated by the CGPM . The CIPM meets annually and is tasked to advise the CGPM . The CIPM has set up a number of sub @-@ committees , each charged with a particular area of interest . One of these , the Consultative Committee for Units ( CCU ) , amongst other things , advises the CIPM on matters concerning units of measurement .
BIPM ( International Bureau for Weights and Measures / Bureau international des poids et mesures ) — The Bureau provides safe keeping of the international prototype kilogram and metre , provides laboratory facilities for regular comparisons of the national prototypes with the international prototype and is the secretariat for the CIPM and the CGPM .
The first CGPM ( 1889 ) formally approved the use of 40 prototype metres and 40 prototype kilograms from the British firm Johnson Matthey as the standards mandated by the Convention of the Metre . One of each of these was nominated by lot as the international prototypes , other copies were retained by the CGPM as working copies and the rest were distributed to member nations for use as their national prototypes . At regular intervals the national prototypes were compared with and recalibrated against the international prototype . In 1921 the Convention of the Metre was revised and the mandate of the CGPM was extended to provide standards for all units of measure , not just mass and length . In the ensuing years the CGPM took on responsibility for providing standards of electric current ( 1946 ) , luminosity ( 1946 ) , temperature ( 1948 ) , time ( 1956 ) and molar mass ( 1971 ) .
The 9th CGPM ( 1948 ) instructed the CIPM " to make recommendations for a single practical system of units of measurement , suitable for adoption by all countries adhering to the Metre Convention " . The recommendations based on this mandate were presented to the 11th CGPM ( 1960 ) where they were formally accepted and given the name " Système International d 'Unités " and its abbreviation " SI " .
= = = Impetus for change = = =
Changing the underlying principles behind the definition of the SI base units is not without precedent . The 11th CGPM ( 1960 ) defined the SI metre in terms of the wavelength of krypton @-@ 86 radiation , replacing the pre @-@ SI metre bar . The 13th CGPM ( 1967 ) replaced the original definition of the second ( which was based on a back @-@ calculation of the Earth 's rotation in the year 1900 ) with a definition based on the frequency of the radiation emitted between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom . And the 17th CGPM ( 1983 ) replaced the 1960 definition of the metre with one based on the second , by giving an exact definition of the speed of light in units of metres per second .
Over the years , drifts of up to 2 × 10 − 8 kilograms per annum in the national prototype kilograms relative to the international prototype kilogram have been detected . There was no way of determining whether the national prototypes were gaining mass or whether the IPK was losing mass . At the 21st meeting of the CGPM ( 1999 ) , national laboratories were urged to investigate ways of breaking the link between the kilogram and a specific artefact . Newcastle University metrologist Peter Cumpson has since identified mercury vapour absorption or carbonaceous contamination as possible causes of this drift .
Independently of this drift having been identified , the Avogadro project and development of the Watt balance promised methods of indirectly measuring mass with a very high precision . These projects provided tools that would enable alternative means of redefining the kilogram .
A report published in 2007 by the Consultative Committee for Thermometry ( CCT ) to the CIPM noted that their current definition of temperature has proved to be unsatisfactory for temperatures below 20 kelvins and for temperatures above 1300 kelvins . The committee was of the view that the Boltzmann constant provided a better basis for temperature measurement than did the triple point of water , as it overcame these difficulties .
At its 23rd meeting ( 2007 ) , the GCPM mandated the CIPM to investigate the use of natural constants as the basis for all units of measure rather than the artefacts that were then in use . The following year this was endorsed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics ( IUPAP ) . At a meeting of the CCU held in Reading , United Kingdom , in September 2010 , a resolution and draft changes to the SI brochure that were to be presented to the next meeting of the CIPM in October 2010 were agreed to in principle . The CIPM meeting of October 2010 found that " the conditions set by the General Conference at its 23rd meeting have not yet been fully met . For this reason the CIPM does not propose a revision of the SI at the present time " ; however , the CIPM presented a resolution for consideration at the 24th CGPM ( 17 – 21 October 2011 ) to agree the new definitions in principle , but not to implement them until the details have been finalised . This resolution was accepted by the conference , and in addition the CGPM moved the date of the 25th meeting forward from 2015 to 2014 . At the 25th meeting ( 18 – 20 November 2014 ) , it was found that " despite [ the progress in the necessary requirements ] the data do not yet appear to be sufficiently robust for the CGPM to adopt the revised SI at its 25th meeting " , thus postponing the revision to the next meeting in 2018 .
= = Proposal = =
In this section , an " X " at the end of a number means one or more final digits yet to be agreed upon .
In 2011 the CCU published a draft of the proposed change in the form of an amendment that should be made to the 8th edition of the SI Brochure . In it they proposed that in addition to the speed of light , four further constants of nature should be defined to have exact values :
The Planck constant h is exactly 6.62606X × 10 − 34joule second ( J · s ) .
The elementary charge e is exactly 1.60217X × 10 − 19coulomb ( C ) .
The Boltzmann constant k is exactly 1.38065X × 10 − 23joule per kelvin ( J · K − 1 ) .
The Avogadro constant NA is exactly 6.02214X × 1023reciprocal mole ( mol − 1 ) .
These constants were described in the 2006 version of the SI manual ; the latter three were defined as " constants to be obtained by experiment " .
The CCU also proposed that the numerical values associated with the following constants of nature be retained unchanged :
The speed of light c is exactly 299792458metres per second ( m · s − 1 ) .
The ground state hyperfine splitting frequency of the caesium @-@ 133 atom Δν ( 133Cs ) hfs is exactly 9192631770 hertz ( Hz ) .
The luminous efficacy Kcd of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012Hz is exactly 683 lumen per watt ( lm · W − 1 ) .
The seven definitions above are rewritten below after converting the derived units ( joule , coulomb , hertz , lumen and watt ) into the seven base units ( second , metre , kilogram , ampere , kelvin , mole and candela ) . In the list that follows , the symbol sr stands for the dimensionless unit steradian .
Δν ( 133Cs ) hfs
= 9192631770s − 1
c =
299792458m · s − 1
h
= 6.62606X × 10 − 34kg · m2 · s − 1
e =
1.60217X × 10 − 19A · s
k
= 1.38065X × 10 − 23kg · m2 · K − 1 · s − 2
NA =
6.02214X × 1023mol − 1
Kcd = 683 cd · sr · s3 · kg − 1 · m − 2
In addition the CCU proposed that
the international prototype kilogram be retired and that the current definition of the kilogram be abrogated ,
the current definition of the ampere be abrogated ,
the current definition of the kelvin be abrogated and
the current definition of the mole be revised .
These changes will have the effect of redefining the SI base units , though the definitions of the derived SI units will remain the same .
= = Impact on base unit definitions = =
The CCU proposal recommended that the text of the definitions of all the base units be either refined or rewritten changing the emphasis from explicit @-@ unit to explicit @-@ constant type definitions . Explicit @-@ unit type definitions define a unit in terms of a specific example of that unit — for example in 1324 Edward II defined the inch as being the length of three barleycorns and since 1889 the kilogram has been defined as being the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram . In explicit @-@ constant definitions , a constant of nature is given a specified value and the definition of the unit emerges as a consequence . For example , in 1983 , the speed of light was defined to be exactly 299792458 metres per second and as long as the second has already been defined , the length of the metre can be derived .
The current ( 2008 ) and proposed ( 2011 ) definitions are given below . In many cases the final digit of any constant is yet to be agreed , so it has been represented by an " X " .
= = = Second = = =
The proposed definition of the second is effectively the same as the current definition , the only difference being that the conditions under which the measurements are made are more rigorously defined .
Current definition : The second is the duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium @-@ 133 atom .
Proposed definition : The second , s , is the unit of time ; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the ground state hyperfine splitting frequency of the caesium @-@ 133 atom , at rest and at a temperature of 0 K , to be equal to exactly 9192631770 when it is expressed in the unit s − 1 , which is equal to Hz .
= = = Metre = = =
The proposed definition of the metre is effectively the same as the current definition , the only difference being that the additional rigour in the definition of the second will propagate to the metre .
Current definition : The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1 / 299792458 of a second .
Proposed definition : The metre , m , is the unit of length ; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum to be equal to exactly 299792458 when it is expressed in the unit m · s − 1 .
= = = Kilogram = = =
The definition of the kilogram is undergoing a fundamental change — the current definition defines the kilogram as being the mass of the international prototype kilogram which is an artifact , not a constant of nature while the new definition relates it to the equivalent energy of a photon via the Planck constant .
Current definition : The kilogram is the unit of mass ; it is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram .
Proposed definition : The kilogram , kg , is the unit of mass ; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the Planck constant to be equal to exactly 6.62606X × 10 − 34 when it is expressed in the unit s − 1 · m2 · kg , which is equal to J · s .
One consequence of this change is that the new definition makes the definition of the kilogram dependent on the definitions of the second and the metre .
= = = Ampere = = =
The definition of the ampere is undergoing a major overhaul — the current definition , which is difficult to realise with high precision in practice , is being replaced by a definition that is more intuitive and that is easier to realise .
Current definition : The ampere is that constant current which , if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length , of negligible circular cross @-@ section , and placed 1 m apart in vacuum , would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 × 10 − 7 newton per metre of length .
Proposed definition : The ampere , A , is the unit of electric current ; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the elementary charge to be equal to exactly 1.60217X × 10 − 19 when it is expressed in the unit A · s , which is equal to C.
Since the current definition contains a reference to force which has the dimensions MLT − 2 it follows that in SI the kilogram , metre and second , the base units representing these dimensions , must be defined before the ampere can be defined . Other consequences of this definition are that in SI the value of vacuum permeability ( μ0 ) is fixed at exactly 4π × 10 − 7 H · m − 1 . Since the speed of light in vacuum ( c ) is also fixed , it follows from the relationship
<formula>
that the vacuum permittivity ( ε0 ) has a fixed value and from
<formula>
that the impedance of free space ( Z0 ) likewise has a fixed value .
One consequence of the proposed changes to the definition of the ampere is that the definition will no longer be dependent on the definitions of the kilogram and the metre , but will still be dependent on the definition of the second . In addition the vacuum permeability , vacuum permittivity and impedance of free space , which , in the current definition have exact values will , in the future , be subject to experimental error .
= = = Kelvin = = =
The definition of the kelvin will undergo a fundamental change if the proposal is accepted . Rather than using the triple point of water to fix the temperature scale the proposal recommends that the energy equivalent as given by Boltzmann 's equation be used .
Current definition : The kelvin , unit of thermodynamic temperature , is 1 / 273 @.@ 16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water .
Proposed definition : The kelvin , K , is the unit of thermodynamic temperature ; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the Boltzmann constant to be equal to exactly 1.38065X × 10 − 23 when it is expressed in the unit s − 2 · m2 · kg · K − 1 , which is equal to J · K − 1 .
For a physical interpretation of this new definition , consider an ideal gas concentrated such that the average volume per molecule is 1.38065X × 10 − 23 m3 . That is the volume of a cube with a side length of about 24 nm . The ratio of the gas 's temperature and pressure would be defined exactly equal to 1 K / Pa .
One consequence of this change is that the new definition makes the definition of the kelvin depend on the definitions of the second , the metre , and the kilogram .
= = = Mole = = =
The current definition of the mole links it to the kilogram . The proposed definition will break that link by making a mole a specific number of entities of the substance in question .
Current definition : The mole is the amount of substance of a system that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0 @.@ 012 kilogram of carbon @-@ 12 . When the mole is used , the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms , molecules , ions , electrons , other particles , or specified groups of such particles .
Proposed definition : The mole , mol , is the unit of amount of substance of a specified elementary entity , which may be an atom , molecule , ion , electron , any other particle or a specified group of such particles ; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the Avogadro constant to be equal to exactly 6.02214X × 1023 when it is expressed in the unit mol − 1 .
One consequence of this change is that the current defined relationship between the mass of the 12C atom , the dalton , the kilogram , and Avogadro 's number will no longer be valid . One of the following must change :
the mass of a 12C atom is exactly 12 dalton
the number of dalton in a gram is exactly the numerical value of Avogadro 's constant
The draft SI brochure assumes the first will remain true , which would mean that the second will no longer be true . The molar mass constant , while still with great accuracy remaining equal to 1 g / mol , will no longer be exactly equal to that .
= = = Candela = = =
The proposed definition of the candela is effectively the same as the current definition , but has been rephrased .
Current definition : The candela is the luminous intensity , in a given direction , of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1 / 683 watt per steradian .
Proposed definition : The candela , cd , is the unit of luminous intensity in a given direction ; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz to be equal to exactly 683 when it is expressed in the unit s3 · m − 2 · kg − 1 · cd · sr , or cd · sr · W − 1 , which is equal to lm · W − 1 .
= = Impact on reproducibility = =
Apart from the candela , all the base units will be defined in terms of universal physical constants , but without an explicit one @-@ to @-@ one correspondence between the constants and the base units . Thus six physical constants will be needed to define the six base units .
When the New SI was first designed , there were more than six suitable physical constants from which the designers could choose . For example , once length and time had been established , the universal gravitational constant G could , from a dimensional point of view , be used to define mass . It should be noted that in practice G can only be measured with a relative uncertainty of the order of 10 − 5 which would have resulted in upper limit of the kilogram 's reproducibility being around 10 − 5 whereas the current international prototype kilogram can be measured with a reproducability of 1 @.@ 2 × 10 − 8 . The choice of physical constants was made on the basis of minimal uncertainty associated with measuring the constant and the degree of independence of the constant in respect of other constants that were being used . Although the BIPM has developed a standard mise en pratique ( practical technique ) for each type of measurement , the mise en pratique used to make the measurement is not part of the measurement 's definition — it is merely an assurance that the measurement can be done without exceeding the specified maximum uncertainty .
= = = Uncertainty of fundamental physical constants = = =
Fundamental physical constants are often highly dependent upon each other . This implies that the best value of a fundamental physical constant , one with the least uncertainty , often can be determined by directly measuring other fundamental physical constants , from which the value can be calculated . The uncertainty in these constants is then determined from the uncertainty of the others by the propagation of uncertainty . Constants whose value is fixed , for determining the units in which they are expressed , don 't have an uncertainty associated with them , so they do not account for any extra uncertainty in the value of the calculated constant . One of the reasons the SI unit system will be changed is that determination of values can often be greatly improved if expressed in these new units . This is due to the dependence of these values on physicals constants .
The following table catalogues the notable changes in determination of fundamental physical constants . The constants are expressed in direct measurements and fixed constants to minimize and determine the uncertainty . Some constants in that expression do not contribute significantly to the uncertainty , thus the only significant factors are noted . The value of the relative uncertainty by the data of CODATA of 2014 is given , and is expressed in the relative uncertainty of the significant factors , noted with ur ( constant ) . An approximately equals sign ( ≈ ) is used if an uncertainty is only approximated by the expression . This is due to unsignificant factors or rounding errors .
It should be noted that the relative atomic mass of the electron Ar ( e ) is measured relative to the mass of a carbon @-@ 12 atom ( divided by 12 ) . When the Avogadro constant is set in the new SI , atomic masses might be measured in dalton ( by fixing the Avogadro constant ) , instead of atomic mass units ( by fixing the mass of carbon @-@ 12 ) , thus resulting in a difference between the values of the relative atomic mass and the atomic mass in units of dalton .
= = = Dalton = = =
In 1993 , the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) approved the use of the dalton as an alternative to the unified atomic mass unit with the qualification that the GCPM had not given its approval . This approval has since been given . Following the proposal to redefine the mole by fixing the value of the Avogadro number , Brian Leonard of the University of Akron , writing in Metrologia proposed that the dalton ( Da ) be redefined as an SI derived unit exactly equal to ( 1 / 1000NA ) kg ; but that the unified atomic mass unit ( mu ) retain its current definition based on the mass of 12C , ceasing to be SI . This would result in the dalton and the atomic mass unit potentially differing from each other with a relative uncertainty of the order of 10 − 10 .
= = Acceptance = =
Much of the work done by the CIPM is delegated to consultative committees . The CIPM Consultative Committee for Units ( CCU ) has made the proposed changes while other committees have examined the proposal in detail and have made recommendations regarding their acceptance by the GCPM in 2014 . The various consultative committees have laid down a number of criteria that must be met before they will support the CCU 's proposal , including :
At least three separate experiments be carried out yielding values having a relative expanded ( 95 % ) uncertainty of no more than 5 × 10 − 8 and at least one of these values should be better than 2 × 10 − 8 . Both the Watt balance and the Avogadro project should be included in the experiments and any differences between these be reconciled .
The relative uncertainty of Boltzmann constant derived from two fundamentally different methods such as acoustic gas thermometry and dielectric constant gas thermometry be better than one part in 10 − 6 and that these values be corroborated by other measurements .
As at March 2011 , the International Avogadro Coordination ( IAC ) group had obtained an uncertainty of 3 @.@ 0 × 10 − 8 and NIST had obtained an uncertainty of 3 @.@ 6 × 10 − 8 in their measurements .
On 1 September 2012 the European Association of National Metrology Institutes ( EURAMET ) launched a formal project to reduce the relative difference between the watt @-@ balance and the silicon sphere approach to measuring the kilogram from 17 ± 5 × 10 − 8 to within 2 × 10 − 8 .
As of March 2013 the proposed redefinition is known as the " New SI " , but Mohr , in a paper following the CGPM proposal but predating the formal CCU proposal , suggested that since the proposed system makes use of atomic scale phenomena rather than macroscopic phenomena , it should be called the " Quantum SI System " .
= = Comment = =
In 2010 Marcus Foster of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation published a wide @-@ ranging critique of SI in which he raised numerous issues ranging from basic issues such as the absence of the symbol " Ω " from most Western keyboards to the abstract issues such as inadequate formalism in the metrological concepts on which SI is based . The changes proposed in the New SI only addressed issues regarding the definition of the base units including new definitions of the candela and the mole — units that Foster argued were not true base units . Other issues raised by Foster fell outside the scope of the proposal .
= = = Explicit @-@ unit and explicit @-@ constant definitions = = =
Concerns have been expressed that the use of explicit @-@ constant definitions of the unit being defined that are not related to an example of its quantity will have many adverse effects . Although this criticism applies to the proposed linking of the kilogram to the Planck constant via a route that requires a knowledge of both special relativity and quantum mechanics it does not apply to the proposed definition of the ampere which is closer to an example of its quantity than is the current definition . Some observers have welcomed the proposal to base the definition of electric current on the charge of the electron rather than the current definition of a force between two parallel current @-@ carrying wires — since the nature of the electromagnetic interaction between two bodies at the quantum electrodynamics level is somewhat different from the nature at classical electrodynamic levels , it is considered inappropriate to use classical electrodynamics to define quantities that exist at quantum electrodynamic levels .
= = = Mass and the Avogadro constant = = =
When the scale of the divergence between the IPK and national kilogram prototypes was reported in 2005 , a debate arose on how best to redefine the kilogram - should the kilogram be defined in terms of the mass of the silicon @-@ 28 atom or should it be determined using the watt balance ? The mass of a silicon atom could be determined using the Avogadro project and using the Avogadro Number be linked directly to the kilogram .
Concern has also been expressed that the authors of the proposal had failed to address the impact of breaking the link between the mole , kilogram , the dalton ( Da ) , the Avogadro constant ( NA ) and Avogadro 's number ( NN ) . This direct link has caused many to argue that the mole is not a true physical unit , but , in the words of the Swedish philosopher Johansson , the mole is a " scaling factor " .
The SI Brochure ( 8th edition ) implicitly defines the dalton as 0 @.@ 001 ÷ NN kg where the value of NN is determined by experiment . The proposal fixes NA , so if the Avogadro constant and Avogadro 's number are to be numerically identical , the dalton must be related to either the mass of a single carbon atom or to the kilogram — it cannot be related to both .
= = = Temperature = = =
Temperature is somewhat of an enigma - room temperature can be measured by means of expansion and contraction of a liquid in a thermometer , but high temperatures are often associated with a colour . Wojciech T. Chyla , approaching the structure of SI from a philosophical point of view in the Journal of the Polish Physical Society , argued that temperature is not a real base unit but is rather an average of the thermal energies of the individual particles that make up the body concerned . He noted that in many theoretical papers , temperature is represented by the quantities Θ or β where
<formula>
and kb is the Boltzmann constant .
Chyla acknowledged however that in the macroscopic world temperature plays the role of a base unit as much of the theory of thermodynamics is based on temperature . Foster , writing from the point of view of quality control argued that the introduction of the Boltzmann constant into the definition of temperature was an unnecessary complication .
The Consultative Committee for Thermometry , part of the International Committee for Weights and Measures publishes a mise en pratique ( practical technique ) , last updated in 1990 , for measuring temperature which , at very low and at very high temperatures , makes great use of linking energy to temperature via the Boltzmann constant .
= = = Luminous intensity = = =
Foster argued that " luminous intensity [ the candela ] is not a physical quantity , but a photobiological quantity that exists in human perception " thereby questioning whether or not the candela should be a base unit .
|
= DW Stadium =
The DW Stadium is a sports stadium in Wigan , Greater Manchester , England . The ground is owned and managed by Wigan Football Company Limited , and it is used by Wigan Athletic football club and Wigan Warriors rugby league club . Built and opened in 1999 , it is named after its main sponsor , DW Sports Fitness . In UEFA matches , it is called Wigan Athletic Stadium due to UEFA regulations on sponsorship .
The stadium was designed by Alfred McAlpine . Wigan Athletic and Wigan Warriors moved into it from their long @-@ term homes of Springfield Park and Central Park respectively . International rugby league matches have also taken place at the venue .
Its current capacity is 25 @,@ 138 — seated in four single @-@ tier stands — and its record attendance was on 11 May 2008 when 25 @,@ 133 people watched Wigan Athletic play Manchester United in the title @-@ deciding match of the 2007 – 08 Premier League season .
= = History = =
The stadium was designed by Alfred McAlpine and completed in August 1999 .
Wigan Athletic had spent the previous 67 years playing at Springfield Park , and their first match at the stadium was a friendly against Morecambe , just before the stadium 's official opening .
The stadium 's inauguration was marked with a friendly between Wigan Athletic and neighbours Manchester United — who were then reigning European champions , Premier League title and FA Cup holders — with United 's manager Sir Alex Ferguson officially opening the stadium .
The first competitive football match there took place on 7 August 1999 , with Wigan Athletic facing Scunthorpe United in a Second Division match . Simon Haworth scored twice , including the first competitive goal at the new stadium , as Athletic triumphed 3 – 0 .
Wigan Warriors moved to the stadium a month after it opened , once they had played their final home game of the 1999 regular season at Central Park , which had been the club 's home since 1902 . After their former ground was sold , the possibility of ground sharing with Bolton Wanderers F.C. at the Reebok Stadium ( now Macron Stadium ) was presented , but the new stadium in Wigan was chosen instead . Their first game there was a play @-@ off match against Castleford Tigers , which they lost , on 19 September . The Warriors did not lose a competitive match at the stadium in 2001 .
The first away team to win a competitive football match at the stadium was Wigan Athletic . A first round FA Cup tie against non @-@ league Cambridge City was played there due to City 's ground being deemed unsuitable to host the tie . Wigan played in their changed strip and used the away dressing room since it was technically a ' home ' game for Cambridge City . A Stuart Barlow brace secured the win for Wigan . Wigan subsequently lost at home to Wolverhampton Wanderers in the third round of the FA Cup on 11 December 1999 . Oldham Athletic became the first team to beat Wigan in a league fixture at the JJB on 7 January 2000 . The game was shown live on sky sports and finished 1 – 0 thanks to an 86th @-@ minute header from Lee Duxbury .
Whilst Wigan Warriors and Wigan Athletic flourished in the new stadium ( Wigan Athletic in particular would achieve significant success , rising up the English football pyramid to the Premier League by 2005 ) , Orrell R.U.F.C. did not . Dave Whelan and Maurice Lindsay decided to invest heavily in the club , with the aim of having the club play in rugby union 's Guinness Premiership at the stadium . After failing to win 2004 's National Division Two , Whelan pulled a large amount of investment from the club , to a more modest GB £ 30 @,@ 000 a year . This was the beginning of Orrell 's demise , as players left during the summer of that year and the club were consequently relegated the season after . Ownership eventually passed from Lindsay back to the club 's members , but by this point , Orrell had sold their former Edge Hall Road ground to Dave Whelan 's company , Whelco Holdings , and therefore had no assets apart from their rebuilt clubhouse following a fire in 2002 . Orrell never settled at the JJB Stadium , and were eventually de @-@ professionalised at the end of the 2006 – 07 season .
On 7 March 2005 Greater Manchester police announced that they would stop policing Wigan Athletic matches at the stadium from 2 April . This move would almost certainly have resulted in the stadium 's safety certificate being revoked , effectively forcing the team to play behind closed doors . The move was part of an ongoing dispute between the police force and Dave Whelan surrounding GB £ 300 @,@ 000 in unpaid policing costs . The police 's decision would not have affected Wigan Warriors , whose games are stewarded instead of policed . The situation was temporarily resolved on 8 March with both sides reaching an agreement that would allow Athletic to play at the ground until the end of the season . Four months later , Wigan Athletic , facing the prospect of playing their home games in the Premier League in an empty stadium , grudgingly paid the money they owed to the police . The club successfully appealed against the payments in court and won damages from the police .
On 7 September 2008 , Wigan Warriors revealed plans to take their Super League Play @-@ Off against Bradford Bulls to a neutral venue . The controversial relocation was forced due to a fixture clash , with a match between football clubs Wigan Athletic and Sunderland to take place less than 24 hours after the Super League match . Whelan , who controlled Wigan Athletic , refused permission for the Warriors to stage their elimination at the stadium , citing concerns over the playing surface . The game was relocated to Widnes Vikings home ground , the Stobart Stadium . In the same season , JJB Sports announced they would not continue to sponsor Wigan Warriors , leaving them without a main shirt sponsor .
The stadium 's average attendance has increased significantly since its opening in 1999 . The Wigan Warriors ' average attendance has increased by 32 @.@ 5 % from its first full season at the stadium in 2000 , and Wigan Athletic 's average attendance has increased by 181 @.@ 2 % from the 2000 – 01 season . The highest recorded attendance for a rugby league match is shared between three fixtures ; the Wigan Warriors ' fixture against St Helens RLFC on 25 March 2005 ; Game 4 of the 2005 Tri @-@ Nations series between Great Britain and Australia on 6 November ; and Game 5 of the 2004 Tri @-@ Nations series between Great Britain and Australia on 13 November at 25 @,@ 004 each . The highest recorded football attendance at the stadium was Wigan Athletic 's home fixture against Manchester United on 11 May 2008 — the final day of the 2007 – 08 Premier League season — with 25 @,@ 133 fans attending . This is the stadium 's highest recorded overall attendance to date , and was the match where Manchester United were crowned Premier League champions for that season .
In March 2009 , Dave Whelan acquired a chain of fitness clubs from JJB Sports . In the process , Whelan used the business to set up a new venture , DWSportsfitness and announced that the stadium name would change to the DW Stadium in August . Whelan also announced that at the same time the stadium was renamed , its ownership would pass from himself to Wigan Athletic . Concerns about the future of Wigan Warriors were arrested in the same announcement , as Whelan extended the lease on the stadium by 50 years for the rugby league team . Before their match against Leeds Rhinos in July 2009 , both clubs were given the opportunity to rename one stand , with the intention of renaming them in honour to a recognised player from each club 's history . The rugby league club were granted the East Stand , which they renamed ' The Boston Stand ' in tribute to the Welsh winger Billy Boston , As Wigan Athletic had spent many years in the lower leagues it was recognised that most of their players were not known , so the West Stand was renamed ' The Springfield Stand ' after the club 's former ground .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The stadium design is based on cantilevered , prefabricated steel roof and terrace structuring . It is an all @-@ seater arena with a seating capacity of 24 @,@ 826 . The stands are rectangular and both the northern and southern stands have supporting steel girders suspended from beneath the roof . The four stands are of approximately the same height , however the stadium is not totally enclosed , leaving four exposed corners .
At both Wigan Athletic and Wigan Warriors matches , away supporters are situated in the North Stand behind the goal . Occasionally , during rugby games which attract low away support , the 5 @,@ 418 capacity North Stand is closed altogether , and the away fans who attend are put into an alternative stand . The eastern stand , known as ' The Boston Stand ' , and the western ' Springfield Stand ' run across the longer sides of the pitch . The Boston Stand is the largest , capable of seating up to 8 @,@ 238 fans and holding an electronic scoreboard . The Springfield Stand contains the stadium 's vital facilities ; four dressing rooms , benches , a doping control room and a treatment room for the players , as well as four executive boxes , ten radio commentary points and a designated TV studio , in addition to holding 6 @,@ 100 fans . The North Stand and South Stand have a seating capacity of 5 @,@ 418 and 5 @,@ 412 respectively . The stadium also has facilities and access for up to 278 fans with disabilities , with facilities for partially sighted fans . The seats are a mixture of both resident teams ' main colours — cherry red and blue . The stadium is fully compliant with safety guidelines for a sports ground .
The pitch is large enough to conform with both FIFA and the standard rugby league requirements , at 110 by 60 metres ( 120 yd × 66 yd ) . This leaves an in @-@ goal area just 5 metres ( 5 @.@ 5 yd ) deep for rugby matches . It is mostly made of natural grass , with 2 % of the pitch composed of synthetics to provide stability . The ground has irrigation , and an under @-@ heating system to resist icy weather .
= = Attendances = =
= = = Wigan Warriors = = =
Wigan Warriors moved from Central Park to the stadium in 1999 after the end of Super League IV 's regular season . Since moving to the new stadium , Wigan Warriors ' success in rugby league has not been as high as it was at their old Central Park ground , however the good times do seem to be back for the club after they won the Super League Grand Final and League Leaders shield in 2010 under the guidance of coach Michael Maguire and chairman Ian Lenagan .
Attendances have generally risen for the Wigan Warriors since the start of the 2002 season , averaging around 14 @,@ 000 over the three seasons from 2006 to 2009 . Aside from Grand Finals , the largest Super League attendance was recorded at the stadium in 2005 when Wigan Warriors played their local rivals , St Helens RLFC .
This match is also the highest home attendance in the Wigan Warriors ' history at the stadium . The twenty thousand mark has been broken ten times since moving to the new stadium in 1999 — eight times against St Helens RLFC , once against local rivals Warrington Wolves in the opening round of the 2008 Super League XIII season , and once in July 2009 against the Leeds Rhinos following a campaign advertising the game as the ' Big One ' . In 2010 , the Warriors were officially the biggest supported team in the Super League .
= = = Wigan Athletic F.C. = = =
Wigan Athletic 's success has improved considerably since their move to the stadium from Springfield Park in 1999 . The club subsequently climbed up two divisions to play in the Premier League from 2005 until 2013 .
Rising success on the pitch has been met with increased attendances . Promotion into the Premier League meant that in their first season of English top @-@ flight football , Wigan Athletic 's average home attendance almost doubled from the season before . Over three times more fans attended matches at the stadium during Wigan 's 2007 – 08 season in the Premier League than had attended in the 2001 – 02 season when Wigan Athletic were in the Football League Second Division . Wigan Athletic 's average home attendance for 2007 – 08 was the lowest out of all 20 teams in the Premier League , failing to make the top 30 English clubs in terms of attendance . The same season saw the highest ever attendance at the stadium , when 25 @,@ 133 people witnessed Wigan play Manchester United on the final day of the season .
Wigan Athletic 's average attendance was again the lowest in the league for the Premier League 2008 – 09 season . Premier League attendances fell on average by around 426 per club during the 2008 – 09 season . Wigan Athletic 's home attendance fell by more than this , with their average attendance for the 2008 – 09 season falling by 633 from the season before . The highest attendance at the stadium for this season was a match between Wigan Athletic and Arsenal F.C. , in which 22 @,@ 954 people were counted . This attendance was 2 @,@ 357 fans lower than the highest attendance in the season before .
= = Other events = =
The stadium 's numerous lounges provide a venue for small musical acts to perform , and the stadium plays host to minor bands and tribute acts . They are also available to book for private parties . During match days , bands may provide pre @-@ match entertainment on the pitch .
As well as the fixtures for the two domestic teams , the stadium is a venue for international rugby league . Since the stadium 's construction in 1999 , it has been an ever @-@ present venue whenever International series have been played in England .
Its first involvement came during the 2004 series , where the home Great Britain and Ireland national team defeated the Australians 24 – 12 , with Terry Newton and Andy Farrell both scoring in their home town of Wigan . The venue was again selected for the 2005 series , and again the match was between Great Britain and Australia — this time the home team lost 6 – 20 — with Greater Manchester born Adrian Morley scoring Great Britain 's solitary try . Both matches were complete sell @-@ outs , each having attendances above 25 @,@ 000 . The match in 2004 was the third highest attendance of the series , coming behind a match at the City of Manchester Stadium between Great Britain and Australia , and the series final between the same two teams at Elland Road .
In addition to the Tri @-@ Nations , the stadium has also played host to visiting nations during their European tours . Australia played Great Britain in front of a sell @-@ out crowd during the 2001 Kangaroo tour , with the home side losing 8 – 28 . Australia narrowly defeated Great Britain again in 2003 at the stadium , winning by a margin of four points during their 2003 European Tour . New Zealand have also played at the stadium during their tours . In 2002 , a try scored in his home town by Martin Gleeson helped Great Britain to defeat the ' Kiwis ' 16 – 10 . The visitors lost again during their 2007 tour , this time 28 – 22 in a closely fought game in which Wigan @-@ born second @-@ rower Sean O 'Loughlin featured .
The stadium has hosted the World Club Challenge four times , in 2000 , between St Helens and the Melbourne Storm in 2011 when Wigan took on St. George Illawarra Dragons. and in 2015 and 2016 when Wigan Warriors hosted the Brisbane Brochos .
= = = Rugby league test matches = = =
Since its opening in 1999 , it hosted six Great Britain internationals .
Since the Great Britain national rugby league team has split into individual home nations , it has hosted three England internationals .
= = Surroundings = =
The stadium 's surroundings are mostly urban , as it is located in the north of Wigan 's Robin Park retail complex in the western suburb of Newtown , on the south bank of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal , west of the Miry Lane industrial estate . The stadium 's car parks are situated around the canal , and can hold up to 2 @,@ 500 cars .
Next to the stadium 's South Stand lies the Robin Park Arena , which is operated by Wigan Sports Development Unit and is capable of seating 1 @,@ 000 spectators . The arena is mainly used for athletics , as well as functions for : North West Counties Football League side Wigan Robin Park , and Wigan Athletic Reserves . The arena was formerly used by the Wigan Warriors ' junior academy , before they moved to Edge Hall Road to join the reserve side . Robin Park Sports Centre is situated directly opposite the Stadium and Arena .
The main road serving the complex is the A49 , running west @-@ bound 750 metres ( 820 yd ) south of the stadium . Both of Wigan 's railway stations , Wigan Wallgate and Wigan North Western lie 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 0 mi ) east of the stadium .
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= Amazing Stories =
Amazing Stories is an American science fiction magazine launched in April 1926 by Hugo Gernsback 's Experimenter Publishing . It was the first magazine devoted solely to science fiction . Before Amazing , science fiction stories had made regular appearances in other magazines , including some published by Gernsback , but Amazing helped define and launch a new genre of pulp fiction .
Amazing was published , with some interruptions , for almost eighty years , going through a half @-@ dozen owners and many editors as it struggled to be profitable . Gernsback was forced into bankruptcy and lost control of the magazine in 1929 , and by 1938 it was purchased by Ziff @-@ Davis , who hired Raymond A. Palmer as editor . Palmer made the magazine successful though it was not regarded as a quality magazine within the science fiction community . In the late 1940s Amazing presented as fact stories about the Shaver Mystery , a lurid mythos that explained accidents and disaster as the work of robots named deros , which led to dramatically increased circulation but also widespread ridicule . Amazing switched to a digest size format in 1953 , shortly before the end of the pulp @-@ magazine era . It was sold to Sol Cohen 's Universal Publishing Company in 1965 , which filled it with reprinted stories but did not pay a reprint fee to the authors , creating a conflict with the newly formed Science Fiction Writers of America . Ted White took over as editor in 1969 , eliminated the reprints and made the magazine respected again : Amazing was nominated for the prestigious Hugo award three times during his tenure in the 1970s . Several other owners attempted to create a modern incarnation of the magazine in the following decades , but publication was suspended after the March 2005 issue . A new incarnation appeared in July 2012 as an online magazine .
Gernsback 's initial editorial approach was to blend instruction with entertainment ; he believed science fiction could educate readers . His audience rapidly showed a preference for implausible adventures , however , and the movement away from Gernsback 's idealism accelerated when the magazine changed hands in 1929 . Despite this , Gernsback had an enormous impact on the field : the creation of a specialist magazine for science fiction spawned an entire genre publishing industry . The letter columns in Amazing , where fans could make contact with each other , led to the formation of science fiction fandom , which in turn had a strong influence on the development of the field . Writers whose first story was published in the magazine include Isaac Asimov , Howard Fast , Ursula K. Le Guin , Roger Zelazny , and Thomas M. Disch . Overall , though , Amazing itself was rarely an influential magazine within the genre . Some critics have commented that by " ghettoizing " science fiction , Gernsback in fact did harm to its literary growth , but this viewpoint has been countered by the argument that science fiction needed an independent market to develop in to reach its potential .
= = Origins = =
By the end of the 19th century , stories centered on scientific inventions , and stories set in the future , were appearing regularly in popular fiction magazines . The market for short stories lent itself to tales of invention in the tradition of Jules Verne . Magazines such as Munsey 's Magazine and The Argosy , launched in 1889 and 1896 respectively , carried a few science fiction stories each year . Some upmarket " slick " magazines such as McClure 's , which paid well and were aimed at a more literary audience , also carried scientific stories , but by the early years of the 20th century , science fiction ( though it was not yet called that ) was appearing more often in the pulp magazines than in the slicks .
In 1908 , Hugo Gernsback published the first issue of Modern Electrics , a magazine aimed at the scientific hobbyist . It was an immediate success , and Gernsback began to include articles on imaginative uses of science , such as " Wireless on Saturn " ( December 1908 ) . In April 1911 , Gernsback began the serialization of his science fiction novel , Ralph 124C 41 + , but in 1913 he sold his interest in the magazine to his partner and launched a new magazine , Electrical Experimenter , which soon began to publish scientific fiction . In 1920 Gernsback retitled the magazine Science and Invention , and through the early 1920s he published much scientific fiction in its pages , along with non @-@ fiction scientific articles .
Gernsback had started another magazine called Practical Electrics in 1921 . In 1924 , he changed its name to The Experimenter , and sent a letter to 25 @,@ 000 people to gauge interest in the possibility of a magazine devoted to scientific fiction ; in his words , " the response was such that the idea was given up for two years . " However , in 1926 he decided to go ahead , and ceased publication of The Experimenter to make room in his publishing schedule for a new magazine . The editor of The Experimenter , T. O 'Conor Sloane , became the editor of Amazing Stories . The first issue appeared on 10 March 1926 , with a cover date of April 1926 .
= = Publishing history = =
= = = Early years = = =
The editorial work was largely done by Sloane , but Gernsback retained final say over the fiction content . Two consultants , Conrad A. Brandt and Wilbur C. Whitehead , were hired to help find fiction to reprint . Frank R. Paul , who had worked with Gernsback as early as 1914 , became the cover artist ; Paul had produced many illustrations for the fiction in The Electrical Experimenter . Amazing was issued in the large bedsheet format , 8 @.@ 5 × 11 @.@ 75 in ( 216 × 298 mm ) , the same size as the technical magazines . It was an immediate success and soon reached a very respectable circulation of 100 @,@ 000 . Gernsback saw there was an enthusiastic readership for " scientifiction " ( the term " science fiction " had not yet been coined ) , and in 1927 he issued Amazing Stories Annual . The annual sold out , and in January 1928 , Gernsback launched a quarterly magazine , Amazing Stories Quarterly , as a regular companion to Amazing . It continued on a fairly regular schedule for 22 issues .
Gernsback was slow to pay his authors and creditors ; the extent of his investments limited his liquidity . On 20 February 1929 his printer and paper supplier opened bankruptcy proceedings against him . It has been suggested that Bernarr Macfadden , another magazine publisher , maneuvered to force the bankruptcy because Gernsback would not sell his titles to Macfadden , but this is unproven . Experimenter Publishing did not file any defence and was declared bankrupt by default on 6 March 1929 ; Amazing survived with its existing staff , but Hugo and his brother , Sidney , were forced out as directors . Arthur H. Lynch took over as editor @-@ in @-@ chief , though Sloane continued to have effective control of the magazine 's contents . The receivers , Irving Trust , sold the magazine to Bergan A. Mackinnon on 3 April 1929 .
In August 1931 , Amazing was acquired by Teck Publications , a subsidiary of Bernarr Macfadden 's Macfadden Publications . Macfadden 's deep pockets helped insulate Amazing from the financial strain caused by the Great Depression . The schedule of Amazing Stories Quarterly began to slip , but Amazing did not miss an issue in the early 1930s . However , it became unprofitable to publish over the next few years . Circulation dropped to little more than 25 @,@ 000 in 1934 , and in October 1935 it switched to a bimonthly schedule .
By 1938 , with Amazing 's circulation down to only 15 @,@ 000 , Teck Publications was having financial problems . In January 1938 Ziff @-@ Davis took over the magazine ; the April issue was assembled by Sloane but published by Ziff @-@ Davis . Bernard Davis , who ran Ziff @-@ Davis 's editorial department , attempted to hire Roger Sherman Hoar as editor ; Hoar turned down the job but suggested Raymond A. Palmer , an active local science fiction fan . Palmer was hired that February , taking over editorial duties with the June 1938 issue . Ziff @-@ Davis launched Fantastic Adventures , a fantasy companion to Amazing , in May 1939 , also under Palmer 's editorship . Palmer quickly managed to improve Amazing 's circulation , and in November 1938 , the magazine went monthly again , though this did not last throughout Palmer 's tenure : between 1944 and 1946 the magazine was bimonthly and then quarterly for a while before returning to a longer @-@ lasting monthly schedule .
= = = 1940s = = =
In September 1943 Richard Shaver , an Amazing reader , began to correspond with Palmer , who soon asked him to write stories for the magazine . Shaver responded with a story called " I Remember Lemuria " , published in the March 1945 issue , which was presented by Palmer as a mixture of truth and fiction . The story , about prehistoric civilizations , dramatically boosted Amazing 's circulation , and Palmer ran a new Shaver story in every issue , culminating in a special issue in June 1947 devoted entirely to the Shaver Mystery , as it was called . Amazing soon drew ridicule for these stories . A derisive article by William S. Baring @-@ Gould in the September 1946 issue of Harper 's prompted William Ziff to tell Palmer to limit the amount of Shaver @-@ related material in the magazine ; Palmer complied , but his interest ( and possibly belief ) in this sort of material was now significant , and he soon began planning to leave Ziff @-@ Davis . In 1947 he formed Clark Publications , launching Fate the following year , and in 1949 he resigned from Ziff @-@ Davis to edit that and other magazines .
Howard Browne , who had been on a leave of absence from Ziff @-@ Davis to write fiction , took over as editor and began by throwing away 300 @,@ 000 words of inventory that Palmer had acquired before he left . Browne had ambitions of moving Amazing upmarket , and his argument was strengthened by Street & Smith , one of the longest established and most respected publishers , who shut down all of their pulp magazines in the summer of 1949 . The pulps were dying , largely as a result of the success of pocketbooks , and Street & Smith decided to concentrate on their slick magazines . Some pulps struggled on for a few more years , but Browne was able to persuade Ziff and Davis that the future was in the slicks , and they raised his fiction budget from one cent to a ceiling of five cents per word . Browne managed to get promises of new stories from many well @-@ known authors , including Isaac Asimov and Theodore Sturgeon . He produced a dummy issue in April 1950 , and planned to launch the new incarnation of Amazing in April 1951 , the 25th anniversary of the first issue . However , the economic impact of the Korean War , which broke out in June 1950 , led to budget cuts . The plans were cancelled , and Ziff @-@ Davis never revived the idea .
= = = 1950s = = =
Browne 's interest in Amazing declined when the project to turn it into a slick magazine was derailed . Although he stayed involved with Fantastic Adventures , another Ziff @-@ Davis magazine , he left the editing work on Amazing to William Hamling and Lila Shaffer . In December 1950 , when Ziff @-@ Davis moved their offices from Chicago to New York , Hamling stayed behind in Chicago , and Browne revived his involvement with the magazine .
In 1952 , Browne convinced Ziff @-@ Davis to try a high @-@ quality digest fantasy magazine . Fantastic , which appeared in the summer of that year , focused on fantasy rather than science fiction and was so successful that it persuaded Ziff @-@ Davis to switch Amazing from pulp format to digest in early 1953 ( while also switching to a bimonthly schedule ) . Circulation fell , however , and subsequent budget cuts limited the story quality in both Amazing and Fantastic . Fantastic began to print science fiction as well as fantasy . Circulation increased as a result , but Browne , who was not a science fiction aficionado , once again lost interest in the magazines .
Paul W. Fairman replaced Browne as editor in September 1956 . Early in Fairman 's tenure , Bernard Davis decided to try issuing a companion series of novels , titled Amazing Stories Science Fiction Novels . Readers ' letters in Amazing had indicated a desire for novels , which Amazing did not have room to run . The novel series did not last ; only one , Henry Slesar 's 20 Million Miles to Earth , appeared . However , in response to readers ' interest in longer fiction , Ziff @-@ Davis expanded Amazing by 16 pages , starting with the March 1958 issue , and the magazine began to run complete novels .
Fairman left to edit Ellery Queen 's Mystery Magazine at the end of 1958 , and his place was taken by Cele Goldsmith . Goldsmith had been hired in 1955 as a secretary and became assistant editor to help cope with the additional work created when Ziff @-@ Davis launched two short @-@ lived magazines , Dream World and Pen Pals , in 1956 . Ziff @-@ Davis were not confident of Goldsmith 's abilities as an editor , so when Fairman left , a consultant , Norman Lobsenz , was hired to work with her . She performed well , however , and Lobsenz 's involvement soon became minimal .
= = = 1960s = = =
Goldsmith is well regarded by science fiction historians for her innovation , and the impact she had on the early careers of writers such as Ursula K. Le Guin and Roger Zelazny , but circulation lagged during her tenure . By 1964 Fantastic 's circulation was down to 27 @,@ 000 , with Amazing doing little better . The following March both magazines were sold .
March 1965 saw both Amazing and Fantastic sold to Ultimate Publishing Company , run by Sol Cohen and Arthur Bernhard . Goldsmith was given the choice of going with the magazines or staying with Ziff @-@ Davis ; she stayed , and Cohen hired Joseph Wrzos to edit the magazines , starting with the August and September 1965 issues of Amazing and Fantastic , respectively . Wrzos used the name " Joseph Ross " on the mastheads to avoid mis @-@ spellings . Both magazines immediately moved to a bi @-@ monthly schedule .
Cohen had acquired reprint rights to the magazines ' back issues , although Wrzos did get Cohen to agree to print one new story every issue . Cohen was also producing reprint magazines such as Great Science Fiction and Science Fiction Classics , but no payment was made to authors for any of these reprints . This brought Cohen into conflict with the Science Fiction Writers of America ( SFWA ) , a professional writers ' organization formed in 1965 . Soon SFWA called for a boycott of Ultimate 's magazines until Cohen agreed to make payments . Cohen agreed to pay a flat fee for all stories , and then in August 1967 this was changed to a graduated rate , depending on the length of the story . Harry Harrison had acted as an intermediary in Cohen 's negotiations with SFWA , and when Wrzos left in 1967 , Cohen asked Harrison to take over . SF Impulse , which Harrison had been editing , had folded in February 1967 , so Harrison was available . He secured Cohen 's agreement that the policy of printing almost nothing but reprinted stories would be phased out by the end of the year , and took over as editor with the September 1967 issue .
By February 1968 Harrison decided to leave , as Cohen was showing no signs of abandoning the reprints . He resigned , and suggested Barry Malzberg to Cohen as a possible successor . Cohen knew Malzberg from his work at the Scott Meredith Literary Agency , and thought that he might be more amenable than Harrison to continuing the reprint policy . Malzberg took over in April 1968 , but immediately came into conflict with Cohen over the reprints , and then threatened to resign in October 1968 over a disagreement about artwork Malzberg had commissioned for a cover . Cohen contacted Robert Silverberg , then the president of SFWA , and told him ( falsely ) that Malzberg had actually resigned . Silverberg recommended Ted White as a replacement . Cohen secured White 's agreement and then fired Malzberg ; White assumed control with the May 1969 issue .
= = = 1970s = = =
When White took over as editor , Amazing 's circulation was about 38 @,@ 500 , only about 4 % of which were subscribers ( as opposed to newsstand sales ) . This was a very low ebb for subscriptions ; Analog , by comparison , sold about 35 % of its circulation through subscriptions . Cohen 's wife mailed out the subscription copies from home , and Cohen had never tried to increase the subscriber base as this would have increased the burden on his wife . White worked hard to increase the circulation despite Cohen 's lack of support , but met with limited success . One of his first changes was to reduce the typeface to increase the amount of fiction in the magazine . To pay for this he increased the price of both Fantastic and Amazing to 60 cents , but this had a strong negative effect on circulation , which fell about 10 % from 1969 to 1970 .
In 1972 , White changed the title to Amazing Science Fiction , distancing the magazine slightly from some of the pulp connotations of " Amazing Stories " . White worked at a low wage , and his friends often read manuscripts for free , but despite his efforts the circulation continued to fall . From near 40 @,@ 000 when White joined the magazine , the circulation fell to about 23 @,@ 000 in October 1975 . White was unwilling to continue with the very limited financial backing that Cohen provided , and he resigned in 1975 . Cohen was able to convince White to remain ; White promised to stay for one more year , but in the event remained as editor until late 1978 .
Amazing raised its price from 75 cents to $ 1 @.@ 00 with the November 1975 issue . The schedule switched to quarterly beginning with the March 1976 issue ; as a result , the 50th anniversary issue had a cover date of June 1976 . In 1977 , Cohen announced that Amazing and Fantastic had lost $ 15 @,@ 000 , though Amazing 's circulation ( at nearly 26 @,@ 000 ) was as good as it had been for several years . Cohen looked for a new publisher to buy the magazines , but in September of the following year sold his half @-@ share in the company to his partner , Arthur Bernhard . White had occasionally suggested to Cohen that Amazing would benefit from a redesign and investment ; he made the same suggestions to Bernhard in early October . According to White , Bernhard not only said no , but told him he would not receive a salary until the next issue was turned in . White resigned , and returned all manuscripts in his possession to their authors , even if copy @-@ edited and ready for publication . White claimed Bernhard had told him to do this , though Bernhard denied it .
= = = 1980s to 2000s = = =
Elinor Mavor took over as editor in early 1979 . She had worked for Bernhard as an illustrator and in the production department of several of his magazines , though not for Amazing . She had also been an editor at Bill of Fare , a restaurant trade magazine . Mavor had read a good deal of science fiction but knew nothing about the world of science fiction magazines when she took over . She was not confident that a woman would be accepted as the editor of a science fiction magazine , so she initially used the pseudonym " Omar Gohagen " for both Amazing and Fantastic , dropping it late in 1980 . Circulation continued to fall , and Bernhard refused to consider Mavor 's request to undertake a subscription drive , which might have helped . Instead , in late 1980 , Bernhard decided to merge the two magazines . Fantastic 's last independent issue was October 1980 ; thereafter the combined magazine returned to a bimonthly schedule . At the same time the title was changed to Amazing Science Fiction Stories . Bernhard cut Mavor 's salary after the merger , as she was editing only one magazine . Despite this , she stayed with Amazing , but was unable to prevent circulation from dropping again , down to only 11 @,@ 000 newsstand sales in 1982 .
Shortly after the merger , Bernhard decided to retire , and approached Edward Ferman , the editor of Fantasy and Science Fiction , and Joel Davis , at Ziff @-@ Davis , among others , about a possible sale of Amazing . Jonathan Post , of Emerald City Publishing , believed he had concluded a deal with Bernhard , and began to advertise for submissions , but the negotiations failed . Bernhard also approached George H. Scithers , who declined , but put Bernhard in touch with Gary Gygax of TSR . On 27 May 1982 TSR , Inc. acquired the trademarks and copyrights of Amazing Stories . Scithers was taken on by TSR as editor beginning with the November 1982 issue . He was replaced by Patrick Lucien Price in September 1986 , and then by Kim Mohan in May 1991 . TSR ceased publication of Amazing with the Winter 1995 issue , but in 1997 , shortly after they were acquired by Wizards of the Coast , the magazine was relaunched , again with Mohan as editor . This version only lasted for ten issues , though it did include a special celebratory 600th issue in early 2000 . The science fiction trade journal Locus commented in an early review that distribution of the magazine seemed to be weak . The title proved unable to survive : the last issue of this version was dated Summer 2000 . The title was then acquired by Paizo Publishing , who launched a new monthly version in September 2004 . The February 2005 issue was the last printed ; a March 2005 issue was released in PDF format , and in March 2006 Paizo announced that it would no longer publish Amazing . In September , 2011 , the trademark for Amazing Stories was acquired by Steve Davidson , and online publication began in 2012 with two issues in July and August .
= = Contents and reception = =
= = = Gernsback 's Amazing = = =
Gernsback 's editorial in the first issue asserted that " Not only do these amazing tales make tremendously interesting reading — they are also always instructive " . He had always believed that " scientifiction " , as he called these stories , had educational power , but he now understood that the fiction had to entertain as well as to instruct . His continued belief in the instructional value of science fiction was not in keeping with the general attitude of the public towards pulp magazines , which was that they were " trash . "
The first issue of Amazing contained only reprints , beginning with a serialization of Off on a Comet , by Jules Verne . In keeping with Gernsback 's new approach , this was one of Verne 's least scientifically plausible novels . Also included were H. G. Wells 's " The New Accelerator " , and Edgar Allan Poe 's " The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar " ; Gernsback put the names of all three authors on the cover . He also reprinted three more recent stories . Two came from his own magazine , Science and Invention ; these were " The Man from the Atom " by G. Peyton Wertenbaker and " The Thing from — ' Outside ' " by George Allan England . The third was Austin Hall 's The Man Who Saved the Earth , which had appeared in All @-@ Story Weekly .
In the June 1926 issue Gernsback announced a competition to write a short story to suit a cover drawn by illustrator Frank R. Paul , with a first prize of $ 250 . The competition drew over 360 entries , seven of which were eventually printed in Amazing . The winner was Cyril G. Wates , who sold three more stories to Gernsback in the late 1920s . Two other entrants went on to become successful writers : one was Clare Winger Harris , whose story , " The Fate of the Poseidonia " , took third place in the competition , and was published in the June 1927 issue as by " Mrs. F.C. Harris " . The other notable entrant was A. Hyatt Verrill , with The Voice from the Inner World , which appeared in July 1927 .
A letter column , titled Discussions soon appeared , and became a regular feature with the January 1927 issue . Many science fiction readers were isolated in small communities , knowing nobody else who liked the same fiction . Gernsback 's habit of publishing the full address of all his correspondents meant that the letter column allowed fans to correspond with each other directly . Science fiction fandom traces its beginnings to the letter column in Amazing and its competitors , and one historian of the field , author Lester del Rey , has commented that the introduction of this letter column " may have been one of the most important events in the history of science fiction " .
For the first year , Amazing contained primarily reprinted material . It was proving difficult to attract new , high @-@ quality material , and Gernsback 's slowness at paying his authors did not help . Writers such as H.P. Lovecraft , H.G. Wells , and Murray Leinster all avoided Amazing because Gernsback took so long to pay for the stories he printed . The slow payments were probably known to many of the other active pulp writers , which would have further limited the volume of submissions . New writers did appear , but the quality of their stories was often weak .
Gernsback discovered that the audience he had attracted was less interested in scientific invention stories than in fantastical adventures . A. Merritt 's The Moon Pool , which began serialization in May 1927 , was an early success ; there was little or no scientific basis to the story , but it was very popular with Amazing 's readers . The covers , all of which were painted by Paul , were garish and juvenile , leading some readers to complain . Raymond Palmer , later to become an editor of the magazine , wrote that a friend of his was forced to stop buying Amazing " by reason of his parents ' dislike of the cover illustrations " . Gernsback experimented with a more sober cover for the September 1928 issue , but it sold poorly , and so the lurid covers continued . The combination of poor quality fiction with garish artwork has led some critics to comment that Gernsback created a " ghetto " for science fiction , though it has also been argued that the creation of a specialized market allowed science fiction to develop and mature as a genre .
Among the regular writers for Amazing by the end of the 1920s were several who were influential and popular at the time , such as David H. Keller and Stanton Coblentz , and some who would continue to be successful for much longer , most notably Edward E. Smith and Jack Williamson . Smith 's The Skylark of Space , written between 1915 and 1920 , was a seminal space opera that found no ready market when Argosy stopped printing science fiction . When Smith saw a copy of the April 1927 issue of Amazing , he submitted it to Sloane , and it appeared in the August – October 1928 issues . It was such a success that Sloane requested a sequel before the second installment had been published . It was also in the August 1928 issue that " Armageddon – 2419 AD " , by Philip Francis Nowlan , appeared ; this was the first appearance of Buck Rogers in print .
= = = Sloane , Palmer , Browne and Fairman = = =
Sloane took over full control of the content of Amazing when Gernsback left in 1929 . He was infamous for his slow response to manuscripts , and when Astounding Stories was launched in January 1930 , with better rates and faster editorial response , some of Sloane 's writers quickly defected . Nevertheless , he published first stories by luminaries such as Jack Williamson , John W. Campbell , Jr . , Clifford D. Simak , and E.E. " Doc " Smith . Little more of quality appeared in Amazing during Sloane 's tenure , though Howard Fast 's first story appeared in the October 1932 issue , and " The Lost Machine " , an early story by John Wyndham , appeared in April 1932 , under Wyndham 's real name of John Beynon Harris .
Raymond Palmer , who took over in 1938 , was less interested in the educational possibilities of science fiction than Sloane had been . He wanted the magazine to provide escapist entertainment , and had no interest in scientific accuracy . His terse instruction — " Gimme Bang @-@ Bang " — to one pulp writer sums up his approach . Palmer disposed of almost all of Sloane 's accumulated inventory , instead acquiring stories from local Chicago writers he knew through his connections with science fiction fandom . He also added features such as a " Correspondence Corner " and a " Collectors ' Corner " to appeal to fans , and introduced a " Meet the Authors " feature , though on at least one occasion the featured author was a pseudonym , and the biographical details were invented . An illustrated back cover was tried , and soon became standard . In 1939 Palmer acquired Isaac Asimov 's first sale , " Marooned off Vesta " .
In the 1940s , several writers established themselves as a stable of reliable contributors to Amazing . These included David Wright O 'Brien and William P. McGivern , both of whom wrote an immense amount for Ziff @-@ Davis , much of it under house names such as Alexander Blade . John Russell Fearn became a prolific contributor , using the pseudonyms " Thornton Ayre " and " Polton Cross " . Palmer also encouraged long @-@ time science fiction writers to return , publishing pulp authors such as Ed Earl Repp and Eando Binder . This policy did not always meet with approval from Amazing 's readers , who , despite a clear preference for action and adventure stories , could not stomach the work of some of the early pulp writers such as Harry Bates .
The first Shaver Mystery story , " I Remember Lemuria " , by Richard S. Shaver , appeared in the March 1945 issue . Shaver claimed that all the world 's accidents and disasters were caused by an ancient race of " detrimental robots " who lived in underground cities . This explanation for the world 's ills , coming towards the end of World War II , struck a chord with Amazing 's readership . Palmer received over 2 @,@ 500 letters , instead of the usual 40 or 50 , and proceeded to print a Shaver story in every issue . The June 1947 issue was given over entirely to the Shaver Mystery . From March 1948 the Shaver Mystery was dropped as a regular feature of the magazine , at Ziff 's insistence . Palmer left the following year , and Browne , his successor , " was determined to make sure that the lunatics were no longer in charge of the asylum " , in the words of science fiction historian Mike Ashley .
Browne had acquired some good @-@ quality material in the process of planning the launch of a new slick version of Amazing , and when the plan was abandoned this material appeared in the continuing pulp version . This included " Operation RSVP " by H. Beam Piper , and " Satisfaction Guaranteed " , by Isaac Asimov . Despite the cancellation of the planned change to a slick format , news had reached the writing community of Amazing 's new approach , and Browne began to receive much better material than Palmer had been able to publish . The existing stable of Amazing writers , such as Rog Phillips and Chester S. Geier , were replaced by writers such as Fritz Leiber , Fredric Brown , and Clifford D. Simak . Browne also discovered several writers who went on to success in the field , publishing first stories by Walter M. Miller , Mack Reynolds , John Jakes , Milton Lesser and Charles Beaumont , all within the space of nine months in late 1950 and early 1951 . Browne was disappointed by the cancellation of the planned slick version , however , and to some extent reverted to Palmer 's policy of publishing sensational fiction . In 1952 , for example , he serialized the anonymous Master of the Universe , which purported to be a history of the future from 1975 to 2575 .
With the change to digest size in 1953 , Browne once again attempted to use higher @-@ quality fiction . The first digest issue , dated April – May 1953 , included stories by Ray Bradbury , Robert Heinlein , Richard Matheson , Theodore Sturgeon , and Murray Leinster . Further well @-@ regarded stories appeared over the course of 1953 , including Arthur C. Clarke 's " Encounter in the Dawn " , and Henry Kuttner 's " Or Else " . Subsequent budget cuts meant that Browne was unable to sustain this level . As in the 1940s , Amazing gained a stable of writers who appeared frequently , though this time the quality of the writers was rather higher — it included Harlan Ellison , Robert Silverberg , and Randall Garrett — and the regular writers were not appearing only in Ziff @-@ Davis magazines . This remained the situation after Browne 's departure in 1956 and through Paul Fairman 's tenure .
= = = Cele Goldsmith = = =
Cele Goldsmith 's tenure as editor began with the opportunity to showcase two very well @-@ established writers : E.E. Smith and Isaac Asimov . Smith 's The Galaxy Primes began serialization in March 1959 . Asimov 's first published story , " Marooned Off Vesta " , had appeared in the March 1939 issue of Amazing , and Goldsmith reprinted it in March 1959 along with a sequel and Asimov 's comments on the story . She soon began to publish some of the better new writers . Cordwainer Smith 's " Golden the Ship Was — Oh ! Oh ! Oh ! " appeared in April ; and by the middle of the following year she had managed to attract stories from Robert Sheckley , Alan E. Nourse , Fritz Leiber , Gordon R. Dickson , Robert Bloch , and James Blish . The changes she made were enough to bring Robert Heinlein back as a subscriber ; Heinlein read a copy of the June 1961 issue , which , he said , " ... caused me to think I had been missing something . "
In September 1960 Amazing began to carry Sam Moskowitz 's series of author profiles , which had begun in Fantastic , the sister magazine . The following month the cover and logo were redesigned . In April 1961 , the 35th anniversary of the first issue , Goldsmith ran several reprints , including stories by Ray Bradbury and Edgar Rice Burroughs . Goldsmith had little previous experience with science fiction , and bought what she liked , rather than trying to conform to a notion of what science fiction should be . The result was the debut of more significant writers in her magazines than anywhere else at that time . She published the first stories of Ursula K. Le Guin , Roger Zelazny , Piers Anthony and Thomas M. Disch , among many others . Award @-@ winning stories published during Goldsmith 's editorship include Zelazny 's " He Who Shapes " , a story about the use of dream therapy to cure phobias . It was serialized in the January and February 1965 issues , and won a Nebula Award , an annual award voted on by science fiction writers . Goldsmith often wrote long , helpful letters to her authors : Zelazny commented in a letter to her that " Most of anything I have learned was stimulated by those first sales , and then I learned , and possibly even learned more , from some of the later rejections " . Disch and Le Guin have also acknowledged the influence Goldsmith had on their early careers .
The cover art for Amazing had been largely supplied by Ed Valigursky during the late fifties , but during the early sixties a much wider variety of artists appeared , including Alex Schomburg , Leo Summers and Ed Emshwiller . Frank Paul , who had painted all the covers for the first few years of Amazing , contributed a wraparound cover for the April 1961 35th anniversary issue ; this was his last cover art for a science fiction magazine .
Goldsmith 's open @-@ minded approach meant that Amazing and Fantastic published some writers who did not fit into the other magazines . Philip K. Dick 's sales to magazines had dropped , but his work began to appear in Amazing , and Goldsmith also regularly published David R. Bunch 's stories of Moderan , a world whose inhabitants were part human and part metal . Bunch , whose stories were " bewildering , exotic word pictures " according to Mike Ashley , had been unable to sell regularly elsewhere .
= = = Reprint era and Ted White = = =
When Sol Cohen bought both Amazing and Fantastic in early 1965 , he decided to maximize profits by filling the magazines almost entirely with reprints . Cohen had acquired second serial rights from Ziff @-@ Davis to all stories that had been printed in both magazines , and also in the companion magazines such as Fantastic Adventures . Joseph Wrzos , the new editor , persuaded Cohen that at least one new story should appear in each issue ; there was sufficient inventory left over from Goldsmith 's tenure for this to be done without acquiring new material . Readers initially approved of the policy , since it made available some well @-@ loved stories from earlier decades that had not been reprinted elsewhere . Both of Wrzos 's successors , Harry Harrison and Barry Malzberg , were unable to persuade Cohen to use more new fiction .
When Ted White took over , it was on condition that the reprints be phased out . This took some time : for a while both Amazing and Fantastic continued to include one reprint every issue . With the May 1972 issue , however , the transformation was complete , and all stories were new . In addition to eliminating the reprints , White reintroduced several features such as a letter column and " The Clubhouse , " a fanzine review and fannish news column , and continued the book review column , as well as a series of science articles by Gregory Benford and David Book . He also redesigned the look of the magazine , making it , in science fiction historian Mike Ashley 's words , " far more modern and sophisticated " .
White was willing to print a variety of fiction , with traditional stories side @-@ by @-@ side with more experimental material that was influenced by the British New Wave or by 1960s psychedelia . In 1971 he serialized Ursula K. Le Guin 's The Lathe of Heaven , about a man whose dreams can modify reality . One writer who was influenced by this was James Tiptree , Jr . , who later wrote that " after first plowing into the first pulpy pages of the 1971 Amazing in which Lathe came out , my toe @-@ nails began to curl under and my spine hair stood up . " White 's willingness to experiment led to Amazing running more stories with sexual content than other magazines . One such story , White 's own " Growing Up Fast in the City " , was criticized as pornographic by some of Amazing 's readers . Other stories , such as Rich Brown 's " Two of a Kind " , about the violent rape of a black woman and the subsequent death of her rapists , also led to controversy . White also printed more conventional fiction , however , much of it of high quality . The magazine was nominated for the Hugo award ( a readers ' award , named for Hugo Gernsback ) for best editor three times during his tenure ( 1970 , 1971 and 1972 ) , finishing third each time .
White 's ability to attract new writers suffered because of the low rates he paid : one cent per word , as compared to three or five cents per word at the leading competitive magazines . To compensate , White cultivated new writers whose experimental work was not selling elsewhere . White made a deal in 1971 with Gordon Eklund , who was hesitating to become a full @-@ time writer because of the financial risks . White agreed to buy anything Eklund wrote , on condition that Eklund himself believed it was a good story . The result was that much of Eklund 's fiction appeared in Amazing and Fantastic over the next few years .
Amazing 's reputation had been for formulaic science fiction almost since it began , but White was able to bring the magazine to a higher standard than any other editor except Cele Goldsmith , and gave Amazing a respectable position in the field . His successors were not able to maintain the level of quality that he achieved .
= = = After Ted White = = =
When Elinor Mavor took over , in early 1979 , she had no experience with science fiction magazines , and was unaware of the history of bad feeling within the science fiction community about the poor payments for reprinted stories . She was given an extremely limited budget to work with , and had few stories on hand to work with initially , and as a result her first issues contained several reprints . Mavor experimented in her first year with some new ideas , such as starting a story on the back cover in order to hook readers into buying the magazine to finish the story . She also began a serial story in graphic format that used reader input to continue its plot . It was not a success and " thankfully , " according to Mike Ashley , the experiment was terminated after only three episodes .
Over time Mavor was to some extent able to reverse the negative perceptions of Amazing among established authors , but she was initially forced to work primarily with newer writers . Early discoveries of hers include Michael P. Kube @-@ McDowell , John E. Stith and Richard Paul Russo . In a notice published in her first issue , she asked readers for help in assembling news , reviews and fan information , and soon added columns that covered these areas . In 1981 Robert Silverberg began a series of opinion columns . The artwork was of high quality , including work by Stephen Fabian , and later by David Mattingly .
After the merger with Fantastic , Mavor continued to draw well @-@ known writers to the magazine , including Orson Scott Card , George R. R. Martin , and Roger Zelazny . Brad Linaweaver 's Moon of Ice , which appeared in March 1982 , was nominated for a Nebula award ; Martin 's Unsound Variations , which had appeared the issue before , was nominated for both a Nebula and a Hugo award .
Historian James Gunn 's assessment of Amazing in the 1980s is that Mavor , Scithers and Price , who between them edited Amazing for a decade , were unable to sustain the standards established by Ted White in the 1970s . Brian Stableford , by contrast , comments that both Scithers and Price made efforts to publish good material , and that the packaging , from 1991 onwards , was perhaps the best presented of any science fiction magazine .
With the Wizards of the Coast relaunch in 1998 the contents , under editor Kim Mohan , became more media @-@ focused . The initial plan was to have two or three stories per issue based on films , TV , and games . The 600th issue , in early 2000 , included a Harlan Ellison story , as well as a story from the 100th issue , the 200th issue , and so on , up to the 500th issue . Pamela Sargent also contributed a story . The Paizo publishing relaunch , in 2004 , was even more focused on media content than the Wizards of the Coast version had been , with much more movie and comics @-@ related material than science fiction . Several well @-@ known authors appeared in the first issue , including Harlan Ellison , Bruce Sterling , and Gene Wolfe . Paizo also ran a blog for the magazine . The fiction received positive reviews , but Paizo soon put the magazine on temporary hold , and canceled it permanently the following year .
In 2012 , entrepreneur Steve Davidson announced plans to relaunch the magazine . A " relaunch prelaunch " was published in July 2012 . In 2013 , the magazine was retooled into what Davidson called a " social magazine " that employs bloggers to write about various niche topics .
= = = Influence on the field = = =
Amazing Stories was influential simply by being the first of its kind . In the words of science fiction writer and critic Damon Knight , the magazine was " a snag in the stream of history , from which a V @-@ shape spread out in dozens and then in hundreds of altered lives " . Many early fans of the field began to communicate with each other through the letter column , and to publish fanzines — amateur fan publications that helped establish connections among fans across the country . Many of these fans in turn became successful writers ; and the existence of an organized science fiction fandom , and of writers such as Ray Bradbury , Arthur C. Clarke , and Isaac Asimov , who came to writing directly from fandom , can be dated to the creation of Amazing Stories . After the first few years , when there was little or no competition , Amazing Stories never again led the field in the eyes of critics or fans . Despite its long history , the magazine rarely contributed much to science fiction beyond the initial creation of the genre , though Gernsback himself is commemorated in the name Hugo , which is the almost universally used term for the World Science Fiction Society 's annually presented Science Fiction Achievement Awards . Gernsback has also been called the " Father of Science Fiction " for his role in creating Amazing Stories .
= = Publication details = =
= = = Editors = = =
Bibliographers do not always agree who should be listed as editor of any given issue of Amazing . For example , Gernsback was in control for the first three years , but Sloane performed all the editorial duties related to fiction , and he is sometimes described as the editor . Similarly , later editors were sometimes under the supervision of editorial directors . The table below , and the charts above , generally follow the mastheads in the magazines , with short notes added . More details are given in the publishing history section , above , which focuses on when the editors involved actually obtained control of the magazine contents , instead of when their names appeared on the masthead .
Hugo Gernsback ( April 1926 – April 1929 ) . Sloane performed almost all the editorial duties related to fiction .
Arthur Lynch ( May 1929 – October 1929 ) . As under Gernsback , Sloane was essentially the editor during Lynch 's tenure .
T. O 'Conor Sloane ( November 1929 – May 1938 )
Raymond A. Palmer ( June 1938 – December 1949 )
Howard Browne ( January 1950 – August 1956 ) . Fairman actually took over editorial duties with the May or June 1956 issue .
Paul W. Fairman ( September 1956 – November 1958 )
Cele Goldsmith Lalli ( December 1958 – June 1965 ) . Norman Lobsenz was introduced as editor , but in fact Cele Goldsmith did all the editorial work . When she married she used her married name of Cele Lalli .
Joseph Ross ( August 1965 – October 1967 ) . A pseudonym for Joseph Wrzos .
Harry Harrison ( December 1967 – September 1968 )
Barry N. Malzberg ( November 1968 – January 1969 )
Ted White ( March 1969 – February 1979 )
Elinor Mavor ( May 1979 – September 1982 ) . From May 1979 – August 1981 Mavor used the pseudonym Omar Gohagen ; subsequently she used her real name .
George H. Scithers ( November 1982 – July 1986 )
Patrick Lucien Price ( September 1986 – March 1991 )
Kim Mohan ( May 1991 – Winter 1995 and Summer 1998 – Summer 2000 )
Dave Gross ( September 2004 – December 2004 )
Jeff Berkwits ( January 2005 – March 2005 )
Steve Davidson ( July 2012 – Present )
= = = Other bibliographic details = = =
Amazing began as a bedsheet format magazine and remained so until October 1933 , when it switched to pulp size . With the April – May 1953 issue Amazing became a digest . Seven issues in the early 1980s , from November 1980 to November 1981 , were a half @-@ inch taller than the regular digest size , but thereafter the magazine reverted to the standard digest format . In May 1991 the magazine returned to a large format , but this only lasted until the Winter 1994 issue , and the next three issues were digest @-@ sized again . When the magazine reappeared in 1998 , it was in bedsheet format and remained that size until the very end . The last issue , March 2005 , was only distributed as a PDF download , never as a physical magazine . The volume numbering contained some irregularities : the numbering given in the tables above appears to be in error for the period from 1979 to 1983 , but in fact it is given correctly in the table . Note also that vol . 27 no . 8 was a single issue , not two , as it seems to be from the table ; it was dated Dec 1953 / Jan 1954 .
The title of the magazine changed several times :
Two different series of reprints of Amazing appeared in the United Kingdom . First came a single undated issue from Ziff @-@ Davis , in November 1946 . In June 1950 , Thorpe & Porter began a second series that lasted until 1954 , and totalled 32 issues . The Ziff @-@ Davis issue and the first 24 issues from Thorpe & Porter were pulp @-@ sized ; the last eight were digests . The Thorpe & Porter issues were undated , but the pulp issues were numbered from 1 to 24 , and were initially bimonthly . The March 1951 issue was followed by April and November , however , and in 1952 issues appeared in February , March , April , June , July , September and November . 1953 saw nine pulp issues , omitting only March and May ; and with December came the change to digest @-@ size and a perfectly regular bimonthly schedule that lasted until February 1955 . These last eight issues were numbered volume 1 , numbers 1 to 8 . There was also a Canadian edition , which lasted for 24 issues , from September 1933 to August 1935 , from Teck Publications ; these were identical to the US editions except that the front covers were overprinted with " Printed in Canada on Canadian Paper " . A Japanese edition ran for seven issues in mid @-@ 1950 , selecting stories from Fantastic Adventures as well as from Amazing .
From 1940 to 1943 , and again from 1947 to 1951 , copies of Amazing Stories were rebound , three at a time , and resold as Amazing Stories Quarterly . A total of 27 of these issues appeared ; they should not be confused with the magazine of the same name which ran from 1928 to 1934 as a companion to Amazing Stories .
Several anthologies of stories from Amazing have been published , including :
= = = Media crossovers = = =
Director Steven Spielberg licensed the title for use on an American television show called Amazing Stories that ran from 1985 to 1987 . Between 1998 and 2000 , Amazing Stories published a series of short stories based upon the Star Trek franchise . In 2002 , these stories were reissued by Pocket Books in the collection Star Trek : The Amazing Stories .
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= Ennis Whitehead =
Ennis Clement Whitehead ( 3 September 1895 – 12 October 1964 ) was an early United States Army aviator and a United States Army Air Forces general during World War II . Whitehead joined the U. S. Army after the United States entered World War I in 1917 . He trained as an aviator and served in France , where he was posted to the 3d Aviation Instruction Center and became a qualified test pilot . After the war , Whitehead returned to school at the University of Kansas . After he graduated , he was commissioned as a first lieutenant in 1920 .
Over the following twenty years , Whitehead participated in Billy Mitchell 's aerial bombing demonstration and served as commander of the 94th and 36th Pursuit Squadrons among other assignments . After the U.S. entered World War II , Whitehead was promoted to brigadier general and sent to the Southwest Pacific Area . In the course of the war , he earned a Distinguished Service Cross and was named an honorary Commander of the Order of the British Empire as he rose to command the Fifth Air Force .
After the war , he commanded the Far East Air Forces , the Continental Air Command , and the Air Defense Command . He retired in 1951 after he was passed over for Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force . Both his son , Ennis Whitehead , Jr . , and his grandson , Ennis Whitehead III , became generals as well , rising to major general and brigadier general respectively .
= = Early life = =
Whitehead was born on a farm near Westphalia , Kansas , on 3 September 1895 , the eldest of three children of J. E. Whitehead , a farmer , and his wife Celia . He was educated at Glenwood District School and Burlington High School . In 1914 , he entered the University of Kansas , intending to obtain a law degree .
= = World War I = =
His plans were changed by the United States ' entry into World War I during April 1917 . Whitehead enlisted on 16 August 1917 as a private in the Aviation Section , Signal Enlisted Reserve Corps at Fort Riley , Kansas . On 10 February 1918 he became an aviation cadet , training at a wartime Army School of Military Aeronautics at the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign and at an Air Service flight school at Chanute Field , Illinois . He qualified for a rating of " Reserve Military Aviator " on 19 October 1917 and was commissioned a first lieutenant , Signal Officer Reserve Corps . He sailed for France on 14 November 1917 . There , he was posted to the 3rd Aviation Instruction Center at Issoudun for more training . He attended gunnery school at Bordeaux and became a test pilot . He spent the rest of the war as a test pilot .
= = Between the wars = =
Whitehead was demobilized from the Army in January 1919 , and returned to the University of Kansas , earning a Bachelor of Engineering degree in 1920 . After graduation , he took a job with The Wichita Eagle as a reporter in order to earn enough money for law school . In the end though , he decided that he preferred flying . He applied for a commission in the Regular Army , and was re @-@ commissioned as a first lieutenant in the Air Service , on 11 September 1920 . On 25 September 1920 , he married Mary Nicholson , whom he had known while at the University of Kansas . They had two children : a daughter , Margaret , born in 1921 , who later became a lieutenant in the United States Air Force , and a son , Ennis C. Whitehead , Jr . , who was born in 1926 and graduated from West Point in 1948 .
Whitehead was initially stationed at March Field , where he served as a flying instructor . In 1921 , he was transferred to Kelly Field where he assumed command of the 94th Pursuit Squadron of the 1st Pursuit Group . On 20 July 1921 , he participated in Brigadier General Billy Mitchell 's demonstration bombing attack of the ex @-@ German dreadnought Ostfriesland . The 1st Pursuit Group moved to Selfridge Field , Michigan in July 1922 . In 1926 , Whitehead attended the Air Service Engineering School at McCook Field , graduating first in his class .
In December 1926 , Whitehead was assigned as the co @-@ pilot for Major Herbert A. Dargue , leading the 22 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 35 @,@ 000 km ) Pan American Good Will Flight touring South America . During a landing at Buenos Aires in March 1927 , their aircraft , a Loening OA @-@ 1A float plane nicknamed New York , was involved in a mid @-@ air collision with the Detroit , another OA @-@ 1A , forcing both Dargue and Whitehead to bail out . Whitehead suffered only a sprained ankle , but the pilot and co @-@ pilot of the Detroit were killed . The remaining four planes of the flight completed the tour , for which all ten airmen including Whitehead received the first awards of the Distinguished Flying Cross .
After three years as an engineering officer with the Air Corps Materiel Division at Wright Field , Ohio , he attended the Air Corps Tactical School at Langley Field from September 1930 to June 1931 . While there , he was promoted to captain . Returning to the 1st Pursuit Group , he took command of the 36th Pursuit Squadron . He did staff duty tours at Albrook Field , Panama Canal Zone with the 16th Pursuit Group , at Barksdale Field with the 20th Pursuit Group , and at the headquarters of the General Headquarters ( GHQ ) Air Force at Langley Field . He was promoted to temporary major in April 1935 and attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth in 1938 .
= = World War II = =
On graduation from the Command and General Staff School , Whitehead was posted to the G @-@ 2 ( Intelligence ) Division of the War Department . He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 3 December 1940 . In February 1941 , he was transferred to Luke Field , a new training base , where he was promoted to colonel on 5 January 1942 .
In May 1942 , Lieutenant General George Brett , the Allied Air Forces commander in the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , lodged a request with Lieutenant General Henry H. Arnold , the Commanding General of the U.S. Army Air Forces , for Whitehead to be sent out in the grade of brigadier general as a replacement for Brigadier General Harold Huston George , who had been killed in an air crash near Darwin , Northern Territory on 29 April 1942 . Whitehead was promoted on 16 June 1942 and ordered to the Southwest Pacific . He flew there with Kenneth Walker , a bomber expert , who had also recently been promoted to brigadier general . Arriving in Australia on 11 July 1942 , Whitehead was shocked by the confusion and lack of organization he found . The next day , he reported to General Douglas MacArthur at GHQ SWPA in Melbourne ; the two men would get along well . MacArthur later praised Whitehead for his " masterful generalship ... brilliant judgement and inexhaustible energy " .
At this time , the stocks of the air force in SWPA were low . At the recent Battle of Milne Bay , a Japanese invasion force had managed to sail past all but a few RAAF P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk and Lockheed Hudson aircraft , suffering only limited damage . Opinion at MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) was that " the failure of the Air in this situation is deplorable ; it will encourage the enemy to attempt further landings , with the assurance of impunity " . Unable to provide MacArthur with what he most needed — more and better aircraft and the crews to man them — Arnold decided to replace Brett with Major General George C. Kenney . Arnold hoped that Kenney and the two newly minted brigadier generals could make the best use of what was available . Major General George Kenney arrived in the theater on 28 July . Kenney knew Whitehead well , having served with him at Issoudun , the Air Corps Tactical School and GHQ Air Force , and had also served with Walker at the Air Corps Tactical School . " I had known them both for over twenty years , " Kenney later wrote . " They had brains , leadership , loyalty , and liked to work . If Brett had had them about three months earlier his luck might have been a lot better . "
Kenney assumed command of the Allied Air Forces on 4 August . Three days later , he instituted a sweeping reorganization of the Allied Air Forces . The Australian components were assigned to RAAF Command under Air Vice Marshal William Bostock , while the American components were consolidated into the reformed Fifth Air Force under Kenney 's personal command . On paper , the organization followed the orthodox pattern , consisting of V Fighter Command under Brigadier General Paul Wurtsmith , V Bomber Command under Walker , and an Air Services Command under Major General Rush B. Lincoln . But Kenney realized that he would have to maintain his headquarters near MacArthur 's GHQ , which moved to Brisbane on 20 July , while the fighting was thousands of miles away in New Guinea , with the Fifth Air Force 's principal forward bases around Port Moresby . Moreover , Walker 's headquarters was in Townsville , as heavy and medium bombers were based there and only staged through Port Moresby . Accordingly , Kenney appointed Whitehead as deputy Fifth Air Force commander , and commander of the Advanced Echelon ( ADVON ) in Port Moresby .
In his first months in New Guinea , Whitehead concentrated on building up the infrastructure there . He obtained additional engineer units and construction equipment . New airfields were developed , along with roads , housing , taxiways and revetments to protect his aircraft from the frequent Japanese air raids . He also attempted to build up the morale and leadership of his units . These months coincided with the Kokoda Track campaign . For a time , despite the efforts of his airmen and the ground troops , the Japanese advanced steadily on Port Moresby , but they ultimately turned back short of it . For his part in the Papuan campaign , Whitehead was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross . The Australian government made him an honorary Commander of the Order of the British Empire .
Building up Allied air power required ingenuity , improvisation , and innovation . Skip bombing was a new tactic adopted by the Fifth Air Force that enabled its bombers to attack ships at low level . The parachute fragmentation ( parafrag ) bomb gave the light bombers increased accuracy for close air support missions . Although the B @-@ 25 Mitchell was originally designed to bomb from medium altitudes in level flight , Major Paul " Pappy " Gunn had additional guns installed in the nose of the aircraft to enable it to perform in a low @-@ level strafing role . Whitehead consistently gave his full support to such innovations .
At the Battle of the Bismarck Sea in March 1943 , Whitehead was rewarded with an important victory over the Japanese . The battle caused the Japanese to abandon all further attempts to bring supplies and reinforcements in to Lae by the direct sea route from Rabaul . Whitehead was promoted to major general on 15 March 1943 .
Whitehead 's attitude earned him high marks with the Allied land commanders . Lieutenant General Sir Iven Mackay , commander of New Guinea Force , reported on 4 February 1943 that " I have found Brigadier General Whitehead of the USAAF extremely cooperative . In fact there is no question of asking for help — he takes the initiative . "
As the Allied offensive gained steam , Whitehead 's main task was to shift his aircraft forward , advancing the bomb line incrementally towards Japan . When the P @-@ 38 Lightning arrived in the theater in late 1942 , Whitehead at last received a fighter that could match the Japanese A6M Zero . To speed up the Allied advance , the Fifth Air Force developed a number of technical and tactical innovations that extended the range of its aircraft , thus increasing the distance of each Allied advance , which was dependent on the range of Whitehead 's aircraft .
Whitehead assumed command of the Fifth Air Force in June 1944 , although he remained subordinate to Kenney . In the Battle of Leyte , MacArthur attempted to move forward beyond the range of land @-@ based aircraft . A long battle of attrition then began on the ground and in the air , as the Fifth Air Force struggled to gain the upper hand with inadequate numbers of aircraft that could be based on Leyte . Gradually , Whitehead gained the upper hand . He was promoted to lieutenant general on 5 June 1945 .
= = Post @-@ war = =
Whitehead continued in command of the Fifth Air Force , participating in the occupation of Japan . He succeeded Kenney as commander of the Far East Air Forces in December 1945 . He commanded it until March 1949 , when he returned to the United States to command the Continental Air Command . Whitehead was instrumental in splitting this organization into the Tactical Air Command and Air Defense Command , commanding the latter from January 1951 . He was seen by some in the Air Force hierarchy as " too attached to Kenney and MacArthur , too political , too outspoken , and too tactically focused " to be Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force . Whitehead was dismayed by the appointment of Hoyt Vandenberg rather than Kenney as Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force in 1948 and lost his mentor when the new chief relieved Kenney as commander of Strategic Air Command in October 1948 . Whitehead was also disappointed at not receiving a fourth star . These feelings , combined with ill health , caused him to retire on 31 July 1951 .
In retirement , Whitehead testified before the United States Senate 's Preparedness Subcommittee on the State of the Nation 's Air Defenses . He pleaded for the fastest possible creation of an air force with an atomic " strike force " ready to take off on retaliatory raids within a few hours of an attack on the United States , enough transports to service the strike force at overseas bases , fighters to escort the bombers on their missions , and at least 30 wings of all @-@ weather jet fighters to intercept enemy bombers . He urged that , until this was achieved , the Army and Navy should be cut back to " token " appropriations . Whitehead pointed out that the United States mainland was defended against atomic attack by fewer than 100 all @-@ weather fighters , which could not have destroyed more than 10 to 15 percent of a force attacking in daylight . At night , or during instrument meteorological conditions , interceptors would have shot down less than 5 percent . He argued that a well @-@ executed surprise atomic air attack would likely succeed .
He died of emphysema in Newton , Kansas , on 12 October 1964 , and was buried in Arlington Cemetery . His son , Ennis Whitehead , Jr . , later became a major general in the U.S. Army in the late 1970s , and in March 2003 , his grandson Ennis Whitehead III was promoted to brigadier general in the Army Reserve , making three generations of general officers .
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= Beiyue Temple =
Beiyue Temple ( Chinese : 北岳庙 ) is a Daoist temple located in Quyang , Hebei Province , China . The temple was used to make sacrifices to Mount Heng by the emperors of the Song Dynasty while the mountain was occupied by the Liao Dynasty . The Dening Hall of the temple is the largest , earliest and one of the most important extant wooden buildings built in the Yuan Dynasty . The temple also contains three gates , an octagonal pavilion and many ancient stelae .
= = History = =
The Beiyue Temple was first established either during the Northern Wei Dynasty ( 386 @-@ 584 ) or the Tang Dynasty ( 618 @-@ 907 ) , but the site may have been in use as early as the 2nd century BCE of the Han Dynasty . The temple has been rebuilt twice , first in 991 after having been destroyed by the Khitan during the 950s , and then in 1270 . According to a surviving image of the temple dating from a local history of Quyang written in 1672 , the temple had by this time achieved its present layout .
During the Song Dynasty , Beiyue Temple was used as an alternate site to make sacrifices to the Northern Peak , Mount Heng , one of the sacred mountains of Daoism . During this time , Mount Heng was controlled by the Liao Dynasty ( 916 @-@ 1125 ) . In order to maintain political legitimacy and receive Daoist support , Beiyue Temple was chosen by the Song Emperor as the location to make sacrifices to Hengshan . Even though the mountain was not controlled by the Song , they believed that a ' geomantic vein ' that would direct their sacrifices could be cut through enemy @-@ controlled territory and reach it .
= = Architecture = =
The Beiyue temple is laid out on a north @-@ south axis featuring six extant buildings . From south to north , the buildings are : a gate , an octagonal building called the Tianyi Pavilion ( 天一阁 ) that was built during the Ming Dynasty , two more gates , and the Dening Hall ( 德宁殿 ) . A large platform in front of the Dening Hall now features the remains of stone sculptures , but was formerly the site of another hall . According to signs at the temple , many of the buildings were rebuilt in the late 20th century .
The wall surrounding the temple was formerly part of a city wall that surrounded Quyang . The south gate of the temple once served as one of the main gates for the town . Apart from the remnant that is part of the temple , nothing more survives of this wall . The temple grounds are also home to over 137 stelae , dating from the Northern Wei Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty .
= = = Dening Hall = = =
The Dening Hall is the main hall of the temple , and was built in 1270 during the Yuan Dynasty . The hall is fronted by a massive platform known as a yuetai ( 月台 , literally moon platform ) , which measures 25 by 20 meters . Built on a very high platform itself , the Dening Hall can be accessed by either a center front staircases or one of two side staircases attached to the yuetai . Enclosing the perimeter of the platform is a white marble balustrade capped by lions . The hall itself measures seven by four bays and is surrounded by a covered arcade . According to the Yingzao Fashi , a Song Dynasty architectural treatise , the Dening Hall has 6th puzuo type column bracketing to support its roof . This type of bracketing has three transverse and three horizontal bracket arms . The 6th puzuo brackets are the most complex that survive from the Yuan Dynasty . Based on the complex bracketing , the marble balustrade and the height of the platform , Steinhardt identifies the Dening Hall as one of the two most eminent and important extant wooden halls that date from the Yuan period . These characteristics also closely match descriptions of the architecture at the capital , meaning that Dening Hall is representative of the architecture at the Yuan dynasty capital of Dadu ( currently Beijing ) .
The Dening Hall has Daoist murals painted on three of its walls . The western wall 's mural , said to have been painted in the Tang Dynasty , measures 17 by 7 meters and features a local water deity with a winged being at the top . With similar dimensions to the western mural , the eastern mural portrays the Dragon King . The hall contains nine statues , all dating from a more recent period than the hall .
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= Spruce Production Division =
The Spruce Production Division was a unit of the United States Army that was established in 1917 to produce high @-@ quality Sitka spruce timber and other wood products needed to make aircraft for the United States ' efforts in World War I. The division was part of the Army Signal Corps 's Aviation Section . Its headquarters were in Portland , Oregon , and its main operations center was at Vancouver Barracks in Vancouver , Washington . Workers in the division were members of the Loyal Legion of Loggers and Lumbermen , a union specifically established to support the army 's wood production operations .
The division produced nearly 150 million board feet ( 350 @,@ 000 m3 ) of spruce in just 15 months , halting work almost as soon as the war ended . Col. Brice Disque was then put on trial for accusations that he had wasted millions of tax dollars . He was found not guilty of malfeasance .
The division had a large impact on logging in the Pacific Northwest . Logging companies adopted working conditions similar to those the division had , and they took advantage of new logging roads and rail lines that the division had built to access more timber .
= = Activation = =
From the beginning of World War I , wood products were in great demand for war production . Sitka spruce was the most important tree species because its combination of lightness , strength , and resiliency was ideal for aircraft production . In addition , its long , tough fibers did not splinter when struck by bullets . Even before the United States entered the war , the Pacific Northwest had become the main supplier of spruce for aircraft production in Great Britain , France , and Italy . Northwest lumber mills , however , were never able to meet Europe 's demand for spruce . The government wanted a monthly production of 10 million board feet ( 24 @,@ 000 m3 ) of spruce , but before the division was activated , only 2 million board feet ( 4 @,@ 700 m3 ) were produced monthly .
When the United States entered the war in 1917 , General John J. Pershing sent Brice P. Disque , a former army captain , to the Pacific Northwest to determine if local labor issues within the forest products industry could be quickly resolved . Disque met with mill owners and representatives of the Industrial Workers of the World , the union that was trying to organize loggers and sawmill workers in the Pacific Northwest . After studying the situation for several months , Disque determined that the long @-@ standing labor management dispute could not be resolved without direct intervention by the army . Based on Disque 's report , the United States Army Signal Corps was given the job of reorganizing the forest products industry in the Pacific Northwest to support United States war production .
On 29 September 1917 , Disque was brought back into the army as a lieutenant colonel and was assigned to develop plans for an army unit to produce wood products for the war effort . On 6 November , Disque was promoted to colonel and given command of the newly formed Spruce Production Division , a part of the United States Army Signal Corps . The headquarters of the new unit were in Downtown Portland , which was " the centre of the great spruce area of the Pacific Northwest , " while the division 's induction , training , and operations center was established at Vancouver Barracks across the Columbia River in Vancouver , Washington , where it employed about 19 @,@ 000 soldiers .
= = Production = =
Originally , the Spruce Production Division was authorized to induct 10 @,@ 317 troops , including both officers and enlisted men . The Spruce Production Division quickly recruited several thousand experienced loggers and mill workers , many of whom were above the military draft age of 40 . In May 1918 , the division was authorized to grow to 28 @,@ 825 personnel .
Initially , both the mill owners and local unions were against the army 's takeover of lumber production . The mill owners disliked having the army overseeing their businesses , and the unions saw soldiers ' labor as a form of strikebreaking . Disque , however , called on everyone to support war production . He was also careful not to favor either owners or unions as he increased production , helping both sides achieve their goals . For the mill owners , military manpower kept mills open and running at full capacity ; in addition , it prevented radicals from sabotaging facilities or equipment . The unions benefited because military rules stabilized wages and improved working conditions for loggers and sawmill workers throughout the Pacific Northwest . Among the improved conditions was a standard eight @-@ hour day .
To counter the influence of union radicals in the Industrial Workers of the World , Disque sponsored an alternative union based on patriotism and labor – management cooperation . The new union , the Loyal Legion of Loggers and Lumbermen , was established in 1917 and put under the leadership of Portland attorney Captain Maurice E. Crumpacker , who would later serve as a U.S. Congressman . The union was initially opposed by both labor and mill owners , but due to Disque 's strong advocacy , within six months nearly all of the mill owners had agreed to support the union ; by October 1918 , it had 125 @,@ 000 members . In fact , the union lasted 20 years longer than the Spruce Production Division .
The Spruce Production Division established approximately 60 military logging camps throughout the Pacific Northwest , usually near existing sawmills . While privately owned , these mills were operated under the direction of the army . On 20 December 1917 , Disque reported that the division was only meeting 40 percent of the demand for spruce . He said that the production must be increased from 3 million board feet ( 7 @,@ 100 m3 ) to 11 million board feet ( 26 @,@ 000 m3 ) to meet the demand . In early 1918 , the division opened a sawmill at Vancouver Barracks , the largest spruce sawmill in the world , " producing more than one million feet of spruce lumber each day . " The mill complex covered 50 acres ( 20 ha ) and was operated by 2 @,@ 400 soldiers from the division . The army also built sawmills in Coquille and Toledo , Oregon , and in Port Angeles , Washington . A 3 @,@ 000 @-@ worker community in Washington was designed as a company town by architect Carl F. Gould . The 0 @.@ 5 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 3 km2 ) townsite was laid out with bunkhouses , and with dining and recreation halls styled after Adirondack lodges . The division also built 13 railroads with over 130 miles ( 210 km ) of track to link logging areas to sawmills . At the peak of construction , there were 10 @,@ 000 soldiers building railroads in Oregon and Washington forests . All wire rope manufactured in the west , as well as anything shipped in , was controlled by the spruce division per Colonel Disque . As the Los Angeles Times reported in February 1918 , " There was a serious shortage of wire rope when Col. Disque took charge of the spruce production campaign . "
The division lasted only 15 months , during which it produced a total of 143 @,@ 008 @,@ 961 board feet ( 337 @,@ 463 @.@ 57 m3 ) of spruce . It produced nearly 54 million board feet ( 130 @,@ 000 m3 ) for aircraft construction from Oregon forests alone . Before the Pacific Northwest began logging spruce for the war , much of the lumber came from the eastern United States , where production amounted to just 15 percent of demand . Logging techniques in the east were not as advanced or as efficient with wood .
The network of roads and railroads that the division had built allowed for future development of the forests , which facilitated the growth of the lumber industry in the Pacific Northwest for the remainder of the 20th century .
= = Demobilization = =
The armistice that ended World War I was signed on 11 November 1918 . The next day , all Spruce Production Division logging ended , most construction projects were stopped , and sawmill operations were curtailed . Government machinery and equipment from all over the Northwest was shipped back to Vancouver Barracks , and division personnel were quickly discharged from military service . Over $ 12 million worth of logging equipment , sawmill machinery , and other property was eventually sold in a government auction .
While the Spruce Production Division was quickly demobilized after the war , there was some post @-@ war controversy over the cost of its operations . Disque , by then a brigadier general , spent months answering to charges that his division had wasted taxpayers ' money . Congress was particularly critical of the $ 4 million spent on an unfinished railroad located in the Olympic Peninsula of Washington . Disque responded that it was to be used for transporting spruce lumber . Eventually , the charges proved to be unfounded .
Disque was discharged from the army in March 1919 to be " appointed chairman of the export and import branch of the American International Corporation with headquarters at New York . "
= = Legacy = =
Lt. Col. Cuthbert Stearns compiled a history of the Spruce Production Division , The Spruce Production Division , United States Army and Spruce Production Corporation , that was published in 1919 . This detailed record of the division 's operations helped General Disque defend the cost of spruce production in his debate with members of Congress . The U.S. National Archives in Seattle holds approximately 187 cubic feet ( 5 @.@ 3 m3 ) of records related to the division , as well as " a complete roster of all military personnel in the Spruce Production Division as of 1 November 1918 . "
The effects of the Spruce Production Division continued long after the unit was demobilized . Not only did the division dramatically increase the production of forest products for the war effort , but the transportation network that it built helped open up Pacific Northwest forests to greater use in the decades that followed . In addition , the division 's work rules became the standard for logging and sawmill operations throughout the Pacific Northwest well into the 1930s .
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= Adrian S. Fisher =
Adrian Sanford Fisher ( January 21 , 1914 – March 18 , 1983 ) was an American lawyer and federal public servant , who served from the late 1930s through the early 1980s . He was associated with the Department of War and Department of State throughout his professional career . He participated in the U.S. government 's decision to carry out Japanese @-@ American internment and the international ( 1945 – 46 ) Nuremberg trial , and in State Department Cold War activities during the Harry S. Truman administration . He was the State Department Legal Adviser under Secretary of State Dean Acheson . During the John F. Kennedy , Lyndon B. Johnson and Jimmy Carter administrations , Fisher was directly involved in the negotiations of international nuclear testing and non @-@ proliferation agreements .
= = Early life and early government career = =
Fisher was born in Memphis , Tennessee , to Hubert Fisher and Louise Sanford Fisher . He attended elite schools such as Saint Albans and Choate , Princeton University ( BA 1934 ) and Harvard Law School ( LLB 1937 ) . Fisher was known throughout his life by his nickname " Butch " , from his early days as a football player for Princeton , lettering in 1933 .
In the late 1930s Fisher lived in Arlington , Virginia , in an estate known by the name of Hockley Hall . This house was a semi @-@ famous " bachelor 's house , " with rooms rented by Fisher and various housemates such as William Bundy , William Sheldon , John Ferguson , John Oakes , Donald Hiss , Edward Prichard , Jr. and Philip Graham . Also , Hockley Hall was known as a social venue for the likes of Dean Acheson , Archibald MacLeish and Francis Biddle .
Fisher was admitted to the Tennessee Bar in 1938 , and had the distinction of clerking for two U.S. Supreme Court Justices , Louis Brandeis ( 1938 – 39 ) and Felix Frankfurter ( 1939 – 40 ) . Fisher began his legal career with his appointment as Law Clerk to Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis , who was then 82 years old . In early 1939 , Brandeis announced his retirement from the Supreme Court , and Fisher was invited to transfer to the chambers of the recently appointed Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter . Following his term as Frankfurter 's clerk in 1940 , Fisher joined the United States Department of State as the assistant chief of the Foreign Funds Control Division of the State Department , where he served until shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor .
= = World War II government and military service = =
In early 1942 , Fisher and John J. McCloy were assigned to assist implementation of the United States War Department 's legal activities for the Japanese American internment programs shortly after the United States entered World War II . In late 1942 , Fisher received an officer 's commission , and trained as a bomber navigator in the United States Army Air Forces from 1942 to 1943 , with missions over France , Belgium and Germany . In 1944 , he returned to Washington , D.C. as an assistant to the Assistant Secretary of War , John J. McCloy .
= = = Korematsu Supreme Court Case = = =
In 1944 , Fisher again was required to become involved in the U.S. 1942 @-@ 43 internment of Japanese Americans on the West Coast of the United States upon his return from Europe . At that time , the case of Korematsu v. United States , challenging the U.S. government ’ s power to exclude citizens of Japanese ancestry from military zones , came before the United States Supreme Court . While the Department of Justice 's Herbert Wechsler ( an Assistant Attorney General ) was in charge of defending the government 's position before the Supreme Court , significant consultation with Fisher was required , as he was again with the legal affairs section of the War Department . During this period , Fisher was involved in critical drafting of the government 's brief submitted to the Supreme Court .
= = = Nuremberg international trial = = =
In 1945 and 1946 , Captain Fisher served , along with James Rowe , as a legal advisor to former U.S. Attorney General Francis Biddle , the United States member of the International Military Tribunal ( Nuremberg Trial ) . Fisher was principal drafter of the Tribunal 's memorandum on the Nazi leadership 's " conspiracies to engage in crimes against peace . " This document , covering the period from 1920 to November 1937 , demonstrated that the pace of re @-@ armament under Adolf Hitler showed that the Germans " were developing an economic system which was only sensible only if there should be a war . "
= = Return to Washington , D.C. and service with Dean Acheson = =
Upon his return from Europe and exit from the Army Air Force , Fisher served as Solicitor for the U.S. Department of Commerce from 1947 to 1948 . Thereafter , Fisher became general counsel of the Atomic Energy Commission from 1948 @-@ 49 . He then served as legal advisor ( with the rank of Assistant Secretary of State ) to the Department of State ( serving in the office of Secretary of State Dean Acheson ) from 1949 to 1953 . During 1952 , Mr. Fisher also served as legal advisor to the U.S. Delegation to the United Nations in Paris .
In 1952 , Fisher was also appointed by President Harry S. Truman as an original commissioner to the President 's Commission on Immigration and Naturalization . The Commission was established in the Executive Office of the President by Executive Order 10392 " Establishing the President 's Commission on Immigration and Naturalization " . The specific context for the 1952 commission was the enactment of the McCarren @-@ Walter Act , which was passed over President Truman 's veto . Truman 's main disagreement with the Act was its retention of the quota system that began in 1924 . After Congress passed the Act over his veto , he formed the Commission and charged it with looking into new options for immigration and naturalization policy .
Secretary of State Acheson 's appointment of Fisher as the State Department 's Legal Adviser was unique at the time , because of the closeness of the Acheson / Fisher professional relationship . Fisher 's role as Acheson 's legal adviser was explained by Michael H. Cordozo , the State Department 's Assistant Legal Adviser for Economic Affairs , 1950 @-@ 52 :
( Acheson ) insisted on having , as a legal adviser , a lawyer whose ability as a lawyer and whose judgment in politics and statesmanship could be greatly respected . He got Adrian Fisher for that , and he involved him in all of the political and other activities that he himself was involved in . The Secretary of State always is involved in a lot of controversial things , and here we had the McCarthy era , the attack on the whole concept of Foreign Service and the State Department , and a terrific controversy over what to do about China , who had " lost China . " Fisher was always at Acheson 's right hand when he was dealing with other people about these things . Wherever he went , Fisher 's office was backstopping him , getting all the necessary background information so he 'd be prepared for any kind of question that came up . Of course , Acheson 's own approach to being Secretary of State was such that when you took an agreement to him to be signed , his chief question was " By what authority do I sign this ? " And whoever brought it to him to get it signed , had to be ready with the answer that would satisfy a lawyer -- " by what legal authority " -- as well as what it provides and so forth .
= = = Building the H @-@ bomb = = =
In late 1949 , President Truman asked Dean Acheson to concentrate on the question of whether the United States should develop the hydrogen bomb . Acheson formed a working group under the United States National Security Council ( NSC ) executive secretary Sidney Souers , consisting of R. Gordon Arneson , Paul Nitze and Fisher , who served as the State Department 's legal adviser on the project . It was Arneson 's view that each member of the working group were of one mind . He said , " The four principals in the State Department were Acheson , Nitze , Fisher and myself . I don 't think it was necessary for any one of us to persuade anybody else ; we all were of a mind that there really wasn 't any choice . "
Fisher was part of this same working group which recommended that an internal NSC study be conducted on the overall U.S. foreign policy as it pertained to the newly developing Cold War . This classified study ( declassified in 1977 ) called NSC @-@ 68 , was the blueprint for the Truman Doctrine for containment of communism , which provided the overall policy concepts for the U.S. participation in the Cold War throughout the 1950s .
= = = Congressional Hearings on the firing of General Douglas MacArthur = = =
On April 11 , 1951 , President Truman announced the dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur from his duties as Allied Commander of United Nations forces in the Far East . Following MacArthur 's firing and the subsequent public outcry , the Joint Committee on Armed Services and Foreign Relations of the United States Senate conducted an inquiry into removal of MacArthur . Fisher was assigned the responsibility for the coordination of the State Department Congressional testimony regarding the firing of General MacArthur .
= = = Fisher and the Acheson Capitol Hill fist @-@ fight = = =
In August 1950 , Fisher was involved in an incident between Secretary of State Dean Acheson and Senator Kenneth S. Wherry , Nebraska Republican and minority whip of the United States Senate , during a hearing before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee . During the hearing , Senator Wherry began to harangue Acheson about events in Korea . Suddenly , Acheson jumped out of his chair towards Wherry , with fists raised . Fisher was required to physically hold Acheson back from striking Wherry . As the incident was told by eye @-@ witness John H. Ohly , then the Assistant Director , Office of International Security Affairs , Department of State ,
" The next day the administration threw in its big guns -- Secretary Acheson , Louis Johnson , and , from ECA , William Foster . This time the going was really rough from the Republican side of the table and Acheson consciously lost his temper over some of Wherry 's remarks and got up and tried to slug him . Adrian Fisher , State Department Legal Adviser and a close friend of Acheson , caught his arm , fortunately , because Acheson would have missed Wherry by about three feet and probably fallen flat on his face on the floor . It was a great show . "
This scene was portrayed in the film " The Manchurian Candidate " , with Frank Sinatra ( as Major Marco ) taking on Fisher 's role of restraining ( in that instance ) the United States Secretary of Defense .
= = Nuclear arms control and disarmament activities = =
From 1961 to 1968 , Fisher served as the Deputy Director of the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency in which he took a primary negotiations role during the Atomic Test Ban Treaty of 1963 between the U.S. and the Soviet Union . At that time he was Deputy to John J. McCloy , Adviser to the President on Disarmament . In 1968 , Fisher served as one of the chief U.S. negotiators of the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty , which was signed by the United States , the United Kingdom , the Soviet Union , and 59 other countries on July 1 , 1968 . A collection of letters from Adrian Fisher to President Johnson and Secretary of State Dean Rusk regarding his perception and activities on arms control and disarmament is maintained by the Federation of American Scientists .
= = Return to private law practice and academics = =
In 1968 , Fisher re @-@ entered private law practice , again with Covington & Burling ( during the Dwight D. Eisenhower Administration ( 1953 – 60 ) Fisher joined the Covington firm , with Dean Acheson , for the first time ) and became General Counsel to the Washington Post . Fisher 's connection with the Washington Post arose because of his close friendship with the Post 's then @-@ owner Phillip Graham since his early days in Washington , D.C. Both Fisher and Graham had clerked for Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter and had shared a rented house ( belonging to future Secretary of State Dean Acheson ) , together with Donald Hiss ( brother of Alger Hiss ) . From 1969 to 1975 , Fisher served as Dean of Georgetown University Law Center , Washington , D.C. According to a report in the Georgetown student newspaper " The Hoya " , Fisher was not solicited as a candidate for the position , but simply submitted his own name . " I heard they were looking around for a new person , so I called up and asked to be considered . " Dean Fisher was installed as the first occupant of the Francis Cabell Brown Chair in International Law of the center on January 25 , 1977 , and served as law professor from 1977 to 1980 .
= = U.S. Disarmament Representative = =
President Jimmy Carter nominated Fisher for the rank of Ambassador while serving as the U.S. Representative to the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament in 1977 , where he served through 1981 . With the United States represented by Fisher , the first Special Session on Disarmament of the United Nations General Assembly was held in 1978 and led to the established in 1979 of the U.N. Conference on Disarmament as the single multilateral disarmament negotiating forum of the international community .
= = Return to academics = =
In 1981 , Fisher joined the faculty of George Mason University School of Law in Arlington , Virginia , teaching various seminars on negotiation tactics . The George Mason Law Review named its annual award for best student article in honor of Mr. Fisher . From 1981 to 1982 , Mr. Fisher also served as an advisor to John J. McCloy during the hearings of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians ( established by Congress in 1980 ) . This commission reviewed the impact of Executive Order 9066 on Japanese @-@ Americans and determined that they were the victims of discrimination by the Federal government . Fisher died on March 18 , 1983 , aged 69 , from cancer at his home in Washington , D.C.
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= Leave Home =
Leave Home is the second studio album by American punk rock band the Ramones . It was released on January 10 , 1977 , through Sire Records , with the expanded CD being released through Rhino Entertainment on June 19 , 2001 . Songs on the album were written immediately after the band 's first album 's writing process , which demonstrated the band 's progression . The album had a higher production value than their debut Ramones and featured faster tempos . The front photo was taken by Moshe Brakha and the back cover , which would become the band 's logo , was designed by Arturo Vega . The album spawned three singles , but only one succeeded in charting . It was also promoted with several tour dates in the United States and Europe .
The songs in Leave Home concentrate on various themes , with the musical tones being diverse as well . Some tunes were more pop @-@ oriented , while others , like " Gimme Gimme Shock Treatment " and " Pinhead " were loaded with distorted guitars and had a more punk rock sound . The song " Carbona Not Glue " was taken off the album because it potentially violated the trademark of the stain @-@ removal product Carbona . The track was replaced with " Babysitter " in the United Kingdom and " Sheena Is a Punk Rocker " in the United States ( prior to its inclusion on Rocket to Russia ) ; both " Carbona " and " Babysitter " were included on the 2001 expanded edition .
Critical reception for the album was generally favorable , with several reviewers pointing out the fact that it highly resembled the band 's debut album . Critics also said the album was less groundbreaking than their debut , but had humorous and enjoyable pieces . The album peaked at 148 on the Billboard 200 despite its critical acclaim as well as the band members expecting more commercial success .
= = Background = =
The writing and structure are both somewhat more sophisticated than the songs on their previous record . Guitarist Johnny Ramone relates : " We recorded them in the order they were written ; we wanted to show a slight progression in song structure . " Most of the songs were written in the band member 's homes , rather than at a studio ; " Suzy Is a Headbanger " was written in drummer Tommy Ramone 's loft apartment .
" I wrote most of the stuff I contributed at my apartment in Forest Hills , before I left and moved back to a place in the city . I had no amp at home , just an electric guitar . I recorded it onto a cassette and played that back at rehearsal . We had better production , we were playing a little faster , and we had a lot of songs accumulated . We were in really good shape for that album . "
Recorded October 1976 in New York City at Sundragon Studios through Sire Records , Leave Home featured increased sound quality through more advanced output methods . Sire set their budget at about $ 10 @,@ 000 hiring Tony Bongiovi to produce the album , and Tommy Ramone to co @-@ produce . More emphasis was placed on the album 's mixing and engineering than their debut album , which received merely $ 6 @,@ 400 to record and produce . With a more fine @-@ tuned and exceptional sound , Leave Home also presented a production value superior to other punk rock bands at the time . Author Joe S. Harrington called the band 's production " brilliant , " and noted that it " put them ahead of the run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill garage band . "
The title Leave Home refers to the Ramones leaving New York City to go on tour around the world . The album cover was designed by Moshe Brakha , who had worked with the Rolling Stones to yield the Black and Blue ( 1976 ) cover art , and would later work with artists like Devo and Iron Maiden . The back cover of the album was a drawing of a bald eagle by graphic designer Arturo Vega . The image would soon become the band 's logo .
= = = Carbona controversy = = =
The original release included " Carbona Not Glue " as the fifth track . However , a month before the band released Leave Home , Ramones ' manager Danny Fields announced to the band that Carbona was a registered trademark and that their record label had to remove the song from the album 's track listing . Legs McNeil recalled : " I was shocked . It was such a great song , so radio @-@ friendly — like a song the Beatles or the Rolling Stones would have written if they were just starting out in 1976 , with great harmonies and catchy lyrics . " Although early purchasers of the Sire release got an album that included the song , " Carbona Not Glue " was later replaced by " Sheena Is a Punk Rocker " for the US release , and " Babysitter " for the UK release . In the early 90 's , after being unavailable for years , the song was bootlegged as a 45 RPM single with " I Can 't Be " as the B @-@ side . The single 's cover sported a faux Sub Pop Singles design , despite not actually being released by the label . The song was revived on the 2001 Extended Edition of the album , which also included " Babysitter " .
= = Promotion = =
There were three singles released from Leave Home : " I Remember You , " " Swallow My Pride , " and " Carbona Not Glue , " released respectively . " Swallow My Pride " was the only single from Leave Home that charted , peaking at thirty @-@ six on the United Kingdom singles chart . The album 's final single , " Carbona Not Glue " / " I Can 't Be , " was released in 1991 under Sub Pop Records . The single was given four out of five stars by Allmusic 's Matt Whalley , who said that the song " could have been one of the Ramones ' most popular tracks if it was not pulled from the album due to legal reasons . " Whalley called the B @-@ side " I Can 't Be " " simple , " describing it as " in the same vein as ' Carbona Not Glue , ' only shifting focus to relationships . "
After the album came out in February , the band began a four @-@ week tour of the United States starting with Los Angeles . On February 4 , the band played at the Nassau Coliseum with Blue Öyster Cult , and played with Suicide the next day at CBGB . A week after this , the band played with Blue Öyster Cult again in Poughkeepsie , to which Johnny relates : " Those arena shows were a little better for us , although we would have more bad experiences in those big places . I never really enjoyed playing them . " The band used their newly designed logo as a backdrop at concerts . They also had more advanced lighting techniques , but still only used white lights .
In April 1977 , the band left the United States to begin their tour of Europe . Ramones co @-@ headlined with Talking Heads , who were a new wave band formed in 1975 . During a Marseilles gig , the Ramones caused a power outage to a quarter of the city during a sound check . The gig was cancelled when police arrived and dispersed the fans . When their tour manager arranged for a stop at Stonehenge in Wiltshire , Johnny refused to leave the bus , saying he refused to see " a bunch of old rocks . " The band 's Europe tour came to an end on June 6 , 1977 .
= = Compositions = =
Leave Home has various lyrical themes throughout its track list . The opening song , " Glad to See You Go , " is rather uptempo and frenetic . The track was about Dee Dee 's then @-@ girlfriend Connie , who was well known in the punk rock scene , as had once dated New York Dolls bassist Arthur Kane and cut his finger off with a knife . Connie also harmed Dee Dee in several ways , such as slicing his buttocks with a beer bottle . At the time , every other member of the band despised Dee Dee 's girlfriend and he eventually broke up with her . Joey recalls : " Dee [ Dee ] and I came up with the song ' Glad to See You Go , ' about Connie 's leaving . " In the mid @-@ 1980s , Connie died from a drug overdose . " Gimme Gimme Shock Treatment " utilizes Joey 's singing abilities with its vocal @-@ demanding melody . Author Scott Schinder called the song a " sing @-@ along mental @-@ illness ode . " The next song , " I Remember You " was said by author Greil Marcus to be all about the moment where " Joey 's voice turns the single word " you " into pure poetry . " " Oh , Oh , I Love Her So " pays homage to the 1950s doo @-@ wop genre , and consists of a three @-@ chord barrage . The song was written solely by Joey , where in the song he humorously tells of how he met a girl at Burger King and they fell in love by a soda machine .
" Carbona Not Glue " was written as a follow @-@ up to " Now I Wanna Sniff Some Glue " from their debut album . The song was Legs McNeil 's favorite song from Leave Home , who relates : " [ The song ] was meant to clarify that while glue might not be good for you , the cleaning fluid Carbona was definitely a better high . " The song contemplates around Beach Boys harmonies , and it uses a " bouncy " guitar riffs . " Suzy Is a Headbanger " was inspired by the 1947 film noir Nightmare Alley , with the lyrics detailing a female involved in the punk rock scene .
The lines " Gabba Gabba Hey " at the end of " Pinhead " were taken from the horror film Freaks , which the band saw in Cleveland , Ohio after their gig was cancelled . Joey 's brother Mickey Leigh said that it was specifically taken from the scene where " the midget groom does a dance on the banquet table and sings ' Gobble gobble , we accept you , one of us ' to his bride . " The song is an audience participation song , and during live performances , Leigh appears on stage holding a sign that bore the text " Gabba Gabba Hey . " " Pinhead , " the album 's longest piece , leads into " Now I Wanna Be a Good Boy , " which portrays a confused adolescent wanting to be good , yet also yearning to run away from home . The next song on the album , " Swallow My Pride , " was a piece written solely by lead singer Joey Ramone , who states that the concept deals with their record company Sire Records ; Tommy used the expression " you gotta swallow your pride " when signing to their record company . " What 's Your Game " is one of the band 's most melodic songs and was called " wistful " by Marcus . It was written by Joey about how he yearns for a girl to be herself instead of something she 's not .
The album 's only cover song , " California Sun " , was originally written by Henry Glover and Morris Levy , and performed by The Rivieras . While the lyrics and musical structure remain the same throughout the piece , Joey 's pronunciation upon words significantly lessened the similarity to the original song . The sound output tone also differs from the original , with more distortion as well as a faster tempo . Author Steve Waksman relates : " From the opening bars , ' California Sun ' becomes subject to the Ramones ' distinctive brand of musical minimalism paired with sonic excess . The chords go by in a blur of distortion ; the drums and bass kick at seemingly twice the speed of the Rivieras . " The twelfth track " Commando " has a theme which deals with war movies and contains multiple military references . Author Avram Mednick said the song was a successor to " Blitzkrieg Bop " , released on the band 's debut album . He also noted that it has a " bouncy melody and an infectious call @-@ and @-@ response chorus . " " You 're Gonna Kill that Girl , " which was written very early in the band 's career , was also rooted in doo @-@ wop genre . Mednick commented that it appealed highly to those tuning into the Ramones in the UK , and also said it has a " lovely misogynistic tune . " The final guitar chord on the track is played by drummer Tommy since Johnny rarely played acoustic . The album 's final track , " You Should Never Have Opened That Door , " was written by Dee Dee and Johnny , and circles themes of horror film 's and hints that people in these movies tend to be naive and unintelligent .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
Leave Home was released on January 10 , 1977 and was well received by critics . Although the album did not receive much initial reception , Ken Tucker of Rolling Stone magazine gave the album a favorable review in 1977 , saying that it is very similar to their debut yet more experienced sounding . He sums up the album with : " The Ramones are as direct and witty as before . They 've also lost just a pinch of their studied rawness : whether this is a sign of maturity or sellout is a matter for debate . The Ramones make rousing music and damn good jokes , but they 're in a bind : the hard rock of this group is so pure it may be perceived as a freak novelty by an awful lot of people . " In the 1979 book The Rolling Stone Album Guide , the album was given 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine , a music critic for AllMusic , gave the album 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars as well , noting that the album was very similar to their debut . Though he did consider it to be slightly more pop music oriented , Erlewine writes that despite being " weaker " than its predecessing album , Leave Home " deliver [ s ] at breakneck speed and conclude [ s ] in under a half @-@ hour . " April Long from NME praised the album , rewarding it a perfect score of 10 out of 10 . She especially favored " Sheena Is A Punk Rocker , " calling it " a punk @-@ surf @-@ pop crossover that has never been rivalled . " It was given a favorable review by PopMatters editor Adrien Begrand , who called it his favorite Ramones album , saying : " In this album , the Ramones are witty , menacing , goofy , cynical , and head @-@ over @-@ heels in love , all at the same time . " During his extensive review , he called " I Remember You " a " perfect bubblegum pop song , " while saying that " Pinhead " urges " all the freaks of the world to unite as one " with the lines " D @-@ U @-@ M @-@ B / Everyone 's accusing me . " Music critic Robert Christgau gave the album an A , noting that the lyrics contained a good amount of humor .
= = = Charts = = =
The album did not chart as well in the United States as its predecessor , peaking at number 148 on the Billboard 200 . It was , however , the band 's first album to chart on the UK Albums Chart , debuting at number 45 . Many of the songs on Leave Home were not considered by Mickey Leigh to be " radio – friendly " because " Carbona Not Glue " was about Intoxicative inhalant . Joey relates : " We thought we had a lotta songs that should 've been hits . If you grew up in the sixties , things would just get played and be hits right off the bat . So we thought since our music was doin ' something unique that everyone would pick up on that . What really happened was we were so alien that no one wanted to touch us . And so we wouldn 't get played "
= = Track listing = =
Writing credits are credited to Mickey Leigh 's book I Slept with Joey Ramone : A Family Memoir .
Original release
United States reissue
United Kingdom reissue
2001 Expanded Edition CD
Tracks 16 @-@ 31 recorded live at The Roxy in Hollywood , CA ( 8 / 12 / 76 ) .
= = Personnel = =
The following personnel can be verified with AllMusic .
Joey Ramone – Lead vocals
Johnny Ramone – Lead guitar
Dee Dee Ramone – Bass guitar , backing vocals
Tommy Ramone – drums , producer
Tony Bongiovi – producer
Ed Stasium – engineer
Greg Calbi – mastering
Moshe Brakha – front cover photography
Arturo Vega – back cover art
John Gillespie - art direction
Pat Chiono - design
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= Burt Hummel =
Burt Hummel is a fictional character from the Fox musical comedy @-@ drama series Glee . The character is portrayed by actor Mike O 'Malley , and first appeared on Glee in the fourth episode of the first season , " Preggers " . Burt was developed by Glee creators Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan . He is the father of gay glee club member Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) , and works as a mechanic in Lima , Ohio where the series is set . He eventually begins a relationship with Carole Hudson ( Romy Rosemont ) , the mother of another glee club member , and the two marry in the second season episode " Furt " . In the third season , Burt runs in a special congressional election and wins . O 'Malley was a recurring cast member during the first season , and was upgraded to a series regular for the second season of the show , but returned to the recurring cast for the third season .
The character has been well received by critics . James Poniewozik of Time wrote , " the fact that Dad ( Mike O 'Malley , who has turned out to be a pretty good character actor ) ends up not being the boor we think he 's going to be is one of the first signs that Glee is growing up as a series , that having established a world of primary @-@ color stereotypes , it 's now willing to subvert those expectations . " IGN 's Robert Canning commented that the Hummels ' relationship is " the most affecting " of the show , and praised O 'Malley 's " outstandingly nuanced " performance as Burt . Murphy has said , " Mike 's talent is deep . I will always write for Mike O 'Malley . " O 'Malley was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor – Comedy Series in 2010 for his portrayal of Burt .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
Burt first appears in " Preggers " , the show 's fourth episode . He catches his son Kurt dancing to Beyoncé Knowles 's " Single Ladies " , and Kurt claims that it is a football exercise , and that he is now a kicker on the William McKinley High football team . Fortunately for Kurt , fellow glee club member and football quarterback Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) helps him get a tryout for the team , and he becomes its kicker in truth . Burt attends Kurt 's first game , and after a final @-@ second touchdown ties the game , Kurt kicks the extra point to win it . Buoyed by his success , Kurt comes out to his father . Burt tells him he knew all along Kurt was gay and loves him just as much .
When Kurt is upset at not being considered for the solo on " Defying Gravity " in the episode " Wheels " — the song , originally written for a female character in the musical Wicked , is initially given to Rachel ( Lea Michele ) — Burt complains to Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) that his son is being discriminated against , and Kurt is allowed to audition . Burt receives an anonymous abusive phone call about his son 's sexual orientation , and when Kurt sees how upset his father is , he deliberately sabotages his audition to spare Burt more pain .
Kurt sets up Burt with Finn 's widowed mother Carole ( Romy Rosemont ) in the episode " Home " , hoping it will help him become closer to Finn , who he has a crush on . The relationship has become serious before Finn finds out about it , and he is initially hostile to it , but begins to bond with Burt over sports when the two families go out to dinner . It is implied that Burt 's motivation to build a connection with Finn is more out of his knowledge that Finn never had a father to do things with , and not favoritism over his own son . However , Kurt feels left out , and later asks Finn to help him break up their parents . Finn initially agrees , but changes his mind after Burt tells him that he loves Carole and would never hurt her . In " Laryngitis " , Kurt feels increasingly jealous of how much time Burt is spending with Finn , so he attempts to emulate Burt 's personality to regain Burt 's attention . When Burt takes Finn to yet another event without including Kurt , a hurt and angry Kurt drops his emulation of his father and sings " Rose 's Turn " . Burt overhears his performance , praises Kurt 's singing and apologizes for not spending enough time with him . He assures Kurt that he still loves him and always will , no matter what his son chooses to be .
In the episode " Theatricality " , Burt invites Carole and Finn to move in with him and Kurt . Aware of Kurt 's attraction to him , Finn is uncomfortable with sharing a bedroom with Kurt . In the hopes of pleasing Finn , Kurt redecorates their bedroom , but Finn is appalled by its fancy appearance and lack of privacy . During the ensuing argument , when Kurt refuses to acknowledge his infatuation , Finn loses his temper and calls the new furnishings " faggy " . Burt overhears Finn 's homophobic words , delivers a stinging reprimand , and throws him out , even though doing so risks costing Burt his relationship with Carole . However , later on Burt is also disappointed with Kurt when he finds out from Carole that his ulterior motive for setting them up was so he could get closer to Finn , and that while he accepts him for being gay , doesn 't accept him going after a straight boy who he knows doesn 't feel the same way .
= = = Season 2 = = =
Burt suffers a heart attack brought on by a severe arrhythmia in the third episode of the second season , " Grilled Cheesus " , and is in a coma for several days before recovering consciousness . Kurt is at his bedside when he finally wakes , and takes charge of his father 's recovery once Burt is back home . The eighth episode , entitled " Furt " , opens with Burt and Carole telling their sons that they are engaged . Kurt insists that New Directions perform at the wedding and reception . At the wedding , New Directions perform " Marry You " by Bruno Mars as they , and then Burt and Carole , dance down the aisle . The couple marry , but use their honeymoon savings to transfer Kurt to Dalton Academy when a homophobic bully who has threatened Kurt 's life is allowed to resume attending McKinley High .
The Hummel and Hudson households combine subsequent to the marriage . After Kurt and his friend Blaine ( Darren Criss ) attend a party where Blaine gets drunk , Kurt drives them to his own house , and the two sleep , fully clothed , in Kurt 's bed . Burt discovers Blaine there in the morning , and later tells Kurt that this was inappropriate behavior . Kurt apologizes , but asks Burt to learn about homosexual relationships so if Kurt has questions , he can ask Burt like a boy would normally ask his father . As it turns out , Kurt is quite ignorant about sexual matters and refuses to educate himself ; this so alarms Blaine that he asks Burt to consider broaching the subject with Kurt , citing safety concerns . Burt subsequently gives Kurt " the talk " about sex . He later reluctantly agrees to Kurt 's return to McKinley High , and recommends that Kurt dress less flamboyantly for the McKinley junior prom , a suggestion endorsed by Kurt 's new boyfriend and date , Blaine . Their advice is rejected , and at the prom Kurt is appalled to discover that he has been named prom queen .
= = = Season 3 = = =
In the third season , Kurt 's senior year at McKinley , cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) runs for Congress on a platform of defunding the arts in schools . In " Pot o ' Gold " , she causes official funding for the school musical — which Kurt has been cast in — to be withdrawn , but Burt arranges for alternative funding from businesses in the community , and rescues the musical from cancellation . Burt decides to wage a write @-@ in campaign against Sue , who has built up a considerable lead against her rivals in the special congressional election , and makes clear his support for the arts . Sue wages a highly negative campaign , airing outrageous ads about Burt , but doing so ultimately backfires when another candidate in the race airs attack ads against her . Burt wins the election in " I Kissed a Girl " . After the election , he divides his time between Washington and Lima . He intervenes twice with his stepson Finn : first , to find out why Finn wants to enlist in the army , and again when Finn later becomes engaged to Rachel , in the hopes of causing the two to reconsider , or at least to delay their wedding plans . He and Kurt celebrate when the latter becomes a drama school finalist , and attends with Carole both the Regionals show choir competition and the graduation of their two sons .
= = = Season 4 = = =
In the first episode of the fourth season , Burt gives Kurt an emotional sendoff when his son leaves for New York City . Burt travels to New York to surprise Kurt at Christmas in " Glee , Actually " , bringing Blaine with him , and the three spend Christmas together . During his visit , Burt reveals that he has been diagnosed with prostate cancer , but his chances of survival are very high as the diagnosis was made early and treatment appears to have been successful . Several months later , his doctor confirms that he is cancer free . During the season finale , he is approached by Blaine who wants his permission to marry Kurt . Burt tells him that he while he does understand why he wants to get married , he believes that both Blaine and his son are too young to make that kind of step .
= = = Season 5 = = =
Burt drives Kurt to Blaine 's " secret " marriage proposal at Dalton Academy in the season premiere . Kurt , who is aware of the proposal , asks his father for advice on what he should do . He tells Kurt the story about how he met his mother when he was twenty @-@ two , and married her six months later . While married life was not easy , he says there is nothing he would change . In " The Quarterback " , Burt is shown with Kurt and Carole after the death of Finn as they attempt to clean out Finn 's room . He decides to keep the football from Kurt 's first game , and the lamp from Kurt 's basement re @-@ decoration . He expresses his grief by saying that he should have hugged Finn more , and comforts Carole when she starts to break down . When New Directions dedicates their Nationals Show Choir Competition performance to Finn , they invite Carole and Burt to accompany them to Los Angeles for the event .
= = = Season 6 = = =
Burt first appears in " A Wedding " . Rachel doesn 't want to sit next to Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) at Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) and Brittany Pierce 's ( Heather Morris ) wedding . She states that Burt and Carole will be there , and that she hasn ’ t been talking with them recently ( presumbably since Finn 's death ) , and doesn ’ t want to hurt them . Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) reassure her that they ’ ll want her to move on , just like they did with their first spouses ’ death . They both indeed support her to find love again with Sam . He officiates the wedding , which much to his surprise , his son is also getting married . He is in the flashback episode " 2009 " , which is set during the same time period as the show 's pilot episode . Burt is contacted by McKinley High counsellor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) to tell him that Kurt seemed to be isolated and had shown interest in a pamphlet on suicide . Burt tells Kurt that he must join a school team within a week , or face punishment . Although Burt had meant a sports team , when Kurt enthusiastically tells Burt that he has join the glee club , he accepts this as an adequate substitute in part due to its competitive aspect . In the show 's final episode , " Dreams Come True " , Burt and Carole attend the rededication ceremony of the McKinley High auditorium in the year 2020 , when it is renamed the " Finn Hudson Memorial Auditorium " . He enjoys the final performance from the New Directions of all generations and take a bow with the other Glee Cast members .
= = Development = =
= = = Creation and characterization = = =
Murphy created Burt as " a working @-@ class dude who 's not okay with his son being gay , a guy who 's having a tough time . " The character is loosely based on his own father . He had O 'Malley in mind when casting the role , and felt confident about his capability : " It 's a real tour de force role and I knew what Mike could do . This isn 't an after @-@ school special . ... It 's heavy and Mike has the ability to cut through the sentiment . " He went on to say , " Mike 's talent is deep . I will always write for Mike O 'Malley . " The actor did not have to audition , and was invited to read for the part by Murphy personally . The two men , along with Falchuk , had previously worked together on the television movie Pretty / Handsome . While reading the first twenty pages of script , O 'Malley was not initially enthusiastic about playing the role , as the character appeared to be an intolerant stereotype . He changed his mind , however , after realizing that Burt was to be portrayed as a more accepting man , with " grace and love that comes first for his son . "
After appearing in five Glee episodes over the course of the first season , O 'Malley was upgraded to a series regular along with Heather Morris and Naya Rivera in the show 's second season . Murphy confirmed this fact on July 13 , 2010 , in the wake of O 'Malley 's nomination for an Emmy Award for his work in the role of Burt . He appeared in eight season two episodes , and is guaranteed at least six episodes during the third season . In early 2011 , O 'Malley was cast in the lead role in a comedy pilot entitled Family Album , which prompted media speculation that his role as Burt might need to be reduced . In actuality , the actor ensured that he would be able to meet his six @-@ episode commitment to Glee should the pilot be picked up for a full series run , and commented : " [ Burt ] is one of the best parts I 've ever had in my life . I don ’ t want to leave it behind until it 's run its course or the story has run its course . " On August 11 , 2011 , Fox announced that Family Album would not be made into a series . Although there was no announcement about a change in O 'Malley 's status on Glee , the press release for the first episode of the show 's third season omitted O 'Malley 's name from the regular cast , and the one for the second episode has him listed as part of the guest cast .
Burt is a mechanic , and has several times been shown working on cars . He is the majority owner of his tire business , Hummel Tires & Lube . When he was younger , he went to junior college , where he played football before injuring his knee in an accident . He is a sports enthusiast , and also likes basketball and baseball in addition to football . Arts critic Ken Tucker detailed Burt 's early development in the series with the observation :
" Burt Hummel is a working @-@ class guy who , we 've come to think , has overcome what must have been a lifetime of casual conversational gay @-@ bashing to fully accept his son Kurt 's sexuality . Early on in Glee , Burt was a red @-@ herring character : We thought he was there to be a boorish lumpenproletariat who 'd provide dramatic friction between father and son . But the producers went in another direction , one reflecting the idea that being a good parent means learning a lot from your child , as well as the other way around . "
= = = Relationships = = =
Burt is the father of glee club member Kurt Hummel . Colfer has credited his off @-@ screen relationship with O 'Malley with improving the quality of their scenes together , and O 'Malley has said the same about working with Colfer . Burt loves Kurt , and openly accepts his son after Kurt tells him that he is gay in the show 's fourth episode , " Preggers " . Murphy took the scene verbatim from his own experience of coming out to his father . He called the father @-@ son relationship " One of the stories that we really love on the show " , and one that is " very personal " to him , as he wishes his own father had acted more like Burt . During the first season , Kurt has cause to wonder whether his father truly accepts him . Colfer offered the insight that his character is " more concerned with being OK in his dad 's eyes than with anyone else " , and said that the bond between them would continue to strengthen as the series progressed . From O 'Malley 's point of view , " There 's a lot at stake in their relationship and [ we 're ] trying to show other people how it can be , in a positive way . I 'm not saying hey , let 's go to Greenwich Village and be in the parade . This is very very difficult , but he loves his son . "
Burt is shown to have deeply loved his first wife , Kurt 's mother , a strong woman who died eight years prior to the premiere of the show . He later characterizes his life after losing her as " being asleep " . Kurt introduces him to Carole Hudson , Finn 's widowed mother , and they begin dating . He falls in love with her and she with him : he tells Finn that she is an " angel who came down to wake me up after all these years " . At Carole 's behest , Burt becomes something of a father figure to Finn , taking him to ball games , though this development does not sit well with Kurt , who works to win his father 's attention back from Finn by emulating his father 's dress and interests before Burt realizes how hurt Kurt is . The relationship between Burt and Carole progresses to the point that they decide to live together , and she and Finn move in with the Hummels , since their house is the larger of the two . However , after Finn uses a homophobic slur against Kurt , Burt tells Finn that his behavior is unacceptable and he cannot live in the house any more , imperiling his romance with Carole . Following his appearance in this episode , O 'Malley spoke of future reconciliation between Burt and Finn . He stated , " One of the things I think is really important in life and for human beings is to forgive and be able to rise up from our mistakes . I 'm hoping that Finn and Burt are able to cross that chasm . "
The couple apparently continues to date , however — Carole visits Burt 's bedside when he is comatose in the hospital after his heart attack — and in " Furt " he proposes to Carole , she accepts , and they wed . The families combine under the same roof soon thereafter .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The character of Burt has been extremely well received by critics . James Poniewozik of Time deemed Kurt 's coming out " beautifully handled " , and wrote , " the fact that Dad ( Mike O 'Malley , who has turned out to be a pretty good character actor ) ends up not being the boor we think he 's going to be is one of the first signs that Glee is growing up as a series , that having established a world of primary @-@ color stereotypes , it 's now willing to subvert those expectations . "
Burt 's defense of Kurt from a slur by Finn in " Theatricality " was called " one of the heaviest scenes Glee has ever delved into " by Eric Goldman of IGN . Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly called the scene " utterly heartbreaking and lovely " . He added , " it was an amazing moment for Glee , capped off by the simple gesture of Burt grabbing his son 's shoulder in an act of support . Mike O 'Malley is completely Emmy @-@ worthy . We 've never seen a character like this before on television or seen such a relationship between a father and son . " Poniewozik wrote , " Mike O 'Malley , as always , made me believe that Burt was not speaking out of some false enlightenment but out of a desire to protect his family and a struggle to do the right thing . " BuddyTV 's Henrik Batallones said O 'Malley was " the star of the show " .
While the second season episode " Grilled Cheesus " received mixed reviews from television critics , O 'Malley was praised for his contribution . Robert Canning of IGN commented that the Hummels ' relationship is " the most affecting " of the show , and praised O 'Malley 's " outstandingly nuanced " performance as Burt . Stack lauded the performances by Colfer and O 'Malley as being Emmy @-@ worthy , and observed that in the wake of a spate of suicides by gay youths , " the social importance of a show that promotes a message of tolerance and support — and of characters who drive that message home as powerfully as Kurt and Burt Hummel — cannot be underestimated . "
Burt and Carole 's wedding featured in an Entertainment Weekly piece on " 23 Wonderful TV Weddings " . Stack called their dance down the aisle " utterly joyous and sweet , a showcase for how music can transform everyday events . " He added that their " individual vows [ were ] really lovely , even though they did seem to be more about their kids than their significant others " . TV Guide listed it amongst " The Most Memorable TV Weddings " , and commented " If you made it through the vows without shedding a tear you have no soul . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club praised the " genuinely sweet chemistry " between O 'Malley and Rosemont , and found the processional dance " nicely moving " though unoriginal . He too commented on the focus on Kurt and Finn in their vows , but conceded , " if you 'd been a single parent that long , you 'd probably talk about your kids a lot too . " He expanded :
" What rang through this scene was always the sense that these two people had given up on having something like this for themselves again until they abruptly found it staring them in the face . O 'Malley and Rosemont emanate that sense of stunned luckiness , of finding the love of your life all over again after you 've stopped looking , and the whole act featuring the wedding is one of the show 's finest accomplishments . "
In the episode " Sexy " , reviewers acclaimed the scene where Burt gives Kurt " the talk " about sex . Poniewozik wrote , " O 'Malley , who really seems to exist in a different emotional dimension from most of Glee 's adults , sells both Burt 's determination and awkwardness in helping his son " , and Entertainment Weekly 's Sandra Gonzalez declared , " I 've never loved a father @-@ son pair on television more than I love these two " . She also noted , " Awkward to watch as it was , it was another really great moment between the two " .
= = = Accolades = = =
On July 8 , 2010 , O 'Malley received a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor – Comedy Series for playing Burt . On August 8 , 2010 , he was named the winner in the 2010 Teen Choice Awards , Choice TV : Parental Unit category . At the 17th Screen Actors Guild Awards , O 'Malley was included in the Glee cast 's ensemble nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series .
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= Michael Walker , Baron Walker of Aldringham =
Field Marshal Michael John Dawson Walker , Baron Walker of Aldringham , GCB , CMG , CBE , DL ( born 7 July 1944 ) is a retired British Army officer . Commissioned in 1966 , he served in Cyprus , Northern Ireland , and in a variety of staff posts in the United Kingdom until 1984 . After being given command of a battalion , he was mentioned in despatches for his service during a second tour of duty in Northern Ireland , this time in Derry , and subsequently served a tour on Gibraltar . He was promoted to brigadier , unusually having never held the rank of colonel , and took command of 20th Armoured Brigade in Germany before becoming I Corps chief of staff .
As a major general , Walker was appointed General Officer Commanding , Eastern District , before becoming Assistant Chief of the Defence Staff at the Ministry of Defence . He took command of NATO 's Allied Rapid Reaction Corps ( ARRC ) , which deployed to the Balkans in 1995 , Walker becoming the first officer to command the land component of the NATO @-@ led Implementation Force . For his service with the multi @-@ national forces in the Balkans , he was awarded the American Legion of Merit . After relinquishing command of the ARRC , Walker spent three years as Commander in Chief , Land Command , before being appointed Chief of the General Staff — the professional head of the British Army — in 2000 . In 2003 , he was promoted to Chief of the Defence Staff ( CDS ) — the professional head of all the British Armed Forces . While CDS , Walker attracted controversy during the modernisation of the armed forces , over allegations of prisoner abuse during the Iraq War , and over comments that the media coverage of Iraq may have endangered British troops .
Walker retired in 2006 and was subsequently appointed Governor of the Royal Hospital Chelsea , a post he held until 2011 . He is married and has three children .
= = Early and personal life = =
Born in Salisbury in the British colony of Southern Rhodesia ( modern @-@ day Zimbabwe ) to William Hampden Dawson Walker and Dorothy Helena Walker ( née Shiach ) , Walker was educated both in Southern Rhodesia and in Yorkshire , first at Milton School , Bulawayo , and then at Woodhouse Grove School , West Yorkshire . He spent 18 months teaching in a Preparatory School before joining the British Army . Walker married Victoria ( " Tor " , née Holme ) , in 1973 and the couple have three children — two sons and one daughter . He lists his interests as sailing , shooting , tennis , skiing and golf .
= = Early military career = =
After attending the Royal Military Academy , Sandhurst , Walker was commissioned into the Royal Anglian Regiment as a second lieutenant on 29 July 1966 . He served as a platoon commander with the 1st Battalion and was promoted to lieutenant on 29 January 1968 . In 1969 he was posted to Cyprus for a two @-@ year tour , and served in Northern Ireland during The Troubles , before attending the Staff College , Camberley . He was promoted to captain on 29 July 1972 .
After serving in a staff position at the Ministry of Defence ( MoD ) , Walker was promoted to major at the end of 1976 , and rejoined 1st Battalion , to become a company commander , based in Tidworth , Wiltshire . In 1979 , he took up another staff post at the MoD , after which he was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1982 . Until 1985 , he served as Military Assistant ( MA ) to the Chief of the General Staff . He was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the New Year Honours List in December 1984 .
In command of the 1st Battalion from 1985 to 1987 , Walker served another tour in Northern Ireland , this time in Derry , and later a tour on Gibraltar . He was mentioned in despatches in 1987 " in recognition of gallant and distinguished service " in Northern Ireland . Unusually , Walker was promoted directly to brigadier at the end of 1987 , without having held the rank of colonel . He took command of 20th Armoured Brigade , based in Germany , from 1987 to 1989 , before holding the post of Chief of Staff , I Corps between 1989 and 1991 .
= = High command = =
Walker attained general officer status with promotion to acting major general in 1991 and took command of North East District and 2nd Infantry Division . Having served in the Gulf War , he was promoted to Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) later in 1991 . He was granted the substantive rank of major general on 2 December 1991 , with seniority from 14 February 1991 , going on to serve as General Officer Commanding of the Eastern District and then as Assistant Chief of the General Staff from 11 December 1992 to 3 October 1994 .
On 8 December 1994 , Walker was appointed commander of NATO 's Allied Rapid Reaction Corps ( ARRC ) , which had its headquarters in Rheindahlen , Germany , and promoted to acting lieutenant general . He was granted the substantive rank of lieutenant general on 15 March 1995 , and knighted in the 1995 Queen 's Birthday Honours when he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath . Under Walker 's command , the ARRC deployed to the Balkans in December 1995 . There , he became the first commander of the land component of the NATO @-@ led Implementation Force ( IFOR ) , until his return to the UK in November 1996 .
His IFOR command in Bosnia was indirectly criticised by Richard Holbrooke for his refusal to use his authority to also perform nonmilitary implementation tasks , including arresting indicted war criminals :
Based on Shalikashvili 's statement at White House meetings , Christopher and I had assumed that the IFOR commander would use his authority to do substantially more than he was obligated to do . The meeting with [ Admiral Leighton ] Smith shattered that hope . Smith and his British deputy , General Michael Walker , made clear that they intended to take a minimalist approach to all aspects of implementation other than force protection . Smith signalled this in his first extensive public statement to the Bosnian people , during a live call @-@ in program on Pale Television – an odd choice for his first local media appearance .
He was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George at the end of 1996 .
Succeeded as COMARRC by Sir Mike Jackson , Walker was promoted to acting general and appointed Commander in Chief , Land Command on 27 January 1997 . He was granted the substantive rank of general on 2 April 1997 . In recognition of his service with IFOR between 1995 and 1996 , Walker was awarded the American Legion of Merit ( Degree of Commander ) , and granted unrestricted permission to wear the decoration , in May 1997 . In September 1997 , he was appointed Aide @-@ de @-@ Camp General to Queen Elizabeth II , succeeding General Sir Michael Rose , until he in turn was succeeded by General Sir Richard Dannatt . He was promoted to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the New Year Honours List at the end of 1999 .
Having served just over three years as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Walker was appointed Chief of the General Staff ( CGS ) — the professional head of the British Army — on 17 April 2000 , taking over from General Sir Roger Wheeler . He remained CGS for three years , after which he was promoted to Chief of the Defence Staff ( CDS ) — the professional head of all the British Armed Forces — on 2 May 2003 , succeeding Admiral Sir Michael Boyce ( later Lord Boyce ) . As CDS , Walker criticised some of the media coverage of British deployments in Iraq . In particular , he claimed that attacks on the Black Watch were " enhanced " due to news reports on their location . He went on to say that " [ as a result of the media coverage ] , there could well have been a response by those who wished us ill to go and meet us with something like a bomb " . His comments were rejected by a spokesman for the National Union of Journalists , who retaliated " When generals turn around and start blaming reporters for their own mistakes , it is a sign they aren 't doing their own jobs properly " . Also in 2004 , Walker , along with General Sir Mike Jackson , then Chief of the General Staff , attracted controversy over reforms of the armed forces , which included the amalgamation of several army regiments to form larger regiments , leading to the loss of historic names .
In an interview with the BBC in October 2005 , Walker suggested that the army 's recruitment had been adversely affected by the Iraq War . He also commented on the war in Afghanistan , on which he said " There 's a lot of work to be done , of which the military is only a very small part . Ten years , 15 years , long @-@ term . This is not going to be solved in a short term " . In the same month , he gave an interview for The Sunday Times , in which he said that soldiers ' morale had been damaged by the unpopularity of the war among the British public . Later in 2005 , Walker was instrumental in drawing up new procedures for the treatment of British service personnel accused of abusing Iraqi prisoners , following claims that the army had abandoned those soldiers charged in connection with the prisoner abuses . In February 2006 , Walker headed up a military delegation to Bulgaria to discuss military cooperation between the British and Bulgarian governments .
Walker gave evidence to the Iraq Inquiry on 1 February 2010 , in which he spoke about funding for the invasion of Iraq and subsequent planning .
= = = Honorary roles = = =
Lord Walker has held a variety of honorary and ceremonial roles in different regiments . He was granted the honorary titles of Colonel Commandant and Deputy Colonel of Queen 's Division ( of which the Royal Anglian Regiment is part ) in April 1992 and Honorary Colonel , 3rd Battalion Duke of Wellington 's Regiment ( West Riding ) ( Yorkshire Volunteers ) , in October 1993 , which he relinquished on 30 June 1999 . In 1994 , he succeeded General Sir John Learmont as Colonel Commandant of the Army Air Corps and held the title until April 2004 , when he was relieved by then Lieutenant General Sir Richard Dannatt ( later General Lord Dannatt ) . In 1997 , he was appointed honorary Colonel , The Royal Anglian Regiment , in succession to Major General Patrick Stone , and was himself succeeded as Deputy Colonel by Brigadier John Sutherell . Sutherell , then a major general , went on to succeed Walker as Honorary Colonel in February 2000 .
= = Retirement = =
Walker relinquished his appointment as Chief of the Defence Staff in April 2006 and retired from the Army , succeeded as CDS by Air Chief Marshal Jock Stirrup . In September 2006 , Walker was appointed Governor of the Royal Hospital Chelsea , holding the post until February 2011 when he resigned suddenly . On 24 November 2006 , it was announced that he would receive a life peerage , and , on 19 December , he was created Baron Walker of Aldringham , of Aldringham in the county of Suffolk , sitting in the House of Lords as a crossbencher . He was given the ceremonial appointment of Deputy Lieutenant of Greater London in 2007 . Walker was appointed as an honorary field marshal in the Queen 's 2014 Birthday Honours .
= = Arms = =
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= Manche Ch 'ol =
The Manche Ch 'ol were a former Ch 'ol @-@ speaking Maya people inhabiting the extreme south of what is now the Petén Department of modern Guatemala , the area around the Lake Izabal ( also known as the Golfo Dulce ) , and southern Belize . The Manche Ch 'ol took the name Manche from the name of their main settlement . They were the last group of eastern Cholan @-@ speakers to remain independent and ethnically distinct . It is likely that they were descended from the inhabitants of Classic period ( c . 250 @-@ 900 AD ) Maya cities in the southeastern Maya region , such as Nim Li Punit , Copán and Quiriguá .
The first Spanish contact with the Manche Ch 'ol was in 1525 , when an expedition led by Hernán Cortés crossed their territory . From the early 17th century onwards , Dominican friars attempted their concentration into mission towns and their conversion to Christianity . These attempts alarmed their warlike Itza neighbours to the northwest , who attacked the mission towns and fomented rebellion among the Manche . The Manche Ch 'ol in the mission towns were badly affected by disease , which also encouraged them to flee the towns .
In the late 17th century , Franciscan missionaries argued that further attempts at peaceful pacification of the Ch 'ol were useless and argued for armed intervention against the Manche Ch 'ol and their Lakandon Ch 'ol neighbours . The Manche were forcibly relocated in the Guatemalan Highlands , where they did not prosper . By 1770 , most of the Manche Ch 'ol were extinct . The few survivors were soon absorbed into the surrounding Q 'eqch 'i Maya population .
= = Language = =
Spanish colonial documents refer to the inhabitants of a broad swathe of territory as Chols or Cholans ; this territory extended from the Laguna de Términos through the Lacandon Jungle across the foothills of the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes eastwards to southern Belize . A number of distinct Chol- or Cholan @-@ speaking groups inhabited this area ; the Manche Ch 'ol were just one of these groups and spoke the now extinct Ch 'olti ' language . Ch 'olti ' was descended from the Classic Maya language used in hieroglyphic texts . Ch 'olti ' was very closely related to the Ch 'ol , Cholan and Ch 'orti ' languages . The Ch 'olti ' language is evidenced from a single document written in the late 17th century in the Manche Ch 'ol territory ; it has been held in the library of the American Philosophical Society since the 19th century . The document is the Arte y vocabulario de la lengua Cholti , 1695 by Spanish friar Francisco Morán , with the catalogue number Mss.497.4.M79. It was compiled in the Manche village San Lucas Tzalac . The term manche , is derived from the elements men , meaning " artisan " , and che , meaning either " tribe " or " tree " ; it was the name of a large Manche Ch 'ol settlement .
= = Territory = =
The Manche Ch 'ol inhabited the southern Petén Basin , southern Belize , and the area around Lake Izabal . Their territory consisted of tropical rainforest upon a low @-@ lying limestone plain , crossed by fast @-@ flowing rivers . It also featured small areas of savannah and extensive swamps . The Manche Ch 'ol occupied a frontier region between the jurisdictions of the Spanish colonial authorities in Yucatán and Guatemala . The Manche Ch 'ol had frequent contact with the inhabitants of Cahabón , to the southwest , which continued after Cahabón was incorporated into the Spanish Empire . The Manche Ch 'ol were bordered to the north by the Mopan Maya and to the west by the Acala Maya , who were probably another Ch 'ol @-@ speaking group . Further west were the Lakandon Ch 'ol , occupying land around the tributaries of the upper Usumacinta River . To the northwest of the Manche Ch 'ol were the Itza , with their territory centered upon their island capital of Nojpetén , upon Lake Petén Itzá . To the east , the Manche Ch 'ol bordered the Caribbean Sea , and in the 17th century Dominican friar Joseph Delgado mentioned that the Manche Ch 'ol had settlements scattered along the Caribbean coast almost as far north as Bacalar , now within the borders of Quintana Roo state in southeastern Mexico . Settlements on the Caribbean coast in the early 17th century included Yaxhal , Paliac , Campin and Tzoite . There were further towns in the Cancuén River drainage , including Manche ( renamed San Miguel Manché by the Spanish ) , Chocahau , Yaxha ( colonial San Pablo Yaxhá ) and Yol ( colonial Santo Domingo Yol ) . The closest Manche town to colonial Verapaz was Tzalac ( referred to as San Lucas Salac by the Spanish ) , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from Cahabón . This was a large Manche settlement on the Sarstoon River , close to the Gracias a Díos rapids .
= = Society = =
Men either went naked or wore cloths covering their lower regions ; women wore fine skirts woven from cotton , and some used a fine white cloth to cover their head and chest . The Manche Ch 'ol , based on their distinctive attire , in particular their turban @-@ style headdresses , were probably descended from the Classic period inhabitants of the region ; similar headdresses were illustrated in Classic Maya art from Nim Li Punit and such headdresses were restricted to the southeastern Maya lowlands and were used at cities such as Copán , Quiriguá , and their satellites . Manche Ch 'ol men grew their hair long ; they were forced to cut it short upon their evangelisation and this caused much ill @-@ feeling .
The Manche Ch 'ol practised polygamy ; converted Manche men were forced to give up all their wives except one . This was said to have caused such distress among some Manche men relocated to the Guatemalan Highlands that they were reported to have died .
The Manche Ch 'ol subsisted upon a maize @-@ based diet ; maize was mostly consumed in liquid form , such as in posole , and was probably eaten as tamales . The Manche diet also included beans , chilli , sweet potato and turkey . Plantain and sugar cane were introduced to the Manche after European contact .
The Manche Ch 'ol used a variation of the Maya calendar , using a 365 @-@ day year divided into eighteen 20 @-@ day " months " and ending with a 5 @-@ day unlucky period . They worshipped a number of nature @-@ based Maya deities , particularly gods of mountains and dangerous mountain passes , gods of rivers and whirlpools , and of crossroads . One named god was Escurruchan or Xcarruchan , a mountain god that was said to inhabit a mountain top close to the Gracias a Díos waterfall on the Sarstoon River . On top of the mountain was a well @-@ kept plaza with a fire that was kept permanently lit so travellers could make offerings of copal incense . Another mountain god was called Vatanchu , which translates as " straight god " , who inhabited a peak on the road from Chulul to Manche . The Manche Ch 'ol god of death and the underworld was called Cizin . In 1635 Martín Tovilla , governor of Verapaz , related that the principal gods of the Manche were called Canam , Man , and Chuemexchel . He reported that Manche priests dressed in finely painted vestments fashioned from tree bark . Priests were served during rituals by young women wearing feathers , garlands and necklaces . The Manche offered sacrifices to their deities that included copal incense , turkeys and human blood , both from personal bloodletting and from human sacrifice .
= = Organisation and commerce = =
The Manche Ch 'ol lacked a complex political organisation , and possessed no large towns within their territory . Their largest settlement was Manche itself , with about one hundred multi @-@ family houses . Manche was also the name of the principal lineage at Manche and this lineage was the origin of the populations of the other Manche Ch 'ol towns . Nito was another principal settlement , and an important port for maritime trade that maintained strong links with places as far away as the province of Acalan in what is now southern Campeche in Mexico . Otherwise , the Manche Ch 'ol lived in generally small settlements governed by one or more chieftains ; they were less politically complex than their Lakandon and Itza neighbours , and were not ruled by a principal king or chieftain . They grew relatively little maize , rather concentrating their agricultural production upon the prestige crops of cacao , annatto and vanilla . All the main settlements , both on the coast and inland , were noted for their prodigious cacao and annatto plantations .
The Manche Ch 'ol were integrated into a regional trade network that included their Itza and Lakandon Ch 'ol neighbours , and involved the exchange of Manche produce such as cacao , annatto and vanilla for salt , the only Maya source of which was controlled by the Itza after the Spanish conquest of the province of Acalan . This trade monopoly was maintained by force on the part of the Itza , who vigorously ensured that the Manche Ch 'ol remained subservient to them . After the Manche towns on the coast of Belize fell under Spanish control in the 16th century , they continued to have close links with the independent inland Manche settlements . Trade continued and intermarriage was common . The towns in the Cancuén River drainage traded via land and riverine routes with both the independent Itza ( notably with Nojpetén ) and with colonial Verapaz ( principally with Cobán and Cahabón ) .
There were two main trade routes used by the Manche Ch 'ol ; the first went north along the Mopan River to Chacchilan , then overland to Nojpetén . The second followed the Cancuén River to Yol , and there joined the Pasión River northwards , leaving the river when it turned west and continuing overland to Nojpetén . Xocmo , on the Sacapulas River , was a trading port where the Manche and Lakandon Ch 'ols met to trade cacao and annatto . Xocmo had a major fair , still taking place as late as 1676 , where traders arrived from various colonial and independent settlements ; these included Nojpetén and the towns of Cobán , San Agustín Lanquín and Sacapulas in colonial Verapaz . The Chols traded cacao and annatto into the encomienda towns of Verapaz in exchange for metal tools ( particularly axes and machetes ) and salt . Other products traded to the Manche by the Q 'eqchi ' of colonial Verapaz included cotton textiles and quetzal feathers . The Q 'eqchi ' used this trade to supply products demanded by their Spanish overlords under the repartimiento system . The Manche produced a number of products for trade , manufactured from resources in the southern Maya Mountains of Belize ; these included blowguns , bows and arrows , finely sculpted greenstone axes , hammocks , manos and metates , pottery , and cane , all of which were traded across the southern Maya region .
= = Spanish contact = =
Conquistador Hernán Cortés passed through Manche Ch 'ol territory in 1525 , and described it as sparsely populated . In the 16th century , the coastal towns of Campin and Tzoite were given in encomienda to Hernando Sánchez de Aguilar ; they fell within the jurisdiction of colonial Bacalar , on the Yucatán coast near Chetumal . Although some Manche Ch 'ols visited the Dominican friars in Cobán , Verapaz , in 1564 , the central Manche were not contacted by the Spanish again until 1603 , when Dominican missionaries first attempted to evangelise them , and started to gather the scattered inhabitants into towns . In the second half of the 16th century , the still @-@ independent Manche Ch 'ol became a refuge for Christianised Maya living under Spanish domination in Verapaz , who wished to escape and live as apostates among them and their Lakandon Ch 'ol neighbours . In 1596 , Dominican friar Juan Esguerra reported seeing eleven Manche traders in Cahabón ; he claimed that the Manche Ch 'ol were frequent visitors to the town . In 1600 the regular presence of Manche Ch 'ol traders in Cahabón was again reported , and they were said to arrive in greater numbers for the town 's festivities in honour of its patron saint . Friar Esguerra complained in 1605 of the great number of Christianised Q 'eqchi ' Maya of Cahabón that were fleeing the town to live as apostates among the Manche Ch 'ol .
By 1606 the missionaries had concentrated many Manche Ch 'ols in nine new mission towns , and had started to penetrate the territory of the neighbouring Mopan Maya , who were on the borders of the fiercely independent Itza of central Petén . By 1628 the Dominicans were tending to 6 @,@ 000 Maya in the part of Manche Ch 'ol territory that they had gained access to . This figure included some apostate refugees from Spanish @-@ controlled Cahabón . Estimates of the total Manche Ch 'ol population in the mid @-@ 17th century vary from 10 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 , with prominent 20th @-@ century Mayanist J. Eric S. Thompson preferring the lower figure as opposed to the high @-@ end estimates by 17th @-@ century chroniclers . The Dominican penetration of Mopan territory alarmed the Itza , who started to harass the Manche Ch 'ol , driving them away from the mission towns .
In spite of the Dominicans ' successes among the Manche in the early 17th century , they suffered a serious setback in the early 1630s when the Itza and Mopan attacked the Manche Ch 'ol mission towns , driving out the Dominicans for decades . The Dominicans returned in the 1670s and were able to re @-@ establish several missions in the region . In the late 17th century , the Spanish friars complained of the infidelity of the Manche ; that they were quick to adopt Christianity and equally quick to abandon it . Friar Francisco Gallegos complained that trying to concentrate the Manche in mission towns was " like keeping birds in the forest without a cage " . Due to the historical links between the Manche Ch 'ol and the inhabitants of Spanish Cahabón , the Spanish colonial authorities used the Maya inhabitants of Cahabón as guides , interpreters and lay preachers in their attempts to bring the Manche within the empire . By the 1670s the Manche Ch 'ol were in a difficult position , on the one side forced to bow to Itza trade demands under the threat of armed reprisals , and on the other side forced into extortionate trade with the Spanish encomienda towns . In the late 1670s , Sebastián de Olivera , alcalde mayor ( governor ) of Verapaz , imposed compulsory trade prices upon the Manche Ch 'ol , forcing one town to buy 70 machetes at 2 @.@ 5 times the going price , paid in cacao . Refusal to trade was met with violence , and if the Manche could not afford the price demanded then Olivera 's representatives would seize goods , clothing , poultry and previously traded metal tools . In 1684 three Franciscan friars were killed during an attempt to evangelise the inhabitants of Paliac . The three missionaries had been accompanying a Spanish expedition to collect valuable cacao ; the expedition is likely to have involved considerable Spanish violence . It is likely that the friars were sacrificed by cutting out their hearts .
= = Extinction = =
In 1678 the Manche Ch 'ol population was devastated by disease ; in the area around the town of San Lucas Tzalac it killed every child under six years old and almost all of those under the age of ten . Total deaths , including adults , numbered over 400 and the epidemic prompted all the Manche Ch 'ol in the affected region to abandon the mission towns and flee into the forest . The Spanish made a number of further attempts to pacify the Manche Ch 'ol , but these were ultimately unsuccessful , and the Manche Ch 'ol rebelled in 1689 . In that year many Manche Ch 'ol were forcibly relocated to the Urrán Valley in the highlands , resulting in the abandonment of many of the Manche orchards ; this eventually led to the collapse of the regional trade network that by then had been fully linked with colonial Guatemala and supplied it with unknown quantities of cacao .
In 1694 , two Franciscan friars set out from Guatemala to see if they could succeed where the Dominicans had failed . Antonio Margil and Melchor López left Cobán in August 1693 to seek out the hostile Lakandon Ch 'ols in the depths of the rainforest . Antionio Margil had already spent two years among the Manche Ch 'ol . Although they found the Lakandon , the mission was a failure and the friars were forced to flee . Disappointed by their failure , in April 1694 the friars wrote a letter to the president of the Audiencia Real of Guatemala , Jacinto de Barrios Leal , stating their belief that any further peaceful attempts at converting the Ch 'ol peoples were pointless , and that the time had come for military action .
The conquering Spanish carried out several operations to relocate the Manche to Alta Verapaz , with their relocation being completed in 1697 , a short time after the Spanish finally defeated their Itza Maya neighbours to the northwest . Most of the surviving Manche Ch 'ol were forcibly resettled in the Guatemalan Highlands , in the villages of El Chol and Belén , in the Urran Valley near Rabinal . The resettled Manche Ch 'ol suffered from the abrupt change of climate from tropical lowland rain forest to the cold highlands . They were often not provided with suitable clothing by their Spanish overlords , and many died . The depopulation of the Manche and Lakandon Ch 'ol lands , and the resulting collapse of long @-@ standing trade routes , resulted in the gradual impoverishment of colonial Verapaz .
In 1699 a Spanish expedition under the command of sergeant Martín de Montoya was sent from the Spanish garrison at Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo , Laguna del Itza ( formerly Nojpetén ) to investigate Indian activity in the former Ch 'ol and Mopan territories . He found evidence that there were still surviving Maya in all the lands he crossed , as evidenced by the carefully tended cacao and vanilla orchards . At this time there were said to be 400 relocated Maya from the same area living in Belén .
By 1710 the population of Manche Ch 'ol in Belén had fallen to just four ; everyone else had died as a result of disease , hunger and melancholy . By 1770 the Manche Ch 'ol were all but extinct ; their original territory had been abandoned and had reverted to wilderness , and the few survivors relocated to the highlands numbered not more than 300 in the whole Urran Valley , where there were almost as many Spanish and ladinos . Many Manche Ch 'ol in Verapaz were absorbed into the expanding Q 'eqchi ' Maya population , which gradually occupied the vacated Manche lands . It is possible that a few Manche Ch 'ol survived in the forested interior of Toledo District in Belize , to be later absorbed by incoming Q 'eqchi ' in the late 19th century . In the very early part of the 19th century , a handful of Maya were still recorded as speaking Ch 'ol in Cobán .
= = Legacy = =
The highly specialised Manche production methods for annatto , cacao and vanilla were adopted by the incoming Q 'eqchi ' and are still applied on a small scale . Among the modern @-@ day Q 'eqchi ' , a tradition still exists that these orchards belong to their ancestors , the ch 'olcuink spirits , who lack salt and swap cacao for it .
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= British Asian Cup =
The British Asian Cup was a day / night Twenty20 cricket charity match played between the 2008 Indian Premier League ( IPL ) champion Rajasthan Royals and the 2008 Twenty20 Cup champion Middlesex Panthers played at the Lord 's Cricket Ground , London , England . A portion of the earnings of the match went to the British Asian Trust . It ended as the Royals defeated the Panthers by 46 runs .
Shaun Udal and Shane Warne were the captains for the Panthers and the Royals respectively . The Royals played a warm @-@ up game with the Middlesex Second XI before the match , and won it by 28 runs . The match attracted a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 people , but was delayed due to rain .
Winning the toss , the Panthers opted to bowl first . The Royals scored 162 runs for five wickets , and Swapnil Asnodkar and Mohammad Kaif top @-@ scored with 41 run each . Dawid Malan took two wickets for 23 runs . In reply , the Panthers made 116 runs for seven wickets , as the Royals won by 46 runs . Sohail Tanvir took three wickets for 20 runs , and Dimitri Mascarenhas was named the man of the match for his all @-@ round performance .
= = Background = =
On 14 May 2009 , it was announced that 2008 IPL champion Rajasthan Royals and 2008 Twenty20 Cup champion Middlesex Panthers will play a charity match on 6 July 2009 under the name of the British Asian Cup , a portion of the earnings of which will go to the British Asian Trust . The two teams would have played each other in the 2008 Champions League Twenty20 , but the tournament was cancelled due to security reasons . The then IPL chairman Lalit Modi said , " We have shown this year that the IPL truly has global appeal , and for one of our teams to be playing at the ' home of cricket [ Lords ] ' in front of the wonderfully passionate British fans is very exciting . " He also welcomed the association with the British Asian Trust . Marlyebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) chief executive Keith Bradshaw said , " It is a great honour to be hosting the first year of this competition , and demonstrates the MCC commitment to globalising our brand and venue . " It was planned that the British Asian Cup will be an annual series played between the IPL and Twenty20 Cup winners , and will consist of three matches in future .
= = Build up = =
Udal and Warne captained the Panthers and the Royals respectively . Tyron Henderson , who had played for the Royals in the IPL , decided to play for the Panthers . Sohail Tanvir played for the Royals after getting the permission of the Pakistan Cricket Board . Tanvir was not able to play in the 2009 IPL due to tense relations between India and Pakistan after the 2008 Mumbai attacks . However it was later decided to move the 2009 edition to South Africa due to 2009 Indian general election , but till then the Pakistani players were either terminated or suspended by their franchisees due to their unavailability . Kamran Akmal could not play for the Royals in the match because of Sri Lanka 's tour of Pakistan . It was also the last competitive game played by Warne at the Lord 's Cricket Ground .
The Royals played a warm @-@ up game with the Middlesex Second XI at Denis Compton Oval on 5 July 2009 . Captained by Mohammad Kaif , the Royals won the toss elected to bat first . The scored 139 runs at a loss of seven wickets , and Faiz Fazal top scored with 47 runs . Batting second , the Middlesex Second XI got all out at 111 runs in the last over . Munaf Patel took three wickets , and the Royals won by 28 runs .
= = Match = =
The match attracted a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 people and was a day / night event . The match was scheduled to start at 4 : 21 GMT , but it started raining heavily and the play was stopped . However the rain stopped at 4 : 25 GMT and the toss took place . The Panthers won the toss and decided to bowl first . Fazal and Swapnil Asnodkar opened for the Royals and Gareth Berg bowled the first over . Murali Karthik came to the attack in the seventh over . In the first ball of the over , a shot by Ashnodkar was deflected by the wicket @-@ keeper 's helmet , and the Royals got five penalty runs . In the same over , Fazal and Asnodkar reached to a 50 runs partnership in 38 balls . However Karthik took the wicket of Fazal in the fifth ball . Fazal tried to hit play the ball towards extra cover , but it went high in the air and Billy Godleman took the catch . Fazal went out making 27 runs off 22 balls , hitting two sixes . Karthik slowed down the run rate , and no boundary was hit in the next six overs . Kaif and Ashnodkar added 50 runs in 45 balls for the second wicket , but Ashnodkar got dismissed in the very next ball . Dawid Malan bowled a full toss and Ashnodkar hit it towards deep mid @-@ wicket , however Shah took " well judged " catch . Ashnodkar made 41 runs off 40 balls . In the next over , Eoin Morgan dropped Naman Ojha on Shaun Udal . However Ojha got caught by Steven Finn on the next ball . Ojha made 10 run off 5 balls . In the next over , Malan bowled Justin Langer , who scored one run in two balls . The next over , bowled by Henderson , came out to be the most expensive over of the innings ; 15 runs were scored in the over . Mascarenhas hit a four and a six , and the Royals reached to 145 runs . The next over was bowled by Berg , who gave seven runs . In the last ball of the innings , Kaif got ran out on 41 runs . The Royals scored 162 runs at a loss of five wickets in 20 overs . Mascarenhas remained not out on 32 runs off 16 balls . Malan took two wickets for the Panthers giving 23 runs .
The Panthers opened with Godleman and Neil Dexter . The first wicket felt in the fourth over ; Tanvir bowled Godleman , who went on four runs . Mascarenhas took the important wicket of Owais Shah in the next over , as Shah went for one run . In the first ball of the seventh over , Ojha dropped Dexter , however Mascarenhas bowled him on 26 runs on the third ball of the same over . Mascarenhas took two wickets for 24 runs in his four over spell . Malan and Morgan scored 45 runs for the fourth wicket partnership , before Ojha caught Morgan on Tanvir . Morgan went out making 15 runs on 19 balls . Henderson got out in the same over , getting caught by Mascarenhas ; he went out scoring one run . Ojha stumped Malan on Warne in the next over , and he went for 34 runs . The Panthers required 79 runs in the last four overs . Berg , who scored 26 runs , went out in the last over as Fazal caught him on Abhishek Raut . The Panthers could only manage to 116 runs for even wickets , and the Royals won by 46 runs . Tanvir took three wickets for 20 runs . Mascarenhas was named the man of the match for his " all @-@ round effort " .
= = = Scorecard = = =
On @-@ field umpires : Trevor Jesty ( England ) , David Millns ( England )
Third umpire : Stephen Gale ( England )
Toss : Panthers elected to field first
Result : Royals won by 46 wickets
Key
* – Captain
– Wicket @-@ keeper
c Fielder – the batsman was dismissed by a catch by the named fielder
b Bowler – the bowler who gains credit for the dismissal
b – the batsman was dismissed by bowled
lbw – the batsman was dismissed leg before wicket
Total runs are in the format : score / wickets
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= The Great Stagnation =
The Great Stagnation : How America Ate All the Low @-@ Hanging Fruit of Modern History , Got Sick , and Will ( Eventually ) Feel Better is a pamphlet by Tyler Cowen published in 2011 . It argues that the American economy has reached a historical technological plateau and the factors which drove economic growth for most of America 's history are mostly spent . These figurative " low @-@ hanging fruit " from the title include the cultivation of much free , previously unused land ; the application and spread of technological breakthroughs , particularly during the period 1880 – 1940 , including transport , refrigeration , electricity , mass communications , and sanitation ; and the education of large numbers of smart people who previously received none .
Cowen , a professor of Economics at George Mason University , looks to these factors to explain the stagnation in the median , or middle , American wage since 1973 . Analysis has set the " Great Stagnation " idea against the " Great Divergence " , a set of explanations which blame rising income inequality and globalization for the stall . Related debates have examined whether the internet 's effect has yet been fully realized in production , if its users enjoy a significant consumer surplus , and how it might be further integrated into the economy . The final set of questions concerns appropriate policy responses to the problem .
The pamphlet is 15 @,@ 000 words long and was first published in January 2011 as an electronic book , priced at USD $ 4 . A hardback version , which Cowen dubbed " the retrogression " , was published in June 2011 . While not all reviewers agreed with Cowen 's thesis and arguments , the book was largely welcomed as timely and skilled in framing the debate around the future of the American economy .
= = Synopsis = =
The main thesis is that economic growth has slowed in the United States and in other advanced economies , as a result of falling rates of innovation . In Chapter 1 , Cowen describes the three major forms of " low @-@ hanging fruit " : the ease of cultivating free and unused land , rapid invention from 1880 to 1940 which capitalized on the scientific breakthroughs of the 18th and 19th centuries and the large returns from sending intelligent but uneducated children to school and university . There are potentially two further minor forms : cheap fossil fuels and the strength of the American constitution . Cowen concludes , " You could say , ' The modern United States was built at five forms of low @-@ hanging fruit , and at most only two of those are still with us . ' Fair enough . " While they produced extremely large returns , future advances will be much more incremental . He offers anecdotal and statistical illustrations for this slowdown . First , he compares the changes witnessed by his grandmother with those of his own generation . Then , he cites median income statistics : the rate of growth drastically slowed from 1973 onwards . He further argues that the failure to diagnose the trend has led to a degradation in political discourse since left and right leaning actors blame the policies of " the other side " and " what I like to call the ' honest middle ' cannot be heard above the din . "
Chapter 2 examines productivity in the contemporary economy . Cowen describes spurts in productivity growth , 2 @.@ 8 % between 1996 and 2000 and 3 @.@ 8 % from 2000 to 2004 , and he asks if they disprove the stagnation thesis . He concedes that there have been gains in certain areas , such as information technology , but argues that in other important areas such as finance , which is 8 % of GDP , there has been less value created .
Also , whilst productivity figures have improved , median incomes and stock market prices , and thus the returns to capital and labor , have not improved . Furthermore , government consumption ( government activity excluding transfer payments ) represents between 15 – 20 % of GDP , but since the sector is measured at cost it becomes less and less productive as it grows larger . Thus , the more government consumption there is , the more published GDP figures tend to overestimate growth in living standards .
In health care ( 17 % of GDP ) , the problems of asymmetric information and moral hazard mean that increased spending results in little or no improvement in health outcomes . A similar result is observed in education , 6 % of GDP , where outcomes have not improved in the last 40 years .
Chapter 3 considers whether the internet and other computing technologies disprove the argument . Cowen writes that while the internet has been fantastic for the intellectually curious , it has done little to raise material standards of living . The biggest Internet companies employ at most a few thousand people , and relatively few services are paying : " We have a collective historical memory that technological progress brings a big and predictable stream of revenue growth across most of the economy . When it comes to the web , those assumptions are turning out to be wrong or misleading . "
Chapter 4 examines American politics in light of the thesis . Cowen says Paul Krugman 's The Conscience of a Liberal ( 2007 ) puts the " cart before the horse " in asking for high marginal tax rates , unionization , and an egalitarian distribution of income and wealth . The policies worked in the 1950ss precisely because the real income growth was there to support them . Cowen argues that the failure to recognize the stagnation has led to poor policy ideas from the right ( such as " revenue generating tax cuts " ) and the left ( redistribution of incomes ) . Cowen laments the " exaggeration " of both sides and the influence of political lobbying on economic policy . The growth in government , he says , was affordable during the period of lowhanging fruit , and the advances in transportation , industrial production , electronic communications and scientific management even facilitated it .
Chapter 5 proposes a simple cause for the 2008 financial crisis " We thought we were richer than we were . " He argues that despite a series of regular , smaller crises since the 1980s , the crash was ultimately caused by investors taking too much risk across the economy , " housing and sub @-@ prime loans were the proverbial canary in the coalmine . "
Chapter 6 looks at solutions to the problem . Cowen praises the development of India and China as producers and consumers , the role of the internet in enlarging the scientific community , and a growing consensus for the reform of educational policy in the US . He further suggests for the social status of scientists to be raised to at least as strong a motivating factor as money can .
= = Analysis = =
= = = Place in the growth literature = = =
Matthew Yglesias described the book 's themes as a continuation and expansion of those developed by Paul Krugman in The Age of Diminished Expectations , Third Edition : U.S. Economic Policy in the 1990s ( 1997 ) . Both books treat the diminishing rate of return from basic science and the effects that it has on politics , specifically " that a growing share of innovative energy is going into rent @-@ seeking or otherwise unproductive activities " .
Timothy Noah compared it to Prosperity : The Coming Twenty Year Boom and What it Means to You by Bob Davis and David Wessel , an enormously popular book at the time ( 1998 ) which today resells for a penny . He described how both Prosperity and The Great Stagnation examine the puzzle of stagnant median wages though offer starkly different opinions about the prospects for future growth and in particular the role of information technologies in that . He concluded by calling Cowen 's appeal to " realistic expectations " about growth a " weird conservative echo " of the Club of Rome 's liberal " era of limits gospel from the 1970s " . In the summer of 2012 , Robert Gordon 's paper , " Is U.S. Economic Growth Over ? " prompted comparisons to Cowen 's thesis . Gordon also points out that the easy gains of increased labor force participation , schooling or land use have been spent , while other major innovations or industries — such as transport or sanitation — have enjoyed only gradual improvement .
= = = The internet , growth , and quality of life = = =
Annie Lowrey , writing in Slate , compares Cowen 's treatment of the internet to the " productivity paradox " first postulated by economists in the 1980s . She quoted Robert Solow , a growth theorist , who wrote in 1987 " You can see the computer age everywhere but in the productivity statistics . " To explain why growth had not picked up strongly after the boom in computing products from the 1970s onwards , they suggested that the changes advantaged some firms and disadvantaged others leaving little net gain . The problem also may be partly because of deficiencies in the measurement of income and well @-@ being . The internet promotes more free culture , the consumption of which provides utility and happiness to people but cannot be captured through GDP figures that measure revenue .
The Economist 's Free Exchange blog argued that Cowen " undersold " recent innovations in digital technologies and that society was still in the process of re @-@ organising itself around them . A growth spurt should be expected but this could take anything from years to decades , it warned . Furthermore , there are particularly large gains to be had in the area " cognition @-@ augmenting innovations ( as opposed to labor @-@ augmenting innovations ) " . Writing in Forbes , Steve Denning described Cowen 's " low @-@ hanging fruit theory " as " folkloric nonsense " . The world of 1953 , when Denning was young , is inconceivable to a young person today , he wrote , adding that the qualification " apart from the Internet " is equivalent to saying " apart from the wheel " when discussing transport . The Financial Times reviewer recognized that Cowen , a prominent blogger , " is no Luddite ... he thinks life is more fun and interesting with the internet around " . He argued that most economists do not look at consumer technology to find the internet 's effect on productivity but rather organizations : super @-@ efficient retailers such as Wal @-@ mart and Tesco have already incorporated it into their logistics . Furthermore , the pace of change means it could be a generation at least before we see the full implementation . Timothy Noah seizes upon Cowen 's " concession " that the internet could well increase scientific output by allowing better communication between scientists in remote places . Just as Davis and Wessel incorrectly predicted a coming boom in middle class incomes due to computers , Cowen " seems equally wrong to suggest that computer technology is not on the verge of doing so . "
= = = Education and employment = = =
Denning writes that the real challenge is keeping up with technological change , and in this sense , scientific management was the key American technological advance in the 20th century . It allowed American companies to provide large numbers of jobs to semi @-@ skilled workers through supply @-@ chain management , hierarchies , and rule @-@ based systems . Businesses must now adjust to well @-@ informed consumers who disdain profiteering and wish to be " delighted " . A related challenge is shifting from managing semi @-@ skilled to knowledge workers . The Economist contrasted the " Great Stagnation " thesis with the " Great Divergence " which traces the pay gap to an increasing demand for skilled workers . Timothy Noah , writing in Slate , did not share Cowen 's optimism about the future of American educational attainment on the basis that President Obama " is getting tough " on teachers ' unions . There have been many reforms implemented in the last thirty years that the unions initially opposed , and the United States has poorer outcomes than many OECD countries with stronger unions . Noah reminds us that the earlier authors were optimistic about increased third level enrollment and that has since fallen as have graduation rates . The United States remains significantly behind other advanced countries in educational outcomes offering a perverse hope for improvement .
David Brooks argued that a more fundamental shift from a materialist to a post @-@ materialist mindset has occurred in recent generations . While for generations born early in the century increased income was the same as improvements in lifestyle this is no longer true for people born into an affluent , information driven world . Younger generations live much more intellectually diverse lives and cites much user generated content , including Wikipedia , as being mostly produced outside of the monetary economy . He affirms Cowen 's acknowledgment that this has brought large increases in human happiness with correspondingly little economic activity .
= = = Relationship to the 2008 financial crisis and recession = = =
The Economist criticized Cowen for associating the economic problems resulting from the 2008 financial crisis to his broader thesis , arguing instead that this was mostly caused by a demand shock and mostly preventable . Some scholars , such as Jim Rickards , Howard Qi , Hongbin Song , etc . , point out that the demand shock was only the phenomenon , a result of a more serious underlying structural problem in the American economy . Furthermore , Howard Qi argues that the education in the US is not conducive to producing high quality scientists and engineers from the American citizens . Instead , the US is becoming increasingly and vitally relying on foreign students in the US universities to support the intellectual need in the US 's science and engineering . Matthew Yglesias also disagreed with the link : " Rich countries have experienced very divergent fates over the past 36 months when the key evidence for the technological stagnation thesis is that rich countries have experienced a broadly similar fate over the past 36 years " , he writes .
= = = Policy responses = = =
Cowen writes that one way to improve innovation is to raise the social status of scientists , a suggestion described as " a bit empty " and not fully congruent with the problem of recent innovations being private goods , such as financial sector innovation , rather than public ones such as penicillin or the rail @-@ road . Noah described Cowen 's prescriptions , encouragement of free trade , more higher status for scientists , and resignation to the " new normal " as " absurdly half @-@ hearted " .
R.A. , writing on The Economist 's Free Exchange blog , concluded that Cowen 's analysis of education suggested that the rich world would do better by aiding mass education programs in developing countries rather than pursuing the diminishing returns in domestic education and research , in contrary to President Obama 's State of the Union speech in 2011 . Looser immigration law would also allow rich and poor countries to exploit this source of growth . Secondly , it proposed to harvest " policy low @-@ hanging fruit " i.e. reforming or abolishing foolish and costly policies . It proposed taxing " bads " such as traffic congestion and pollution rather than " goods " such as income , reducing spending on medical treatments with no clear benefits , and removing agricultural subsidies and mortgage interest reduction . In The Economist , two different sets of policy responses were considered depending on whether the true cause is ailing technological innovation or a decline in workers ' bargaining power in the face of emerging @-@ market industrialization . Progressive taxation and redistribution would offset labor 's position of weakness whilst a limited state would reduce commitments it cannot expect to fulfill in a stagnating economy .
= = Publication and reception = =
The book is 15 @,@ 000 words long and was first published in January 2011 as an electronic book only , priced at USD $ 4 . The Economist noted that the " publishing model is fascinating in its own right " . A hardback version , which Cowen dubbed " the retrogression " , was published in June 2011 . Yglesias described the publication as an innovation in " current affairs publishing " and " much shorter and cheaper than a conventional book in a way that actually leaves you wanting to read more once you finish it . My guess is that this is the future of books . " The book has been compared to economic and political pamphlets of the 17th century , which were frequently used to quickly get ideas about current affairs into circulation .
The Economist welcomed The Great Stagnation as " an important [ book ] that will have a profound impact on the way people think about the last thirty years " . It praised " the trains of thought it suggests " and said the book merited " a rigorous debate " which should encourage different policy choices across the political spectrum . Matthew Yglesias described the book as a " bravua performance from one of the most interesting thinkers out there " . Though he said it was remarkably silent on intellectual property law and the implications for society of a world in which most of the increase in output comes from catch @-@ up growth from poor countries . The Wall Street Journal described the book as Cowen 's most impactful book due to the direction in which he leads the debate . " What is exciting is to imagine students , economists , and scientists across the country reading the book , coming to terms with the depth of our challenge and pursuing new ways of trying to ' fix ' things or generally improve our lot . " " A small book but a big , worthwhile question " , concluded The Economist . In the New York Times , David Brooks praised The Great Stagnation as " the most debated non @-@ fiction book so far this year " , which Timothy Noah described as a great favor to the book 's marketing though an exaggeration considering the discussion surrounding Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother by Amy Chua .
= = Sequel = =
In September 2013 , a sequel by Cowen , titled Average is Over : Powering America Beyond the Age of the Great Stagnation , was published by Dutton Books . The sequel focused on Cowen 's vision for how the United States economy would recover and grow over the coming decades , and the types of jobs that would exist in the new economy .
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= Rush ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Rush " is the fifth episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , and the 144th episode overall . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 5 , 1999 . It was written by David Amann and directed by Robert Lieberman . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Rush " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 9 , being watched by 12 @.@ 71 million viewers in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly mixed @-@ to @-@ negative reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a high school student who is the prime suspect in the bizarre murder of a police officer . They discover that the boy and a couple of friends have been playing with the ability to accelerate their movements to a frequency the human eye can ’ t perceive .
The idea for " Rush " had been proposed as far back as the sixth season of The X @-@ Files . However , the original plot of the episode — the effects of having super speed — eventually delved into " deeper " themes , such as drug abuse , boredom , and the teenage experience . Although the episode relied on special effects , many of the scenes were created by manipulating the speed of the camera during filming .
= = Plot = =
In Pittsfield , Virginia , Tony Reed and two other teenagers meet in the woods late at night , but they are interrupted by a sheriff 's deputy . Moments later the deputy is murdered , killed with his own flashlight . Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) later examine the deputy 's body : the blow that killed the man was so ferocious that his glasses were pushed through the back of his skull . They question the suspect , teenager Tony Reed , whose fingerprints were found on the flash light , but he denies any part in the murder . Mulder and Scully agree that Tony is innocent , although Mulder 's theory of spirit involvement is not shared by Scully . Scully , on the other hand , suggests they question Tony 's friends . Mulder and Scully visit Tony 's school and speak with the two teenagers who were with Tony in the woods : the sheriff 's son , Max Harden , and his girlfriend Chastity . Chastity seems concerned about Tony when Mulder and Scully tell her he may go to jail . However , Tony is later released when the murder weapon mysteriously goes missing from the evidence room . Mulder and Scully review video footage from the evidence room that shows the flashlight simply disappear . However , a blur on the video footage attracts Mulder 's attention and later analysis by an expert reveals the blurred object is solid and matches the local high school 's colors .
When one of the teachers at the high school who was strongly despised by Max is attacked and murdered by an unseen force in front of many witnesses , Mulder suspects Max possesses some kind of paranormal ability and is using it to kill . Mulder believes Harden 's changing teenage hormones are giving him paranormal abilities that allow him to attack people without touching them .
Meanwhile , Tony follows Chastity into a cave in the woods and stumbles upon a bizarre shaft of light . Once Tony steps into the light , he is possessed with the same abilities that Max and Chastity have , the ability to vibrate at high frequencies , allowing Tony to move faster than normal vision can detect . At the same time , however , Max collapses and is sent to the hospital where it is found he is suffering from exhaustion , withdrawal , a concussion , muscular tears and skeletal fractures - basically , his abilities are killing him . Mulder eventually deduces that he possesses superhuman speed . Chastity sneaks Max out of the hospital where he returns to the cave ( even though she suggested they go somewhere else for help but Max refused ) . Later , the sheriff finds the flashlight in Max 's room and confronts his son about the murders . Max confesses and then attempts to kill his father , but Tony intervenes , taking the sheriff 's gun ; the sheriff is promptly taken to the hospital . That night , Tony and Chastity head to the cave so that Max won 't use up any more of the remaining power . Once there , Chastity has been knocked unconscious by Max , who then confronts Tony , using his abilities to take back the gun before throwing it away . However , Chastity ( having come to and using her abilities ) takes the gun and shoots Max from behind , then allows herself to be shot by the same bullet ; she tells Tony that she can 't go back to the way things were before . Afterwards , Tony is seen in the hospital recuperating while numerous geological experts examined the cave , but were unable to identify anything unusual . The city then fills the cave with concrete , sealing it forever , leaving the question as to what caused the teenager @-@ related ability a mystery .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and casting = = =
The basic concept behind " Rush " had been coming together since the sixth season . According to series creator Chris Carter , the way in which to portray the teenagers on screen was " tricky " . He noted , " it had been a long time since we had dealt with teenage angst . [ But ] it was being done everywhere else and we wanted to take a run at it . " David Amman , who wrote the episode , later explained that the original idea for the episode was simply " [ the ] effect having the power of super speed would have on troubled teens . " However , the story quickly developed " deeper " meanings : drug abuse , boredom , and the teenage experience .
According to casting director Rick Millikan , choosing actors and actresses for the episode was more difficult than usual . He explained , " it was all teenagers , but this being The X @-@ Files we were looking for something other than the typical 90210 @-@ type kids . " Millikan eventually cast individuals who could play a " subtle kind of evil " , as well as display " arrogance " and " vulnerability " . Rodney Scott was cast as Tony Reed . Scott , at the time , was more notable for his roles as David Cassidy in the 1999 television movie Come On , Get Happy : The Partridge Family Story , and for his role as William " Will " Krudski on the popular show Dawson 's Creek .
= = = Special effects = = =
The episode , most notably the scenes featuring the teenagers moving at high speed , relied heavily on special effects . However , instead of creating them on a computer , director Robert Lieberman was able to create many of the necessary scenes using different camera speeds . In order to get the proper feel for the rush effects , test footage of assistant director Xochi Blymyer was filmed at 24 frames per second ( FPS ) , 12 FPS , 6 FPS and 3 FPS . After filming , a digital " blur effect " was added to make the shot look unfocused . During the scene where the teenagers stumble into the light and receive the speed power , the special effects crew shot two separate shots : one of the teens ' bodies and one of the teens ' heads rapidly flailing . The special effects crew then " pull [ ed ] the head [ s ] off " of the shots featuring the teens moving rapidly , and used them to replace the heads on the shots of the teens ' still bodies . This method kept their bodies in focus but allowed their heads to rapidly move .
The crew used several different styles for the " bullet time " scene . In order to create the shot , a matte of the bullet emerging from Max 's chest was combined with smoke and " phony CGI bullets " , according to producer Paul Rabwin . The crew tried different tracking devices for the bullet , including a pronounced blur effect , which was later removed in favor of a more realistic " smoke " pathway . The production crew had a difficult time deciding whether or not the bullet should remain at Chastity 's speed as she walked towards it , or whether she should pass the bullet ; the group eventually went with the latter .
Stunt coordinator Danny Wesiles helped arrange the more frantic shots , such as the scene wherein a lunch table kills a teacher . Executive producer Frank Spotnitz later called the scene , " probably one of the most horrific things we 've ever done . " Due to the violent nature of the episode — and the table scene in particular — Fox 's Standards and Practices department had an issue with the series showing " the impact between the table and the man " . In order to comply , the impact was removed , but the rest of the scene stayed intact . Spotnitz later noted that , " when you take out the impact , the audience 's imagination is ten times worse . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Rush " first aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 5 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 9 , with an 11 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 12 @.@ 71 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on April 16 , 2000 and received 0 @.@ 79 million viewers , making it the sixth most watched episode that week . The episode was later nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Dramatic Series as well as an International Monitor Award for Best Achievement in Visual Effects .
The episode received mostly mixed to negative reviews from critics . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . She noted that the episode suffered from a " bland story " filled with " bland teens " , noting that the actors playing the three main teenagers were " as generic as can be " . Vitaris ultimately concluded that " ' Rush ' is hardly the worst of The X @-@ Files ; it 's merely forgettable . " Kenneth Silber from Space.com was critical of the episode , arguing that the show was re @-@ using plot lines and that the personalities of the teenagers were wholly uninteresting . He wrote , " This episode unfolds with a bland sense of familiarity . Once again , troubled adolescents are toying with paranormal forces that can only get them into further trouble . Sadly , these adolescents lack interesting personalities , and the force in question remains wholly mysterious . " Rich Rosell from Digitally Obsessed awarded the episode 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and wrote that the episode was " Not brilliant , but moderately entertaining . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five . Despite praising the episode 's set pieces , they ultimately concluded that " The X @-@ Files just isn 't cool anymore daddio . "
Not all reviews were so negative . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B – " . While enjoying the premise , he criticized the entry for featuring a guest cast that " mostly sucks " . He did , however , positively comment on the scene wherein Max kills his teacher , noting that it " is a brutal , visceral sequence " that the episode could have used more of . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a largely positive review , writing , " ' Rush ' was sufficiently creepy and had some wonderful character interaction between Mulder and Scully . " Furthermore , he noted that the characterization " helped make it a very enjoyable entry into what is quickly becoming a very enjoyable season . "
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= Stapleton Road railway station =
Stapleton Road railway station is on the Severn Beach Line and Cross Country Route , serving the inner @-@ city district of Easton in Bristol , England . It is 1 @.@ 6 miles ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads . Its three letter station code is SRD . As of 2015 , the station has two platforms , two running lines and minimal facilities . It is managed by Great Western Railway , the seventh company to be responsible for the station , and the third franchise since privatisation in 1997 . They provide all train services at the station , the standard service being a train every 40 minutes along the Severn Beach Line , an hourly service to Bristol Parkway , and another hourly service to Westbury .
The station was opened in 1863 by the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway , with a single track and platform . The line was doubled in 1874 when the Clifton Extension Railway opened , then expanded to four tracks and platforms in 1888 . There were buildings on all platforms and a goods yard to the north . Stapleton Road became one of Bristol 's busiest stations , but service levels reduced significantly in the 1960s when reversing trains at Bristol Temple Meads became common . The goods facilities were closed in 1965 , staff were withdrawn in 1967 and the line was reduced to two tracks in 1984 .
The line is due to be electrified as part of the 21st @-@ century modernisation of the Great Western Main Line , which will also see the addition of two new running lines to increase capacity , although no platforms will be built for these lines . Service frequency will however be improved as part of the Greater Bristol Metro scheme .
= = Description = =
Stapleton Road railway station is located in the Easton area of Bristol . The surrounding area is primarily residential , with the M32 motorway to the north of the station , and an industrial and commercial area north of that . The station is named after the A432 Stapleton Road just north of the station . The station can be accessed by Belmont Street to the west , an unnamed access road to the east , or by a set of steps from Stapleton Road . Access to the southbound platform is via a slope of gradient greater than 1 in 12 . The station is on the Cross Country Route between Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway , and on the Severn Beach Line from Bristol Temple Meads to Severn Beach . It is 1 mile 50 chains ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads . Directly to the north of the station is a bridge over the A432 , then a bridge over the M32 , then Narroways Hill Junction , where the Severn Beach Line diverges from the Cross Country Route . The next station north along the Cross Country Route is Filton Abbey Wood , the next station north along the Severn Beach Line is Montpelier , and the next station south is Lawrence Hill .
The station is on an alignment of 150 degrees , curving towards the east . There are two active platforms : the western platform , platform 1 , serves northbound trains ; the eastern platform , platform 2 , serves southbound trains . Platform 1 is 216 metres ( 236 yd ) long ; platform 2 is 211 metres ( 231 yd ) long , however both have the southern 100 metres ( 110 yd ) fenced off . The southern end of the platforms bridge the residential street St Mark 's Road . Platform 2 is part of an " island " platform , the other face of which served the northbound " up fast " line through the station , which was removed in 1984 along with the southbound " down fast " and fourth platform which served it . The disused trackbed and fourth platform are home to the Eastside Roots community garden , part of the Bristol Permaculture Group . Access between the platforms is by an open , stepped footbridge .
As of 2013 , facilities at the station are minimal – there is a metal and glass shelter on each of the two platforms , and a row of seats on the northbound platform . The station is completely unstaffed , and there are no facilities for buying tickets . There are customer help points , giving next train information for both platforms . There is no car park or taxi rank , and the nearest bus stop is 120 metres ( 130 yd ) away on the A432 Stapleton Road . There are eight bicycle stands on the platform . A mural depicting local life and history is painted on the wall of platform 1 .
The line through Stapleton Road has a speed limit of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) northbound and 75 miles per hour ( 121 km / h ) southbound . The loading gauge is W8 , and the line handles over 15 million train tonnes per year . It is not electrified , though it is planned that it will be electrified by 2017 as part of the 21st @-@ century modernisation of the Great Western Main Line .
= = Services = =
Services at Stapleton Road are all operated by Great Western Railway . As of the December 2013 timetable , Monday to Friday , three trains every two hours run along the Severn Beach Line from Bristol Temple Meads to Avonmouth via Clifton Down , with one extended to St Andrew 's Road and Severn Beach . Most services start at Bristol , but one evening service to Avonmouth begins at Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . On Saturdays there is a similar level of service , but more trains continue to Severn Beach . Sunday sees a roughly hourly service to and from Bristol , with only two services extending to Severn Beach , except during the May – September timetable period , when all services are extended . The first and last Sunday trains towards Bristol are extended to Taunton via Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , and there are similar workings in the other direction . Most trains call at all stations , but some services omit Lawrence Hill . In 2012 , the single fare to Clifton Down or Bristol was £ 1 @.@ 50 , and £ 3 return for the whole line .
Southbound services from Great Malvern and Gloucester to Westbury and Weymouth call at Stapleton road , with one train per hour . Hourly northbound services from Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare to Bristol Parkway also call , as do some peak northbound services from Taunton to Cardiff Central and two evening southbound services from Cardiff to Bristol . All trains southbound call at Bristol Temple Meads , although this requires Gloucester @-@ Westbury trains to reverse . CrossCountry trains pass Stapleton Road non @-@ stop throughout the day , operating two trains per hour each direction between the South West , Bristol , Manchester and Scotland .
Services from Stapleton Road are operated using a mix of Class 150 Sprinter , Class 153 Super Sprinter and Class 158 Express Sprinter diesel multiple units . Until 2012 , Class 143 Pacer units were a regular sight , but these have mostly been moved south to work in Devon and Cornwall following a cascade of Class 150 / 1 units from London Midland and London Overground .
The standard journey time to Bristol Temple Meads is 7 minutes , to Bristol Parkway 13 minutes , and to Avonmouth 23 minutes .
= = History = =
Stapleton Road opened on 8 September 1863 when services began on the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway ( BSWUR ) , which ran from Bristol Temple Meads to New Passage Pier , north of Bristol on the banks of the River Severn . At New Passage , passengers were transferred to a ferry to cross the Severn to continue on in to Wales . The line , engineered by Isambard Kingdom Brunel , was built as single track 7 ft 1 ⁄ 4 in ( 2 @,@ 140 mm ) broad gauge , with a platform on the west side of the track . The BSWUR was amalgamated with the Great Western Railway , which had from the beginning operated all BSWUR services , in 1868 ; and in 1873 the line was converted to 1 @,@ 435 mm ( 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ) standard gauge . In 1874 , the Clifton Extension Railway opened , connecting the Bristol Port Railway and Pier to the Great Western Railway at Narroways Hill Junction , north of Stapleton Road . To cope with the expected increase in traffic , the line was doubled , and a second platform was added to the east of the two tracks . Two more tracks were added in 1888 , giving a layout of two sets of two tracks , with platforms on the outside and on an island in the middle . Trains to and from Clifton Down and Avonmouth used the western platforms while trains to and from South Wales used the eastern platforms . There were buildings on all the platforms , with the booking office on the eastern outer platform , at the head of the access road . The refreshment room was on the island platform , and a covered footbridge connected the platforms . There was a yard to the north of the station , on the other side of Stapleton Road , which handled goods traffic including coal and other minerals .
Stapleton Road became one of Bristol 's busiest stations . The opening of the Clifton Extension Railway meant that Stapleton Road became a junction station , and when the Severn Tunnel was opened in 1886 , replacing the ferry from New Passage , trains from London to Wales began to run via Bristol instead of Gloucester . Many would call at Stapleton Road instead of Bristol Temple Meads because this avoided having to run the locomotive around the train . In 1886 , the daily Great Western service along the Clifton Extension Railway was 6 trains each way between Avonmouth and Temple Meads , 24 trains from Clifton Down to Temple Meads and 26 the other direction . By 1910 there were 17 services daily from Avonmouth to Temple Meads and 15 the other way , a further 20 trains each day operating between Clifton Down and Temple Meads . For many passengers on the Clifton Extension Railway , Stapleton Road was where they would change for services to South Wales and the South Coast of England , and by 1912 the station name boards showed " Stapleton Road Junction for Clifton and Avonmouth " , although the station was never officially renamed . By this time however , the number of services to Wales had decreased due to the opening of the " Badminton Line " from Wootton Bassett to Patchway , now part of the South Wales Main Line , which allowed trains from London to avoid central Bristol entirely . From 1924 , many trains to Avonmouth were extended to Severn Beach , a growing seaside resort , and some on to Pilning , then back to Temple Meads via Patchway . Circular trips via Henbury were also common , and by 1930 a total of 350 trains would pass the station each day . The station was also used by excursion trains , and by trains of evacuees during the Second World War . By 1947 , just before the start of the British Rail era , there were 33 daily services each direction between Avonmouth and Temple Meads , and 18 on Sundays . The station also saw the arrival of Prime Minister David Lloyd George in the 1920s .
When the railways were nationalised in 1948 , Stapleton Road came under the aegis of the Western Region of British Railways . A gradual decline of services at Stapleton Road began . While as late as 1963 name boards at the station read " Bristol Stapleton Road " , trains between South Wales and the South Coast were eventually re @-@ routed via Bristol Temple Meads – the introduction of diesel multiple units making it easier for the trains to reverse – and no longer called at Stapleton Road . Passenger numbers along the Clifton Extension Railway , now known as the Severn Beach Line , also dropped , and in 1963 the Beeching report suggested that all services along the line be withdrawn . In the end , services continued to Severn Beach but were discontinued via Henbury and Pilning . The goods yard was closed on 29 November 1965 , and staff were withdrawn from the station from 17 July 1967 as a cost @-@ saving measure . In 1975 the M32 motorway was opened north of the station , passing through the southern end of the goods yard . The eastern tracks were removed in 1984 , although the bridge which carried the line across the A432 and M32 was left intact . The remaining station buildings were demolished at the same time , the buildings on the island platform having already been removed by 1958 . Plans to use the disused trackbed as part of a light rail scheme linking the city centre to the northern suburbs were formed in the late 1990s , with the aim of an operational scheme by 2008 , but the plans had been shelved by 2004 . It was suggested in 2008 that the trackbed could be used as a cycle path to join together communities which had been separated by the construction of the M32 motorway , however this was dropped due to Network Rail asserting that the trackbed might be necessary for future rail expansion .
British Rail was split into business @-@ led sectors in the 1980s , at which time operations at Stapleton Road passed to Regional Railways . All trains along the Severn Beach Line ran to Severn Beach , but the service pattern was irregular . This was changed in the mid @-@ 1990s , with a more frequent service to Avonmouth but very few on to Severn Beach and no Sunday services . Services at Stapleton Road were boosted due to the proximity of Eastville Stadium , but this use ended in 1986 when Bristol Rovers F.C. moved to Twerton Park in Bath .
When the railway was privatised in 1997 , local services were franchised to Wales & West , which was succeeded by Wessex Trains , an arm of National Express , in 2001 . The station was brightened in 1999 when a mural illustrating local life was painted on the wall of the western platform by Bill Guilding . Services along the Severn Beach Line were increased to 10 per day in each direction by 2005 , with Bristol City Council providing a subsidy to Wessex Trains . The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006 , and responsibility passed to First Great Western , a subsidiary company of FirstGroup , rebranded in 2015 as Great Western Railway . A minimum service requirement was written into the franchise agreement , ensuring an hourly service along the Severn Beach Line . Passenger traffic increased significantly , and in 2010 , Sunday services to Severn Beach were restored .
By 2005 , the disused eastern trackbed was filled with rubble , brambles and weeds , and the station had acquired a bad reputation due to muggings and the use of illegal drugs on the station premises . A community garden project , Eastside Roots , was set up in the disused trackbed by local permaculture enthusiast Nick Ward . It was built using sustainable materials , including bricks dug out during the construction of the Cabot Circus shopping centre . The project led to a general improvement of the station ambience , and residents were more willing to use it . The footbridge was replaced in 2013 to allow for electrification of the line , but the new , higher , bridge angered local residents who felt it infringed on their privacy .
= = Future = =
First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise beyond 2013 , citing a desire for a longer @-@ term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line . The franchise was put out to tender , but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition . A two @-@ year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013 , and subsequently extended until March 2019 .
The line through Stapleton Road is due to be electrified by 2017 as part of the Great Western Main Line electrification project . However , the Severn Beach Line , the Cross Country Route , the Bristol to Exeter Line and the Heart of Wessex Line will not be electrified , so services at Stapleton Road will still be provided by diesel trains , with " Sprinter " units expected to be replaced by Class 165 and 166 " Turbo " units . The group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification continuing beyond the main lines , as does MP for Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare John Penrose . The electrification scheme also includes the four @-@ tracking of Filton Bank , including the reinstatement of the disused trackbed at Stapleton Road , to allow more services between Parkway and Bristol Temple Meads and separate fast inter @-@ city services from local stopping services . The two eastern platforms at Stapleton Road will be demolished to allow trains to run faster , although it has been suggested that they be kept for use in case of service disruptions .
Stapleton Road is on the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare / Yate corridor , one of the main axes of the Greater Bristol Metro , a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area , including half @-@ hourly services along the Severn Beach Line . The scheme could see the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line to passengers , with the possibility of services from Bristol Temple Meads to Bristol Parkway via Clifton Down and Henbury . Plans for a loop were rejected by the West of England Joint Transport Board , however Bristol City Councillors voted to send the decision back to the board for further discussion .
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= Sebright chicken =
The Sebright / ˈsiːbraɪt / is a breed of chicken named after its developer , Sir John Saunders Sebright . The Sebright is one of the oldest recorded British ' true ' bantam ( meaning it is a miniature bird with no corresponding large version of the breed ) , created in the 19th century through a selective breeding program designed to produce an ornamental breed .
The first poultry breed to have its own specialist club for enthusiasts , Sebrights were admitted to poultry exhibition standards not long after their establishment . Today , they are among the most popular of bantam breeds . Despite their popularity , Sebrights are often difficult to breed , and the inheritance of certain unique characteristics the breed carries has been studied scientifically . As a largely ornamental chicken , they lay tiny , white eggs and are not kept for meat production .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Sir John Saunders Sebright ( 1767 – 1846 ) was the 7th Sebright Baronet , and a Member of Parliament for Hertfordshire . In addition to breeding chickens , cattle and other animals , Sir John wrote several influential pamphlets on animal keeping and breeding : The Art of Improving the Breeds of Domestic Animals ( 1809 ) , Observations upon Hawking ( 1826 ) , and Observations upon the Instinct of Animals ( 1836 ) .
Charles Darwin read Sir John 's 1809 pamphlet , and was impressed with a passage that elaborated on how " the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities " . These writings , along with Darwin 's correspondence via their mutual friend William Yarrell , aided Darwin in the inception of Darwin 's theory of natural selection . Darwin 's seminal work On the Origin of Species , first published in 1859 , cited Sir John 's experiments in pigeon breeding , and recalled " That most skilful breeder , Sir John Sebright , used to say , with respect to pigeons , that ' he would produce any given feather in three years , but it would take him six years to obtain head and beak . ' " Darwin also cited Sir John extensively regarding the Sebright bantam , as well as pigeon and dog breeding , in his 1868 work Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication , his 1871 The Descent of Man , and Selection in Relation to Sex , and his book on Natural Selection ( which was not published in his lifetime ) .
= = = Development = = =
With the breed that carries his name , John Sebright intentionally set out to create a very small bantam chicken with laced plumage similar to the laced variety of Polish chickens . Although the exact makeup of the breed is uncertain , he is thought to have crossed British , Hamburgh , Nankin and Polish birds with a base of Rosecombs before achieving a laced chicken that would breed true . After the breed 's establishment circa 1810 , Sebright founded The Sebright Bantam Club , which was the very first individual breed association for chickens . The breed has appeared in the American Poultry Association 's Standard of Perfection since the first edition in 1874 . Today , the breed is one of the ten most popular bantam chickens , according to the American Bantam Association .
= = Characteristics = =
In accordance with the intentions of their creator , the Sebright is an ornamental bantam , and is commonly seen in competitive poultry shows . As a true bantam , all Sebrights are very small in stature ; males weigh an average of 22 ounces ( 625 grams ) and females 20 oz ( 570 g ) . Their short backs , proportionally large breasts , and downward – pointing wings combine to create an angular , jaunty look .
All Sebrights have plumage that is laced around the edges evenly with black , on a base of either dark gold or whitish silver . Sebrights have unfeathered legs with slate – blue skin , and their beaks are ideally a dark horn color . Sebright roosters carry a rose comb covered with fine points , and a small spike that sweeps back from the head ( called a leader ) . Combs , earlobes and wattles were originally a purple colour referred to in the fancy as mulberry , but today are often bright red though mulberry is still desired according to the standards in most countries . Some breeders consider hen feathering to have an adverse effect on the fertility of male Sebrights , and may use roosters that don 't carry the trait for breeding purposes , despite their automatic disqualification in shows .
Characteristically , Sebrights are only one of a few chicken breeds in which the roosters are hen feathered , meaning they have none of the long , sickle – shaped feathers common in most roosters that appear in the tail , neck and saddle . Due to the unique characteristic hen feathering , molecular biologists have found the Sebright bantam a useful model organism in the study of sex hormones . This is because they carry a mutation that causes the tissues of their skin to convert an unusually large amount of male sex hormones ( androgens ) into female sex hormones ( estrogens ) .
They are kind birds but the male Sebright may get protective around hens and may turn on its own owners like all roosters may do . And due to their light , flighty nature it might be best to keep them contained to a smaller , fenced off area . Sebrights often will live happily living amongst other breeds as well . Sebrights are not prolific egglayers and hens are only expected to produce 60 @-@ 80 creamy @-@ white eggs each season .
= = = Husbandry = = =
Sebrights are neither prolific egg layers , nor outstanding meat birds . They can prove to be particularly difficult to raise , especially for beginners . Hens rarely go broody and chicks usually have high mortality rates . Adults are generally hardy birds , but are especially susceptible to Marek 's disease .
In temperament , Sebrights are friendly and actively social birds . Males are not known to be aggressive , but Sebrights in general , like most small chickens , are somewhat skittish birds . Due to their small size and relatively large wings , they are one of a minority of chicken breeds that retains a strong flying ability . Thus , most keepers keep Sebrights in confinement rather than allowing them to free range . Due to their genetic make @-@ up , males may on occasion be born infertile , further complicating breeding .
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= Frank Chance =
Frank Leroy Chance ( September 9 , 1876 – September 15 , 1924 ) was an American professional baseball player . A first baseman , Chance played in Major League Baseball for the Chicago Cubs ( initially named the " Orphans " ) and New York Yankees from 1898 through 1914 . He also served as manager of the Cubs , Yankees , and Boston Red Sox .
Discovered by the Cubs as he played semi @-@ professional baseball while attending college , Chance debuted with the Cubs in 1898 , serving as a part @-@ time player . In 1903 , Chance became the Cubs ' regular first baseman , and in 1905 , he succeeded Frank Selee as the team 's manager . Chance led the Cubs to four National League championships in the span of five years ( 1906 – 1910 ) and won the World Series championships in 1907 and 1908 . With Joe Tinker and Johnny Evers , Chance formed a strong double play combination , which was immortalized as " Tinker @-@ to @-@ Evers @-@ to @-@ Chance " in " Baseball 's Sad Lexicon " .
Let go by the Cubs after the 1912 season , Chance signed with the Yankees , serving as a player – manager for two seasons . He joined the Los Angeles Angels of the Pacific Coast League as a player – manager , returning to MLB in 1923 as manager of the Red Sox . Chance was named the manager of the Chicago White Sox in 1924 , but never took control of the team as he became ill . He died later that year .
Noted for his leadership abilities , Chance earned the nickname " Peerless Leader . " He is the all @-@ time leader in managerial winning percentage in Cubs history . Chance was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in the 1946 balloting by the Veterans Committee , along with Tinker and Evers .
= = Early life = =
Chance was born in Salida , California , in Stanislaus County , on September 9 , 1876 . His family was of English and Scottish descent . He was raised in Fresno , California and attended Fresno High School . His father was president of the first national bank in Fresno .
Chance enrolled at the University of California , where he pursued a degree in dentistry . He transferred to Washington College in Irvington , California . While playing baseball for the school 's baseball team , he received an offer to play semi @-@ professional baseball for a team in Sullivan , Illinois , for $ 40 a month ( $ 1 @,@ 138 in current dollar terms ) , which he accepted .
Returning to college the next year , Chance led his team to a third @-@ place finish in an amateur tournament of 50 teams . Bill Lange of the Chicago Cubs discovered Chance and convinced the Cubs to sign him as a backup catcher and outfielder , receiving $ 1 @,@ 200 a year ( $ 34 @,@ 133 in current dollar terms ) . Chance was scouted by other teams , but chose the Cubs as Tim Donohue was the only catcher ahead of him on the Cubs ' depth chart .
= = Career = =
= = = Chicago Cubs = = =
Chance began his career in 1898 with the Chicago Cubs , serving as a reserve catcher and outfielder . He played irregularly through the 1902 season . Due in part to finger injuries suffered while catching , Chance played in no more than 75 games in a season through 1902 . In 1903 , Johnny Kling became the Cubs ' full @-@ time catcher . As Bill Hanlon , the Cubs ' first baseman , left the team , manager Frank Selee moved Chance to first base . Though Chance initially balked at the position change , he agreed when he received a pay raise .
In 125 games during the 1903 season , Chance recorded a .327 batting average , and 67 stolen bases ; the latter mark led the National League ( NL ) . His .439 on @-@ base percentage was third @-@ best in the league , behind Roy Thomas and Roger Bresnahan , and his 81 runs batted in ( RBIs ) tied Jake Beckley for sixth @-@ best . Chance had a .310 batting average in 1904 , good for sixth place in the NL . His .382 on @-@ base percentage was the fourth @-@ best in the league , and his .430 slugging percentage was fifth @-@ best . Chance also hit six home runs , tying him with Dan McGann , Red Dooin , and Cozy Dolan for third place , his 42 stolen bases tied McGann for fourth place , and his 89 runs scored were seventh @-@ best .
Selee fell ill in 1905 , and Chance was selected to succeed him as manager . That year , he also batted .316 with 92 runs scored and 70 RBIs . His batting average was sixth @-@ best in the NL , while he led the league with a .450 on @-@ base percentage , and finished seventh with a .434 slugging percentage . His 38 stolen bases were sixth @-@ best in the league . In 1906 , Chance batted .319 and led the NL in runs scored ( 103 ) and stolen bases ( 57 ) . His batting average was fifth @-@ best in the league , while his .419 on @-@ base percentage finished in third , and his .430 slugging percentage placed him in fifth . When Chance stole home from second base in a tie game against the Cincinnati Reds , team owner Charles W. Murphy granted him a ten @-@ percent ownership stake in the club to show his gratitude . Chance later sold his share of the franchise for approximately $ 150 @,@ 000 . Meanwhile , The Cubs won 116 games during the 1906 season , taking the NL pennant . The Chicago White Sox of the American League defeated the Cubs in the 1906 World Series .
Chance batted .293 during the 1907 season , finishing sixth in the NL , while his .395 on @-@ base percentage was third @-@ best . He tied Ed Abbaticchio for seventh with 35 stolen bases . The Cubs returned to the World Series in 1907 . Though Chance only batted .154 in the 1907 World Series , the Cubs defeated the Tigers in four games .
Chance began to decline during the 1908 season . Though he finished third in the NL with 27 doubles , he did not finish among the ten best in the categories of batting average , on @-@ base percentage , or stolen bases in 1908 , 1909 , or 1910 . Chance batted .425 in the 1908 World Series , as the Cubs again defeated the Tigers , this time in five games .
By 1910 , Chance began to groom Fred Luderus as his successor at first base . He rebuilt the team in 1911 after Evers 's nervous breakdown and the departure of Harry Steinfeldt , replacing them with Heinie Zimmerman and Jim Doyle respectively . The Cubs returned to the World Series in 1910 , against the Philadelphia Athletics . Chance batted .353 in the 1910 World Series , though the Athletics won the series in five games . Chance was ejected in game three , becoming the first player ever ejected from a World Series game . Chance continued to transition himself out of the Cubs ' lineup in 1911 , as he played in only 31 games .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
In 1912 , Chance endured surgeries to correct blood clots in his brain that were caused by being hit by pitches in his head . Meanwhile , Chance argued with Murphy , who had been releasing expensive players from the Cubs in an effort to save the team money . The New York Yankees negotiated for Chance 's release from the Cubs after the 1912 season . The Cubs released Chance while he was hospitalized , and in January 1913 , Chance signed a three @-@ year contract with the Yankees , worth $ 120 @,@ 000 ( $ 2 @,@ 873 @,@ 131 in current dollar terms ) , to serve as the Yankees ' manager . He also played first base for the Yankees and served as field captain , though he played in no more than 12 games in a season . The Yankees sat in last place on the next @-@ to @-@ last day of the 1913 season , but won their final game to finish in seventh place . In 1914 , Chance named Roger Peckinpaugh the Yankees ' new captain .
After struggling during the 1914 season , Chance criticized the talent brought to him by Yankees scout Arthur Irwin . After repeatedly seeking to have Irwin fired , he offered his resignation from the team late in the season on the condition that he still was to receive his 1915 salary . After this was accepted by team owner Frank J. Farrell , Chance resigned with three weeks remaining in the season , and Peckinpaugh served as player – manager for the remainder of the season .
= = = Later career = = =
Chance returned to his native California , and was named manager of the Los Angeles Angels of the Pacific Coast League in 1916 . Chance won the league championship in 1916 . He re @-@ signed with the Angels for the 1917 season and was also granted a part ownership in the Angels from the majority owner , John F. Powers . Powers and Chance remained good friends for the rest of his life . He resigned during the 1917 season due to his declining health . He then served as president of the California Winter League , continuing to instill discipline in players : he fined Ty Cobb for " abusing an umpire " .
Chance managed the Boston Red Sox in 1923 . The Red Sox did not retain Chance after the season . But some sources noted that Chance had only agreed to a one @-@ year contract and was not necessarily interested in returning to the Red Sox , a team described by one sportswriter as no better than a minor league club . After his relationship with the Red Sox was severed , he was named the Chicago White Sox manager for the 1924 season but developed severe influenza before he could take the helm . He soon developed other respiratory complications , including asthma . Chance submitted his resignation to owner Charles Comiskey , but Comiskey refused to accept it , giving him the opportunity to return to the team when his health improved . He returned to Chicago briefly in April , but was unable to take charge of the team . Chance returned to Los Angeles where he underwent emergency surgery in April 1924 . Evers was named the White Sox acting manager for the 1924 season .
= = = Career summary = = =
= = = = Overview = = = =
Chance was part of the trio of infielders remembered for their double @-@ play ability , with Joe Tinker and Johnny Evers . The trio were immortalized as " Tinker @-@ to @-@ Evers @-@ to @-@ Chance " , also known as " Baseball 's Sad Lexicon " , written by the 28 @-@ year @-@ old New York Evening Mail newspaper columnist Franklin Pierce Adams in July 1910 . Chance helped Evers develop an underhanded throw .
Chance took over as Chicago 's manager in 1905 . His playing time decreased towards the end of the decade . The Cubs won the NL pennant in 1906 , 1907 , 1908 and 1910 , and won the World Series in 1907 and 1908 , to date , the Cubs ' last World Series victory . He became the highest paid player in baseball , earning as much as $ 25 @,@ 000 ( $ 634 @,@ 911 in current dollar terms ) in 1910 .
Chance 's lifetime record as a manager was 946 – 648 ( .593 winning percentage ) ; his .667 winning percentage as manager of the Cubs is the highest in franchise history . As a player , Chance is the Cubs ' all @-@ time career leader in stolen bases , with 400 . He led the Cubs in batting average in 1903 , 1904 , 1905 and 1907 . In World Series play , Chance batted .310 , recording 22 hits , scoring 11 runs , and stealing 10 bases .
Chance was a disciplinarian . He preached moderation in socializing , including avoiding alcohol , to his players . Chance fined his players for shaking hands with members of the opposing team and forced Solly Hofman to delay his wedding until after the baseball season , lest marriage impair his abilities on the playing field . In August 1911 , Chance suspended Tinker for the remainder of the season for using profanity , though he reinstated Tinker two days later .
= = = = Managerial record = = = =
= = Personal = =
During the baseball offseasons , Chance worked as a prizefighter . James J. Corbett and John L. Sullivan , among the best fighters of the era , both considered Chance " the greatest amateur brawler of all time . " Chance owned a ranch in Glendora , California , which he sold prior to becoming manager of the Red Sox .
Chance married Edythe Pancake on October 3 , 1903 . Edythe became an advocate for baseball , imploring women to attend baseball games .
Chance died at age 48 . Some sources simply said that he died of a " long illness " , while others attributed it to heart disease brought on by severe spasms of bronchial asthma . He was survived by his wife , mother , sister , and three brothers . Chance was interred in the Angelus @-@ Rosedale Cemetery , Los Angeles . His death was greatly mourned , and his funeral received widespread publicity in Los Angeles and Chicago . Among his pallbearers were Powers and race car driver Barney Oldfield . His estate was valued at $ 170 @,@ 000 .
= = Honors = =
After falling short of induction in the Hall of Fame by seven votes in 1945 , Chance was elected to the Hall of Fame in 1946 . Tinker and Evers were elected the same year . Chance was also elected to the Fresno Athletic Hall of Fame .
A baseball field in Fresno named after Chance operated from 1935 to 1941 . Joe DiMaggio played in the first @-@ ever game at Frank Chance Field . Retired players participated in an exhibition game in Chance 's honor in 1937 . John McGraw , a contemporary and rival of Chance , considered Chance one of the greatest players he ever saw .
The City of Hope National Medical Center created the Frank L. Chance Research Fellowship Foundation in his memory .
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= Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man =
" Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " is the seventh episode of the fourth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on November 17 , 1996 . It was written by Glen Morgan , directed by James Wong , and featured the first guest appearance by Chris Owens , appearing as a younger Smoking Man . " Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 7 , being watched by 17 @.@ 09 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Lone Gunman Melvin Frohike ( Tom Braidwood ) finds a tell @-@ tale magazine story supposedly revealing the history of The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) . The episode illustrates his possible involvement in several historical events and assassinations , although the reliability of the source is unresolved at the end of the episode .
Executive producer Frank Spotnitz later noted that , while parts of " Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " may indeed be factual , the majority is not actual canon . The production of the episode did not require extensive use of Duchovny and Anderson on screen . The former 's voice is only heard and the latter appears only in archival footage . Davis , who portrayed the title character , was pleased with the episode , although confused with some of the contradictions in the script . Although not directly furthering the series ' overarching mythology , the episode involves several of its events and characters .
= = Plot = =
The Smoking Man , armed with a sniper rifle and surveillance equipment , spies on a meeting between Fox Mulder , Dana Scully , and the Lone Gunmen . Frohike claims to have discovered information about the Smoking Man 's mysterious past , stating that his father was an executed communist spy and that his mother died of lung cancer , causing him to be raised in various Midwest orphanages .
The narrative changes to 1962 . The Smoking Man is an Army captain stationed at Fort Bragg in North Carolina . He talks to a friend and fellow soldier , Bill Mulder , who shows him a photo of his infant son , Fox . The Smoking Man is summoned to attend a meeting with a general and several strange men in suits . They assign him to assassinate President John F. Kennedy . In 1963 , posing as a " Mr. Hunt , " the Smoking Man shoots Kennedy and frames Lee Harvey Oswald . Afterwards , he smokes his first cigarette from a pack previously given to him by Oswald .
Five years later , the Smoking Man writes a novel entitled Take a Chance : A Jack Colquitt Adventure , using the pen name " Raul Bloodworth " . After hearing Martin Luther King , Jr. give a speech criticizing America 's attitude towards the distribution of wealth at home and social revolutions abroad , the Smoking Man meets with a group of men , including J. Edgar Hoover . The Smoking Man convinces the group to have King assassinated and volunteers to perform the task . Shortly thereafter , a publishing company rejects his novel .
In 1991 , the Smoking Man meets with subordinates , discussing his orchestration of the Anita Hill controversy and the Rodney King trial . He orders that the Buffalo Bills not win the Super Bowl . He further reveals his drugging of a Soviet goaltender to ensure the outcome of the " Miracle on Ice " hockey match . One of the Smoking Man 's subordinates invites him for a family dinner . Although flattered , the Smoking Man declines the invitation and states that he is scheduled to visit family . On his way out of the meeting , he distributes his Christmas presents to each of the subordinates- all receive the same gift . The gift is a striped tie . He is next seen walking past Fox Mulder 's office .
Later , while at home , the Smoking Man receives an urgent phone call from Deep Throat , who meets him near the site of a UFO wreck . An alien from the UFO is alive . Deep Throat and Smoking Man reminisce about the multiple times they changed the course of history . They flip a coin over who is tasked to kill the alien survivor . Deep Throat loses , and thus reluctantly shoots the alien .
A few months later , in March 1992 , the Smoking Man attends the meeting where Scully is assigned to the X @-@ Files and eavesdrops on the agents ' first meeting . In 1996 , he receives a letter telling him that his novel will be serialized in the magazine Roman a Clef . He types up a resignation letter , and excitedly finds the magazine at a newsstand . However , he finds that the ending has been changed . Bitter , the Smoking Man sits on a bench with a homeless man , giving a monologue on how " life is like a box of chocolates " . He tears up his resignation letter and leaves the magazine at the bench .
Back in the present , Frohike tells Mulder and Scully that what he 's told them is based on a story he found in a magazine he subscribes to . He leaves to verify the story . As he leaves , the Smoking Man has a clear shot . However , he decides not to kill him and quotes the last line from his unpublished novel : " I can kill you whenever I please , but not today " .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was inspired by the DC Graphic Novel Lex Luthor : The Unauthorized Biography . Glen Morgan stated that he wanted the episode to show that The Smoking Man was the most dangerous human being alive . The episode was originally intended to end with The Smoking Man killing Melvin Frohike , but the show 's executive staff vetoed the idea .
The episode contains several references to Morgan and Wong 's former series Space : Above and Beyond including the name of The Smoking Man 's novel , Take a Chance , the reference to " classified compartmentalized " , and the name Jack Colquitt . In addition , Morgan Weisser , who played Lee Harvey Oswald , was an actor who appeared on that show . U.N. Resolution 1013 , quoted by Deep Throat , is a reference to Carter 's birthday and production company . Walden Roth , the editor who buys The Smoking Man 's novel , is a reference to 20th Century Fox executives Dana Walden and Peter Roth . The Smoking Man 's ambition to be a novelist was based on E. Howard Hunt .
Davis was happy to have an episode of his own , but was puzzled at some of the contradictions in the script , such as having him assassinate John F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King , Jr . , but being concerned with something as minor as keeping the Buffalo Bills from winning the Super Bowl . Chris Carter said " I had to speak with Bill several times ; I spent hours with him on the telephone talking about the character , because the actor felt that the episode really made the character something that it wasn 't . I tried to explain to him , as I think Jim and Glen were trying to express , that even if your mission in life is a destroyer , that you still have some hope in the back of your mind that you can be a creator — and that this all of a sudden , this vanity , is his vanity . And we see that so clearly here and it makes him sort of a silly person " .
= = = Filming = = =
Davis later said " Jim Wong [ ... ] was a big help , too . A lot of the stage directions point toward farce , but Jim told me to play against that and just let the situation play out . The Forrest Gump scene was difficult , too . When I prepared it and did it the first time , I was almost Shakespearean in my approach . Jim made me toss it off more , and it worked fine " . Chris Owens who portrayed the Young Smoking Man spent time watching how Davis smokes to ensure that he did it just like him . Owens later appeared as a young version of The Smoking Man again in the episode " Demons " , and as his son Jeffrey Spender .
The episode was the first in the series that did not feature Mulder , and featured Scully only in archival footage from " Pilot " . The episode was not intended to give the actors a week off , but ended up that way , which Duchovny was very pleased with . Producer J.P. Finn coordinated the sequence where The Smoking Man assassinates John F. Kennedy . It was filmed in a downtown Vancouver location doubling for Dealey Plaza . The show 's costume designer contacted the costume designer for the film JFK and borrowed a reproduction of Jackie Kennedy 's pink suit used in the film . The presidential limousine ridden by Kennedy was created by picture vehicle coordinator Nigel Habgood .
= = Reception = =
" Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " premiered on the Fox network on November 17 , 1996 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 7 , with a 15 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 7 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 17 @.@ 09 million viewers . James Wong earned the show 's first ever Emmy nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for this episode , although he later lost to NYPD Blue 's Mark Tinker .
Few viewers picked up on the notion that the events of this episode were not necessarily factual . Story editor Frank Spotnitz said " In the closing scene Frohike tells Mulder and Scully that the whole story was something he read in a crummy magazine . A lot of people didn 't pick up on that subtlety . They thought that this was indeed the factual history of the CSM . As far as I 'm concerned , it 's not . Some of it may indeed be true , and some of it may — well , never mind " .
" Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " received mostly positive praise from critics . Entertainment Weekly gave the episode an " A – " , noting that " one has to wonder to what extent this episode is intended as information , and to what extent sheer entertainment " . Reviewer Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club spoke positively of the episode , saying " I love this ... and watching it now , I still do " . He ultimately gave the episode an " A " and wrote , " ' Musings ' is great because it transforms CSM from a living ghost into the walking dead — still horrifying , still dangerous , but pitiable just the same " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , named the episode " one of The X @-@ Files ' true masterpieces " and awarded it five stars out of five . The two praised Morgan and Wong 's combination of mythological story elements with more dry and dark humor . Furthermore , Shearman and Pearson wrote positively of the ambiguousness of the episode 's authenticity , noting that " the answers that the viewers are craving are handed out here on such a large plate , you can only take them as a delicious parody . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a glowing review and awarded it four stars out of four . She praised the way that the viewer is able to see the " barren emotional landscape in which the Cigarette Smoking Man dwells " via the " tone of the script " . Furthermore , Vitaris applauded the Forrest Gump @-@ esque rant , calling it " a comic high point of verbal venom " .
Not all reviews were so positive . Author Phil Farrand was critical of the episode , rating it his fifth least favorite episode of the first four seasons . He criticized the entry for having an uninteresting first half , and relying on the " cliche " of the John F. Kennedy assassination . Furthermore , he was unhappy with the fact that viewers did not have any way of knowing whether the content of the episode really happened . Alan Kurtz criticized the episode for being inconsistent with the timetable of The X @-@ Files , pointing to the fact that the episode contradicts canon that was established in the third season episode " Apocrypha " . Furthermore , he derided the show for too closely mirroring the plots of the 1979 movie Apocalypse Now as well as Forrest Gump .
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= Tiverton Preedy =
Tiverton Preedy ( 22 January 1863 – 26 April 1928 ) was an English clergyman who worked in Yorkshire and London from 1887 until his death , where he was noted for his work with the poor . He was particularly interested in the use of sport within ministry , and founded a church football team in the town of Barnsley which became the modern Barnsley F.C.
In 1883 he moved to London to become curate of a church in Islington , and later opened a nearby mission . He opened a boxing club at the mission and organised dances for local flower sellers . In recognition of his work , he was appointed a prebendary of St. Pauls Cathedral in 1926 . He died two years later and is buried in Islington Cemetery . In the 1990s , supporters of Barnsley F.C. located and restored his grave .
= = Early life = =
Preedy was born in Hunstanton in the county of Norfolk in 1863 , the second son of a local estate agent . He attended Bloxham School near Sleaford , Lincolnshire before entering Lincoln Theological College in 1885 , where he trained to become a minister in the Church of England . In 1887 he was ordained as a deacon , and in the same year was appointed to the position of Assistant Stipendiary Curate at St Peter 's church in the centre of Barnsley . The church had originally been set up as a mission to tend to the people of the poverty @-@ stricken area , but was licensed as a parish in its own right in 1887 . Preedy was engaged to assist the vicar , John Lloyd Brereton .
During his time at Theological College , Preedy had become keen on the concept of using sport to engender moral values , an idea much in vogue at the time and known as muscular Christianity . To this end , he decided to join a local sporting club , through which he hoped to come into closer contact with the local people . He initially joined a rugby football club , but resigned in protest at the team 's decision to play a match on Good Friday .
= = Formation of Barnsley Football Club = =
Shortly after his split from the rugby club , Preedy encountered by chance a group of young men discussing the idea of forming an association football club . Preedy was taken with the idea , not least because football was seen in the area as the " poor man 's sport " and his involvement would therefore bring him into greater contact with the poor people he wished to help through his ministry . To this end he formed a football club in September 1887 . Preedy acted as principal fundraiser and organiser of the club , dubbed Barnsley St Peter 's F.C. , and even played in its first match . A keen supporter of the Temperance movement , Preedy demanded high standards of behaviour from his players , and once refused to allow St Peter 's to play a match against local rivals Ardsley Old due to the conduct of the latter 's supporters .
Preedy was also responsible for securing the use of the land on which the Oakwell stadium still stands . After being refused permission to hire a field belonging to the owners of the Barnsley Brewery , Preedy 's appeal to the wife of one of the owners ultimately led to the club being granted permission to play at Oakwell . In 1891 Preedy was instrumental in the formation of the Barnsley Charity Football Association and the creation of the Barnsley Charity Cup . St. Peter 's reached the inaugural final but were surprisingly defeated by underdogs Ecclesfield .
= = Departure from Barnsley = =
In 1893 Preedy moved to London to become curate of St. Clement 's Church in Islington . Such was the regard in which the clergyman was held in the town that a civic reception was held to mark his departure , and tributes were printed in the Barnsley Chronicle . The St. Peter 's players presented him with a walking stick , a pipe and a tobacco pouch . Four years after his departure , the club severed its links to the church and became known simply as Barnsley F.C.
Preedy spent four years at St. Clement 's before being appointed to run a nearby mission in what was then an extremely deprived area of the city . At the time of his appointment the mission operated out of converted cowsheds and the house with which Preedy was provided had no furniture . Preedy once again endeavoured to use sport as part of his ministry and opened a boxing club at the mission . Future world champion Terry Allen boxed at the club as a youngster , and among the wrestlers who trained there was future British champion and Olympic Games competitor George MacKenzie . Preedy also organised dances for the girls who sold flowers on local streets .
Preedy remained in contact with the football club he had founded in Barnsley and was a guest of honour at the 1912 FA Cup Final , in which Barnsley defeated West Bromwich Albion to lift the trophy . The victorious team presented him with the match ball , which he displayed in his study until his death .
= = Later years = =
In 1926 Preedy was appointed a prebendary at St. Pauls Cathedral , in recognition of his work in Islington . At around the same time he began to suffer from heart problems , and died in his sleep in April 1928 . His funeral was attended by several thousand mourners , and he was buried at Islington Cemetery in Finchley . His obituary in the Islington Gazette described him as " a generous friend to the poor " and the Bishop of Stepney in his eulogy called him " a wonderful parish priest and a splendid friend " , and made particular reference to his use of sport in his ministry .
In 1997 representatives of the club he founded located his grave in London and laid wreaths in the club 's colours . Full restoration of the grave was later carried out by the Barnsley F.C. Supporters ' Trust .
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= James II of England =
James II and VII ( 14 October 1633O.S. – 16 September 1701 ) was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII , from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 . He was the last Roman Catholic monarch to reign over the Kingdoms of England , Scotland and Ireland .
The second surviving son of Charles I , he ascended the throne upon the death of his brother , Charles II . Members of Britain 's Protestant political elite increasingly suspected him of being pro @-@ French and pro @-@ Catholic and of having designs on becoming an absolute monarch . When he produced a Catholic heir , leading nobles called on his Protestant son @-@ in @-@ law and nephew William of Orange to land an invasion army from the Netherlands , which he did in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 . James fled England ( and thus was held to have abdicated ) . He was replaced by his eldest , Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange . James made one serious attempt to recover his crowns from William and Mary when he landed in Ireland in 1689 . After the defeat of the Jacobite forces by the Williamites at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690 , James returned to France . He lived out the rest of his life as a pretender at a court sponsored by his cousin and ally , King Louis XIV .
James is best known for his struggles with the English Parliament and his attempts to create religious liberty for English Roman Catholics and Protestant nonconformists , against the wishes of the Anglican establishment . However , he also continued the persecution of the Presbyterian Covenanters in Scotland . Parliament , opposed to the growth of absolutism that was occurring in other European countries , as well as to the loss of legal supremacy of the Church of England , saw their opposition as a way to preserve what they regarded as traditional English liberties . This tension made James 's four @-@ year reign a struggle for supremacy between the English Parliament and the Crown , resulting in his deposition , the passage of the Bill of Rights , and the accession of his daughter and her husband as king and queen .
= = Early life = =
= = = Birth = = =
James , the second surviving son of King Charles I and his wife , Henrietta Maria of France , was born at St. James 's Palace in London on 14 October 1633 . Later that same year , he was baptised by William Laud , the Anglican Archbishop of Canterbury . He was educated by private tutors , along with his brother , the future King Charles II , and the two sons of the Duke of Buckingham , George and Francis Villiers . At the age of three , James was appointed Lord High Admiral ; the position was initially honorary , but would become a substantive office after the Restoration , when James was an adult .
He was designated Duke of York at birth , invested with the Order of the Garter in 1642 , and formally created Duke of York in January 1644 .
= = = Civil War = = =
As the King 's disputes with the English Parliament grew into the English Civil War , James stayed in Oxford , a Royalist stronghold . When the city surrendered after the siege of Oxford in 1646 , Parliamentary leaders ordered the Duke of York to be confined in St. James 's Palace . In 1648 , he escaped from the Palace , aided by Joseph Bampfield , and from there he went to The Hague in disguise . When Charles I was executed by the rebels in 1649 , monarchists proclaimed James 's older brother as Charles II of England . Charles II was recognised as king by the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of Ireland , and was crowned King of Scotland at Scone in 1651 . Although he was proclaimed King in Jersey , Charles was unable to secure the crown of England and consequently fled to France and exile .
= = = Exile in France = = =
Like his brother , James sought refuge in France , serving in the French army under Turenne against the Fronde , and later against their Spanish allies . In the French army James had his first true experience of battle where , according to one observer , he " ventures himself and chargeth gallantly where anything is to be done " .
In the meantime , Charles was attempting to reclaim his throne , but France , although hosting the exiles , had allied itself with Oliver Cromwell . In 1656 , Charles turned instead to Spain – an enemy of France – for support , and an alliance was made . In consequence , James was expelled from France and forced to leave Turenne 's army . James quarrelled with his brother over the diplomatic choice of Spain over France . Exiled and poor , there was little that either Charles or James could do about the wider political situation , and James ultimately travelled to Bruges and ( along with his younger brother , Henry ) joined the Spanish army under Louis , Prince of Condé , fighting against his former French comrades at the Battle of the Dunes .
During his service in the Spanish army , James became friendly with two Irish Catholic brothers in the Royalist entourage , Peter and Richard Talbot , and became somewhat estranged from his brother 's Anglican advisers . In 1659 , the French and Spanish made peace . James , doubtful of his brother 's chances of regaining the throne , considered taking a Spanish offer to be an admiral in their navy . Ultimately , he declined the position ; by the next year the situation in England had changed , and Charles II was proclaimed King .
= = Restoration = =
= = = First marriage = = =
After Richard Cromwell 's resignation as Lord Protector in 1659 and the subsequent collapse of the Commonwealth in 1660 , Charles II was restored to the English throne . Although James was the heir presumptive , it seemed unlikely that he would inherit the Crown , as Charles was still a young man capable of fathering children . On 31 December 1660 , following his brother 's restoration , James was created Duke of Albany in Scotland , to go along with his English title , Duke of York . Upon his return to England , James prompted an immediate controversy by announcing his engagement to Anne Hyde , the daughter of Charles 's chief minister , Edward Hyde . In 1659 , while trying to seduce her , James promised he would marry Anne . Anne became pregnant in 1660 , but following the Restoration and James 's return to power , no one at the royal court expected a prince to marry a commoner , no matter what he had pledged beforehand . Although nearly everyone , including Anne 's father , urged the two not to marry , the couple married secretly , then went through an official marriage ceremony on 3 September 1660 in London . Their first child , Charles , was born less than two months later , but died in infancy , as did five further sons and daughters . Only two daughters survived : Mary ( born 30 April 1662 ) and Anne ( born 6 February 1665 ) . Samuel Pepys wrote that James was fond of his children and his role as a father , and played with them " like an ordinary private father of a child " , a contrast to the distant parenting common with royalty at the time . James 's wife was devoted to him and influenced many of his decisions . Even so , he kept mistresses , including Arabella Churchill and Catherine Sedley , and was reputed to be " the most unguarded ogler of his time . " Anne Hyde died in 1671 .
= = = Military and political offices = = =
After the Restoration , James was confirmed as Lord High Admiral , an office that carried with it the subsidiary appointments of Governor of Portsmouth and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports . James commanded the Royal Navy during the Second ( 1665 – 1667 ) and Third Anglo @-@ Dutch Wars ( 1672 – 1674 ) . Following the raid on the Medway in 1667 , James oversaw the survey and re @-@ fortification of the southern coast . The office of Lord High Admiral , combined with his revenue from post office and wine tariffs ( granted him by Charles upon his restoration ) gave James enough money to keep a sizeable court household .
In 1664 , Charles granted American territory between the Delaware and Connecticut rivers to James . Following its capture by the English the former Dutch territory of New Netherland and its principal port , New Amsterdam , were named the Province and City of New York in James 's honour . After the founding , the duke gave part of the colony to proprietors George Carteret and John Berkeley . Fort Orange , 240 kilometres ( 150 mi ) north on the Hudson River , was renamed Albany after James 's Scottish title . In 1683 , he became the governor of the Hudson 's Bay Company , but did not take an active role in its governance . James also headed the Royal African Company , a slave trading company .
In September 1666 , his brother Charles put him in charge of firefighting operations in the Great Fire of London , in the absence of action by Lord Mayor Thomas Bloodworth . This was not a political office , but his actions and leadership were noteworthy . " The Duke of York hath won the hearts of the people with his continual and indefatigable pains day and night in helping to quench the Fire " , wrote a witness in a letter on 8 September .
= = = Conversion to Roman Catholicism and second marriage = = =
James 's time in France had exposed him to the beliefs and ceremonies of Catholicism ; he and his wife , Anne , became drawn to that faith . James took Eucharist in the Roman Catholic Church in 1668 or 1669 , although his conversion was kept secret for some time and he continued to attend Anglican services until 1676 . In spite of his conversion , James continued to associate primarily with Anglicans , including John Churchill and George Legge , as well as French Protestants , such as Louis de Duras , the Earl of Feversham .
Growing fears of Catholic influence at court led the English Parliament to introduce a new Test Act in 1673 . Under this Act , all civil and military officials were required to take an oath ( in which they were required to disavow the doctrine of transubstantiation and denounce certain practices of the Catholic Church as superstitious and idolatrous ) and to receive the Eucharist under the auspices of the Church of England . James refused to perform either action , instead choosing to relinquish the post of Lord High Admiral . His conversion to Catholicism was thereby made public .
Charles II opposed the conversion , ordering that James 's daughters , Mary and Anne , be raised as Protestants . Nevertheless , he allowed James to marry the Catholic Mary of Modena , a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Italian princess . James and Mary were married by proxy in a Catholic ceremony on 20 September 1673 . On 21 November , Mary arrived in England and Nathaniel Crew , Bishop of Oxford , performed a brief Anglican service that did little more than recognise the Catholic marriage . Many British people , distrustful of Catholicism , regarded the new Duchess of York as an agent of the Pope . James was noted for his devotion . He once said , " If occasion were , I hope God would give me his grace to suffer death for the true Catholic religion as well as banishment . "
= = = Exclusion Crisis = = =
In 1677 , James reluctantly consented to his daughter Mary 's marriage to the Protestant William of Orange ( who was also James 's nephew , the son of his sister Mary , Princess Royal ) , acquiescing after his brother Charles and William had agreed upon the marriage . Despite the Protestant marriage , fears of a potential Catholic monarch persisted , intensified by the failure of Charles II and his wife , Catherine of Braganza , to produce any children . A defrocked Anglican clergyman , Titus Oates , spoke of a " Popish Plot " to kill Charles and to put the Duke of York on the throne . The fabricated plot caused a wave of anti @-@ Catholic hysteria to sweep across the nation .
In England , the Earl of Shaftesbury , a former government minister and now a leading opponent of Catholicism , attempted to have James excluded from the line of succession . Some members of Parliament even proposed that the crown go to Charles 's illegitimate son , James Scott , 1st Duke of Monmouth . In 1679 , with the Exclusion Bill in danger of passing , Charles II dissolved Parliament . Two further Parliaments were elected in 1680 and 1681 , but were dissolved for the same reason . The Exclusion Crisis contributed to the development of the English two @-@ party system : the Whigs were those who supported the Bill , while the Tories were those who opposed it . Ultimately , the succession was not altered , but James was convinced to withdraw from all policy @-@ making bodies and to accept a lesser role in his brother 's government .
On the orders of the King , James left England for Brussels . In 1680 , he was appointed Lord High Commissioner of Scotland and took up residence at the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh to suppress an uprising and oversee royal government . James returned to England for a time when Charles was stricken ill and appeared to be near death . The hysteria of the accusations eventually faded , but James 's relations with many in the English Parliament , including the Earl of Danby , a former ally , were forever strained and a solid segment turned against him .
= = = Return to favour = = =
In 1683 , a plot was uncovered to assassinate Charles and James and spark a republican revolution to re @-@ establish a government of the Cromwellian style . The conspiracy , known as the Rye House Plot , backfired upon its conspirators and provoked a wave of sympathy for the King and James . Several notable Whigs , including the Earl of Essex and the King 's illegitimate son , the Duke of Monmouth , were implicated . Monmouth initially confessed to complicity in the plot , implicating fellow @-@ plotters , but later recanted . Essex committed suicide and Monmouth , along with several others , was obliged to flee into Continental exile . Charles reacted to the plot by increasing repression of Whigs and dissenters . Taking advantage of James 's rebounding popularity , Charles invited him back onto the privy council in 1684 . While some in the English Parliament remained wary of the possibility of a Catholic king , the threat of excluding James from the throne had passed .
= = Reign = =
= = = Accession to the throne = = =
Charles died in 1685 from apoplexy after converting to Catholicism on his deathbed . Having no legitimate children , Charles was succeeded by his brother James , who reigned in England and Ireland as James II , and in Scotland as James VII . There was little initial opposition to his accession , and there were widespread reports of public rejoicing at the orderly succession . James wanted to proceed quickly to the coronation , and was crowned with his wife at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1685 . The new Parliament that assembled in May 1685 , which gained the name of " Loyal Parliament " , was initially favourable to James , and the new King sent word that even most of the former exclusionists would be forgiven if they acquiesced to his rule . Most of Charles 's officers continued in office , the exceptions being the promotion of James 's brothers @-@ in @-@ law , the Earls of Clarendon and Rochester , and the demotion of Halifax . Parliament granted James a generous life income , including all of the proceeds of tonnage and poundage and the customs duties . James worked harder as king than his brother had , but was less willing to compromise when his advisers disagreed .
= = = Two rebellions = = =
Soon after becoming king , James faced a rebellion in southern England led by his nephew , the Duke of Monmouth , and another rebellion in Scotland led by Archibald Campbell , the Earl of Argyll . Argyll and Monmouth both began their expeditions from Holland , where James 's nephew and son @-@ in @-@ law , William of Orange , had neglected to detain them or put a stop to their recruitment efforts .
Argyll sailed to Scotland and , on arriving there , raised recruits mainly from his own clan , the Campbells . The rebellion was quickly crushed , and Argyll was captured at Inchinnan on 18 June 1685 . Having arrived with fewer than 300 men and unable to convince many more to flock to his standard , he never posed a credible threat to James . Argyll was taken as a prisoner to Edinburgh . A new trial was not commenced because Argyll had previously been tried and sentenced to death . The King confirmed the earlier death sentence and ordered that it be carried out within three days of receiving the confirmation .
Monmouth 's rebellion was coordinated with Argyll 's , but the former was more dangerous to James . Monmouth had proclaimed himself King at Lyme Regis on 11 June . He attempted to raise recruits but was unable to gather enough rebels to defeat even James 's small standing army . Monmouth 's rebellion attacked the King 's forces at night , in an attempt at surprise , but was defeated at the Battle of Sedgemoor . The King 's forces , led by Feversham and Churchill , quickly dispersed the ill @-@ prepared rebels . Monmouth was captured and later executed at the Tower of London on 15 July . The King 's judges — most notably , George Jeffreys — condemned many of the rebels to transportation and indentured servitude in the West Indies in a series of trials that came to be known as the Bloody Assizes . Some 250 of the rebels were executed . While both rebellions were defeated easily , they hardened James 's resolve against his enemies and increased his suspicion of the Dutch .
= = = Religious liberty and the dispensing power = = =
To protect himself from further rebellions , James sought safety by enlarging his standing army . This alarmed his subjects , not only because of the trouble soldiers caused in the towns , but because it was against the English tradition to keep a professional army in peacetime . Even more alarming to Parliament was James 's use of his dispensing power to allow Roman Catholics to command several regiments without having to take the oath mandated by the Test Act . When even the previously supportive Parliament objected to these measures , James ordered Parliament prorogued in November 1685 , never to meet again in his reign . In the beginning of 1686 two papers were found in Charles II 's strong box and his closet , in his own hand , stating the arguments for Catholicism over Protestantism . James published these papers with a declaration signed by his sign manual and challenged the Archbishop of Canterbury and the whole Anglican episcopal bench to refute Charles 's arguments : " Let me have a solid answer , and in a gentlemanlike style ; and it may have the effect which you so much desire of bringing me over to your church . " The Archbishop refused on the grounds of respect for the late king .
James advocated repeal of the penal laws in all three of his kingdoms , but in the early years of his reign he refused to allow those dissenters who did not petition for relief to receive it . James sent a letter to the Scottish Parliament at its opening in 1685 , declaring his wish for new penal laws against refractory Presbyterians and lamented that he was not there in person to promote such a law . In response , the Parliament passed an Act that stated , " whoever should preach in a conventicle under a roof , or should attend , either as preacher or as a hearer , a conventicle in the open air , should be punished with death and confiscation of property " . In March 1686 , James sent a letter to the Scottish Privy Council advocating toleration for Catholics but that the persecution of the Presbyterian Covenanters should continue , calling them to London when they refused to acquiesce his wishes . The Privy Councillors explained that they would grant relief to Catholics only if a similar relief was provided for the Covenanters and if James promised not to attempt anything that would harm the Protestant religion . James agreed to a degree of relief to Presbyterians , but not to the full toleration he wanted for Catholics , declaring that the Protestant religion was false and he would not promise not to prejudice a false religion .
James allowed Catholics to occupy the highest offices of the Kingdoms , and received at his court the papal nuncio , Ferdinando d 'Adda , the first representative from Rome to London since the reign of Mary I. James 's Jesuit confessor , Edward Petre , was a particular object of Protestant ire . When the King 's Secretary of State , the Earl of Sunderland , began replacing office @-@ holders at court with Catholic favourites , James began to lose the confidence of many of his Anglican supporters . Sunderland 's purge of office @-@ holders even extended to the King 's Anglican brothers @-@ in @-@ law and their supporters . Catholics made up no more than one @-@ fiftieth of the English population . In May 1686 , James sought to obtain a ruling from the English common @-@ law courts that showed his power to dispense with Acts of Parliament was legal . He dismissed judges who disagreed with him on this matter , as well as the Solicitor General Heneage Finch . The case , Godden v. Hales , affirmed his dispensing power , with eleven out of the twelve judges in Godden ruling in favour of the dispensing power .
In 1687 , James issued the Declaration of Indulgence , also known as the Declaration for Liberty of Conscience , in which he used his dispensing power to negate the effect of laws punishing Catholics and Protestant Dissenters . He attempted to garner support for his tolerationist policy by giving a speaking tour in the West of England in the summer of 1687 . As part of this tour , he gave a speech at Chester where he said , " suppose ... there should be a law made that all black men should be imprisoned , it would be unreasonable and we had as little reason to quarrel with other men for being of different [ religious ] opinions as for being of different complexions . " At the same time , James provided partial toleration in Scotland , using his dispensing power to grant relief to Catholics and partial relief to Presbyterians .
In 1688 , James ordered the Declaration read from the pulpits of every Anglican church , further alienating the Anglican bishops against the Catholic governor of their church . While the Declaration elicited some thanks from Catholics and dissenters , it left the Established Church , the traditional ally of the monarchy , in the difficult position of being forced to erode its own privileges . James provoked further opposition by attempting to reduce the Anglican monopoly on education . At the University of Oxford , James offended Anglicans by allowing Catholics to hold important positions in Christ Church and University College , two of Oxford 's largest colleges . He also attempted to force the Protestant Fellows of Magdalen College to elect Anthony Farmer , a man of generally ill repute who was believed to be secretly Catholic , as their president when the Protestant incumbent died , a violation of the Fellows ' right to elect a candidate of their own choosing .
In 1687 James prepared to pack Parliament with his supporters so that it would repeal the Test Act and the penal laws . James was convinced by addresses from Dissenters that he had their support and so could dispense with relying on Tories and Anglicans . James instituted a wholesale purge of those in offices under the crown opposed to James 's plan , appointing new lords @-@ lieutenant and remodelling the corporations governing towns and livery companies . In October James gave orders for the lords @-@ lieutenant in the provinces to provide three standard questions to all members of the Commission of the Peace : 1 . Would they consent to the repeal of the Test Act and the penal laws ? 2 . Would they assist candidates who would do so ? 3 . Would they accept the Declaration of Indulgence ? During the first three months of 1688 , hundreds of those asked the three questions who gave hostile replies were dismissed . Corporations were purged by agents , known as the regulators , who were given wide discretionary powers in an attempt to create a permanent royal electoral machine . Most of the regulators were Baptists and the new town officials that they recommended included Quakers , Baptists , Congregationalists , Presbyterians and Catholics , as well as Anglicans . Finally , on 24 August 1688 , James ordered the issue of writs for a general election . However , upon realising in September that William of Orange was going to land in England , James withdrew the writs and subsequently wrote to the lords @-@ lieutenant to inquire over allegations of abuses committed during the regulations and election preparations as part of the concessions James made to win support .
= = Glorious Revolution = =
In April 1688 , James re @-@ issued the Declaration of Indulgence , subsequently ordering Anglican clergy to read it in their churches . When seven Bishops , including the Archbishop of Canterbury , submitted a petition requesting the reconsideration of the King 's religious policies , they were arrested and tried for seditious libel . Public alarm increased when Queen Mary gave birth to a Roman Catholic son and heir , James Francis Edward on 10 June of that year . When James 's only possible successors were his two Protestant daughters , Anglicans could see his pro @-@ Catholic policies as a temporary phenomenon , but when the Prince 's birth opened the possibility of a permanent Catholic dynasty , such men had to reconsider their position . Threatened by a Catholic dynasty , several influential Protestants claimed the child was " supposititious " and had been smuggled into the Queen 's bedchamber in a warming pan . They had already entered into negotiations with William , Prince of Orange , when it became known the Queen was pregnant , and the birth of James 's son reinforced their convictions .
On 30 June 1688 , a group of seven Protestant nobles invited the Prince of Orange to come to England with an army . By September , it had become clear that William sought to invade . Believing that his own army would be adequate , James refused the assistance of Louis XIV , fearing that the English would oppose French intervention . When William arrived on 5 November 1688 , many Protestant officers , including Churchill , defected and joined William , as did James 's own daughter , Princess Anne . James lost his nerve and declined to attack the invading army , despite his army 's numerical superiority . On 11 December , James tried to flee to France , allegedly first throwing the Great Seal of the Realm into the River Thames . He was captured in Kent ; later , he was released and placed under Dutch protective guard . Having no desire to make James a martyr , the Prince of Orange let him escape on 23 December . James was received by his cousin and ally , Louis XIV , who offered him a palace and a pension .
William convened a Convention Parliament to decide how to handle James 's flight . While the Parliament refused to depose him , they declared that James , having fled to France and dropped the Great Seal into the Thames , had effectively abdicated the throne , and that the throne had thereby become vacant . To fill this vacancy , James 's daughter Mary was declared Queen ; she was to rule jointly with her husband William , who would be king . The Parliament of Scotland on 11 April 1689 , declared James to have forfeited the throne . The English Parliament passed a Bill of Rights that denounced James for abusing his power . The abuses charged to James included the suspension of the Test Acts , the prosecution of the Seven Bishops for merely petitioning the crown , the establishment of a standing army , and the imposition of cruel punishments . The Bill also declared that henceforth , no Roman Catholic was permitted to ascend the English throne , nor could any English monarch marry a Roman Catholic .
= = Later years = =
= = = War in Ireland = = =
With the assistance of French troops , James landed in Ireland in March 1689 . The Irish Parliament did not follow the example of the English Parliament ; it declared that James remained King and passed a massive bill of attainder against those who had rebelled against him . At James 's urging , the Irish Parliament passed an Act for Liberty of Conscience that granted religious freedom to all Roman Catholics and Protestants in Ireland . James worked to build an army in Ireland , but was ultimately defeated at the Battle of the Boyne on 1 July 1690 when William arrived , personally leading an army to defeat James and reassert English control . James fled to France once more , departing from Kinsale , never to return to any of his former kingdoms . Because he deserted his Irish supporters , James became known in Ireland as Séamus an Chaca or " James the Shit " . In contrast to this popular perception , Breandán Ó Buachalla argued that " Irish political poetry for most of the eighteenth century is essentially Jacobite poetry " , and both Ó Buachalla and Éamonn Ó Ciardha argued that James and his successors played a central role as messianic figures throughout the eighteenth century for all classes in Ireland .
= = = Return to exile and death = = =
In France , James was allowed to live in the royal château of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye . James 's wife and some of his supporters fled with him , including the Earl of Melfort ; most , but not all , were Roman Catholic . In 1692 , James 's last child , Louisa Maria Teresa , was born . Some supporters in England attempted to assassinate William III to restore James to the throne in 1696 , but the plot failed and the backlash made James 's cause less popular . Louis XIV 's offer to have James elected King of Poland in the same year was rejected , for James feared that acceptance of the Polish crown might ( in the minds of the English people ) render him incapable of being King of England . After Louis concluded peace with William in 1697 , he ceased to offer much in the way of assistance to James .
During his last years , James lived as an austere penitent . He wrote a memorandum for his son advising him on how to govern England , specifying that Catholics should possess one Secretary of State , one Commissioner of the Treasury , the Secretary at War , with the majority of the officers in the army .
He died of a brain haemorrhage on 16 September 1701 at Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye . James 's heart was placed in a silver @-@ gilt locket and given to the convent at Chaillot , and his brain was placed in a lead casket and given to the Scots College in Paris . His entrails were placed in two gilt urns and sent to the parish church of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye and the English Jesuit college at Saint @-@ Omer , while the flesh from his right arm was given to the English Augustinian nuns of Paris .
James 's body was laid to rest in a triple sarcophagus ( consisting of two wooden coffins and one of lead ) at the Chapel of Saint Edmund in the Church of the English Benedictines in the Rue St. Jacques in Paris , with a funeral oration by Henri @-@ Emmanuel de Roquette . James was not buried , but put in one of the side chapels . Lights were kept burning round his coffin until the French Revolution . In 1734 , the Archbishop of Paris heard evidence to support James 's canonisation , but nothing came of it . During the French Revolution , James 's tomb was raided .
= = Succession = =
James 's younger daughter Anne succeeded to the throne when William III died in 1702 . The Act of Settlement provided that , if the line of succession established in the Bill of Rights were extinguished , the crown would go to a German cousin , Sophia , Electress of Hanover , and to her Protestant heirs . Sophia was a granddaughter of James VI and I through his eldest daughter , Elizabeth Stuart , the sister of King Charles I. Thus , when Anne died in 1714 ( less than two months after the death of Sophia ) , the crown was inherited by George I , Sophia 's son , the Elector of Hanover and Anne 's second cousin .
James 's son James Francis Edward was recognised as King at his father 's death by Louis XIV of France and James 's remaining supporters ( later known as Jacobites ) as " James III and VIII . " He led a rising in Scotland in 1715 shortly after George I 's accession , but was defeated . Jacobites rose again in 1745 led by Charles Edward Stuart , James II 's grandson , and were again defeated . Since then , no serious attempt to restore the Stuart heir has been made . Charles 's claims passed to his younger brother Henry Benedict Stuart , the Dean of the College of Cardinals of the Catholic Church . Henry was the last of James II 's legitimate descendants , and no relative has publicly acknowledged the Jacobite claim since his death in 1807 .
= = Historiography = =
Historical analysis of James II has been somewhat revised since Whig historians , led by Lord Macaulay , cast James as a cruel absolutist and his reign as " tyranny which approached to insanity " . Subsequent scholars , such as G. M. Trevelyan ( Macaulay 's great @-@ nephew ) and David Ogg , while more balanced than Macaulay , still characterised James as a tyrant , his attempts at religious tolerance as a fraud , and his reign as an aberration in the course of British history . In 1892 , A. W. Ward wrote for the Dictionary of National Biography that James was " obviously a political and religious bigot " , although never devoid of " a vein of patriotic sentiment " ; " his conversion to the church of Rome made the emancipation of his fellow @-@ catholics in the first instance , and the recovery of England for catholicism in the second , the governing objects of his policy . "
Hilaire Belloc , a writer and Catholic apologist , broke with this tradition in 1928 , casting James as an honourable man and a true advocate for freedom of conscience , and his enemies " men in the small clique of great fortunes ... which destroyed the ancient monarchy of the English . " However , he observed that James " concluded the Catholic church to be the sole authoritative voice on earth , and thenceforward ... he not only stood firm against surrender but on no single occasion contemplated the least compromise or by a word would modify the impression made . " By the 1960s and 1970s , Maurice Ashley and Stuart Prall began to reconsider James 's motives in granting religious toleration , while still taking note of James 's autocratic rule . Modern historians have moved away from the school of thought that preached the continuous march of progress and democracy , Ashley contending that " history is , after all , the story of human beings and individuals , as well as of the classes and the masses . " He cast James II and William III as " men of ideals as well as human weaknesses . " John Miller , writing in 2000 , accepted the claims of James 's absolutism , but argued that " his main concern was to secure religious liberty and civil equality for Catholics . Any ' absolutist ' methods ... were essentially means to that end . " In 2004 , W. A. Speck wrote in the new Oxford Dictionary of National Biography that " James was genuinely committed to religious toleration , but also sought to increase the power of the crown . " He added that , unlike the government of the Netherlands , " James was too autocratic to combine freedom of conscience with popular government . He resisted any check on the monarch 's power . That is why his heart was not in the concessions he had to make in 1688 . He would rather live in exile with his principles intact than continue to reign as a limited monarch . "
Tim Harris 's conclusions from his 2006 book summarised the ambivalence of modern scholarship towards James II :
The jury will doubtless remain out on James for a long time ... Was he an egotistical bigot ... a tyrant who rode roughshod over the will of the vast majority of his subjects ( at least in England and Scotland ) ... simply naïve , or even perhaps plain stupid , unable to appreciate the realities of political power ... Or was he a well @-@ intentioned and even enlightened ruler — an enlightened despot well ahead of his time , perhaps — who was merely trying to do what he thought was best for his subjects ?
In 2009 , Steven Pincus confronted that scholarly ambivalence in 1688 : The First Modern Revolution . Pincus claims that James 's reign must be understood within a context of economic change and European politics , and makes two major assertions about James II . The first of these is that James purposefully " followed the French Sun King , Louis XIV , in trying to create a modern Catholic polity . This involved not only trying to Catholicize England ... but also creating a modern , centralizing , and extremely bureaucratic state apparatus . " The second is that James was undone in 1688 far less by Protestant reaction against Catholicization than by nationwide hostile reaction against his intrusive bureaucratic state and taxation apparatus , expressed in massive popular support for William of Orange 's armed invasion of England . Pincus presents James as neither naïve nor stupid nor egotistical . Instead , readers are shown an intelligent , clear @-@ thinking strategically motivated monarch whose vision for a French authoritarian political model and alliance clashed with , and lost out to , alternative views that favoured an entrepreneurial Dutch economic model , feared French power , and were outraged by James 's authoritarianism .
Scott Sowerby countered Pincus 's thesis in 2013 in Making Toleration : The Repealers and the Glorious Revolution . He noted that English taxes remained low during James II 's reign , at about 4 % of the English national income , and thus it was unlikely that James could have built a bureaucratic state on the model of Louis XIV 's France , where taxes were at least twice as high as a proportion of GDP . Sowerby also contends that James 's policies of religious toleration attracted substantial support from religious nonconformists , including Quakers , Baptists , Congregationalists and Presbyterians , who were attracted by the king 's push for a new " Magna Carta for liberty of conscience " . The king was overthrown , in Sowerby 's view , largely because of fears among the Dutch and English elites that James might be aligning himself with Louis XIV in a supposed " holy league " to destroy Protestantism across northern Europe . Sowerby presents James 's reign as a struggle between those who believed that the king was sincerely devoted to liberty of conscience and those who were sceptical of the king 's espousals of toleration and believed that he had a hidden agenda to overthrow English Protestantism .
= = Titles , styles , honours , and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
14 October 1633 – 6 February 1685 : The Duke of York
10 May 1659 – 6 February 1685 : The Earl of Ulster
31 December 1660 – 6 February 1685 : The Duke of Albany
6 February 1685 – 11 December 1688 ( by Jacobites until 16 September 1701 ) : His Majesty The King
The official style of James in England was " James the Second , by the Grace of God , King of England , Scotland , France and Ireland , Defender of the Faith , etc . " The claim to France was only nominal , and was asserted by every English King from Edward III to George III , regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled . In Scotland , he was " James the Seventh , by the Grace of God , King of Scotland , England , France and Ireland , Defender of the Faith , etc . "
James was created " Duke of Normandy " by King Louis XIV of France on 31 December 1660 .
= = = Honours = = =
KG : Knight of the Garter , 20 April 1642
= = = Arms = = =
Prior to his accession , James 's coat of arms was the royal arms ( which he later inherited ) , differenced by a label of three points Ermine . His arms as king were : Quarterly , I and IV Grandquarterly , Azure three fleurs @-@ de @-@ lis Or ( for France ) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ) ; II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory @-@ counter @-@ flory Gules ( for Scotland ) ; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent ( for Ireland ) .
= = In popular culture = =
James is a character in the novel The Man Who Laughs by Victor Hugo . He was portrayed by Josef Moser in the 1921 Austrian silent film The Grinning Face and by Sam De Grasse in the 1928 silent film The Man Who Laughs .
He has also been portrayed by Gibb McLaughlin in the 1926 silent film Nell Gwynne , based on a novel by Joseph Shearing , Lawrence Anderson in the 1934 film Nell Gwyn , Vernon Steele in the 1935 film Captain Blood , based on the novel by Rafael Sabatini , Douglas Matthews in the 1938 BBC TV drama Thank You , Mr. Pepys , Henry Oscar in the 1948 film Bonnie Prince Charlie , John Westbrook in the 1969 BBC TV series The First Churchills , Guy Henry in the 1995 film England , My England , the story of the composer Henry Purcell , and Charlie Creed @-@ Miles in the 2003 BBC TV miniseries Charles II : The Power & the Passion .
The squabbling surrounding James 's kingship , the Monmouth Rebellion , the Glorious Revolution , James 's abdication , and William of Orange 's subsequent accession to the throne are themes in Neal Stephenson 's 2003 novel Quicksilver .
= = Issue = =
= = Ancestors = =
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= Battle of Krasos =
The Battle of Krasos was a battle in the Arab – Byzantine Wars that took place in August 804 , between the Byzantines under Emperor Nikephoros I ( r . 802 – 811 ) and an Abbasid army under Ibrahim ibn Jibril . Nikephoros ' accession in 802 resulted in a resumption of warfare between Byzantium and the Abbasid Caliphate . In late summer 804 , the Abbasids had invaded Byzantine Asia Minor for one of their customary raids , and Nikephoros set out to meet them . He was surprised , however , at Krasos and heavily defeated , barely escaping with his own life . A truce and prisoner exchange were afterwards arranged . Despite his defeat , and a massive Abbasid invasion the next year , Nikephoros persevered until troubles in the eastern provinces of the Caliphate forced the Abbasids to conclude a peace .
= = Background = =
The deposition of Empress Irene of Athens ( r . 797 – 802 ) , in October 802 , and subsequent accession of Nikephoros I signalled a more violent phase in the long history of the Arab – Byzantine Wars . Following a series of destructive annual raids across Asia Minor by the Caliphate , Irene seems to have secured a truce with Harun al @-@ Rashid in 798 in exchange for the annual payment of tribute , repeating the terms agreed for a three @-@ year truce following Harun 's first large @-@ scale campaign in 782 . Nikephoros , on the other hand , was more warlike and determined to refill the imperial treasury by , among other measures , ceasing the tribute . Harun retaliated at once , launching a raid under his son al @-@ Qasim . Nikephoros could not respond to this , as he faced an ultimately unsuccessful revolt of the Asian army under its commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Bardanes Tourkos . After disposing of Bardanes , Nikephoros assembled his army and marched out himself to meet a second , larger invasion under the Caliph himself . After Harun raided the frontier region , the two armies confronted each other for two months in central Asia Minor , but it did not come to a battle ; Nikephoros and Harun exchanged letters , until the Emperor arranged for a withdrawal and a truce for the remainder of the year in exchange for a one @-@ off payment of tribute .
= = Battle = =
In August 804 , Harun dispatched another raid under his general Ibrahim ibn Jibril . The Arabs crossed into Asia Minor through the Cilician Gates and raided freely . Nikephoros set out to meet them , but was forced to return before he could do so , due to some unspecified event at his back ( Warren Treadgold surmises news of a possible conspiracy ) . On his march home , however , the Arabs launched a surprise attack at Krasos in Phrygia and defeated his army . According to al @-@ Tabari , the Byzantines lost 40 @,@ 700 men and 4 @,@ 000 pack animals , while the Emperor himself was wounded three times . The Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor confirms that the imperial army lost many men and that Nikephoros was almost killed himself ; saved only by the bravery of his officers .
= = Aftermath = =
Preoccupied with trouble in Khurasan , Harun now accepted tribute and made peace . An exchange of prisoners was also arranged and took place during the winter at the two empires ' border , on the Lamos river in Cilicia ; some 3 @,@ 700 Muslims were exchanged for the Byzantines taken captive in the previous years . During Harun 's absence in Khurasan , however , Nikephoros used the opportunity to rebuild the destroyed walls of the towns of Safsaf , Thebasa , and Ancyra . The following summer he launched the first Byzantine raid for two decades ; into the Arab frontier district ( thughur ) in Cilicia . The Byzantine army raided and took prisoners as it went , even capturing the major Abbasid stronghold of Tarsus . At the same time , another Byzantine force raided the Upper Mesopotamian thughur and unsuccessfully besieged the fortress of Melitene , while a Byzantine @-@ instigated rebellion against the local Arab garrison began in Cyprus . Harun retaliated with a massive invasion in 806 , which forced Nikephoros to come to terms , but the Byzantine ruler soon violated them and prevailed over the Abbasid expeditions sent against him in 807 . Following renewed trouble in Khurasan , a peace treaty was signed in 808 which left the Byzantine frontier zone intact and ended the payment of tribute to the Caliphate .
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= Cyclone Hudah =
Cyclone Hudah was a strong and destructive tropical cyclone that affected Southeast Africa in April 2000 . It was the last in a series of three cyclones that impacted Madagascar during the year . Hudah first developed as a disturbance embedded within the monsoon trough on March 22 , within the Australian region cyclone basin . Moving westward as the result of a strong subtropical ridge to its south , the storm quickly intensified , and reached Category 2 cyclone intensity on March 25 before entering the Southwest Indian cyclone basin . For various reasons that remain unknown , the cyclone was only designated a name by the time it had crossed into the area of responsibility of the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center in Réunion . Nonetheless , Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) assigned the name Hudah to the cyclone . An eye formed , and the storm intensified into a tropical cyclone on March 27 well to the southeast of Diego Garcia . On April 1 , the MFR upgraded it to a very intense tropical cyclone , estimating peak 10 minute winds of 225 km / h ( 140 mph ) . By contrast , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated 1 minute winds of 235 km / h ( 145 mph ) . Cyclone Hudah maintained peak winds until making landfall just southeast of Antalaha , Madagascar on April 2 . It weakened greatly over land , but re @-@ attained tropical cyclone status on April 5 after moving over the Mozambique Channel . Hudah reached 10 minute winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) by the time it made landfall on Mozambique near Pebane , Mozambique , on April 8 , and dissipated by the next day .
While in the vicinity , Hudah brought moderate winds to Rodrigues , St. Brandon , and Tromelin Island . The cyclone affected the same parts of Madagascar that were previously impacted by cyclones Eline and Gloria . Waves reached at least 8 m ( 26 ft ) in height along the coast . The storm was considered the worst to affect the Antalaha region in 20 years , where 90 % of homes were destroyed . It was estimated that the storm left at least 100 @,@ 000 people homeless in Madagascar , and there were 111 deaths . In Mozambique , damage was much less than expected , and the storm affected areas farther north in the country than where Eline struck . Heavy rainfall occurred along the coast , but was insufficient to cause river flooding . Strong winds damaged roofs and downed trees , mostly around Pebane , and the storm killed three people .
= = Meteorological history = =
At 1800 UTC on March 22 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began monitoring an area of disturbed weather in the central Indian Ocean , approximately 685 km ( 425 mi ) southeast of Christmas Island . The system was embedded mostly in the monsoon trough , surrounded by favorable environmental conditions , which prompted the JTWC to issue a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert at 0030 UTC on March 24 . Convection increased as vertical wind shear decreased , and the system developed a curved band pattern . Throughout the day , the storm showed signs of potential rapid intensification , due to its quick organization . The Bureau of Meteorology 's Perth Tropical Cyclone Warning Center ( Perth TCWC ) noted the system as a tropical low at 1000 UTC on March 24 , and the JTWC issued its first warning two hours later . However , for reasons which remain unclear , the Bureau of Meteorology did not extensively monitor the system .
Initially , the storm moved westward under the influence of a strong subtropical ridge to the south . Despite having reached tropical cyclone intensity according to Perth TCWC , it was not assigned a name . Once the storm crossed 90 ° E on March 25 , the Météo @-@ France 's La Réunion Regional Specialized Meteorological Center ( MFR ) began tracking the system as a moderate tropical storm , giving it the name Hudah . Gradually intensifying , Hudah developed an eye with an eyewall primarily in the northern semicircle , indicated by a Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission ( TRMM ) pass over the system . On March 26 , Hudah ceased strengthening as cloud tops warmed and the eye became no longer evident . Atmospheric divergence remained favorable , and Hudah eventually restrengthened , attaining tropical cyclone intensity at 0000 UTC on March 27 , while located approximately 1 @,@ 200 km ( 750 mi ) southeast of Diego Garcia . This period of strengthening was short @-@ lived , likely due to dry air . The cloud structure fluctuated as well , with a poorly @-@ defined eye appearing at times on satellite imagery . Hudah was able to attain an initial peak intensity of 155 km / h ( 95 mph ) at 0600 UTC on March 29 according to the MFR , shortly after passing 1010 km ( 630 mi ) south of Diego Garcia . An anticyclone that had been over Hudah showed signs of weakening later that day , spurring an increase in wind shear and causing weakening . This period of weakening was short @-@ lived , and Hudah resumed its former strengthening trend by the night of March 30 as shear decreased and convective organization and areal extent increased . After passing 275 km ( 170 mi ) north of Rodrigues Island , Hudah attained intense tropical cyclone status by 1200 UTC on March 31 . Satellite imagery indicated a large , cloud @-@ free eye , indicative of a strong tropical cyclone .
On April 1 , Hudah continued intensifying while approaching eastern Madagascar , and by 0600 UTC that day , the MFR upgraded the storm to very intense tropical cyclone intensity – the highest rating on the agency 's cyclone classification scale . Shortly after , at 1200 UTC , the storm was analyzed to have reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 225 km / h ( 140 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 905 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 73 inHg ) , ranking Hudah among some of the strongest tropical cyclones ever recorded in the Southwest Indian Ocean . The JTWC listed a similar intensity for the storm , with winds of 235 km / h ( 145 mph ) , though these winds were for 1 @-@ minute sustained winds instead of 10 @-@ minute sustained winds . This intensity was later analyzed to have been very near the theoretical maximum for tropical cyclones in the environmental conditions Hudah was in . At the time , TRMM imagery indicated that the storm featured two concentric eyewalls . Cyclone Hudah maintained peak intensity up until it made its first landfall approximately 28 km ( 17 mi ) southeast of Antalaha , Madagascar at 1730 UTC on April 2 . Hudah substantially weakened as it traversed the mountainous terrain of northern Madagascar , and was downgraded to tropical depression status by the time it entered the Mozambique Channel at 1200 UTC on March 3 .
Despite losing much of its convection over land , Hudah maintained a well @-@ organized cloud structure once in the Mozambique Channel on April 3 . As a result of moving back over warm waters , the system began to re @-@ intensify , and attained moderate tropical storm intensity at 0000 UTC on April 4 . Meanwhile , a large central dense overcast developed , and Hudah began to track west @-@ southwestward as opposed to its previous westward trajectory . Despite computer forecast models suggesting that Hudah would continue westward , the storm instead turn to a southward drift , giving it time to strengthen in the Mozambique Channel . This was the result of a mid @-@ latitude trough weakening the nearby subtropical ridge . By 1800 UTC on April 5 , Hudah was upgraded back to tropical cyclone intensity . A banding eye began to appear on satellite imagery , though it remained generally unstable , and a large banding feature formed over the western half of Hudah . The nearby trough later weakened in intensity , causing the tropical cyclone to move north @-@ northwestward towards the Mozambique coast on April 7 . It was at this time that Hudah reached a tertiary peak intensity with winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) . The tropical cyclone accelerated northwards throughout the day , eventually making its final landfall near Pebane , Mozambique at 0600 UTC on April 8 as a slightly weaker storm . Once inland , Hudah rapidly weakened , and was no longer tracked by the MFR by 0000 UTC on April 9 . The JTWC issued its final warning on the system six hours later , as the remnants of Hudah moved through northeastern Mozambique , producing spotty convection .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
= = = Rodrigues Island , Saint Brandon , and Tromelin Island = = =
Passing north of Rodrigues Island on March 30 , Hudah produced moderate winds , though effects to infrastructure and crops on the island were minimal . During the night of the following day , Hudah passed near the Saint Brandon archipelago . A weather station on the island maintained by the Maritius Meteorological Services reported a minimum pressure of roughly 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 42 inHg ) and a maximum sustained wind measurement of 70 km / h ( 45 mph ) . During the night of April 1 , the cyclone passed approximately 35 km ( 20 mi ) south of Tromelin Island , producing strong winds . A Météo @-@ France station on the isle recorded sustained winds of 125 km / h ( 80 mph ) and a gust of 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) . A minimum pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 71 inHg ) was also recorded . Due to a lack of sustainable infrastructure on the latter two islands , damage was minimal .
= = = Madagascar = = =
As the cyclone moved closer to Madagascar on April 2 , Radio Madagascar called for residents of Toamasina to take precautionary measures . At the time , forecasts predicted that Hudah would make landfall in northern Madagascar later that day .
Upon making landfall , Hudah impacted the same regions that were affected earlier in the year by Cyclone Leon – Eline and Severe Tropical Storm Gloria . The cyclone produced waves at least 8 m ( 26 ft ) in height , which impacted the coast . Across affected areas , coffee plantations , fruit trees , and rice crops in low @-@ lying areas were damaged . Food warehouses in the northeastern areas of Madagascar were destroyed . In the small town of Antalaha , up to 90 percent of all homes were destroyed , and two people were killed . The city 's water and electrical systems were cut off . Only eight homes remained intact along a stretch of road leading from the town to the local airstrip . As a result , only concrete structures remained standing , while those made of iron sheeting or wood materials were destroyed . Thus , the road was covered in debris , slightly delaying airlift operations to the region in the storm 's aftermath . Nearby vanilla fields were also severely damaged .
Due to the effects of Hudah , the cyclone was considered the worst to strike the Antalaha region in 20 years . The towns of Maroantsetra and Andapa were also hit hard , with 60 – 70 percent of homes in the latter destroyed . Maroantsetra , a coastal town , was flooded by the storm surge , and as a result seven people died . The commune of Mananara Nord was completely flooded by the storm . Other isolated villages could not be reached via road or telecommunications due to the storm . One of these cities was Sambava , which suffered from a lack of available telephone links since late on April 2 . One person died in Sambava . A resort in the town of Cap Est was flattened . Initial estimates indicated that Hudah caused at least 100 @,@ 000 people to become homeless .
= = = Mozambique = = =
While Hudah was located in the Mozambique Channel , the cyclone was expected to cause flood conditions in the Mozambican provinces of Nampula , Cabo Delgado , and potentially Zambezia . Even prior to Hudah , Mozambique was already facing a widespread flood and resultant humanitarian crisis ; conditions which were further exacerbated by three tropical cyclones which impacted the country within the previous four months . The Instituto Nacional de Gestão de Calamidades ( INGC ) warned residents in potentially affected areas to take precautionary measures and secure fishing boats . The South African National Defense Force ( SANDF ) maintained 50 soldiers and other military personnel and a number of aircraft to monitor the ongoing floods in Mozambique and potential impacts from Hudah . An Australian contingency held operations for a hospital and water purification plant in Chibuto to assist potentially affected populations . Multiple other relief organizations began to supply Mozambique with relief supplies due to the threat of the impending storm . The UN World Food Programme ( WFP ) sent 1 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 100 short tons ) of food to Nampula Province and 500 tonnes ( 550 short tons ) of food to Quelimane Province . The WFP also placed relief aircraft on standby . The Mozambican Ministry of Health sent 30 tents and 10 rolls of plastic to Cabo Delgado , Nampula , and Zambezia provinces . The United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) dispatched a group of 12 @-@ member search and rescue team to Maputo in order to train local relief crews .
Just 46 days after Cyclone Eline 's devastating landfall in Mozambique , Hudah brought further flooding to the nation , although farther north than Eline . Before the storm moved ashore , Hudah dropped 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) of rainfall over 24 hours in Quelimane along the coast . Despite the heavy rainfall from Hudah , there was not a repeat of the deadly river flooding that followed Eline . The Licungo River rose due to the rains , but the water levels did not rise above the banks . Some roads near Pebane were flooded , although not deep enough to disrupt travel . The storm 's strong winds knocked over many trees in its path , mostly in a 10 km ( 6 mi ) radius around Pebane , blocking the main road into the city . The winds also damaged about 10 % of the roofs in Pebane , as well as four schools ; about 160 boarding school children had to be sheltered elsewhere due to damage . A damaged wall fell and injured four people . Outside of the city , the winds damaged the manioc crop , and about 60 ha ( 150 acres ) of crop fields were destroyed . The cyclone destroyed around 100 huts in Pebane and nearby Moma , leaving 300 people homeless . There were three deaths in Mozambique related to Hudah ; strong winds knocked a coconut off a tree , killing a child . Overall damage was less than anticipated .
= = Aftermath = =
After the storm , the United Nations Disaster Management Team ( UNDMT ) assisted the Conseil National de Secours ( CNS ) in Madagascar with surveying areas affected by Hudah . The UNDMT also appealed for relief materials for at least 50 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 people . Two light helicopters in Mahajanga and Sambava were dispatched to support two planes in providing assistance to affected populations . Médecins Sans Frontières ( MSF ) also provided food and medical aid . The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) served as a channel for donations to relief efforts , and also made available US $ 50 @,@ 000 from the United Kingdom 's Department for International Development ( DFID ) for immediate relief purposes . Although the Red Cross had appealed for relief materials for Madagascar before Hudah had hit , these materials would arrive in April , assisting residents affected by Hudah and serving as a backbone for a long @-@ term rehabilitation plan . Due to inclement weather , surveys by humanitarian organizations on the island were not conducted until April 4 , a full two days after Hudah first struck the island . A Malagasy aircraft delived 6 tonnes ( 6 @.@ 6 metric tons ) of rice along with packages of other various supplies to affected regions . The CNS planned to deliver 10 tonnes ( 11 short tons ) of rice to Antalaha . Although initial reports indicated that 24 people were killed due to Hudah , later reports raised the death toll in Madagascar to 111 .
In Mozambique , the country 's National Institute of Disaster Management distributed 10 tons of food products and plastic housing tents to Pebane , where damage was worst . Officials determined that the storm damage could be repaired by local governments .
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= Adolf Galland =
Adolf " Dolfo " Joseph Ferdinand Galland ( 19 March 1912 – 9 February 1996 ) was a German Luftwaffe general and flying ace who served throughout the Second World War in Europe . He flew 705 combat missions , and fought on the Western and the Defence of the Reich fronts . On four occasions , he survived being shot down , and he was credited with 104 aerial victories , all of them against the Western Allies .
Galland , who was born in Westerholt , Westphalia , became a glider pilot in 1929 before he joined Lufthansa . In 1932 , he graduated as a pilot at the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule ( German Commercial Flyers ' School ) in Braunschweig before applying to join the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic later in the year . Galland 's application was accepted , but he never took up the offer . In February 1934 , he was transferred to the Luftwaffe . In 1937 , during the Spanish Civil War , he volunteered for the Condor Legion and flew ground attack missions in support of the Nationalists under Francisco Franco . After finishing his tour in 1938 Galland was employed in the Air Ministry writing doctrinal and technical manuals about his experiences as a ground @-@ attack pilot . During this period Galland served as an instructor for ground @-@ attack units . During the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 , he again flew ground attack missions . In early 1940 Galland managed to persuade his superiors to allow him to become a fighter pilot .
Galland flew Messerschmitt Bf 109s during the Battle of France and the Battle of Britain . By the end of 1940 , his tally of victories had reached 57 . In 1941 , Galland stayed in France and fought the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) over the English Channel and Northern France . By November 1941 , his tally had increased to 96 , by which time he had earned the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords . In November 1941 , Werner Mölders , who commanded the German Fighter Force as the General der Jagdflieger , was killed in a flying accident and Galland succeeded him , staying in the position until January 1945 . As General der Jagdflieger , Galland was forbidden to fly combat missions .
In late January and early February 1942 , Galland first planned then commanded the Luftwaffe 's air cover for the Kriegsmarine Operation Cerberus which was a major success . It earned him the coveted Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds . Over the ensuing years , Galland ’ s disagreements with Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring about how best to combat the Allied Air Forces bombing Germany caused their relationship to deteriorate . The Luftwaffe fighter force was under severe pressure by 1944 , and Galland was blamed by Göring for the failure to prevent the Allied strategic bombing of Germany in daylight . The relationship collapsed altogether in early January 1945 , when Galland was relieved of his command because of his constant criticism of the Luftwaffe leadership . Galland was then put under house arrest following the so @-@ called Revolt of the Kommodores , during which senior Jagdwaffe pilots tried to " save " Galland 's position , while having Göring dismissed as Reichsmarschall .
In March 1945 , Galland returned to operational flying and was permitted to form a jet fighter unit which he called Jagdverband 44 . He flew missions over Germany until the end of the war in May . After the war , Galland was employed by Argentina 's Government and acted as a consultant to the Argentine Air Force . Later , he returned to Germany and managed his own business . Galland also became friends with many former enemies , such as RAF aces Robert Stanford Tuck and Douglas Bader . Adolf Galland died in February 1996 .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family = = =
Galland was born in Westerholt ( now Herten ) , Westphalia on 19 March 1912 to a family with French Huguenot ancestry . The first Galland in Westerholt was a refugee from France in 1792 . He became a bailiff to the count von Westerholt , beginning a tradition that was handed down from father to son . Adolf Galland ( junior ) was the second of four sons of Adolf Galland ( senior ) and his French wife Anna , née Schipper . Upholding the family tradition , Galland ( senior ) worked as the land manager or bailiff to the Count von Westerholt . Galland 's older brother was Fritz and his two younger brothers were Wilhelm @-@ Ferdinand and Paul . Their father had pet names for all his family members . His wife Anna was called " Anita " . Fritz , his older brother , was called " Toby " , Adolf was " Keffer " , Wilhelm @-@ Ferdinand was nicknamed " Wutz " and Paul was called " Paulinchen " or since they were expecting a girl , occasionally " Paula " .
His two younger brothers also became fighter pilots and aces . Paul claimed 17 victories , he was shot down and killed on 31 October 1942 . Wilhelm @-@ Ferdinand , credited with 54 victories , was shot down and killed on 17 August 1943 .
= = = Youth = = =
In 1927 , Galland 's lifelong interest in flying started when a group of aviation enthusiasts brought a glider club to Borkenberge , a heath east of the Haltern @-@ Münster railway and part of the Westerholt estate . It was here that the Gelsenkirchen Luftsportverein ( Air Sports Club of Gelsenkirchen ) created an interest in flying among young Germans . Galland travelled by foot or horse @-@ drawn wagon 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) until his father bought him a motorcycle to help prepare the gliders for flight . Under the Treaty of Versailles , Germany was denied an air force . They were however allowed gliders and it became the way for fledgling pilots to begin their flying career . The sport became so popular that the Reichswehr set up ten schools , at least one in each of the seven military districts of Germany . The military also published a magazine , Flugsport ( Flight Sport ) , to encourage an interest in aviation and began a series of glider competitions around the country . Galland had learned the basic laws of flight and how everything worked on paper but he found they did not always work in reality and his inexperience caused a few accidents . One of his tutors , Georg Ismer , taught him various techniques and in 1929 the 17 @-@ year @-@ old Galland passed his A certificate . This was one of three certificates he needed for his professional license . When he eventually attained his B and C certificates , his father promised to buy him his own glider if he also passed his matriculations examinations , which he succeeded in doing . Galland became an outstanding glider pilot ; he became an instructor before he had passed his Abitur .
In February 1932 , Galland graduated from Hindenburg Gymnasium ( high school ) in Buer and was among 20 personnel who were accepted to the aviation school of Germany 's national airline , Luft Hansa .
= = Early military career = =
= = = Pilot training = = =
During the final years of the Weimar Republic , jobs were scarce and life was hard for the Galland family economically . Adolf had some experience of flying gliders so he applied to the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule or DVS ( German Commercial Flying School ) which was heavily subsidised by Luft Hansa . He was one of 100 successful applicants out of 4 @,@ 000 . After ten days of evaluations , he was among just 18 selected for flight training . Adolf was then assessed on performance . Those that did not reach the standard were sent home . Galland 's first flight was in an Albatros L 101 . His early career went badly . On one flight , he made a heavy landing and damaged the undercarriage of his aircraft . Later , while leading three aircraft in formation , two of them collided . No one was killed , but Galland was judged to have employed poor formation tactics . These incidents affected him so badly he was convinced he would soon be sent home , and he applied to join the German Army . In the meantime , he carried on with his flight training . Galland did not receive a reply from the Army and settled down to continue his training . Flights in an Albatros L 75 and the award of a B1 certificate allowing him to fly large aircraft over 2 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 5 @,@ 500 lb ) in weight helped him regain his confidence . Around the same time , the Army accepted his application , but owing to his successful training and improved flying , the flying school refused to release him . By Christmas 1932 , he had logged 150 hours flying and had obtained a B2 certificate .
Early in 1933 , Galland was sent to the Baltic Sea training base at Warnemuende to train on flying boats . Galland disliked learning what he perceived to be " seamanship " , but logged 25 hours in these aircraft . Soon afterward , along with several other pilots , he was ordered to attend an interview at the Zentrale der Verkehrsflieger Schule ( ZVS — Central Airline Pilot School ) . Here the group were interviewed by military personnel in civilian clothing . After being informed of a secret military training program being built that involved piloting high performance aircraft , all the pilots accepted an invitation to join the organisation .
= = = Into the Luftwaffe = = =
In May 1933 , Galland was ordered to a meeting in Berlin as one of 12 civilian pilots among 70 airmen who came from clandestine programmes , meeting Hermann Göring for the first time . Galland was impressed by and believed Göring to be a competent leader . In July 1933 , Galland travelled to Italy to train with the Regia Aeronautica ( Italian Air Force ) . Initially the Germans were treated as inferior by the Italians , but after Galland had flown some daring and impressive low @-@ level manoeuvres , the German contingent won their hosts ' respect .
In September 1933 , Galland returned to Germany and flew in some minor competitions as a glider pilot , winning some prizes . Soon afterwards he returned to the ZVS to learn instrument flying and receive training in piloting heavy transport aircraft logging another 50 hours . As a part of his training , beginning in October 1933 , Galland flew Lufthansa airliners . Flying the Junkers G24 from Stuttgart to Barcelona in Spain , via Geneva and Marseilles . In December 1933 , Galland was recalled to the ZVS headquarters and offered the chance to join the new Luftwaffe . Galland found the choice hard as he wanted the adventure of a military flying career , but as an airline pilot , Galland had enjoyed the life style of flying and visiting exotic places and was reluctant to give it up . Nevertheless , he decided to officially join the Luftwaffe .
After basic training in the Army , he was discharged from his barracks in Dresden in October 1934 . In February 1935 Galland was now part of 900 airmen waiting to be inducted to the new ReichsLuftwaffe . In March Galland was ordered to report to Jagdgeschwader 2 ( Fighter Wing 2 ) , arriving at its headquarters in Jüterbog @-@ Damm on 1 April 1935 . Galland 's performance had not yet been impressive enough for a position as an instructor , so he was evaluated and deemed good enough for an operational posting .
In October 1935 , during aerobatic manoeuvre training , he crashed a Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 44 biplane and was in a coma for three days , other injuries were a damaged eye , fractured skull and broken nose . When Galland recovered , he was declared unfit for flying by the doctors . A friend , Major Rheital , kept the doctors report secret to allow Adolf to continue flying . The expansion of the Luftwaffe and his own Geschwader ( wing ) flooded the administration officers and Galland 's medical report was overlooked . Within a year , Galland showed no signs of injury from his crash . In October 1936 he crashed an Arado Ar 68 and was hospitalised again , aggravating his injured eye . It was at this point his previous medical report came to light again and Galland 's unfit certificate was discovered . Major Rheital was rumoured to have undergone a court @-@ martial , but the investigators dropped the charges . Galland , however , was grounded . He admitted having fragments of glass in his eye , but convinced the doctors he was fit for flying duty . Galland was ordered to undergo eye tests to validate his claims . Before the testing could begin , one of his brothers managed to acquire the charts . Adolf memorised the charts passing the test and was permitted to fly again .
= = = Condor Legion = = =
During the Spanish Civil War , Galland was appointed Staffelkapitän of a Condor Legion unit , 3 . Staffel Jagdgruppe 88 ( J / 88 — 88th Fighter Group ) , which was sent to support the Nationalist side under Franco at Ferrol from mid @-@ 1937 . Galland flew ground attack missions in Heinkel He 51s . In Spain , Galland first displayed his unique style : flying in swimming trunks with a cigar between his teeth in an aircraft decorated with a Mickey Mouse figure . When asked why he developed this style , he gave a simple answer :
I like Mickey Mouse . I always have . And I like cigars , but I had to give them up after the war .
Galland flew his first of 300 combat mission in Spain with the J / 88 commander Gotthard Handrick , on 24 July 1937 , near Brunete . During his time in Spain , Galland analysed the engagements , evaluated techniques and devised new ground @-@ attack tactics which were passed on to the Luftwaffe . His experiences in pin @-@ point ground assaults were used by Ernst Udet , a proponent of the dive bomber and leading supporter of the Junkers Ju 87 to push for Stuka wings . Wolfram von Richthofen , an opponent of Udet 's , used them to push for the opposite : Schlachtflieger dual combination fighter @-@ bombers . After trials with Henschel Hs 123s , Bf 109s and Ju 87s , the Junkers was selected to undergo trials for the dive bomber role .
During his time in Spain , he developed early gasoline and oil bombs , suggested the quartering of personnel on trains to aid in relocation , and following the Nationalist victory was awarded the ‘ Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds ’ for his contributions . On 24 May 1938 Galland left Spain and was replaced by Werner Mölders . Before leaving he made ten flights in the Bf 109 ; deeply impressed with the performance of the aircraft , it persuaded him to change from a strike pilot to a fighter pilot . Galland 's fellow student and friend at the Kriegsschule in Dresden , Johannes Janke , later said of him " a very good pilot and excellent shot , but ambitious and he wanted to get noticed . A parvenu . He was crazy about hunting anything , from a sparrow to a man . "
= = = Staff post in the RLM = = =
From May to August 1938 , Galland took leave and visited Spanish Morocco . On his return to Germany , he was ordered to the headquarters of the Reichsluftfahrtministerium ( RLM — Ministry of Aviation ) where he was tasked with preparing recommendations on the subject of close air support . Galland favoured the virtually simultaneous attack of the air force before the Army advance , leaving their opponents no time to recover . While this reasserted the lessons of World War I , some of the Officer Corps were still pessimistic as to whether that kind of coordination was possible . Galland also adopted the Italian suggestion of heavy armament and criticised the light machine guns in early German fighter aircraft and pointed to the advantages of multi @-@ gun configurations ( combining machine guns with cannon ) . These proved successful in the Bf 109 and Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 . He also recognised the innovation of drop tanks to extend the range of aircraft as well as the need for specialised tactics for escorting bomber fleets ; Galland did not subscribe to the prevailing idea in the Luftwaffe ( and RAF ) that the bomber " would always get through " ( alone ) . All of Galland 's suggestions were adopted and proved successful in the early campaigns , 1939 – 41 . During his time in the RLM , he instructed , trained and equipped ground @-@ support wings for Fall Grün ( Case Green ) , the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1938 . However , the invasion did not take place .
Unluckily for Galland , his excellence at evaluation earned him a place at Tutow training facility where he was asked to test fly prototype reconnaissance and strike aircraft . This was not what he wanted , and he hoped to be returned to a fighter unit to fly the Bf 109 . During his time there , he gave positive evaluations on types such as the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 189 and Henschel Hs 129 . During his test piloting career at Tutow , Galland received unwelcome news ; he was to become Gruppenkommandeur of II . ( Schlacht ) / Lehrgeschwader 2 ( II . ( S ) / LG 2 — 2nd battle group of the 2nd Demonstration Wing ) . It was not a fighter unit , but a special mixed Geschwader of ground attack aircraft .
= = Combat career ( 1939 – 41 ) = =
= = = Polish Campaign = = =
Just before the outbreak of war , Galland was promoted to Hauptmann . During the Invasion of Poland from 1 September 1939 onward , he flew with 4 Staffel , II . / Lehrgeschwader 2 . Equipped with the Henschel Hs 123 , nicknamed the " biplane Stuka , " supporting the German Tenth Army . On 1 September , Galland flew alone in a Fiesler Fi 156 ' Storch ' on a reconnaissance mission and was nearly shot down . The next day he flew ground attack missions in support of the 1st Panzer Division advancing to the Warta River . Galland 's Geschwader flew intensive sorties in support of the division and XVI Army Corps at Kraków , Radom , Dęblin and L 'vov . The German Army had reached the Vistula river near Warsaw by 7 September. and the Luftwaffe had been executing the kind of close air support operations Galland had been advocating . Galland participated in the maximum effort by the Luftwaffe during the Battle of Bzura . On 11 September , during one of his visits to the front , Adolf Hitler arrived at LG 2 headquarters for lunch with the staff . Such was the state of the Polish Air Force and Polish Army , that by 19 September 1939 some German air units were withdrawn from the campaign . Galland ceased combat operations on this date , having flown 87 missions . After flying nearly 360 missions in two wars and averaging two missions per day , on 13 September 1939 , Galland was awarded the Iron Cross Second Class .
After the Polish Campaign , Galland claimed to be suffering from rheumatism and therefore unfit for flying in open @-@ cockpit aircraft , such as the Hs 123 . He tactfully suggested a transfer to a single @-@ engine aircraft type with a closed cockpit would improve his condition . His request was accepted on medical grounds . Galland was removed from his post as a direct ground support pilot . Galland never explained whether open cockpits had caused the complaint or some other cause ; given his performance with eye specialists , a certain amount of suspicion is reasonable . He was transferred to Jagdgeschwader 27 ( JG 27 — Fighter Wing 27 ) on 10 February 1940 as the adjutant , restricting him from flying .
= = = Western Europe = = =
After his transfer to JG 27 , Galland met Mölders again . Due to his injuries , Galland could never match Molders ' sharp eyesight ; the shards of glass in his eyes denied him that capacity . However , Mölders , by that time a recognised ace ( a pilot with five or more aerial victories ) , shared what experiences he could with Galland ; leadership in the air , tactics and organisation . Mölders was Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 53 at the time of their meeting . In order for Galland to gain experience on the Bf 109E , which Galland lacked , he offered Galland the chance to join his unit which was flying patrols along the French border . During these sorties , Galland learned Mölders ' tactics , such as using spotter aircraft to indicate the position of enemy formation , as an early warning system . Galland learned to allow the Staffel to operate freely in order to seize the initiative and surprise . Taking his findings back to JG 27 , its commander Max Ibel , agreed to their implementation . Galland gained further experience as a combat leader acting as the Gruppenkommandeur , when the ' Gruppenkommandeur went on leave .
On 10 May 1940 , the Wehrmacht invaded the Low Countries and France under the codename Fall Gelb . JG 27 supported German forces in the Battle for Belgium . On the third day of the offensive , 12 May 1940 , 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) west of Liege , Belgium , at a height of about 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) , flying a Messerschmitt Bf 109 , Galland , with Gustav Rödel as his wingman , claimed his first aerial victories , over two Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Hawker Hurricanes . Both aircraft were from No. 87 Squadron . The Hurricanes had been escorting Bristol Blenheim bombers to bomb bridges in the Netherlands . Galland remembered ; " My first kill was child 's play . An excellent weapon and luck had been on my side . To be successful , the best fighter pilot needs both " — Galland pursued one of the " scattering " Hurricanes and shot down another at low level . The pilot , a Canadian , Flying Officer Jack Campbell was killed .
Galland claimed his third Hurricane later that same day over Tienen . He had long believed that his opponents had been Belgian , not knowing that all of the Belgian Air Force 's Hurricanes had been destroyed on the ground in the first two days , without seeing combat . On 19 May , Galland shot down a French Potez aircraft . During this flight he ran out of fuel short of the runway and landed nearby , at the base of a hill . With the help of soldiers from a German Flak battery , he pushed the Bf 109 up the hill and then half @-@ flew , half @-@ glided down to the Charleville @-@ Mézières airfield in the valley below . He sent back a can of fuel for his wingman , who had also landed short of the runway . He continued flying and the next day , claimed another three more aircraft , making a total of seven . For this he was awarded the Iron Cross First Class from Erhard Milch on 22 May .
With the effective defeat of Belgium JG 27 was moved into forward airfields to support the invasion of France . During the Battle of Dunkirk , after encountering the Supermarine Spitfire for the first time , Galland was impressed with these aircraft and their pilots . On 29 May , Galland claimed he had shot down a Bristol Blenheim over the sea . On 3 June during Operation Paula , he claimed another French aircraft , a Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 for his 12th victory .
On 6 June 1940 , Galland took over the command of III . / Jagdgeschwader 26 " Schlageter " ( III . / JG 26 — 3rd group of the 26th Fighter Wing ) with the position of Gruppenkommandeur . Under his command were the 7 , 8 and 9 Staffels with an establishment of 39 Bf 109Es . His Staffelkapitäns included Joachim Müncheberg and Wilhelm Balthasar . Balthasar , Staffelkapitän of 7 Staffel had mistakenly attacked Galland during Fall Rot ( Case Red ) . Being on the same radio frequency , Galland was able to warn Balthasar before he opened fire . The remainder of the campaign passed without incident and on 26 June , Major Gotthard Handrick took over command of JG 26 . Galland was pleased , having served under him during his Condor Legion days .
= = = Battle of Britain = = =
From June 1940 on , Galland flew as the Gruppenkommandeur of III . / JG 26 ( JG 26 ) , fighting in the Battle of Britain with Messerschmitt Bf 109Es . On 19 July 1940 , he was promoted to Major and JG 26 moved to the Pas de Calais , where they were to remain for the next 18 months with III . / JG 26 based at Caffiers .
On 24 July 1940 , almost 40 Bf 109s of III . / JG 26 took off for operations over the English Channel — a phase of the battle known as the Kanalkampf . They were met by 12 54 Squadron Spitfires . The Spitfires forced the larger number of Bf 109s into a turning battle that ran down the Germans ' fuel . Galland recalled being impressed by the Spitfire 's ability to outmanoeuvre Bf 109s at low speed and to turn into the Bf 109s within little airspace . Only by executing a " Split S " ( a half @-@ roll onto his back , followed by pulling into a long , curving dive ) that the Spitfire could not follow without exceeding its maximum safe speed and risking structural failure , could his aircraft escape back to France at low altitude . The II . / Jagdgeschwader 52 covered their retreat , losing two Bf 109s to Spitfires from No. 610 Squadron . During the action , two Spitfires were shot down for the loss of four Bf 109s . Galland was shocked by the aggression shown by pilots he believed to be relatively inexperienced . Galland later said he realised there would be no quick and easy victory .
As the battles over the Channel continued , Galland shot down Spitfires on 25 and 28 July . On 1 August 1940 , Galland was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) for his 17 victories . Galland continued to make fighter sweeps over southern England before the main assault opened . On 11 August , Galland 's unit engaged 74 Squadron . In a brief dogfight , one Spitfire was shot down . During these battles the RAF seemed to know just where and when to send their aircraft . This made Galland suspect a high level of organisation was at work controlling RAF fighters . The cloudy skies of Britain were a dangerous environment to confront an enemy that had an effective ground control system . Galland resolved to fly higher , where he could see most things and where the Bf 109 performed at its best .
By 15 August , in two weeks ' fighting over Britain , Galland had increased his own score to 22 . On this day he claimed three Spitfires . This put him to within three victories of Mölders , who had claimed the highest number of enemy aircraft destroyed and who was wounded and grounded with a damaged knee . One of Galland 's claims was against 54 Squadron RAF that had surprised him with their aggressive attacks three weeks before . JG 26 claimed nine Spitfires in the air battle — Galland himself filing a claim for a Spitfire at 12 : 55 off Folkestone . Only two 54 Squadron Spitfires were lost in the late @-@ morning early afternoon battle . Galland 's claim matches the loss of a Spitfire piloted by Sergeant N. A Lawrence who was rescued with severe shock . In the afternoon of that same day , Galland claimed two more Spitfires from 64 Squadron . JG 26 claimed eight of the unit 's Spitfires which were all officially " confirmed " by the Germans . However , only two of the RAF fighters were hit and both were destroyed . Pilot Officer C. J. D Andreae was killed in R6990 and R. Roberts bailed out of K9964 .
Galland was summoned to Karinhall on 18 August 1940 , and missed the intense air battle that day , known as The Hardest Day . During the meeting , Göring insisted that , in combat , Bf 109 fighters escort Bf 110s , which could not survive against single @-@ engine fighters . As high @-@ scoring aces , both Galland and Mölders shared their concerns that close escort of Bf 110s and bombers robbed fighter pilots of their freedom to roam and engage the enemy on their own terms . They also pointed to the fact that German bombers flew at medium altitudes and low speed , the best height area and speed for the manoeuvrability of the Spitfire . Galland resented his pilots having to carry out a task unsuited to their equipment but Göring would not move from his position .
Galland returned to action on 22 August replacing Gotthard Handrick as Geschwaderkommodore of JG 26 . Galland 's appointment made no impact on his successes . From 25 August — 14 September 1940 , Galland filed claims for victories 23 – 32 . This included three claims on 31 August 1940 for two Spitfires and a Hurricane to take his tally to 27 . His 25th victim may have been from 19 Squadron which was claimed 20 kilometers south of Cambridge at 09 : 42 . Klaus Mietusch also accounted for one for his 7th victory . Three 19 Squadron Spitfires were shot down in the morning near North Weald . Pilot Officer R.A.C Aeberhardt was killed in a crash @-@ landing in Spitfire R6912 while Flying Officer T.J.B Coward was wounded in the foot and F.N Brinsden was unhurt . He bailed out of R6958 . On 6 September , Galland claimed his 30th victory over a 610 Squadron Hurricane . JG 26 claimed two more of them shot down that morning . 610 lost four Hurricanes ; Flying Officer W.H Rhodes @-@ Moorehouse and C.R Davis were killed while Flying Officer J. Toplnicki and Pilot Officer H.T Gilbert were wounded .
During the battle , the fighter pilots were criticised by Göring for the growing bomber losses . In a front line General Officer briefing on Luftwaffe tactics , Göring asked what his fighter pilots needed to win the battle . Werner Mölders replied that he would like the Bf 109 to be fitted with more powerful engines . Galland replied : " I should like an outfit of Spitfires for my squadron . " which left Göring speechless with rage . Galland still preferred the Bf 109 for offensive sweeps , but he regarded the Spitfire as a better defensive fighter , owing to its manoeuvrability . Galland said :
The Bf 109 was superior in the attack and not so suitable for purely defensive purposes as the Spitfire , which , although a little slower , was much more manoeuvrable .
During the Battle of Britain , the question of killing enemy pilots while in their parachutes was raised . In another conversation with Göring , Galland recalled :
Göring wanted to know if we had ever thought about this . " Jawohl , Herr Reichsmarschall ! " He looked me straight in the eyes and said , " What would you think of an order to shoot down pilots who were bailing out ? " I should regard it as murder , Herr Reichsmarschall " , I told him , " I should do everything in my power to disobey such an order " . " That is just the reply I had expected from you , Galland " .
Galland later stated that he thought Göring may have been asking him this question so as to have an answer if the question was ever posed to him , as opposed to the implication that Göring would be in favour of such an action .
Galland passed another serious test on 15 September , the date known as Battle of Britain Day . In large scale @-@ clashes Galland claimed his 33rd air victory over a Hurricane while leading JG 26 . On 23 September , Galland became the third member of the Wehrmacht to receive the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) for achieving his 39th and 40th aerial victories . On 25 September , he was summoned to Berlin to receive the award from Adolf Hitler . The Battle of Britain continued with large @-@ scale dogfights well past 31 October 1940 , considered by some historians as the end of the campaign . A further eight victories — six Spitfires and two Hurricanes — were claimed in October 1940 including three on 30 October which took his tally to 50 — the last two victims were claimed at 16 : 00 CET and were likely from 41 Squadron . Pilot Officer G. G. F. Draper was wounded and Sergeant L. A Garvey was killed . In November , a further six victories including four Hurricanes were accounted for to record victories 51 – 56 putting him level with the late Helmut Wick who had been shot down and killed on 28 November . On 5 December 1940 , Galland recorded his 57th victory . This made him the most successful fighter pilot of the war at that point , putting him ahead of his colleague , friend and rival Werner Mölders .
= = = Channel Front = = =
Now , promoted to Oberstleutnant , he continued to lead JG 26 in 1941 against the RAF fighter sweeps across northern Europe . In early 1941 , most of the Luftwaffe 's fighter units were sent to the Eastern Front , or south to the Mediterranean Theater of Operations ( MTO ) , only leaving JG 26 and Jagdgeschwader 2 ( JG 2 ) as the sole single @-@ engine fighter Geschwader in France . By this time , JG 26 were being re @-@ equipped with the new Bf 109F , normally equipped with a 15 mm ( or later a 20 mm ) cannon firing through the propeller hub and two cowl @-@ mounted 7 @.@ 9 mm MG 17 . Galland felt the model was grossly under @-@ armed and so tested a series of 109 " specials " – one with a unique armament of an MG 151 / 20 cannon and two cowl @-@ mounted 13 mm MG 131 machine guns , and another with integral wing @-@ mounted 20 mm MG FF cannons .
On 15 April 1941 , Galland took off with lobster and champagne to celebrate General Theo Osterkamp 's birthday at Le Touquet , France . He made a detour with his wingman towards England , looking for RAF aircraft . Off the cliffs of Dover , he spotted a group of Spitfires . Galland attacked and claimed two confirmed and one unconfirmed shot down . The actual result was the destruction of one Spitfire ; the other two were damaged in force landings with both pilots wounded . During the combat , Galland 's undercarriage had dropped causing one of the RAF pilots ( Flight Lieutenant Paddy Finucane ) to claim Galland 's aircraft as destroyed , but Galland landed without incident at Le Touquet and presented Osterkamp with his gifts . Galland 's success that day represented his 60th and 61st aerial victory .
Galland received a telephone from Göring on 10 May 1941 , requesting Galland to intercept a Messerschmitt Bf 110 flown by Rudolf Hess heading for Scotland . Galland was unable to launch a full fighter sweep . However , Hess ' flight was far to the north and he reached Scotland crashing his aircraft . Galland sent out fighters to conduct some sweeps so he could honestly claim to have carried out his orders but it was nearly dark and Galland ordered his pilots unused to night flying to stand down .
Galland continued his successes in the summer . On 13 June , he led a small number of Bf 109s on a patrol off the English coast and attacked a pair of No. 258 Squadron RAF Hurricanes claiming both shot down . One can be confirmed through British records as crash landing at RAF Hawkinge . It took his tally to 63 . From this point on , the RAF would mount a non @-@ stop offensive with Fighter Command over France . The Germans did not see the point in these operations and soon labeled it the " nonsense offensive . " Galland intended to engage the British and inflict maximum damage while incurring small losses . To do this he only engaged JG 26 in staffel or gruppe strength . The fighters were to scramble quickly gain height and make use of the sun and cloud to attack the enemy formation that was most vulnerable . Under these tactics many JG 26 pilots began to emerge as aces and effective commanders . On 16 June 1941 , for example , JG 26 accounted for 15 enemy aircraft . Josef Priller was among those to score bringing his tally to 22 . Priller would later rise to command JG 26 . Galland claimed a Hurricane this day for victory number 64 — though the loss cannot be confirmed in British records . On 17 June , he accounted for two Hurricanes , one from 56 and another from 242 Squadron . The following day he accounted for a No. 145 Squadron Spitfire which inflated his tally to 67 — then the highest recorded tally against the Western Allies .
On the morning of 21 June , he accounted for two Bristol Blenheims but was shot down by the Spitfire escorts , crash @-@ landing near Calais . At 16 : 00 that same afternoon , Galland shot down a No. 611 Squadron Spitfire , but watching his victim for too long , he was himself shot down in Werknummer ( Factory number ) 6713 , code " < - + - " , by a 145 Squadron Spitfire flown by Sergeant R.J.C. Grant . Galland bailed out and tugged at what he thought was his parachute ripcord , but was actually pulling at his parachute release harness . With a " sickening " feeling , he composed himself and pulled the ripcord which opened . Theo Osterkamp drove over to the hospital where Galland was being treated for his wounds and informed him his 69 victories had now earned him the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) .
On 2 July 1941 , Galland led JG 26 into combat against a formation of No. 226 Squadron Blenheim bombers . Galland 's fighter was hit by a 20 mm round from one of the bombers escort fighters . The armour plate fitted to the Bf 109 just days earlier saved Galland 's life . Wounded in the head he managed to land and was again hospitalised for the second time in a few days . Just earlier that week , when the armour plate was installed , he severely berated his mechanic , Gerhard Meyer , who welded it in , when he hit his head on the canopy upon entering his aircraft . That same mechanic received " a grateful slap on the back " . Galland had been shot up and shot down twice in the space of four days . The Blenheim brought his tally to 70 .
On 9 August 1941 , RAF ace Douglas Bader bailed out over St Omer , France . Bader was well known to the Luftwaffe and at the time of his capture had been credited with 22 aerial victories . Galland himself claimed two Spitfires on that date . Galland and JG 26 entertained Bader over the next few days . Owing to the significant stature of the prisoner , Galland permitted Bader , under escort , to sit in the cockpit of a Bf 109 . Apparently , despite losing one of his tin legs in the aircraft , Bader , in a semi @-@ serious way , asked if they wouldn 't mind if he took it on a test flight around the airfield . Galland replied that he feared Douglas would attempt to escape and they would have to give chase and shoot at each other again , and declined the request .
Throughout the summer , Galland claimed another 14 Spitfires in battles against Fighter Command over France . On 23 July 1941 , he accounted for three Spitfires ( Nos. 71 – 73 ) — one in the afternoon and two in the evening . JG 26 claimed 13 enemies for three losses under Galland 's command this day . Two on 7 August was sufficient to reach 75 aerial victories . On 19 August , he claimed two Spitfire and one Hurricane to surpass the World War I ace Manfred von Richthofen 's tally of 80 . His 80th and 81st victims were from 111 and 71 Squadrons . Galland also flew the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 in the autumn 1941 when the Geschwader converted to the type though he retained and flew Bf 109s himself . On 21 October he repeated his successes with a trio of Spitfires to reach 92 . His 96th victim — yet another Spitfire — was claimed on 18 November 1941 . It proved to be his last official victory for three years as he was about to be forbidden to fly combat missions . The RAF fighter probably came from 611 Squadron .
= = High command ( 1941 – 45 ) = =
= = = Overview = = =
In November 1941 , he was chosen by Göring to command Germany 's fighter force as General der Jagdflieger , succeeding Werner Mölders who had just been killed in an air crash en route to attend the funeral of Ernst Udet . Galland was not enthusiastic about his promotion , seeing himself as a combat leader and not wanting to be " tied to a desk job " .
Soon afterward , on 28 January 1942 , Galland was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub , Schwertern und Brillanten ) for his service as Geschwaderkommodore of JG 26 . Although not keen on a staff position , soon after Galland 's appointment , he planned and executed the German air superiority plan ( Operation Donnerkeil ) for the Kriegsmarine 's ( German navy , or War Marine ) Operation Cerberus , from his headquarters at Jever . The German battleships Scharnhorst , Gneisenau and heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen sailed from Brest , France , up the English Channel to Kiel , Germany . The operation caught the British off guard . The RAF attempted to intercept with the forces available , but the German fighter defences were able to shoot down 43 RAF aircraft with 247 British casualties . The Luftwaffe had prevented any damage on the ships by air attack .
A strong proponent of the day fighter force and the defence of Germany , Galland used his position to improve the position of the Jagdwaffe . The need was now pressing , as Germany had declared war on the United States on 11 December 1941 , and Galland was keen to build up a force that could withstand the resurgence of the Western Allied Air Forces in preparation for what would become known as the Defence of the Reich campaign . Galland was outspoken , something that was not often tolerated by Göring . Yet , by earning and cultivating the support of other powerful personalities in the Luftwaffe , like Erhard Milch and Günther Korten , and personalities in the industrial sector such as Albert Speer and even Adolf Hitler , Galland was able to survive in his position for three years .
= = = Unofficial combat missions = = =
After his appointment , Galland was strictly confined to operational matters and not allowed to fly tactical or combat missions . As the war continued Galland flew missions in violation of these restrictions against the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) bombing raids during the Defence of the Reich . Galland was keen to familiarise himself with all types of German fighter aircraft and flew the Fw 190 on these interception missions . He would actively engage American bombers on some raids . On at least one mission , he shot down a USAAF heavy bomber .
= = = Conflict with leadership = = =
Galland 's position as General der Jagdflieger brought him into gradual conflict with Göring as the war continued . In 1942 – 44 , the German fighter forces on all fronts in the European Theatre of Operations ( ETO ) came under increasing pressure and Galland 's relationship with Göring began to turn sour . The first distinct cracks began to appear in the spring , 1943 . Galland suggested that the fighter forces defending Germany should limit the number interceptions flown to allow sufficient time for re @-@ grouping and to conserve air strength . Only by conserving its strength and its precious resources — the fighter pilots — could the Luftwaffe hope to inflict damage on the bombers . Göring refused . He demanded every raid be countered in maximum strength regardless of the size of the Allied fighter escort . According to head of production and procurement Erhard Milch , who was also present at the meeting , " Göring just could not grasp it . "
During the late summer , 1943 , the USAAF fighters operated over German air space for the first time . Several aircraft crashed near Aachen on the cusp of Germany 's west border . Galland presented these wrecks as proof that the Luftwaffe was facing an enemy that could soon escort its heavy bombers with fighter aircraft to industrial targets inside Germany . Galland submitted his findings to Göring . Göring was livid with Galland and the fighter force . The Reichsmarschall called the report the " rantings of a worn @-@ out defeatist " , and gave Galland an " order " , that no Allied fighters had crossed into Germany . Göring declared the only possible reason could have been that short range fighters ran out of fuel at high altitude and " they were shot down much further west ... and glided quite a distance before they crashed . Galland and Milch denied this . Galland questioned why an Allied pilot would choose to glide east instead of west . Both men and argued that they must increase fighter production to reach a three or fourfold advantage over the attackers immediately to prepare for this new threat . Galland 's efforts to produce a fighter force fit for a war of attrition conflicted with Göring 's bias in favour of bombers , to maintain the offensive on all fronts . It was a policy the Reichsmarschall persisted with until the autumn , 1943 .
By October 1943 , the fractious relationship came to the surface again . Galland met with Göring at Göring 's estate , Schloss Veldenstein . During the conversation the need for new and improved interceptor aircraft arose . The demands made by Göring , that heavily cannon @-@ armed fighters be used in mass numbers to defeat bomber formations , were unreasonable to Galland . Göring , prompted by the desires of Hitler , wanted cannons of some 2 @,@ 000 lb in weight which fired at a rate of one shell per second . Galland explained that such a weapon could not be used effectively in an aircraft ; the cannon would be prone to jamming and the aircraft would be too difficult to manoeuvre . Galland also asserted the use of inappropriate weaponry such as the Messerschmitt Me 410 , a favourite of Hitler 's , had caused heavy losses . Galland argued such measures were deplorable and irresponsible . Göring ignored Galland 's arguments and continued his frequent attacks on the fighter force , accusing them of cowardice . Galland , as he always did , defended them , risking his career , and near the end of the war , his life in doing so . Galland stated that he could not agree to follow Göring 's plans and requested to be dismissed from his post and sent back to his unit . Göring accepted , but two weeks later he apologised to Galland and attributed his behaviour to stress . Galland continued in his post .
The arguments , mainly over aircraft procurement and armament for the defence of Germany from Allied bombing began to give rise to a growing personal rift between Göring and Galland .
= = = Innovations = = =
To retrieve the situation for the fighter force , Galland looked to employ new technology in the air war . On 23 May 1943 , Galland flew an early prototype of the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter . After the flight , he described his experience :
For the first time I was flying by Jet propulsion ! No engine vibrations . No torque and no lashing sound of the engine propeller . Accompanied by a whistling sound , my jet shot through the air . Later when asked what it felt like , I said , " It was as though angels were pushing . "
Galland became an enthusiastic supporter of the aircraft , realising its potential as a fighter rather than a bomber . Galland hoped that the Me 262 would compensate for the numerical superiority of the Allies :
In the last four months [ January – April 1944 ] our day fighters have lost 1 @,@ 000 pilots ... we are numerically inferior and will always remain so ... I believe that a great deal can be achieved with a small number of technically and far superior aircraft such as the [ Me ] 262 and [ Me ] 163 ... I would at this moment rather have one Me 262 in action rather than five Bf 109s . I used to say three 109s , but the situation develops and changes .
Galland succeeded in temporarily persuading Milch to support cancelling the Me 209 program in favour of producing 100 Me 262s by the end of 1943 . However , because of persistent problems with its turbojet engines and later , Hitler 's determination to use it as a bomber , the Me 262 was not developed as a fighter until late in the war .
By spring 1944 , the Me 262 was sufficiently ready for operational service . By this time , Galland faced rivalries amongst the Luftwaffe command over how best to employ the aircraft . Dietrich Peltz , commander of the IX . Fliegerkorps ( 9th Air Corps ) , wanted to use the aircraft as a weapon against a future Allied landing in France . Peltz saw the aircraft as an ideal fast bomber which could evade the overwhelming numbers of Allied piston @-@ engine fighters and attack the landing grounds . Peltz also wished to use highly trained bomber pilots who he felt could better serve as home defence fighter pilots in place of the overextended and overworked Jagdwaffe . Their blind @-@ weather experience and training , and background in multi @-@ engine aircraft made them ideal for these operations in his view . In the first five months of 1944 , Peltz ' conventional bomber force had suffered a significant defeat over England in Operation Steinbock but it did not dull his appetite for offensive action or dent his reputation with Göring . Galland argued against his suggestion . Instead , Galland thought the bomber corps should be disbanded and its pilots converted onto fighters . Göring adopted Peltz ' idea to impress Hitler and regain his waning influence .
Galland did not give up . He made repeated appeals for Me 262 fighter aircraft . Göring refused Galland 's requests to have equal numbers of Me 262 fighter and bomber variants built . However , Galland 's close relationship with Albert Speer , the German armaments minister , enabled him to retain a small operational number . Even this was difficult , as Hitler had taken personal control of turbo @-@ jet production and checked where each batch of the aircraft were being deployed . It was not until September 1944 that Hitler rescinded his directive that the Me 262 be used as a fighter @-@ bomber . Galland ignored the order and formed Eprobungskommando 262 to test the Me 262 against high @-@ flying Allied reconnaissance aircraft . He selected the highly decorated pilot Werner Thierfelder as its commander . Hitler heard of the experiment through Milch and ordered Göring to put a stop to it at a meeting on 29 May 1944 . Galland persisted with the experiments and ordered operations to be continued . They achieved isolated successes until Thierfelder was shot down and killed by P @-@ 51 Mustangs on 18 July 1944 . On 20 August , Hitler finally agreed to allow one in every 20 Me 262 to go into service with the Jagdwaffe which allowed Galland to build all – jet units .
Owing to his keen interest in the type he followed , with interest , the exploits of Kommando Nowotny , the all jet fighter unit . Although it had low serviceability rates , its aircraft achieved considerable success . To see how new aircraft performed in action , Galland often visited the front line airfields close to the scene of the fighting . On 8 November 1944 , he was present when ace Walter Nowotny took off with a force of Me 262s in an overcast to engage a USAAF raid . Galland listened to it over the radio waves . Nowotny claimed a bomber but his Me 262 was damaged . He was then jumped by USAAF fighters and crashed close to the airfield . Galland heard the firing but did not see the event . It did not dissuade him from believing in the capabilities of the aircraft as a fighter .
In the meantime , Galland pursued innovations with existing designs . The Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 aircraft was formed into several Geschwader with distinctly upgraded firepower . Called the Sturmbock ( Battering ram ) , these machines could inflict heavy damage on unescorted bomber formations . Galland supported the conversion of units such as Jagdgeschwader 300 to the Sturmbock role . The Sturmbock were heavily armed and armoured , which meant they were un @-@ manoeuvrable and vulnerable without protection from escorting Bf 109s . Still , the tactics quickly became widespread and were one of the few Luftwaffe success stories in 1944 . Galland said after the war , that had it not been for the Allied landing in Normandy which increased the need for lighter fighter variants , each Geschwader in the Luftwaffe would have contained a Gruppe of Sturmbock aircraft by September 1944 .
Galland himself flew on unauthorised interception flights to experience the combat pressures of the pilots , and witnessed USAAF bombers being escorted by large numbers of P @-@ 51 Mustangs . Nevertheless , on occasions the Sturmbock tactics worked . For example , on 7 July 1944 Eighth Air Force bombers belonging to the 492nd Bomb Group were intercepted unescorted . The entire squadron of 12 B @-@ 24s were shot down . The USAAF 2nd Air Division lost 28 Liberators that day , the majority to a Sturmbock attack .
= = = Dismissal and revolt = = =
Despite Göring 's apology after their previous dispute , the relationship between the two men did not improve . Göring 's influence was in decline by late 1944 and he had fallen out of favour with Hitler . Göring became increasingly hostile to Galland , blaming him and the fighter pilots for the situation . In 1944 , the situation worsened . A series of USAAF raids termed Big Week won air superiority for the Allies in February . By the spring 1944 , the Luftwaffe could not effectively challenge the Allies over France or the Low Countries . Operation Overlord , the Allied invasion of German @-@ occupied Europe took place in June 1944 . According to a report made by Galland , in the previous four months 1 @,@ 000 pilots had been killed . Galland reported that the enemy outnumbered his fighters between 6 : 1 and 8 : 1 and the standard of Allied fighter pilot training was " astonishingly high " .
To win back some breathing space for his force and German industrial targets , Galland formulated a plan which he called the " Big Blow " ( German : Großer Schlag ) . It called for the mass interception of USAAF bomber formations by approximately 2 @,@ 000 German fighters . Galland hoped that the German fighters would shoot down some 400 – 500 bombers . Acceptable losses were to be around 400 fighters and 100 – 150 pilots . The night fighter force was to assist by employing 100 aircraft in southern and northern Germany , to prevent any crippled bombers making it to Switzerland and Sweden . Over the autumn 1944 Galland carefully husbanded is resources and waited for unusually bad weather to improve .
Hitler proved too impatient . He hoped to improve Germany 's position by winning a decisive victory on the Western Front . Hitler distrusted Galland 's theory and believed him to be afraid and stalling for time . The Führer was also sceptical that the Luftwaffe could stop the American air offensive and was not willing to have German resources sit idle on airfields to wait for an improvement in flying conditions . Admittedly Galland 's efforts had built up a useful reserve , but Hitler was now to use it in support of a land offensive . Göring and Hitler handed over the forces pooled by Galland to Peltz whom they had appointed commander of II . Jagdkorps — responsible for virtually all fighter forces in the west . Peltz appointed Gordon Gollob as Special Fighter Staff Officer for the offensive . Gollob ultimately was a vociferous opponent of Galland and eventually engineered his dismissal . Whether the " Big Blow " operation would have worked is a matter of academic debate . Historians remained divided , with some believing it was a lost opportunity while others think it would have had much less impact than Galland estimated .
The operation never took place . Instead , the fighter force was committed to the disastrous Operation Bodenplatte , designed to support German forces during the Battle of the Bulge . Galland 's influence on matters was now virtually nil . Appalled by the Ardennes losses , he personally confronted Gollob and criticised him severely . Gollob contacted the Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler . Himmler 's reputation as the most powerful man after Hitler at that time may have been a prime motive . Gollob complained about his misuse in the Luftwaffe and Galland 's leadership . The SS had already spread their influence into other areas of military affairs including the V @-@ 2 operations . Himmler , whose relationship with Göring was poor , took the opportunity to exploit the dissent in the Luftwaffe and undermine the Reichsmarschall by supporting Gollob . It was also an opportunity for the SS to seize control of the Luftwaffe and for Himmler to oust Göring from power . Göring , for his part offered no support to Galland when Himmler or the SS were mentioned . On 13 January 1945 , Galland was finally relieved of his command .
On 17 January , a group of senior pilots took part in a " Fighter Pilots Revolt " . Galland 's high standing with his fighter pilot peers led to a group of the most decorated Luftwaffe combat leaders loyal to Galland ( including Johannes Steinhoff and Günther Lützow ) confronting Göring with a list of demands for the survival of their service . Göring initially suspected Galland had instigated the unrest . Heinrich Himmler had wanted to put Galland on trial for treason himself ; the SS and Gestapo had already begun investigations into who he associated with . The Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( OKL ) appointed the more politically acceptable Gollob , a National Socialist supporter , to succeed him as General der Jagdflieger on 23 January . Although professional contemporaries , Gollob and Galland had a mutual dislike , and after Galland had removed the Austrian from his personal staff in September 1944 , Gollob started to gather evidence to use against Galland , detailing false accusations of his gambling , womanising , and alleged private use of Luftwaffe transport aircraft . The official reason for his being relieved of command was his ill health .
For his own safety , Galland went to a retreat in the Harz Mountains . He was to keep the RLM informed of his whereabouts , but was effectively under house arrest . Hitler , who liked Galland , had not heard of the events . However , when he learned of them he ordered that " all this nonsense " [ the treatment of Galland ] , was to stop immediately . Hitler had been informed by Albert Speer , who in turn had been informed of events by one of Galland 's close friends . In the end , Göring contacted Galland and invited him to Karinhall . In light of his service to the fighter arm , he promised no further action would be taken against him and offered command of a unit of Me 262 jets . Galland accepted on the understanding that Gollob had no jurisdiction over him or his unit .
= = = Self appraisal = = =
Galland did not pretend to have been error free . After the war , he was candid about his own mistakes as General der Jagdflieger . Production and aircraft procurement were not his responsibility but Galland identified four major mistakes by the OKL during the war , and accepted partial responsibility for the first three :
Fighter pilots received no instrument training until very late in the war , after the training course had already been curtailed because of fuel shortages and the need to produce pilots more quickly to replace losses . Galland also did not make sure all @-@ weather flying was incorporated into pilot training , which was of decisive importance in an effective air defence force .
Attrition by 1942 had created a shortage of experienced combat leaders . No special training was made available for this role . Galland set up a course in late 1943 , but it only lasted a few months . Galland was quoted as saying he thought they could learn the skills while on operations , as he had . This ignored his own talents , and blithely expected other pilots to reach his high standards .
The Me 262 , while not a war winner , might have extended the Defence of the Reich campaign . The problems with the engines , failures of production priorities and Hitler 's meddling are well known , but the long delay between operational testing , tactical and doctrinal development and training were largely Galland 's fault .
The German pilots were increasingly lacking in quantity and quality . Galland recognised this but could not correct it without stepping outside his own authority . Galland noticed that the highly educated engineers and trainees were selected for the bomber arm in the early war years . Most of the brightest youth were pulled by expert campaigners , toward the Waffen SS and Kriegsmarine . The Luftwaffe did not match this effort .
= = Return to front line service = =
= = = Last combat = = =
Galland was initially assigned to command a Staffel of Jagdgeschwader 54 , at that time stranded behind Soviet lines in the Courland Pocket . Galland never took up this command but was given the task of forming Jagdverband 44 ( JV 44 ) . On 24 February 1945 the order for formation of Jagdverband 44 read :
JV 44 is established at Brandenburg @-@ Briest with immediate effect . Ground personnel are to be drawn from 16 . / JG 54 , Factory Protection Unit 1 and III . / Erg JG 2 . The commander of this unit receives the disciplinary powers of a Divisional Commander as laid down in Luftwaffe Order 3 / 9 @.@ 17 . It is subordinated to Luftflotte Reich and comes under Luftgaukommando III ( Berlin ) . Verband Galland is to have a provisional strength of sixteen operational Me 262s and fifteen pilots . [ Signed ] Generalleutnant Karl Koller , Chief of Staff of the Luftwaffe .
Galland was allowed to hand pick a number of experienced fighter pilots and aces for the unit , including Johannes Steinhoff , Erich Hohagen , Heinrich Bär and Gerhard Barkhorn . Erich Hartmann was also asked but would not leave his unit . The unit was officially formed on 22 February 1945 . Galland did everything he could to introduce the Me 262s to the wing as quickly as possible . Göring showed sympathy for Galland 's efforts , which thus far had only 16 operational jets in February . General Josef Kammhuber was asked to assist Galland . Kampfgeschwader 51 ( KG 51 or Bomber Wing 51 ) , 6 and 27 were behind their training schedules on jets , and they were to hand over their pilots and Me 262s to Jagdgeschwader 7 and Kampfgeschwader 54 . Galland added a suggestion that all experienced fighter pilots flying with Bf 109 or Fw 190 units should be made to join the Me 262 unit . If this could be done Galland believed he could get 150 jets in action against the USAAF fleets . The general chaos and impending collapse prevented his plans from being realised .
On 31 March 1945 , Galland flew 12 operational jets to Munich to begin operations . On 5 April , he organised the interception of a USAAF raid . The Me 262s destroyed three B @-@ 17s . On 16 April Galland claimed two Martin B @-@ 26 Marauder bombers shot down . On 21 April , to his surprise , he was visited by Göring for the final time . Göring officially assigned Günther Lützow to him and confessed to Galland that his assertions about the Me 262 and the use of bomber pilots with experience as jet fighter pilots had been correct . He enquired about the progress of his unit with outspoken civility . As they parted , Göring said , " I envy you Galland , for going into action . I wish I were a few years younger and less bulky . If I were , I would gladly put myself under your command . It would be marvelous to have nothing to worry about but a good fight , like it was in the old days . "
In the space of six days , Galland 's friend , Steinhoff was badly burned in a crash on 18 April , and then , on 24 April , his friend Lützow was posted missing . On 21 April , Galland was credited with his 100th aerial victory . He was the 103rd and last Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark . On 26 April , Galland claimed his 103rd and 104th aerial victories against B @-@ 26s , escorted by the 27th Fighter Group and 50th Fighter Group . Galland again made a mistake ; he stopped to make sure his second victory was going to crash and he was hit by a USAAF P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt piloted by James Finnegan . Galland nursed his crippled Me 262 to the airfield , only to find it was under attack by more P @-@ 47s . Galland landed under fire and abandoned his jet on the runway . The battle was his last operational mission . Soon afterward , he was sent to hospital for a knee wound sustained during his last mission . The Americans lost four B @-@ 26s and another six damaged . In return two Me 262s were shot down : the other pilot surviving .
In the 1970s , a San Jose State University graduate student came across Galland 's memoirs The First and the Last while researching records of United States Army Air Forces records and matching them to German victory claims . He found that James Finnegan , a P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt pilot of the 50th Fighter Group , Ninth Air Force , had made a " probable " claim on 26 April 1945 , the day of Galland 's last mission . The details of the engagement matched . Galland and Finnegan met for the first time at an Air Force Association meeting in San Francisco in 1979 .
= = = Surrender = = =
By late April , the war was effectively over . On 1 May 1945 , Galland attempted to make contact with United States Army forces to negotiate the surrender of his unit . The act itself was dangerous . SS forces roamed the countryside and towns executing anyone who was considering capitulation . The Americans requested that Galland fly his unit and Me 262s to a USAAF controlled airfield . Galland declined citing poor weather and technical problems . In reality , Galland was not going to hand over Me 262 jets to the Americans . Galland had harboured the belief that the Western Alliance would soon be at war with the Soviet Union , and he wanted to join American forces and to use his unit in the coming war to free Germany from Communist occupation . Galland replied , making his whereabouts known to the Americans , and offering his surrender once they arrived at the Tegernsee hospital where he was being treated . Galland then ordered his unit , which had then moved to Salzburg and Innsbruck , to destroy their Me 262s . At the time of his surrender , Galland had filed claims for 104 Allied aircraft shot down . His claims included seven with the Me 262 .
On 14 May 1945 , Galland was flown to England and interrogated by RAF personnel about the Luftwaffe , its organisation , his role in it and technical questions . Galland returned to Germany on 24 August and was imprisoned at Hohenpeissenberg . On 7 October , Galland was returned to England for further interrogation . Galland was eventually released on 28 April 1947 .
= = Post @-@ war = =
= = = Argentina = = =
After his release , he travelled to Schleswig @-@ Holstein to join Baroness Gisela von Donner , an earlier acquaintance , on her estate and lived with her three children . During this time , Galland found work as a forestry worker . There he convalesced and came to terms with his career and alleged knowledge of Nazi war crimes . Galland began to hunt for the family and traded the kills in the local markets to supplement meagre meat rations . Soon Galland rediscovered his love of flying . Kurt Tank , the designer of the Fw 190 , requested that he go to his home in Minden to discuss a proposal . Tank had been asked to work for the British and Soviets , and had narrowly avoided being forcibly kidnapped by the latter . Tank , through a contact in Denmark , informed Galland about the possibility of the Argentine Government employing him as a test pilot for Tank ’ s new generation of fighters . Galland accepted and flew to Argentina . He settled with Gisela in El Palomar , Buenos Aires . Galland enjoyed the slow life . His time there , aside from work commitments , were taken up with Gisela and the active Buenos Aires night life . Galland found South America a world away from post @-@ war shortages of Germany . Soon , he took up gliding again .
In a professional capacity , Galland spoke fluent Spanish which eased his instruction on new pilots . During his time with the Argentine Air Force ( AAF ) he flew the British Gloster Meteor . Galland commented , mindful it was a contemporary to the Me 262 , that it was a fine aircraft . He claimed that if he could have fit the Meteor engines to the Me 262 airframe he would have had the best fighter in the world . Galland continued training , lecturing and consulting for the AAF until 1955 . During his later years in Argentina Galland returned to Europe to test fly new types . While there , he teamed up with Eduard Neumann , the former Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 27 and mentor of Hans @-@ Joachim Marseille " The Star of Africa " . Neumann had joined Galland 's staff in April 1943 . They flew a Piaggio P.149 in an international air rally across Italy . The weather was appalling and seven aircraft crashed taking two lives . Galland and Neumann came in second place .
= = = Return to Germany = = =
Galland 's time in Argentina was running out . For his services , he was awarded a pilot 's wings badge and the title Honorary Argentine Military Pilot . Later that year Galland left South America . By that time , he had begun writing his autobiography , The First and the Last ( Die Ersten und die Letzten ) , and it was published in 1954 by Franz Schneekluth . It was a best @-@ seller in 14 languages and sold three million copies . It was very well received by the RAF and USAF as a frank and honest statement . Galland returned to Germany and was approached by a commissioner for Chancellor Konrad Adenauer for the purpose of joining the new Bundeswehr now that West Germany was to join NATO as a military power . Galland joined with Steinhoff , and went over the proposal . However , France objected to West Germany 's proposal for a pan @-@ European defence pact and chose to go its own way . That changed the organisation structure of the German armed forces . Galland got on with his life as the months rolled by . In 1956 Josef Kammhuber , the leader of the German Nachtjagdgeschwader ( Night Fighter Wings ) during the war , became the new commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Bundesluftwaffe . Galland now accepted he had been turned down as a potential leader of , or in , the new air force . Galland suspected that it was more to do with his technically illegal departure from Germany in 1948 and his association with Argentina , a state which was on poor terms with the United States , the dominant partner of NATO .
In the summer of 1957 , Galland moved to Bonn and rented an office on Koblenzerstrasse , beginning his own aircraft consultancy there . Galland worked hard but continued flying , taking part in national air shows . In 1956 , he was appointed honorary chairman of the Gemeinschaft der Jagdflieger , the Association of Fighter Pilots . Through this , he came into contact with contemporaries in Britain and America . In 1961 , he joined the Gerling Group of Cologne who contracted Galland to help develop their aviation business . With business going well , Galland bought his own aircraft on 19 March 1962 , his 50th birthday . The aircraft was a Beechcraft Bonanza , registered D @-@ EHEX , which he named Die Dicke ( Fatty ) .
In 1969 , he served as technical adviser for the film Battle of Britain , in which the character Major Falke is based on Galland . Galland was upset about the director 's decision not to use the real names . While making the film , Galland was joined by his friend Robert Stanford Tuck . In 1973 , Galland appeared in the British television documentary series The World at War , in episodes four and twelve , " Alone ( May 1940 – May 1941 ) " and " Whirlwind : Bombing Germany ( September 1939 – April 1944 ) " .
Galland took part in many engagements throughout the 1960s and 1970s . In 1974 , he was part of the remaining German General Staff that took part in the Operation Sea Lion wargame at Sandhurst in the United Kingdom , replicating the planned German invasion of Britain in 1940 ( which the German side lost ) . In 1975 , he was a guest at the RAF Museum Hendon , during the unveiling of the Battle of Britain Hall , where he was entertained by Prince Charles . In 1980 , Galland 's eyesight became too poor for him to fly and he retired as a pilot . However , he continued to attend numerous aviation events , to include being a periodic guest of the U.S. Air Force for their annual " Gathering of Eagles " program at the Air Command and Staff College at Maxwell AFB , Alabama , USA . On 16 October , he was reunited with two Merkel shotguns stolen by American soldiers after his capture in 1945 . Galland had located them before and had tried to buy them back , only to be told no , as they would be worth more after his death . Towards the end of the 1980s , Galland 's health began to fail .
= = = Personal life = = =
Baroness Gisela von Donner had refused to marry Galland as the restrictions imposed upon her former husband 's will would deny her the wealth and freedom she had enjoyed . She left for Germany in 1954 . Galland married Sylvinia von Dönhoff on 12 February 1954 . However , she was unable to have children and they divorced on 10 September 1963 .
On 10 September 1963 , Galland married his secretary , Hannelies Ladwein . They had two children : a son , Andreas Hubertus ( nicknamed " Andus " ) born 7 November 1966 ; and a daughter , Alexandra @-@ Isabelle born 29 July 1969 . The RAF ace Robert Stanford Tuck was the godfather of his son Andreas . Galland remained friends with Tuck until the latter 's death on 5 May 1987 . Galland felt his loss greatly . Galland 's marriage to Hannelies did not last and on 10 February 1984 , he married his third wife , Heidi Horn , who remained with him until his death .
By the 1980s , Galland was now regularly attending the funerals of friends like Tuck , and also Douglas Bader , who had died on 5 September 1982 after speaking at a dinner for Arthur Harris . In June 1983 he attended the funeral of Gerhard Barkhorn and his wife Christl , who had died in a traffic accident .
Later that year , Galland tracked down his mechanic , Gerhard Meyer , who had installed the armour that saved his life in 1941 . On 25 June 1983 , he entertained them at his home in Oberwinter outside Bonn on the River Rhine . They were invited every year until Galland 's death . In early February 1996 , Galland was taken seriously ill . He had wanted to die at home and so was released from hospital and returned to his own house . With his wife Heidi , son and daughter present , he was given the last rites . Adolf Galland died at 01 : 15 in the morning of Tuesday , 9 February 1996 . Galland was buried at St Laurentius Church , Remagen @-@ Oberwinter on 21 February . A memorial service was held on 31 March .
= = Awards = =
Medal for the Campaign of 1936 − 1939 ( Medalla de la Campaña 1936 − 1939 or Medalla de la Campaña , Spain )
Military Medal ( Spain ) with Diamonds
Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds ( 6 June 1939 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold with Pennant " 400 "
Wound Badge in Black
Pilot / Observer Badge in Gold with Diamonds ( August 1940 )
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 13 September 1939 )
1st Class ( 22 May 1940 )
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds
Knight 's Cross on 29 July 1940 as Major and Gruppenkommandeur of the III . / JG 26 " Schlageter "
3rd Oak Leaves on 24 September 1940 as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of JG 26 " Schlageter "
1st Swords ( 21 June 1941 ) as Oberstleutnant and Geschwaderkommodore of JG 26 " Schlageter "
2nd Diamonds ( 28 January 1942 ) as Oberst and Geschwaderkommodore of JG 26 " Schlageter "
Mentioned seven times in the Wehrmachtbericht ( 16 August 1940 , 25 September 1940 , 2 November 1940 , 18 April 1941 , 22 June 1941 30 October 1941 and 15 February 1942 )
Wehrmacht Long Service Award , 4th class
= = Wehrmachtbericht references = =
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= William Henry Leonard Poe =
William Henry Leonard Poe , often referred to as Henry Poe , ( January 30 , 1807 – August 1 , 1831 ) was a sailor , amateur poet and the older brother of Edgar Allan Poe and Rosalie Poe .
After the death of their parents , the three Poe children were split up : Henry lived with family in Baltimore , Maryland , while Edgar and Rosalie were cared for by two different families in Richmond , Virginia . Before the age of 20 , Henry traveled around the globe by sea before returning to Baltimore and becoming a published poet and author . One of his works , " The Pirate " , was a fictionalized account of his brother 's first relationship with Sarah Elmira Royster in Richmond . Henry died of tuberculosis in 1831 at the age of twenty @-@ four .
Henry Poe was an inspiration to his brother 's life and writings and the two had similar writing styles . Edgar Allan Poe for a time used the alias " Henri Le Rennet " , a name inspired by Henry . Henry 's influence on Edgar 's writing include a character in the novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket and possibly the name of the title character in the poem " Lenore " .
= = Biography = =
William Henry Leonard , who went by the name Henry , was born circa January 30 , 1807 , to traveling actors Eliza Poe and David Poe , Jr . , four months after their troupe began performing in Boston . Their second son , Edgar , was born on January 19 , 1809 , and a daughter , Rosalie , was born in December 1810 . Some time before July 1809 , however , David Poe had deserted his family , though little is known about his disappearance . He may have died in Norfolk , Virginia on December 11 , 1811 . Eliza Poe died of tuberculosis on December 8 , 1811 , leaving her three children as orphans .
During their mother 's illness , Henry had been left in the care of his paternal grandparents , while Edgar and Rosalie had been cared for by actor friends of their parents , namely Mr. and Mrs. Luke Usher . The children were likely at Eliza 's side as she died . In one of his poems , Henry described her " long ... last farewell " to them and was given a lock of her hair to remember her . After the death of Eliza , the three children were split up . Henry went back to his grandparents in Baltimore , Maryland while Edgar went to live with a foster family , the Allans of Richmond . Rosalie was adopted by the Mackenzies , also of Richmond .
Henry was raised by his grandparents , Elizabeth Cairnes Poe and David Poe , Sr. David Poe , Sr. had been a quartermaster in the American Revolutionary War and paid for supplies out of his own pocket , including $ 500 for clothing for the troops . His commitment had earned the respect and friendship of the Marquis de LaFayette and the honorary title of " General " . David Poe , Sr. died in 1816 , and his wife , Elizabeth Cairnes Poe , though sickly and bedridden , outlived her grandson and died on July 7 , 1835 .
Henry kept in touch with his younger brother Edgar sporadically as they grew up , often through letters but once he even visited Edgar in Richmond in the 1820s . There , Edgar introduced his brother to his childhood sweetheart , Sarah Elmira Royster . Edgar 's foster @-@ father John Allan also corresponded with Henry . In one letter , dated November 1 , 1824 , Allan apologized that Edgar was slow in writing a letter to Henry , complaining that his foster @-@ son " had little else to do , for he does nothing ... The boy possesses not a Spark of affection for us , not a particle of gratitude for all my care and kindness towards him . "
Before the age of twenty , Henry served in South America and elsewhere on board the USS Macedonian . As a crewman aboard the Macedonian , a frigate , he also visited the West Indies , the Mediterranean , and Russia . In 1827 , he returned to Baltimore to live with his grandmother , his aunt Maria Clemm , and his two cousins Henry Clemm and Virginia Clemm . Around this time , Henry was described as a " slim , feeble , young man with dark inexpressive eyes " who possessed a " singular personal beauty " .
= = = Writings = = =
In Baltimore , while working at a law office , Henry developed his interest in writing . He wrote verse inspired by Lord Byron into the albums of local young women and gave recitations . The May 19 , 1827 , issue of Baltimore 's North American , or , Weekly Journal of Politics , Science , and Literature published Henry 's " Dreams " , a poem which laments the difference between the dream world and reality . The October 27 issue of the same periodical published Henry 's short story " The Pirate " , a fictionalization of his brother 's love affair with Royster . The main character was named Edgar Leonard , a combination of the names of the two brothers , who pursues a woman named Rosalie , a name borrowed from their sister . The Edgar Leonard character says : " I lost my parents at an early age ... and was left to the care of a relation . "
One of Henry 's poems , titled " Original " , was virtually identical to one of Edgar 's early poems published in Tamerlane and Other Poems , now known as " The Happiest Day , The Happiest Hour " . It is likely that this poem and another called " Dreams " were Edgar 's and incorrectly credited to Henry . Edgar wrote " The Happiest Day , The Happiest Hour " while he was serving in the Army . He sent the poem to Henry , who had it published in the September 15 , 1827 , issue of the North American , which included Henry 's name .
Another poem published by Henry was " Lines on a Pocket Book " , in which he considers John Allan 's accusations that younger sister Rosalie Poe was illegitimate . Henry 's poems generally have themes of melancholy , despair , and feature women who die and abandon their loved ones who dream of their reunion . Many are so similar to Poe 's early work that they may have been collaborative efforts . His writing career ended in 1827 when the North American Review ceased publication .
= = = Death = = =
Henry , who was a heavy drinker and may have been an alcoholic , died of tuberculosis on August 1 , 1831 , in Baltimore , likely in the same room or even the same bed which he shared with his brother Edgar . He was twenty @-@ four . Henry was buried at what is now Westminster Hall and Burying Ground , where his brother would be buried several years later . Henry 's obituary misspelled his name as " W. H. Hope " .
= = Influence = =
Edgar Allan Poe was very close to his brother , as he wrote : " there can be no tie more strong than that of brother for brother — it is not so much that they love one another as that they both love the same parent . " Edgar occasionally used the alias " Henri Le Rennet " , a French version of his older brother 's name . He was also inspired by his brother Henry 's travels , often incorporating some of his stories from overseas into tellings of his own life story . The character of August Barnard in Edgar 's novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket ( 1838 ) seems to be inspired by Henry , especially in his travels across the sea and his drinking . Poe may have also transformed his brother 's name into the title character in his poem " Lenore " .
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= Cortina d 'Ampezzo =
Cortina d 'Ampezzo ( pronounced [ korˈtiːna damˈpɛttso ] ; Ladin : Anpezo , Ampëz ) , commonly referred to as Cortina , is a town and comune in the heart of the southern ( Dolomitic ) Alps in the Veneto region of Northern Italy . Situated on the Boite river , in an alpine valley , it is a popular winter sport resort known for its skiing trails , scenery , accommodation , shops and après @-@ ski scene , and for its jet set and aristocratic European crowd .
In the Middle Ages , Ampezzo fell under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Aquileia , and of the Holy Roman Empire . In 1420 , it was conquered by the Republic of Venice . It then spent much of its history under Austrian rule , briefly undergoing some territorial changes under Napoleon , before being returned to Austria , who held it until 1918 . From the nineteenth century , Ampezzo became a notable regional centre for crafts . The local handmade products were appreciated by early British and German holidaymakers as tourism emerged late nineteenth century . Among the specializations of the town were crafting wood for furniture , the production of tiled stoves and iron , copper and glass items . Today , the local economy thrives on tourism , particularly during the winter season , when the population of the town typically increases from about 7 @,@ 000 to 40 @,@ 000 . The Basilica Minore dei Santi Filippo e Giacomo was built between 1769 and 1775 on the site of two former thirteenth and sixteenth @-@ century churches ; it is home to the parish and the deanery of Cortina d 'Ampezzo . The town also contains the Rinaldo Zardini Palaeontology Museum , established in 1975 , the Mario Rimoldi Modern Art Museum , and the Regole of Ampezzo Ethnographic Museum .
Although Cortina was unable to go ahead with the scheduled 1944 Winter Olympics because of the Second World War , it hosted the Winter Olympics in 1956 and subsequently a number of world winter @-@ sports events . The town is home to SG Cortina , a top league professional ice hockey team , and Cortina is also the start and end point of the annual Dolomites Gold Cup Race . Several films have been shot in the town , mostly notably The Pink Panther ( 1963 ) , For Your Eyes Only ( 1981 ) and Cliffhanger ( 1993 ) . Every year , from the end of July to early August , Cortina hosts the Dino Ciani Festival and Academy , which attracts pianists from around the world .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
The discovery in 1987 of a primitive tomb at Mondeval de Sora high up in the mountains to the south of Cortina testifies to the presence of Mesolithic man in the area as far back as the 6th millennium B.C. In the 6th century B.C. , Etruscan writing was introduced in the province of Cadore , in whose possession is remained until the early 15th century . From the 3rd century B.C. , the Romans assimilated the Veneti people , giving the area the name of Amplitium ( from amplus meaning wide ) , today 's Ampezzo .
= = = Middle Ages to 19th century = = =
No historical information exists on the Cadore region from the fall of the Roman Empire until the Lombard period . It is assumed that during the Barbarian invasions , the inhabitants fled to the Fassa , Badia , Cordevole and Ampezzo valleys .
In the Middle Ages , Ampezzo fell under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Aquileia , and of the Holy Roman Empire . In 1420 , the village was conquered by the Republic of Venice . In 1508 it was conquered by Austria , and by 1511 people of Ampezzo swore loyalty to the Emperor Maximilian , and is subsequently fell to the Pusterthal . In 1797 , when the Treaty of Campo Formio was signed , Napoleon initially permitted Austria to retain it , but in 1810 he added Ampezzo to the Department of Piave , following an attack on the town in which it was burned by the French . It was short @-@ lived ; Austria reclaimed it in 1813 , and it remained in Austrian possession even after the battles of Custozza and Sadowa in 1866 when Venice was ceded to Italy . The town gained a reputation as a health resort ; it was reportedly free of diseases such as cholera .
In 1874 the Ampezzo forest became the property of the Carnic Woods Consortium . Although remaining a Habsburg possession until 1920 , aside from being home for an ethnic German @-@ speaking minority , Ampezzo never became a German @-@ speaking territory and conserved its original language , Ladin , a Rhaeto @-@ Romance language .
Until 1918 , the town came under the Austrian monarchy ( in Austrian region after the compromise of 1867 ) , head of the district of Ampezzo , one of the 21 Bezirkshauptmannschaften in the Tyrol province . The coat of arms features a tower flanked by two trees , with a two @-@ headed eagle flying above .
= = = 20th century = = =
When Italy entered World War I in 1915 , most of the male inhabitants were fighting for Austria on the Russian front . 669 male inhabitants ( most of them under 16 or over 50 ) tried to fight the Italian troops . Outnumbered by the Italians , they had to retreat . After the Austrian recovery in 1917 , the town was occupied again by the Tyrolean Standschützen . Following Italy 's victory in World War I , Ampezzo was finally given to Italy in 1923 .
After the war the city was renamed " Cortina d 'Ampezzo " ( Curtain of the Ampezzo Valley ) , adopting the name of one of the six villages that made up the territory of Ampezzo , located in the middle of the Ampezzo valley .
Already an elite destination for the first British tourists in the late 18th and early 20th century , after World War I Cortina d 'Ampezzo became a popular resort for upper @-@ class Italians too . Cortina d 'Ampezzo was chosen as the venue of the 1944 winter Olympics , which did not take place due to World War II . Thanks to finally hosting the winter Olympics in 1956 , Cortina grew into a world @-@ famous resort , with a substantial increase in tourists . With a resident population of 6 @,@ 150 people in 2008 , Cortina has a temporary population of around 50 @,@ 000 during peak periods such as the Christmas holidays and mid @-@ August .
= = = 21st century politics = = =
The town voted in October 2007 to secede from the region of Veneto and join the neighbouring region , Trentino @-@ Alto Adige / Südtirol . This was motivated by improved cultural ties with the small Ladin @-@ speaking community in South Tyrol and the attraction of lower taxes . The referendum is not executive and a final decision on the matter can only be taken by law of the Italian parliament with consent of both regional councils of Veneto and Trentino @-@ Alto Adige .
In the European elections of 2014 , the leading party was the Democratic Party with 30 @.@ 4 % of the vote , followed by Forza Italia ( 19 @.@ 4 % ) and the autonomous Südtiroler Volkspartei with 14 @.@ 1 % .
= = Geography and climate = =
Cortina is situated more or less in the centre of the Ampezzo valley , at the top of the Valle del Boite in the Dolomites , which encircle the town . The Boite river flows directly through the town of Cortina itself . The mountains in the area are described as " craggy " and " soaring " , " unmistakable ; like a massive coral reef ripped from the sea , strung with conifers and laced with snow " . The town is positioned between Cadore ( to the south ) and the Puster Valley ( to the north ) , Val d 'Ansiei ( to the east ) and Agordo ( to the west ) . Originally it consisted of numerous frazioni , isolated villages and hamlets , but from the 1950s it grew rapidly as a result of tourism . Only the most remote villages have remained isolated from the main town . San Vito di Cadore is 9 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) to the south of Cortina d 'Ampezzo .
Among the surrounding mountains are Tofane to the west , Pomagagnon to the north , Cristallo to the northeast , Faloria and Sorapiss to the east , and Becco di Mezzodì , Croda da Lago and Cinque Torri to the south . The town centre is located at an elevation of 1 @,@ 224 metres ( 4 @,@ 016 ft ) , although the highest summit is that of the Tofana di Mezzo , which towers at 3 @,@ 244 metres ( 10 @,@ 643 ft ) . There are numerous fast flowing rivers , streams and small lakes in the territory , such as the Ghedina , Pianozes and d 'Ajal , which fill particularly during the summer snow @-@ melt season . Fauna include marmots , roe deer , chamois and hares and , on occasion , wolves , bears and lynx .
= = = Frazioni = = =
The comune contains the following frazioni ( parishes / wards ) with their Ladino names in parentheses : Acquabona ( Agabòna ) , Alverà , Bigontina ( Begontina ) , Cadelverzo ( Cadelvèrzo ) , Cademai , Cadin ( Ciadìn ) , Campo ( Ciànpo ) , Chiamulera ( Ciamulèra ) , Chiave ( Ciàe ) , Cianderìes , Coiana ( Cojana ) , Col , Cortina , Crìgnes , Doneà , Fiames ( Fiàmes ) , Fraìna , Gilardon ( Jilardòn ) , Gnòche o Gràa , Guargné , Lacedel ( Lazedèl ) , Manaigo , Majon , Melères , Mortisa ( Mortìja ) , Pecol ( Pecòl ) , Pezié , Pian da Lago , Pocol ( Pocòl ) , Rònco , Salieto , Socol , Staulin ( Staulìn ) , Val , Verocai , Vera ( Vèra ) , Zuel ( Zuèl ) .
= = = Climate = = =
The Ampezzano climate is typically alpine , with short summers and long winters that vacillate between frigid , snowy , unsettled , and temperate . In late December and early January , some of Italy 's lowest recorded temperatures are to be found in the region , especially at the top of the Cimabanche Pass on the border between the provinces of Belluno and Bolzano . The other seasons are generally rainy , cold , and very windy .
= = Demographics = =
Cortina 's population grew steadily from the time when it was annexed to the Italian State until the 1960s . Thereafter , it underwent a sharp decline ( down by 2 @,@ 099 inhabitants over a 30 @-@ year period ) , with signs of recovery only in the very last few years . Nevertheless , with 6 @,@ 112 inhabitants , Cortina d 'Ampezzo is the seventh most populous place in the province following Belluno ( 36 @,@ 509 ) , Feltre ( 20 @,@ 688 ) , Sedico ( 9 @,@ 734 ) , Ponte nelle Alpi ( 8 @,@ 521 ) , Santa Giustina ( 6 @,@ 795 ) and Mel ( 6 @,@ 272 ) . In 2008 , there were 44 births ( 7 @.@ 1 ‰ ) and 67 deaths ( 10 @.@ 9 % ) , resulting in an overall reduction of 23 inhabitants ( -3.8 ‰ ) . The town 's 2 @,@ 808 families consisted on average of 2 @.@ 2 persons .
The presence of foreign residents in Cortina d 'Ampezzo is a fairly recent phenomenon , accounting for only a small number of inhabitants in what in any case is a fairly small town . There are 298 resident foreigners in the town , representing 4 @.@ 9 % of the total population . This compares with 7 @.@ 0 % in the town Belluno , 6 @.@ 4 % in the entire province of Belluno , and 10 @.@ 2 % in the Veneto region .
= = = Language and dialects = = =
In addition to Italian , the majority of the population speak fluent Ampezzano , a local variant of Ladin , now recognized as a language rather than a dialect . Ladin comes from Latin ( like Italian , French and Spanish ) and resembles Romansh which is spoken in Switzerland . Maintaining the local language , which is not only spoken by the older people but also by many of Cortina 's younger inhabitants , has become a symbol of their attachment to the local mountainous heritage . The community is also proud of its Ladin or Tyrolean culture , which continues to survive despite the increasing pressure it has faced in recent years . Its importance is even beginning to be recognized by the local authorities who in December 2007 decided to use Ladin on signs for the names of streets and villages , in compliance with regulations for the protection of linguistic minorities in force since 1999 .
= = Economy = =
From the nineteenth century , Ampezzo became a notable regional centre for crafts . The growing importance of this sector led the Austrian Ministry of Commerce to authorize the opening of a State Industrial School in 1874 , which later became the Art Institute . It became a reputable institution in teaching wood and metal work , admitted boys from the age of 13 and up to four years of study . The local handmade products were appreciated by early British and German holidaymakers as tourism emerged late nineteenth century . Some of the local items were said to have mythical qualities ; the Austrian journalist and anthropologist Karl Felix Wolff , for example , stated in 1935 that according to legend a local man " once made a sword that was so flexible that you could bend it over , tie it up , and then allow it to straighten out again " . Among the specializations of the town were crafting wood for furniture , the production of tiled stoves and iron , copper and glass items .
Today , the local economy thrives on tourism , particularly during the winter season , when the population of the town typically increases from about 7 @,@ 000 to 40 @,@ 000 . Lonely Planet refers to Cortina d 'Ampezzo as " one of Italy 's most famous , fashionable and expensive ski resorts " , which " boasts first @-@ class facilities ( skiing , skating , sledding , climbing ) and superb hiking " .
Cortina is home to some of the most prestigious names in fashion , including Bulgari , Benetton , Gucci and Geox , and various artisan shops , antiquarians , and craft stores . It is also home to many stores specializing in mountaineering equipment . The symbol of Cortina shopping remains La Cooperativa di Cortina , founded on June 28 , 1893 as Consumverein Ampezzo . In this shopping centre many trades can be found , from confectioners to newspaper vendors , toys , gift shops , skiing stores and blacksmiths . The building is divided into three levels ( more a raised plan and a balcony ) . The cooperative in Cortina was one of the first cooperatives founded in the Italian Peninsula , and currently provides employment to approximately 200 people .
The five @-@ star Miramonti Majestic Grand Hotel , of James Bond fame , is more than 100 years old . Previously an Austro @-@ Hungarian hunting lodge , it contains 105 rooms . Other hotels of note include Hotel Cornelio on Via Cantore , Hotel Montana on Corso Italia , Hotel Menardi on Via Majom and Hotel Villa Gaiai on Via Guide Alpine . There are several mountain hostels in the vicinity , including Rifugio Faloria , Rifugio son Forca , Rifugio Capanna Tondi and Rifugio duca D 'Aosta , which contains restaurants .
= = Landmarks = =
Near the bridge on the Bigontina River is the Town Hall , a palace in the Tyrolean style . Piazza Venezia houses several popular landmarks . The Ciasa de ra Regoles is one of the more important legal buildings in Cortina , where the " regolieri " — a council for the local villages that stood before the town merged — trained the community and gave administrative orders . It was at one time the center of Ampezzo 's administration . Currently , it contains the offices of Comunanza Regole and the Modern Art Museum " Mario Rimoldi " . The building also contains the office of the Scuola Sci Cortina , Cortina 's skiing school .
= = = Museums = = =
Le Regole d 'Ampezzo administers the Musei delle Regole d 'Ampezzo , which covers three museums ; Rinaldo Zardini Palaeontology Museum , Regole of Ampezzo Ethnographic Museum and Mario Rimoldi Modern Art Museum . Rinaldo Zardini Palaeontology Museum , established in 1975 , is a paleontological museum with a collection of hundreds of fossils of all colors , shapes and sizes , found , gathered and cataloged by photographer Ampezzo Rinaldo Zardini . All of the exhibits were found in the Dolomites and tell of a time when these high mountain peaks were still on the bottom of a large tropical sea , populated by marine invertebrates , fish , corals and sponges . Regole of Ampezzo Ethnographic Museum is an ethnographic museum situated in an old restored Venetian sawmill on the confluence of the Boite and Felizon rivers to the north of the town . There are objects related to everyday life , rural and pastoral practices in the vicinity , agricultural tools , techniques , materials processing and clothing typical of this valley etc . Mario Rimoldi Modern Art Museum is an art gallery , established in 1941 , which preserves over 800 works by major Italian artists of the twentieth century including Filippo De Pisis , Felice Carena , Pio Semeghini , Renato Guttuso , Tullio Garbari , Massimo Campigli and many others . It also hosts temporary exhibitions on various topics .
The Great War Tour stretches over 80 km ( 50 mi ) across the mountains between Lagazuoi and Sass de Stria . It includes the Great War Open Air Museum with its trenches and tunnels . In winter it is accessible to skiers but it is easier to visit on foot or by mountain bike in the summer months .
= = = Churches = = =
The Basilica Minore dei Santi Filippo e Giacomo was built between 1769 and 1775 on the site of two former thirteenth and sixteenth @-@ century churches ; it is home to the parish and the deanery of Cortina d 'Ampezzo . It high wooden altar , crowned by a figure of Christ the Redeemer was carved by Andrea Brustolon . On the ceiling are three frescoes by Luigi Ghedina : " Christ Purifying the Temple " , " The Martyrdom of St. Philip and " The Beheading of St. James " . The Chiesa della Madonna della Difesa was built in 1750 on the site of a ruined fourteenth century building . Its façade features an intricate fresco depicting the Madonna della Difesa , and the interior is decorated with a wealth of statues , paintings , polychrome marble and gold leaf .
The Cappella della Beata Vergine di Lourdes ( Chapel of Our Lady of Lourdes ) was completed in 1907 . Decorated by artist Corrado Pitscheider of the Val Gardena , it is a small church of particular interest given the reconstruction sculpture . The Cappella di Sant 'Antonio da Padova in the village of Chiave was completed in 1791 but the interior was renovated in 1809 after serious fire damage caused by the Napoleonic troops . The furnishings include two wooden busts ( Christ and St Catherine ) and a richly worked altar .
Sacrario militare di Pocol ( also known as Ossario di Pocol ) is a cemetery and shrine located at an altitude of 1 @,@ 535 metres ( 5 @,@ 036 ft ) towards Passo Falzarego , in the locality of Pocol . The small church and cemetery was built in 1916 as a military cemetery by the 5th Alpine group . A shrine was built in 1935 as memorial to the thousands who lost their lives during World War I on the Dolomite front . It is a massive square tower of stone , clearly visible from the entire Ampezzo valley below . In a crypt in the centre of the structure rests the body of general Antonio Cantore , who was awarded the gold medal for military valor .
= = = Castles and forts = = =
The Castello de Zanna is a small fortress , situated in the frazione of Majon . It consists of low white outer walls and two white corner towers , with a small chapel dedicated to the Holy Trinity . The construction of the castle began in 1694 , but on August 19 , 1696 the works were interrupted ; the building remained unfinished in 1809 when it was burned by French revolutionary troops who had invaded Ampezzo . Since then the castle has undergone restoration .
Forte Tre Sassi ( or Forte Tra i Sassi ) is a fortress constructed in 1897 during the Austro @-@ Hungarian period on the Passo Valparola . It lies between Sass de Stria and Piccolo Lagazuoi , dominating the passage between the Passo Falzarego and Val Badia in South Tyrol ( Alto Adige ) . It was part of the large complex of Austrian fortifications built on the Italian border in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century . Rendered unusable due to a bombing by the Italians on 5 July 1915 , the ruins remained in a state of disrepair until the advent of the 21st century , when it was restored by the local administration of Ampezzo , with the assistance of the Lacedelli family . The fort houses a museum containing relics related to the First World War .
Castello di Botestagno ( also known as Podestagno ) was a medieval fort perched on a rock in the valley of the river Boite , a little further north of Cortina , in the town of Prà del Caštel . It is believed that it was first erected as a stakeout during conflict with the Lombards between the seventh and eighth centuries , with the aim of dominating the three valleys that converge beneath it : the Boite , the Val di Fanes and the Val Felizon . The corner stone , however , probably dates to the 11th century . It was held by the Germans until 1077 , and then by the patriarchs of Aquileia ( 12th century ) and Camino ( 13th century ) , until Botestagno became the seat of a captaincy . It then passed into Venetian hands and finally to the Habsburgs . During the eighteenth century the castle lost importance gradually , until it was auctioned in 1782 by order of Emperor Joseph II . Today the fort has now almost completely disappeared ; only the remnants of what must have been the wine cellars and the foundations remain , now weathered and largely covered up by vegetation .
= = Culture = =
Cortina has a long tradition in hosting writers , intellectuals , poets and editors from all over the world . Ernest Hemingway , Saul Bellow , Dino Buzzati , as well as Vittorio Gassman , Leonardo Sciascia , Leonardo Mondadori and many others , spent their vacations in the town and took part in the cultural life of the city . Through the years , this led to a continuous activity of literature festivals and book presentations , like Una Montagna di Libri ( " A Mountain of Books " ) , held twice a year since 2009 . The festival attracted to Cortina writers as Azar Nafisi , Peter Cameron , Emmanuel Carrère .
Music is important to the locals of Cortina , with a guitar found in most houses , and young musicians are often found walking the streets . Every year , from the end of July to early August , Cortina hosts the Dino Ciani Festival and Academy . It is held in honour of the celebrated Italian pianist Dino Ciani ( 1941 – 1974 ) who died when he was only 32 . The festival attracts young pianists from around the world who are able to benefit from classes with some of the world 's leading performers . The Festival of the Bands is another annual musical event featuring brass bands from Italy and beyond during the last week of August . Cortina 's own band , parading in traditional costumes , is a central attraction dating back to 1861 . Cortina d 'Ampezzo hosted the 1953 Miss Italia contest , won by Marcella Mariani . Traditionally , on the eves of the festivals of Ascension , Pentecost , Trinity and St Philip and St James , the youth of the town would climb the hills at sunset and light fires .
After Ernest Hemingway 's wife Hadley lost a suitcase filled with Hemingway 's manuscripts at the Gare de Lyon in Paris , he took a time off . He began writing that same year in Cortina d 'Ampezzo , writing Out of Season .
The dominant religion in the comune of Cortina d 'Ampezzo is Roman Catholicism . Among the religious minorities , mainly a result of recent immigration , there is a small community of Orthodox Christians and Muslims . There is also a congregation of Jehovah 's Witnesses , which has its headquarters in Pian da Lago .
The surroundings of Cortina have been the location for a number of movies , including mountain climbing scenes for Cliffhanger , Krull and The Pink Panther . The resort was the primary area for location shooting in Sergio Corbucci 's Revisionist Spaghetti Western The Great Silence ; the resort was used to represent Utah in the winter of 1898 . It was also a major location for the 1981 James Bond film For Your Eyes Only . Aside from Roger Moore 's James Bond meeting the character Luigi Ferrara ( John Moreno ) at the peak of Tofana , and a stay at the Hotel Miramonti , a number of action sequences were shot in the town involving Bond and Erich Kriegler ( John Wyman ) , as Kriegler competes in the biathlon . The battle culminates in one of the famous ski chase sequences in film , where Bond has to escape Kriegler and a crew of assassins on a spike @-@ wheeled motorcycles , his route taking them all onto the bobsleigh run . The actual town centre was also the scene of the first attack on Bond and his partner Melina Havelock ( Carole Bouquet ) by two motorcyclists who attempted to run them over , only for Bond to eliminate them both , putting one of them through the window of a local florist .
= = Sports = =
Cortina d 'Ampezzo was the host town of the 1956 Winter Olympics . The 1944 Winter Olympics were also scheduled to be held in Cortina , but were cancelled because of World War II . The 1927 Nordic , 1941 Nordic and 1941 Alpine World Skiing Championships were held in Cortina as well , although the 1941 Nordic championships were withdrawn by the FIS in 1946 . The region lost the bid for the 1988 Winter Olympics to Calgary , Canada and the 1992 Winter Olympics to Albertville , France .
The town is home to SG Cortina , a professional ice hockey team currently playing in the country 's top division , Serie A1 . Cortina is also the start and end point of the annual Dolomites Gold Cup Race , a historic reevocation event for production cars on public roads . The town hosted the Red Bull Road Rage in 2009 .
Cortina also offers excellent skiing facilities for amateurs , thanks to its central position among the 12 resorts of the Dolomiti Superski area . Cortina itself has 115 km ( 71 mi ) of ski pistes with 34 ski lifts and guaranteed snow coverage of over 95 % from December to April . There are six ski schools ( two for cross @-@ country ) and some 300 instructors . The Faloria @-@ Cristallo @-@ Mietres ski @-@ area with spectacular views over the Ampezzo Valley is suitable for skiers of all levels including children . The Tofane area offers more challenging opportunities from an altitude of 2 @,@ 500 m ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) with the Canalone and Schuss ski runs . The longest and most spectacular ski run , the Armentarola piste in the Lagazuoi @-@ 5 Torri area , starts next to the Lagazuoi refuge at a height of 2 @,@ 752 m ( 9 @,@ 029 ft ) and can be reached by cable car .
Facilities also exist for cross @-@ country skiing , including a long stretch of the old railway line . In and around Cortina , there are opportunities to participate in many other winter sports such as curling , ski mountaineering , snowboarding , sledding and extreme skiing . In the summer months , sports include trekking , biking , rock climbing , tennis , golf , swimming and ice skiing .
= = Transport = =
Cortina Airport was built for the 1956 Winter Olympics , but is currently closed . The town has its own bus service , connecting the centre to surrounding villages and cable car lifts . The nearest airports are those serving Venice : the distance to Treviso is 138 km ( 86 mi ) while that to Venice Marco Polo Airport is 148 km ( 92 mi ) . Both can be reached in about two and a quarter hours by road . The railway station for Cortina is Calalzo di Cadore , 37 km ( 23 mi ) to the south east , with rail connections to Venice and a bus service to Cortina . The total journey time to Venice is about three and a half hours . There are also direct bus links from Venice Mestre and Padova railway stations , coordinated with the arrivals and departures of Eurostar trains .
Cortina was the principal intermediate station on the narrow @-@ gauge ( 950mm ) Dolomites Railway from Calalzo to Toblach . When the line was electrified in 1929 the only sub @-@ station was established at Cortina . The line closed in 1964 but in February 2016 the regional governments of Veneto and Trentino @-@ Alto Adige announced that they are to commission a feasibility study to build a new line between Calalzo , Cortina and Toblach .
= = Notable people = =
Cortina has attracted many distinguished guests , often inspiring them in their creative work . They include the Italian novelists Dino Buzzati ( 1906 – 1972 ) , author of The Tartar Steppe , Goffredo Parise ( 1929 – 1986 ) and Fernanda Pivano ( 1917 – 2009 ) . Ernest Hemingway , author of A Farewell to Arms , also arrived in the area in 1918 as a young ambulance driver . Other notable visitors include John Ball ( 1818 – 1889 ) , the Irish mountaineer and naturalist who climbed Monte Pelmo in 1857 , the Italian mountaineers Emilio Comici ( 1901 – 1940 ) , Angelo Dibona ( 1879 – 1956 ) and Lino Lacedelli ( 1925 – 2009 ) , the Italian skier Kristian Ghedina ( born 1969 ) , the Italian bobsledder Eugenio Monti ( 1928 – 2003 ) , the Austrian mountaineer Paul Grohmann ( 1838 – 1908 ) and the Austrian skier Toni Sailer ( 1935 – 2009 ) . Frequent visitors include the Italian businessman and former racing driver Paolo Barilla ( born 1961 ) and the journalist and writer Indro Montanelli ( 1909 – 2001 ) .
Among the distinguished sportsmen from Cortina itself are the skiers Enrico Colli , his younger brother Vincenzo , and Giuseppe Ghedina who competed in the 1924 Winter Olympics , and Severino Menardi who participated in the 1932 and 1936 Winter Olympics . Other local citizens include the climbers Angelo Dibona ( 1879 – 1956 ) and Lino Lacedelli ( 1925 – 2009 ) , and the painter Luigi Gillarduzzi ( 1822 – 1856 ) .
= = International relations = =
= = = Twin towns / sister cities = = =
Cortina is twinned with :
Cattolica , Italy ( since 16 March 1971 )
Skardu , Pakistan
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